GEOG 209: INTRODUCTION TO ELEMENTARY SURVEYING

(2 UNITS)

LECTURE NOTES
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, SCHOOL OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES, COLLEGE OF
EDUCATION, ZING, TARABA STATE.

PREPARED BY

SURV. ARAEN ASANARIMAM SHINGE

TOPIC 1: SURVEYING
Definition: Surveying has been defined as the art, science and technology of obtaining
reliable information of relative position of points on the earths surface. Analysis of such results
and drawing them to scale forms a map or plan in which natural or artificial features may be
exhibited in their correct horizontal and vertical relationship. Also, Surveying is defined as the
science of determining the relative position of points on, beneath or above the earth surface
with a view to making a graphical representation in form of a map or plan.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS:
Surveying can be broadly subdivided into Geodetic and plane surveying.
Geodetic Surveying: The branch of surveying that covers a large area and takes into account
the true shape of the earth. These surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas. In
geodetic survey, large areas of the earth surface are involved usually on national basis where
survey stations are precisely located large distances apart. Account is taken of the curvature of
the earth, hence it involves advanced mathematical theory and precise measurements are
required to be made.
Geodetic survey stations can be used to map out entire continent, measure the size and shape
of the earth or in carrying out scientific studies such as determination of the Earths magnetic
field and direction of continental drifts.
Plane Surveying: The type of surveying which relatively small areas and the area under
consideration is taken to be a horizontal plane. The mean surface of the earth is considered as a
plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to horizontal distances and
directions.
BRANCHES OF SURVEYING
Surveying is further classified into the following:
Control Survey: This is a survey made primarily to establish the horizontal and vertical
positions of arbitrary points.
Boundary Survey: Boundary survey is the type of survey made to determine the length and
direction of land lines and to establish the position of these lines on the ground.
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Topographic Survey: This is a type of survey carried out to gather data in order to produce a
map showing the configuration/relief nature of the terrain and the location of natural and manmade objects. These are surveys where the physical features on the earth are measured and
maps/plans prepared to show their relative positions both horizontally and vertically. The relative
positions and shape of natural and man made features over an area are established usually for
the purpose of producing a map of the area of for establishing geographical information
system.
Hydrographic Survey: This is a branch of survey which deals with the survey of bodies of
water made for the purpose of determining the profile of sea bed at different points,
nature of sea bed, current flow, nature of shoreline for navigation, water supply, or subaqueous construction in form of chart.
Mining Survey: Mining survey is an aspect of surveying that is done for the primary purpose of
controlling, locate and map underground and surface works related to mining operations.
Construction Survey: This is survey carried out to layout, locate and monitor public and private
engineering works.
Route Survey: This type of survey refers to those control, topographic, and construction
surveys necessary for the location and construction of highways, railroads, canals, transmission
lines, and pipelines.
Photogrammetric Survey: This survey is based on principles of aerial photogrammetry, in which
measurements made on photographs are used to determine the positions of photographed
objects on the earths crust.
Cadastral/legal survey: This survey involves the determining boundary and locations of new
property boundaries. These are surveys undertaken to define and record the boundary of
properties, legislative area and even countries. It may be almost entirely topographical where
features define boundaries with the topographical details appearing on ordinance survey maps. In
the other hand, accurately surveyed beacons or markers define boundaries; corner or line points
and little account may be taken of the topographical features.
Engineering surveys: These are surveys undertaken to provide special information for
construction of Civil Engineering and building projects. The survey supply details for a particular
engineering schemes and could include setting out of the work on the ground and dimensional
control on such schemes.
Reconnaissance Survey:
This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be surveyed. It may be either ground
reconnaissance or aerial reconnaissance survey. Reconnaissance is made on arrival to site
during which an overall picture or view of the area is obtained. The most suitable position of
stations is selected, the purpose of the survey and the accuracy required will be drawn, and
finally the method of observation will be established. This is a pre-field work and measurement
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phase. It requires taking an overall inspection of the area to be surveyed to obtain a general
picture before commencement of any serious survey. Walking through the site enables one
understand the terrain and helps in determining the survey method to be adopted, and the
scale to be used. The initial information obtained in this stage helps in the successful planning
and execution of the survey
Objectives of reconnaissance
1. To ascertain the terrain nature and the general condition of the site.
2. To enable you decide or choose the method of survey to be used.
3. To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing route or track through the area.
4. To choose the best one or more routes and record on a map
5. To estimate probable cost and draft a report.

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING

Surveying is generally based on the PRINCIPLE OF WORKING FROM WHOLE TO PART.
It is a fundamental rule to always work from the whole to the part. This implies a precise
control surveying as the first consideration followed by subsidiary detail surveying.
This surveying principle involves laying down an overall system of stations whose positions
are fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then the survey of details between
the control points may be added on the frame by less elaborate methods.
Once the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be surveyed in the
knowledge that they must (and will if care is taken) put into the confines of the main overall
frame.
Errors which may inevitably arise are then contained within the framework of the control
points and can be adjusted to it. Thus they have no chance of building up on accumulating
throughout the whole survey.
IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC HONESTY
Honesty is essential in booking notes in the field and when plotting and computations in the
office. There is nothing to be gained from cooking the survey or altering dimensions so that
points will tie-in on the drawing. It is utterly unprofessional to betray such trust at each stage of
the survey.
This applies to the assistants equally as it does to the surveyor in charge. Assistants must also
listen carefully to all instructions and carry them out to the later without questions.
CHECK ON MEASUREMENTS
The second principle is that; all survey work must be checked in such a way that an error will
be apparent before the survey is completed.
Concentration and care are necessary in order to ensure that all necessary measures are
taken to the required standard of accuracy and that nothing is omitted. Hence they must be
maintained in the field at all times.
Surveyor on site should be checking the correctness of his own work and that of others which
is based on his information.

 Check should be constantly arranged on all measurements wherever possible. Check

measurements should be conducted to supplement errors on field. Pegs can be moved, sight
rails altered etc.
Survey records and computations such as field notes, level books, field books, setting out
record books etc must be kept clean and complete with clear notes and diagrams so that the
survey data can be clearly understood by others.
Untidy and anonymous figures in the field books should be avoided.
Like field work, computations should be carefully planned and carried out in a systemic
manner and all field data should be properly prepared before calculations start. Where
possible, standardized tables and forms should be used to simplify calculations. If the result of a
computation has not been checked, it is considered unreliable and for this reason, frequent
checks should be applied to every calculation procedure.
As a check, the distances between stations are measured as they are plotted, to see that
there is correspondence with the measured horizontal distance.
Failure to match indicates an error in plotting or during the survey.
If checks are not done on observations, expensive mistake may occur. It is always preferable
to take a few more dimensions on site to ensure that the survey will resolve itself at the
plotting stage, rather than to retire to site for taking more measurements when things do not
be in on the drawing board which can often be expensive besides the frustration and time loss.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both by manufacturers when quoting
specifications for their equipments and on site by surveyors to describe results obtained from
field work.
Accuracy allows a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or minus) in a measurement,
while;
Precision demands exact measurement. Since there is no such things as an absolutely exact
measurement, a set of observations that are closely grouped together having small deviations
from the sample mean will have a small standard error and are said to be precise.
ECONOMY OF ACCURACY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CHOICE OF EQUIPMENTS
Survey work is usually described as being to a certain standard of accuracy which in turn is
suited to the work in hand. Bearing in mind the purpose for which the survey is being made, it is
better to achieve a high degree of accuracy than to aim for precision (exactness) which if it
were to be altered would depend not only on the instrument used but also on the care taken by
the operator to ensure that his work was free from mistake.
Always remember that, the greater the effort and time needed both in the field and in the
office, the more expensive to survey will be for the client. The standard accuracy attained in the
field must be in keeping with the size of the ultimate drawings.
The equipment selected should be appropriate to the test in hand. An important factor when
selecting equipment is that the various instruments should produce roughly the same order of
precision. A steel chain best at an accuracy of 1/500 to 1/1000 would be of little use for work
requiring an accuracy of 1/1000. Similarly, the theodolite reading to one second would be
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pointless where a reading to one minute is sufficient.

Having selected the equipment necessary, the work should be thoroughly checked and if
found wanting should be adjusted, repaired or replaced or have allowance calculated for its
deficiencies. This task will be less tedious if field equipment is regularly maintained.

TOPIC 2: MAP SCALE

Definition: The scale of a map is the ratio between distances on the map and corresponding
distances in the real world. In other words, map scale tells the relationship between a distance
measured between two points on the map and the actual distance between them on the
ground. The scale of a map shows how much how much the given area has been reduced to
paper size, and hence how much you would have to enlarge your map to get the actual size of
the piece of land shown on the map. For instance, if a map has a scale of 1:50,000, then 1 cm
on the map equals 50,000 cm or 0.5 km on the Earth's surface.
The Map Scale tells the user how the map relates to the real world features it represents. To
show a portion of the Earth's surface on a map, the scale must be sufficiently adjusted to cover
the objective. The extent of reduction is expressed as a ratio. The unit on the left indicates
distance on the map and the number on the right indicates distance on the ground.
Maps are made at different scales for different purposes. The scale controls not only how
features are shown, but what features are shown on a map. For instance, a 1:2,500 map will
show individual houses and lamp posts while a 1:100,000, which is a much smaller scale will not
show such features.
Types of Map Scale
A map scale can be expressed in three different ways namely representative fraction (RF),
statement, and linear or graphical. Each of them is discussed below.
(i) A ratio or representative fraction (RF) indicates how many units on the earth's surface are
equal to one unit on the map. It can be expressed as 1/100,000 or 1:100,000. In this example,
one centimeter on the map equals 100,000 centimeters (1 kilometer) on the earth. It also
means that one inch on the map is equal to 100,000 inches on the land. Other common RFs
include 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) and 1:1,000,000 (1 cm to 10 km). The numerator of a
Representative Fraction is always 1. More so, it should be noted that in RF the number on the
left hand side (i.e. 1) is the distance or length on map while the figure on the right hand (e.g.
50,000, which is also the denominator) is the corresponding or equivalent length or distance on
ground. So the RF 1:10,000 means 1 centimeter on the map represents 10,000 centimeters on
the ground (or 1in on the map represents 10,000 inches on the ground).

(ii) A word statement gives a written description of scale, such as "One centimeter equals one
kilometer" or "One centimeter equals ten kilometers." Here, the first map would show much
more detail than the second because one centimeter on the first map covers a much smaller
area than on the second map.
It should be noted that the two methods mentioned above for indicating scale would be
ineffective if the map is reproduced by a method such as photocopying and the size of the map
is modified. If this occurs, and one attempts to measure one centimeter on the modified map, it
will not be the same as one centimeter on the original map. This can, however, be taken care of
by using a linear or graphic scale.
(iii) Linear/Graphical scale (also known as graphic scale or bar scale Figure below) would be
able to solve this problem as it is simply a line marked with distance on the ground which the
map user can use along with a ruler to determine scale on the map. As long as the size of the
graphic scale is changed along with the map, it will be accurate.

As shown in Figure above, a linear scale is often made up of two component parts namely the
primary subdivisions and the secondary subdivisions. The primaries are on the right hand side
of the zero while the secondaries are on the left hand side. While the primaries are subdivided
into kilometers (or miles), the secondaries are subdivided into smaller units such as metres (or
furlongs).
Characteristics of a Map
A typical map has the following characteristics:
i. It is represented to scale. Every map is a reduced version of some aspect(s) of reality
(i.e. things that actually exist on Earth). Hence, every good map must have a scale
which shows by how much reality has been reduced.

ii. It is symbolised. Graphic symbols are used to draw a map; each symbol represents a
particular category of geographical feature.
iii. It is projected. Map projection is the mathematical transformation of the spherical
Earth unto a flat medium. Every map is, therefore, based on one form of projection
or the other.
iv. It is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional features.
v. It is a model of reality. A map is a replica or representation of certain things that exist in
real life.
vi. It is a selective representation. No map can show everything that exists in the area
shown on the map. Hence, only things relevant to the purpose of a map are selected
and represented on the map.
vii. It is a generalized representation. It is not practically possible to show every bit of detail
about any feature represented on a map. Hence only those details about each
feature which are considered to be important are given on the map. Moreover, one
symbol is normally used to generally represent all features which are considered to
be in the same class or group, irrespective of the individual differences that may
exist among the features grouped together.
Viii. It is a communication system. The map is used to graphically store, display and disseminate
information.
ix. It shows only a static situation - one slice in time. A map only gives us information about
the situation of things as at the time it was produced. In a sense, therefore, it could
be said that map is usually out of date.
Components of Maps
Maps may contain a variety of elements or components. However, all maps have some
common components, which are explained below.
Title - A map must have a title. The title of a map should tell the reader what, where, and
possibly when about the map. What is the map all about? Where on Earth does the map
relate to? What time period does the map cover?e.g. 2006 population of Nigeria.
Orientation - By convention, cartographers (map makers) place North at the top of maps. If
there is a deviation from that practice, the map should have a compass rose or some other
symbol to help orient the user.
Scale - The map scale should be shown so that the reader can make judgments about distances.
Graphic scales are an absolute must when dealing with maps as computer images or printing
images from digital.
Legend - There must be a legend or key that explains the symbols used by the cartographer.
The map legend shows the symbols on a map and gives their meaning. To visualise reality the
map reader needs to be able to convert various shapes, colors, and textures into the
phenomena they represent.

Grid - The map needs to have a coordinate system, in the form of parallels of latitude and
meridians of longitude, so that the area can be placed in its proper geographical location on the
globe.
Author/Publisher - The author/publisher of a map should be indicated. Knowing who created
the map may offer hints as to the maps bias or biases. Does this person or organisation have a
vested interest in how the map is perceived by the map reader? For example, town plats,
maps created by western promoters, were aimed at attracting prospective settlers. Often they
were purely propaganda.
Place of Publication - The country or city where the map was published should be indicated.
Date - The date when the map was produced/published should be indicated. Knowing when the
map was constructed helps to place the map in its chronological context. Does the map reflect
true facts? For instance, post-1990 maps of Europe should show one Germany, not two.
Source - Indicate the source of the map.
Compass rose - A compass rose tells the directions (which way) on a map using the cardinal
points of North, South, East, West, and so on.
* North is at the top of a map. * South is at the bottom of a map. * West is on the left side of a
map. * East is on the right side of a map.
Sizes of Scale
There are three broad categories into which map scales can be grouped. These are small scale,
medium scale, and large scale. As a general rule, the higher the denominator the smaller the
scale and vice versa.
(a) Small-Scale maps have scales of about 1:1,000,000 and smaller such as 1:2,000,000;
1:6,000,000; 1:30,000,000 and are used for maps of wide areas. Such maps are used when
much detail is not required.
(b) Medium-Scale maps have scales of 1:50,000; 1: 75,000; 1:100,000 to 1: 1,000,000 and are
used for maps of medium sized areas
(c) Large-Scale maps have scales larger than 1:50,000 e.g. 1:1000; 1:2,500; 1:5000; 1:10,000
and are used when we want to represent higher levels of detail.
It should be noted that a large scale map shows small features and great detail. On the other
hand, a small scale map shows only large features. Simply put, a large-scale map gives a larger
and more detailed representation of a feature than does a small-scale map. In other words,
the smaller the scale the greater is the area which can be shown on a map of given size, but on
the other hand we are able to show less and less details. A large-scale map covers a small area
but shows more details while a small-scale map covers a large geographical area but gives less
detail.

Conversion from One Scale Type to Another

In map reading, one can convert from one scale type to another. For instance, we can convert
from statement scale to Representative Fraction (R.F.) and vice versa or from linear scale to
statement or RF, and so on.
Examples:
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i) Conversion from R.F. to statement scale

Examples:
Convert the following R.F. scales to statement scale:
(a) 1:1000; (b) 1:20,000; (c) 1:150,000
Solutions:
NB: 100cm =1m; 100,000cm = 1km
(a) 1:1000
The R.F. means 1cm represents 1000cm.
1000cm is equal to 10 metres, that is 1000 or 0.01km that is 1000
100 100000
Therefore, the statement scale is 1cm represents 10 metres or 0.01km.
(b) 1:20,000
The R.F. means 1cm represents 20,000cm.
20,000cm = 1/5 or 0.2km, that is 20,000
100,000
Therefore, the statement scale is 1cm represents 0.2km or 5cm represent 1km.
(c) 1:150,000
The R.F. means 1cm represents 150,000cm.
150,000 = 1.5km, that is 150,000
100,000
Therefore, the statement scale is 1cm represents 1.5km or 2cm represents 3km.
ii) Conversion from statement scale to R.F.
Examples:
Convert the following statement scales to Representative Fraction:
(a) 1cm to km (b) 4cm to 1km
Solutions:
(a) 1cm to km
The statement scale means 1cm represents or 0.5km.
Convert to the same unit of measurement.
1km = 100,000cm
km = 100,000 = 50,000cm
2
Therefore, the R.F. is 1 or 1:50,000
50,000
10

(b) 4cm to 1km

Convert to the same unit of measurement.
1km = 100,000cm
The statement scale means 4cm represent 100,000cm
If 4cm represent 100,000cm,
1cm will represent 100,000 = 25,000cm
Therefore the R.F. is 1 or 1:25,000
25000
iii) Conversion from Linear scale to statement scale
NOTE:
Linear units:
1 kilometer (km) = 1 000 meters
1 meter (m) = 1 000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) = 1 000 micrometers
1 micrometer (um) = 1 000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometer (mu) = 1000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters
1 centimeter (cm) = 1 0 millimeters

TOPIC 3: ERROR IN SURVEYING

Surveying is a process that involves observations and measurements with a wide range of
electronic, optical and mechanical equipment some of which are very sophisticated. Despite
the best equipments and methods used, it is still impossible to take observations that are
completely free of small variations caused by errors which must be guided against or their
effects corrected.
TYPES OF ERRORS
1. Gross Errors
These are referred to mistakes or blunders by either the surveyor or his assistants due to
carelessness or incompetence.
On construction sites, mistakes are frequently made by inexperienced Engineers or
surveyors who are unfamiliar with the equipment and method they are using.
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 These types of errors include miscounting the number of tapes length, wrong booking,
sighting wrong target, measuring anticlockwise reading, turning instruments incorrectly,
displacement of arrows or station marks etc.
Gross errors can occur at any stage of survey when observing, booking, computing or plotting
and they would have a damaging effect on the results if left uncorrected.
Gross errors can be eliminated only by careful methods of observing booking and constantly
checking both operations.
2. Systematic or Cumulative Errors
These errors are cumulative in effect and are caused by badly adjusted instrument and the
physical condition at the time of measurement must be considered in this respect. Expansion of
steel, frequently changes in electromagnetic distance (EDM) measuring instrument, etc are just
some of these errors.
Systematic errors have the same magnitude and sign in a series of measurements that are
repeated under the same condition, thus contributing negatively or positively to the reading
hence, makes the readings shorter or longer.
This type of error can be eliminated from a measurement using corrections (e.g. effect of
tension and temperature on steel tape).
Another method of removing systematic errors is to calibrate the observing equipment and
quantify the error allowing corrections to be made to further observations.
3. Random or Compensating Errors
Although every precaution may be taken certain unavoidable errors always exist in any
measurement caused usually by human limitation in reading/handling of instruments.
Random errors cannot be removed from observation but methods can be adopted to ensure
that they are kept within acceptable limits.
In order to analyze random errors or variable, statistical principles must be used and in
surveying their effects may be reduced by increasing the number of observations and finding
their mean. It is therefore important to assume those random variables are normally
distributed.

ERROR CORRECTIONS IN LINEAR MEASUREMENT.

1. STANDARDIZATION
Under a given condition, a tape has a certain nominal length which may however tend to
stretch with a lot of use under field conditions. The actual length can be determined by
comparing it with a known standard base or against a reference tape.
A base line for standardizing tapes should consist of two fixed points located on site such that
they are likely to be disturbed. These points could be nail in pegs, but marks set into concrete
blocks or pillars are preferable. The length of the field tape is computed to the length of the
baseline and the standardization correction obtained as follows:
Standardization = L (LB - LT) --------- (1)
LB
Where:12

L = Measured length
LB = Length of baseline
LT = Length of field tape along base line.
If a reference tape is to be used, it should not be used for any field work and should be
checked by the manufacturer as often as possible.
To avoid error, standardization should be done on smooth, flat surface such as surfaced road
or foot path.
It is obvious that every tape length measured with a tape of incorrect length would be in error
(plus or minus) and the total error from this source would be in direct proportion to the
number of tape length measured.
Standardization of steel tapes should be carried out frequently for each tape at least once in
every six months or whenever it is broken and mended.
From standardization measurements a connection is computed as follows:
Lengths measured on sloping land must be longer than those measured on flat land.
Measurements along a slope must be therefore reduced to horizontal plane before being used
for computations or plotting.
This can be achieved by calculating a slope correction for the measured length or by
measuring the horizontal equivalent of the slope directly in the field.
On ground which is of variable slope, stepping is the best method and needs no calculation.
Series of horizontal distance measurements are taken in short length against a previously linedin ranging rods and the points on the ground below the free end are located by plumb bob or
drop arrow as shown below;

True distance

Measured length

Or
dm

dt

Nominal length of the tape

L1 L
L

where L1 L
L
= dt
Dm

Actual length

(error per unit length)

= (1 L)
L

dt = dm (1 L) standardization correction
L
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Worked Examples
Example (1)
A chain of nominal length 20.00m when compared with a standard measures 20.05m. If this
chain is used to measure a line AB and the recorded measurement is 131.35m, what is the true
length of AB.
Solution A:
Nominal length of chain = 20.00m
Actual length of chain = 20.05m
Measured length = 131.35m
L = L1 - L
= 20.05 20.00 = 0.05m
Error per chain L
= 0.05 = 0.0025m
20.00

dt = dm (1 L) standardization correction
L

= 131.35 (1 + 0.0025)
= 131.680m

Also, True distance = Actual length of chain

Measured distance Nominal length of chain
dt = 131.35 20.05 = 131.680m
20.00

Slope correction
As an alternative to stepping when measuring along regular slopes, the slope angle () can be
determined and the horizontal distance (D) calculated from the measured slope distance (L).
The correction can be computed from:
Slope correction = [L ( 1 - Cos )+..1
Where:L = measured length (slope distance)
= slope angle.
The horizontal distance can be determined shown below:
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D = LCOS .2
SAG CORRECTION
When the ground between two points is very irregular, surface taping can prove to be a difficult
process and it may be necessary to suspend the tape above the ground between the points in
order to measure the distance between them. A tape suspended in this way will sag under its
own weight in the shape of a Catenary curve as shown below:
Sag correction nw2L3
24T2
Where n = number of unsupported length
w = weight per metre of tape = (mg)
L = unsupported length in metres
T= Tension applied to the tape in Newton
TEMPERATURE VARIATION
Steel tapes expand or contact with temperature variation. If the temperature during
measurement is different from that at which the tape was standardized the resulting error will
be accumulated in direct proportion to the number of tape length measured.
In order to improve precision, the temperature of the tape has to be recorded by using special
surveying if already calibrated at a standard temperature. It is necessary to have the tape in
position for some time before readings are taken to allow it to reach the ambient temperature.
It is bad practice to measure a distance in the field in winter with a tape that has just been
removed from a heated office.
The temperature correction is given by:
Temperature correction = L (tf ts)
Where: = Co-efficient of thermal expansion
L = Length of the tape used
tF= Temperature during measurement
ts = Tape standard temperature
NOTE: - Unless the field temperature differs considerably from that at which the
tape was standardized, this correction is usually negligible
Worked example:
The following data were obtained from a survey along a slope, calculate the horizontal distance.
Measured length = 126.300m
Slope angle = 2o 34/
Different in height between the two points = 5.650m

Solution
L = 126.300m, = 2o 34/
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 = 2.567o

(i). Slope correction = L (1 Cos )

= 126.300 (1 Cos 2.567o)
= 126.300 (1-0.9990)
= 26.300 x 0.001
= 0.126m
Horizontal distance = L - correction
= 126.300 0.126
= 126.174m
(ii) Horizontal distance (D) = L Cos
= 126.300 x Cos 2.567o
= 126.300 x 0.990
D = 126.174m
(iii) Since the difference in height (h) = 5.650m
Slope correction - h2 =
5.6502
2L
2 x 126.300
Horizontal distance (d) = 126.300 0.126
= 126.174m
TENSION CORRECTION
The tension applied to a tape should be the same as that applied when testing it against
standard. Variations in tension are bound to occur even when using a spring balance, but
resulting errors are small and tend to compensate each other.
If the tape is consistently pulled too hard or too lightly a cumulative error will arise and this
must be guarded against particularly when using linen and plastic tapes. Tension correction is
given as:
Tension correction = L (Tf Ts)A E
Where L = Measured length
Tf= Tension applied to the tape (N)
Ts = Standard tension (N)
A = Cross sectional area of the tape (MM2)
E = Modules of elasticity for the tape material (N/mm2)

TOPIC 4- MEASURMENT OF DISTANCE.

Linear measurement is defined as the measurement of the distance between points on the
surface of the earth. It can be done by one of the three methods.
(i) Direct measurement
- Pacing: Pacing is one of the most valuable things learned in surveying because it has practical
applications for everybody and requires no equipment. Pacing is very useful when a rough
approximation is needed.
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The length of a persons pace must first be determined. This is best done by walking with
natural steps back and forth over a measured level course a minimum of 100 ft long, and then
averaging the number of steps taken. An accuracy of 1 ft. per 100 ft. is suitable for pacing.
While providing only a crude measurement of distances, pacing has the significance advantage
of requiring no equipment. It is a skill every surveyor should have. Pacing simply involves
counting steps or paces while walking naturally along the line to be measured.
Distance = Unit Pace Number of Paces

Fig. Pacing provides a simple yet useful way to make distance measurement.
USING THE MEASURING WHEEL
A simple measuring wheel mounted on a rod can be used to determine distances, by pushing
the rod and rolling the wheel along the line to be measured. An attached device called an
odometer serves to count the number of turns of the wheels. From the known circumference of
the wheel and the number of revolutions, distances for reconnaissance can be determined with
relative accuracy of about 1:200. This device is particularly useful for rough measurement of
distance along
curved lines.

17

Fig. A typical measuring wheel used for making rough distance measurements
Distance= Odometer Reading X Circumference of the Wheel (D)
Where D is the diameter of the measuring wheel
- TAPING: Taping consists of measuring between two points with a tape calibrated in feet to the
nearest one-hundredth of a foot. Taping in which a chain, tape or steel band is used (chain
surveying)
(ii) By optical means (Tacheometry): Tacheometry (stadia is the more common term in the US) is a
surveying method used to quickly determine the horizontal distance to and elevation of a point. Stadia
observations are obtained by sighting through a telescope equipped with two or more horizontal cross
hairs at a known spacing. The apparent intercepted length between the top and bottom hairs is read on
a graduated rod held vertically at the desired point. The distance from telescope to rod is found by
proportional relationships in similar triangles. The person who carries a staff, on which the tacheometer
is sighted, shall be able to reach the various points to be surveyed and levelled, and that a clear line of
sight exists between the instrument and the staff . A limitation for tacheometry is that the distance
between the staff and tacheometer must not exceed a maximum distance, beyond which errors due to
18

inaccurate reading become too great. The field work in tacheometry is rapid compared with direct
levelling and linear measurement, and it is widely used, therefore to give contoured plans of areas,
especially for reservoir and hydro electric projects, tipping sites, road and railway reconnaissance,
housing sites etc.

Present day methods of tacheometry can be classified in one of the following three groups:

1)The theodolite, with the measuring unit inside it, is directed at a levelling staff, which acts as
target. This is usually known in England as the Stadia System. One pointing of the instrument is
required for each set of readings.
2)An accurate theadolite, reading to 1 of arc, is directed at the staff, two pointing, being made,
and the small subtended angle measured. There are two variants, depending on the staff used.
a)An ordinary levelling staff, held vertically, is used known as the Tangential System, or b)A
bar of fixed length, usually held horizontally, is used - known as the Subtense System
3)A special theodolite with a measuring device in front of the telescope is directed at a special
staff. One pointing of the instrument is required for each set of readings known as the Optical
Wedge System

(iii) By Electro-Magnetic distance measurement EDM: When a distance is measured using an

EDM instrument, an electromagnetic wave is transmitted from the instrument towards a
reflector where part of the transmitted wave is returned to the instrument. Electronic
comparison of the transmitted and received signals allows for computation of the distance.
Today most EDMs will be found as an integral part of a Total Station. A Total Station is a
combination of an EDM, electronic transit and a microcomputer.

19

Tension and sag

Accuracy and Precision in Measurement

Accuracy: It indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of the
quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements and their
expectations.
Precision: It refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical
measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity.
METHOD OF MEASURING A CHAIN LINE
This is carried out by two assistants known as chain men, one acting as leading chairman and
the other as follower. Ranging rods are inserted as close as possible to the station pegs in order
that the position of the peg may be located from a distance.
In the case of long lines, they are placed immediately between the stations and lined in by eye
to enable a straight line to be measured.
To measure line AB, having previously positioned the ranging rods at both A and B. the chain
men take one end each of the chain and check for defects.
The leader equips himself with ten arrows and a ranging rod, the followers also takes a ranging
rod.
The leader drags his end of the chain forward to A1 and holds his ranging rod about one link
short of the end.
The follower holds his end of the chain firmly against stations A and the surveyor lines in the
leaders pole between A and B by closing one eye, sighting poles A and B and signaling the
leader till he brings his pole into line
AB. (The signaling usually adopted is to swing the left arm out to the left as an instruction to the
leader to move his pole in that direction. Right arm is similarly used to indicate movement to
the right, while both arms extended above the head then brought down indicate that the pole
is in line)
The leader straightens the chain past the rod by sending gentle snake down the chain.
The follower indicates the chain is straight, and the leader put arrow at the end A1. The
surveyor then walks along the chain, measuring any offsets required.
20

 Upon the completion of these measurements, the leader drags his end to A2, taking nine
arrows and his pole.
The follower moves to A1 and puts his pole behind the arrow and the surveyor lines in from A
or A1. When the arrow has been inserted at A2, the surveyor removes the arrow at A1 and
proceeds to take further offset measurements.
This procedure is repeated until the end of the line is reached or the chainmans arrows are
exhausted. The collection of these arrows by the surveyor forms a check upon the number of
chains measured.
METHOD OF SETTING OFFSET TO THE CHAIN LINE
Chain surveying principles have so far been applied to areas of land with straight boundaries. As
most boundaries are irregular, the method of surveying their position is first to lay down a
network of triangles which can be plotted and checked. From these survey lines, offsets are
measured perpendicular from the chain line to points of detail.
Perpendicularity may be obtained in one of the following ways;
i. Judging with eye the right angle formed between the chain line and the tape (offset tape)
ii. By swinging the offset tape to obtain the shortest measurement.
iii. By setting out the right-angle with the optical square or cross staff.
iv. By Pythagorass Theorem (3, 4, 5 method)
CHECK OR PROOF LINES
Check line or proof lines are used in chain surveying to ensure that the measuring and plotting
of all the survey lines are correct. If mistakes were made in a measurement or in scaling, then
the plot would be wrong and would not properly represent the area of land surveyed.
To confirm whether all proper checks have been applied, each plotted line should be
considered to see that lengths of measured lines were not altered from their plotting positions.
Where checking was found inadequate, additional measurements must be made.
Check lines need not necessary start from the corner as long as the points along the line from
which they start are known they can be plotted to required positions

TOPIC 5: CHAIN SURVEYING

PRINCIPLES OF CHAIN SURVEYING
This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear measurements
only. Chain Surveying can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although not
necessarily with a chain.
EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING
These equipments can be divided into three, namely
(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)
21

(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg. Abney level,
clinometer, cross staff, optical squares)
(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).
1. Chain:The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by shorter links. It is
designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and offsets of
small surveys.
Chains are made up of links which measure 200mm from centre to centre of each middle
connecting ring and surveying brass handless are fitted at each end. Tally markers made of
plastic or brass are attached at every whole metre position or at each tenth link. To avoid
confusion in reading, chains are marked similarly form both end (E.g. Tally for 2m and 18m is
the same) so that measurements may be commenced with either end of the chain. There are
three different types of chains used in taking measurement
namely:

i.

Engineer chain

ii. Gunter chain

2 Steel Bands:
This may be 30m, 50m or 100m long and 13mm wide. It has handles similar to those on the
chain and is wound on a steel cross. It is more accurate and but less robust than the chain.
The operating tension and temperature for which it was graduated should be indicated on the
band.

22

3 Tapes:
Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements are required, such as the setting out
of buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long marked in metres, centimeter and
millimeters. Tapes are classified into three types;

4. Arrows:
Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and are used for marking temporary
stations. A piece of coloured cloth, white or red ribbon is usually attached or tied to the end of
the arrow to be clearly seen on the field.

5. Pegs
Pegs are made of wood 50m x 50mm and some convenient length. They are used for points
which are required to be permanently marked, such as intersection points of survey lines.
Pegs are driven with a mallet and nails are set in the tops.
23

6. Ranging Pole:
These are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted with characteristic red and
white bands which are usually 0.5m long and tipped with a pointed steel shoe to enable them
to be driven into the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines with the tape, and for
marking any points which need to be seen.

7. Optical Square:
This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line. It is used where
greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one using two mirrors and
the other a prism.
The mirror method is constructed based on the fact that a ray of light is reflected from a
mirror at the same angle as that at which it strikes the mirror.
The prism square method is a simplified form of optical square consisting of a single prism. It
is used in the same way as the mirror square, but is rather more accurate.

Optical square
8 Cross Staff:

This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a wide and narrow slit in
each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set up it is at normal eye
level. It is also used for setting out lines at right angle to the main chain line.
24

9. Clinometer

This instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle). They are of several
form, the common form is the WATKINGS CLINOMETER, which consist of a small disc of about
60mm diameter. A weighted ring inside the disc can be made to hang free and by sighting
across this graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off. It is less accurate than abney level.

9 Abney Level

This instrument is generally used to obtain roughly the slope angle of the ground. It consists of
a rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about 125mm long with a graduated arc
attached. A small bubble is fixed to the vernier arm, once the image of the bubble is seen
reflected in the eyepiece the angel of the line of sight can be read off with the aid of the
reading glass.

NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHAIN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be dried and
wiped with an oily rag.
2. A piece of coloured cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon attached) to enable them to be
seen clearly on the field.
3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station point.
4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are graduated should be
indicated.
5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always after repairs.
6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.

25

GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MAKING A CHAIN SURVEY

1. Reconnaissance survey: Firsthand visit to the site, walk over the area to be surveyed and
note the general layout, the position of features and the shape of the area.
2. Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the station pegs to
mark the stations selected.
3. Station Marking: Station marks should where possible be tied - in to a permanent objects so
that they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found during the survey. In soft ground
wooden pegs may be used while rails may be used on roads or hard surfaces.
4. Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the station
showing existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its description and
designation. Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding features to the
station point and recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate a station again at
much later date even by others after a long interval.
5. Offsetting:- Offsets are usually taken perpendicular to chain lines in order to dodge obstacles
on the chain line.
6. Sketching the layout on the last page of the chain book, together with the date and the name
of the surveyor, the longest line of the survey is usually taken as the base line and is measured
first.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A SURVEY LINES/OFFSETS
During reconnaissance, the following points must be borne in mind as the criteria to provide
the best arrangement of survey lines,
a. Few survey lines: the number of survey lines should be kept to a minimum but must be
sufficient for the survey to be plotted and checked.
b. Long base line: A long line should be positioned right across the site to form a base on which
to build the triangles.
c. Well conditioned triangle with angles greater than 30o and not exceeding 150o: It is
preferable that the arcs used for plotting should intersect as close as 90o in order to provide
sharp definition of the stations point.

Overcoming obstacles during chaining

Agor (1993) classified the various types of obstacles encountered in the course of chaining into
three:
Obstacles which obstruct ranging but not chaining
Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not ranging
Obstacle which obstruct both ranging and chaining
Obstacles that obstruct ranging but not chaining
Here, there is lack of inter-visibility between the ends of a chain line. This occurs in an
undulating terrain.
Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not ranging. Water bodies like lakes, ponds and rivers
are typical examples of obstacles in this category. It is possible to chain around these obstacles
by using the following methods.
26

i. By constructing rectangles: Chaining had reached A and encountered an obstacle. To

get to B, mark A and B with an arrow. Set of perpendiculars AC and BD high enough to clear the
obstacles. Join and measure DC which now equals AB. This allows chaining to continue from B

C
POND

A
B

Suppose a line across a lake is needed AB. Perpendicular lines /AC/ and /BD/ are set out at A
and B such that /AC/ = /BD/. Then the line /CD/ can be chained which is parallel and equal to
/AB/.

POND

CB=CD

27

By constructing similar triangles:

To continue chaining from B, fix a point C away from the obstacle. Range a pole at D to align
with AC hence AC = CD. In line with BC range another point E in line with BC. Hence BC = CE.
Measure ED which equals AB hence chaining can continue from B.

C
POND
E

Obstacles which obstruct both ranging and chaining

Chaining has reached B from A where an obstacle like a building has been reached. Erect equal
perpendiculars AC and BD from A and B along the chain line. Along CD, range E and F beyond
the obstacle. Set off perpendiculars EG and FH from E and F equal to AC. AS G and H are in line
with AB, then CE equals AG.

By constructing similar triangles

Chaining had reached A and there is the need to overcome the obstacle created by the stream
to really B. Set out a perpendicular AC and mark the midpoint E. Set out another perpendicular
CD so that D, E and B are in a straight line. The 2 triangles created are congruent hence CD = AB
which is the required length hence chaining can now proceed from B.

28

FIELD NOTES FOR CHAIN SURVEYING

Field notes for a chain survey are made in a note book usually with a double red line ruled up
the middle of each page. Booking is illustrated as shown below,
The following information will be included to complete the field record.
(a) The name and location of the survey
(b) The description and reference number of the tapes and other instruments used.
(c) The date of the survey
(d) The names of the survey party members
(e) A sketch of the layout of the survey lines made during the reconnaissance.
This sketch includes:
i. The names or letters designating stations.
ii. The line numbers.
iii. The arrow indicating the direction of the survey.
(f) The witnessing and description of station marks.
(g) An index of lines and stations.
(h) The weather at the time of the survey and any other feature likely to offset the accuracy of
the work.
The diagram below show a layout of survey lines (properly checked0 relating the position of
ground features.
PROCEDURE FOR TAKING FIELD NOTES
(a) Booking must be accurate and clear. Do not sketch detail ahead of measurements and
exaggerate the size of complicated features. The notes should be recorded as if another person
will be doing the plotting.
(b) It is easier to find the correct booking page while plotting if the lines are numbered
connectively with a note of the line of the sketch. Alternatively, lines may be labeled by the
stations through which they pass.
(c) Sketches must be clear with no doubt about the point to which the offset is taken.
(d) The chainage run continuously from one end of each survey line to the other with an arrow
drawn on the sketch to show the direction of survey.
(e) Only tie lines and cross measurement are sketched in the field book, offset lines are not. The
offset distance is recorded clearly beside the chain line.
(f) Always take running dimensions around building to pick up details and to check plotting and
measure tie line between salient features to provide additional plotting checks.
(g) Take care not to book in centimeters. This implies an accuracy of measurement to one
millimeter.
(h) Leave nothing to memory, including explanatory notes on details such as street names,
house numbers and names, kind of tree (girth and height), types of pavement boxes etc.
(i) Use H or 2H pencil. Harder pencils are too faint and tear damp paper and
softer pencils tend to smudge.

29

METHOD OF PLOTTING THE SURVEY

The chains survey network of lines is first plotted in pencil As follows:
(a) Base Line
The base line is positioned on the drawing sheet in such a way that the whole area will be
contained within the limits of the paper. Its full length is then scaled off, including the position
of any line stations along it.
(b) Triangles
The length of one of the lines to the first point to be plotted is extracted from the field book
and set to scale on a compass to draw an arc.
The second arc length is similarly drawn at intersection to give the plot of the first point; the
position of the check line is drawn. This is scaled and confirmed to agree with the field
measurement.
Each triangle is plotted and checked in the same way until the whole framework has been
plotted making sure that no check measurements have been omitted and that no plotting
errors exist.

(c) Offsets
Offset measurements can be plotted using one of the two ways;
The running chainage along the lines can be scaled off along the main lines on the plot and
light pencil lines drawn perpendicular to them along which the offset distances are scaled.
A proprietary offset scale can be used. This is a short scale graduated outwards its centre to
enable offsets on either side of the survey line to be plotted. A long scale is laid on the paper
parallel to the survey line so that the offset scale can slide along it with its zero coinciding all
the time with the survey line whole the chainage of the offset scale can be read off the long
scale.
(d) Detail Drawing
As the offsets are plotted they are joined up in pencil to correspond the features noted in the
field book. Tie lines must be scaled to check the plotted positions of points as they arise.

(e) Fair Drawing

Once the pencil plot has been completed and checked the chain survey network of lines (not
the offsets or tie lines) is inked in red and the fair drawing completed.
ERRORS IN CHAIN SURVEYING
Sources of errors in chain surveying include:
(a) Gross errors
i. Displacement of arrows or station marks.
ii. Miscounting tape length
iii. Misreading the tape
iv. Wrong booking
(b) Systematic error (cumulative error).
30

i. Wrong length of tape

ii. Poor ranging
iii. Poor straightening
iv. Slope
v. Sag
vi. Temperature variation
(c) Random or accidental or compensating errors.
i. Holding and marking
ii. Variation in tension
Care of the Steel Chain
i. The chain should be cleaned as necessary at the end of each day's operations to prevent
rust. Damp or muddy chains should be cleaned, dried, and wiped with an oiled cloth
before storing.
ii. An occasional wiping with a slightly oiled cloth is usually sufficient to prevent rust on
chains that are only dusty. If some rust spots do accumulate, they can usually be
removed by rubbing dry cement on the affected areas.
iii. Care should be taken to prevent bending or kinking the chain. Never bend the chain
sharply because this normally leaves a permanent kink in the chain. Never loop the
chain around a survey stake or small sapling when dragging
the chain around a sharp bend. It is best to let the other chain person stand at the point and
feed the chain through his hands to prevent a sharp bend in the chain.
The front chain person should always look back to see that the chain is clear before pulling
ahead for the next measurement; sometimes, when the chain is carelessly laid down, it will
form a loop which if pulled tight will cause a kink or possibly a break. Any time a kink is created,
it makes the chain more susceptible to breakage at that point.
Vehicles should not be allowed to run over the chain. Rubber tired vehicles can bend the chain,
and, obviously, track type vehicles will severely damage a chain.
TOPIC 6: LEVELING

31

PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS

Leveling may be defined as the process of determining the elevations of various points, or
determining the vertical distances between points. An elevation may be defined as the vertical
distance above a reference plane, or datum. Mean sea level is the datum most commonly used
in leveling; however, in some cases, it may be advantageous to assume, or set, a datum.
Level surface or Level Line
This is a surface or line in which all points are at the same height and normal or at right angle to
the full of gravity as shown by a plumb line.
A Horizontal surface or Horizontal line
This is a plane flat surface or straight line which passes through a point at right angle to the pull
of gravity at that point. It is therefore a tangent to the curve of a level surface.
A Datum Surface
Datum surface is any level surface to which the elevations of all points may be referred. The
mean sea level is usually adopted as datum.
A Reduced Level
The reduced level of a point is its height or elevation above the surface adopted as a datum
Bench marks
Bench marks are stable reference points the reduced levels of which are accurately determined
by leveling.
Back sight
This is the first reading taken with a leveling instrument in a leveling operation.
Foresight
This is the last reading taken in a leveling operation.

Intermediate Sight
This is the reading taken between the back sight and foresight in a leveling operation.
Turning Point or Change Point
A change point or turning point is a staff station on which two staff readings are taken without
changing the position of the instrument.
Methods OF Leveling
There are several methods for measuring vertical distances and determining the elevations of
points. Traditional methods include barometric leveling, trigonometric leveling and differential
leveling. Two very advanced and sophisticated techniques include inertia leveling and global
positioning systems.
1. Barometric leveling
32

By using special barometers to measure air pressure (which decrease with increasing elevation),
the elevation of points on the earth's surface can be determined within 1m. This method is
useful for doing a reconnaissance survey of large areas in rough country and for obtaining
preliminary topographic data.
2. Differential leveling
By far the most common leveling method, and the one which most surveyors are concerned
with, is differential leveling. It may also be called spirit leveling, because the basic instrument
used comprises a telescopic sight and a sensitive spirit bubble vial. The spirit bubble vial serves
to align the telescopic sight in a horizontal direction, that is, perpendicular to the direction of
gravity.
Briefly, a horizontal line of sight is first established with an instrument called a level. The level is
securely mounted on a stand called a tripod, and the line of sight is made horizontal.
Then the surveyor looks through the telescopic sight towards a graduated level rod, which is
held vertically at a specific location or point on the ground. A reading is observed on the rod
where it appears to be intercepted by the horizontal cross hair of the level; this is the vertical
distance from the point on the ground up to the line of sight of the instrument.
Reciprocal leveling
When it is necessary to run levels accurately over rivers and other obstacles where the BS and
FS distances must necessarily be different, a procedure called reciprocal leveling is used. This
provides another way to cancel or average out instrumental errors as well as the effects
refraction and the earths curvature.
This procedure involves two instrument setups, one nearby each point. From each instrumental
position, BS on point A and an FS on point B are taken, and an elevation is computed for point
B. This will result in to different elevations for B, due to the natural and instrumental errors. But
by average the two elevations, the effects on the errors are cancelled out, and the true or
most probable elevation is obtained.
Profile Leveling
Profile leveling is one of the most common applications of running levels and vertical distance
measurement for the surveyor. The results are plotted in the form of a profile, which is a
drawing that shows a vertical cross section. Profiles are required for the design and
construction of roads, curbs, sidewalks, pipelines etc. In short, profile leveling refers to the
process of determining the elevation of points on the ground at mostly uniform intervals along
continuous line.
Field Procedure
Profile leveling is essentially the same as benchmark leveling, with one basic difference. At each
instrument position, where an HI is determined by a back sight rod reading on a benchmark or
turning point, several additional foresight readings may be taken on as many points as desired.
These additional readings are called rod shots, and the elevation of all those points is
determined by subtracting the rod shot from the HI at that instrument location.
Plotting the Profile
The profile drawing is basically a graph of elevations, plotted on the vertical axis, as a function
of stations, plotted on horizontal axis. A gridded sheet called profile paper is used to plot the
33

profile data from the field book. All profile drawings must have a proper title block, and both
axes must be fully labeled with stations and elevations.
The elevation or elevation scale is typically exaggerated; that is, it is 'stretched' in comparison
to the horizontal scale. For example the vertical scale might be 10 times larger.
The horizontal line at the bottom of the profile does not necessary have to start at zero
elevation.

Fig. Profile leveling

34

Fig. Profile notes in metric units

35

Fig Plotted profile

Cross-Section Leveling
The term cross-section generally refers to a relatively short profile view of the ground, which is
drawn perpendicular to the route centerline of a highway or other types of linear projects.
Cross-sectional drawings are particularly important for estimating the earthwork volumes
needed to construct a roadway; they show the existing ground elevations, the proposed cut or
fill side slopes, and the grade elevation for the road base.
There is really no difference in procedure between profile and cross-section leveling except for
the form of the field notes. Cross-section rod shots are usually taken during the route profile
survey from the same instrument positions used to take rod shots along the centerline. Cross36

section data are obtained at the same locations along the route that are used for the profile
rod-shot stations.

Fig. (a) Top view showing the route center line and the line for cross-section leveling at station
1+ 50.
(b) The cross-section showing ground elevations at points left and right of the center line.
SURVEYORS LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS
There are three basic types of level in common use, namely.
(a) Dumpy level

37

Fig Dumpy level

(b) Tilting level

Fig Tilting level

A: Transverse fulcrum
B: Micrometer screw
C: Micrometer screw knob
D: Housing for telescope level bubble
E: Eyepiece end of the telescope
F: Parallel eyepiece
(c) Automatic Level

38

Automatic Levels

Leveling staff
The vertical distance above or below the horizontal surface is read off a leveling staff. It may
be either telescope or folding extending to a length of 4m or 5m and graduated to be easily
read in the field on view of the leveling staff graduated in metres (in 10mm division).
The staff is either white or yellow as seen in the figure below.

The staff must be held vertically as any leaning of the staff will result in a level reading which
is too great. Reading can be taken by holding the staff lightly between the palms of both hands
on either sides of the staff.

39

LINE OF COLLIMATION
The line of collimation of a telescope is the line of sight defined by the optical centre of the
object glass and the centre of the cross bars.

Line of collimation or line of sight is only horizontal when a level in perfect adjustment is setup
and leveled. The line of sight must not be confused with a horizontal line.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING LEVELLING DATUM
For all surveys a level line is chosen to which the elevation of all point is related to as datum or
datum surface.
This can be any surface but the most commonly used datum is mean sea level measured as
ordinance datum. All points referred to ordinance datum are said to have their height above
ordinance datum (AOD).
On many construction and Civil Engineering sites, mean sea level is not often used as a datum
for leveling. Instead, a permanent feature of some sort is chosen on which to base all works and
this is given an arbitrary height (referred to as datum) to suite the site conditions.
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF BENCH MARKS
Bench marks are permanent reference marks or points whose reduced levels are accurately
determined by leveling. They are classified into two namely:
1. Permanent bench marks (PBM), and
2. Temporary bench marks (TBM)
Permanent bench marks (BM)
Ordinance bench marks are those which have been established by the ordinance survey and
are based on the ordinance datum.
The most common types are permanently marked on buildings and walls by a cut in vertical
brickwork or masonry or indicated by an arrow or crows foot mark.
Temporary bench marks (TBM)
These are marks set up on stable points near construction sites to which all leveling operations
on that particular site will be referred.
These are often used when there is no ordinance bench mark (OBM) close to the site.
The height of TBM may be assumed at some convenient value (usually 100.00m) or may be
accurately established by leveling from the nearest BM.
The position of TBM should be fixed during the initial site reconnaissance. Permanent existing
features should be used where possible. In practice, 20mm diameter steel bolts 100mm long
are driven into existing door steps, foot path, low wall etc.
Any TBM set up on site must be leveled with reference to main bench mark (BM) or some other
agreed datum.
40

PROCEDURE IN LEVELING

The level of set up at some convenient position P1 and a back sight was taken to the first
TBM. The foot of the staff being held on TBM and the staff held vertically.
The staff is moved to points A and B in turn and readings taken. These are the intermediate
sights respectively.
In order to read D, a change point is chosen at C and the staff is moved to C. This is the
foresight for the first point (P1).
While the staff remains at C1 the instrument is moved to another position (P2).
A reading is taken from the new position of the staff at C. This is the back sight for P2.
The staff is moved to D and E in turn and the intermediate sight readings taken respectively.
Finally, the level is moved to P3 and a back sight is taken to E, while the foresight is also taken
to the final TBM.
The final staff position is at a point of known reduced level as leveling field work must start
and finish at points of known reduced level; otherwise it is not possible to detect misclosure in
the leveling.

41

BOOKING AND REDUCTION OF LEVEL

There are two method of booking and reduction of level namely;
- Rise and fall method
- Height of instrument method (Height of collimation method)
HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD
The following formula will serve as a guide to the reduction of level by this method;
(i) B. S + R. L = H. I
(ii) H. I I .S = R. L (new)
(iii) H. I. (old) F. S = R. L (new) at change point
(iv) R. L. (new) + B.S = H. I. (new)
Checking: The difference between the sum of B. S and the F. S should equal the known
difference in height (R.L) between starting and finishing points.
Example
The following staff readings were taken along a straight length of a road. Reduce the level and
check the accuracy of the readings using Height of instrument
Method
BS

INTERMEDIATE
SIGHT

FORE SIGHT

2.390
1.985
1.318
0.988

1.612
42

REDUCED LEVEL

REMARK

31.517

OBM

1.502
1.415
2.420

0.316
0.532

TBM

SOLUTION
BS +FS/IS

BS

REDUCED LEVEL

INTERMEDIATE
SIGHT

FORE SIGHT

HI

2.390

33.907
1.985
1.318

0.988

1.612

33.283

1.502
1.415
2.420

0.316
0.532

REDUCED
LEVEL
31.517
31.922
32.589
32.295
31.781
31.868
32.967
34.855

REMARK
BM

TBM

Check
B.S - F.S = R.L last - R. L first
5.798 2.460 = 34.855 - 31.517
3.338 = 3.338

RISE AND FALL METHOD

Example (1)
The following staffs reading were taken along a straight length of a railway track.
Reduce the level and check the accuracy of the readings using Rise and fall method.
BS
2.390

IS

FS

1.985
1.318
0.988

FALL

+0.405
+0.667
1.612

1.502
1.415
2.420

RISE

0.316
0.532

-0.294
-0.514
+0.087
+1.099
+1.888
43

RL
31.517
31.922
32.589
32.295
31.781
31.868
32.967
34.855

REMARK
OBM

TBM

BS=
FS=
NOTE: (+) donates rise and (-) fall

=4.146

=0.808

Checking:
(BS -FS) = (Rise - Fall) = (R.L Last - R.L first)
(5.798-2.460) = (4.146 0.808) = (34.855 31.517)
3.338 = 3.338 = 3.338
USES OF LEVELLING
Apart from the determination of difference in level between points on earths surface, other
uses of leveling include.
(1) Taking of longitudinal section
(2) Cross- sections
(3) Contouring
(4) Setting out levels
(1) Longitudinal Section
In Engineering Surveying, a longitudinal section (or profile) is taken along the complete length
of the existing ground level. Levelling can be used to measure heights at points on the centre
line so that the profile can be plotted.
Generally, this type of section provide data for determining the most economic formation
level, this being the level to which existing ground is formed by construction methods.
The optimum position for the formation level is usually found by using a computer aided
design package but the longitudinal section is sometime drawn by hand and a mass hand
diagram prepared.
In order to be able to plot levels obtained in addition to those taken at the centerline pegs,
the position of each point on the centre line must be measured with tape and recorded.
The method of broking longitudinal section should always be by the height of collimation
method since many intermediate sights will be taken
(2) Cross - sections
In the construction of other projects such as roads and railways, existing ground level
information at right angle to the centre line is required. This is provided by taking cross sections
at right angles to the centre line such that information is obtained over the full width of the
proposed construction.
For the best possible accuracy in sectioning, a crosssection should be taken at every point
leveled on the longitudinal section. In order to reduce the amount of field work involved, crosssection are taken at regular intervals along the centre- line usually where pegs have been
established.
A right angle is set out at each cross-section either by eye for short lengths or by theodolite
for long distance or where greater accuracy is needed.
A ranging rod is placed on either side of the centre line to mark each cross section.
44

(3) Contouring
A coutour is defined as an imaginary line joining points of the same height or elevation above
or below a datum. These are shown so that the relief or topography of an area can be
interpreted (a factor greatly used in civil engineering)
The difference in height between successive contours is known as the vertical interval (VI) and
this interval dictates the accuracy to which the ground is represented. The value of (VI) chosen
for any application depends on;
(a) Scale of the plan
(b) Intended use of the plan
(c) The costs involved
(d) The nature of the terrain
Generally, a small vertical interval of up to 1m is required for engineering projects, large scale
survey plans and surveys on fairly even sites. A wider vertical interval is used in hilly or broken
terrain.
Electronic instruments such as total stations are normally used to collect data for contouring
and contours are plotted by using computer software and hardware.

If drawn manually, contours can be obtained other directly or indirectly using mathematical
polation or graphical interpolation techniques.
Direct Contouring:
The position of contours is located on the ground by leveling.
Indirect Contouring Method:
Involves the height of points that do not in general coincide with the contour positions. Instead,
the points leveled are used as a frame work on which contours are later interpolated on a
drawing. The more common methods of indirect contouring involve taking levels either on a
regular grid pattern or at carefully selected points.
Grid leveling:
The area to be contoured is divided into a series of lines forming squares and ground levels
are taken at the intersection of the grid lines. The sides of the squares can be 5 to 30m

45

depending on the accuracy required and the nature of the ground surface. The more irregular
the ground surface the greater the concentration of grid points.
This method of contouring is ideally suited to gently sloping areas but the setting out of the
grid on a large area can take a considerable time.
Furthermore, if visibility is restricted across the site, difficulties can occur when locating grid
points.
Following the field work, the levels are reduced, the grid is plotted and the contours
interpolated either graphically or mathematically, taking into account the general shape of the
land as observed during the fieldwork.
Contours from Selected Points
For large areas or areas containing a lot of detail, contours can be drawn from level taken at
points of detail or at prominent points on open ground such as obvious changes of slope. These
points will have been plotted on the plan by one of the methods of plotting with the position of
each level or spot height forming a random pattern. The contours are drawn by interpolation as
in grid levelling.
Other methods of contouring are;
- Contouring by section.
- Contouring by radiating lines contouring by tacheometry.
- Interpolating contours.
CONTOUR CHARACTERISTICS

(i) Contour lines close upon themselves some where each to its own elevation. If not within the
limit of the map.
(ii) Contour lines cannot intersect one another whether they are of the same elevation or not.
(iii) Coutour lines on the tops of ridges and in the bottom of valleys either close or run in pairs
within the limits of the map, no single line can ever run between two of higher or lower
elevation

46

(iv) Contour lines indicate uniform slopes when they are equally spaced, convex slopes when
they are farther apart with increasing elevations and concave slopes when becoming closer
together with increasing elevations
USES OF CONTOUR MAPS
1. Location of possible routes for roads, dams etc.
2. Laying out building sites:
The position of hill tops, basins, steep slopes, etc can be seen from contour plans to avoid siting
buildings on exposed hill top and risking possible soil creep, or in basins which may form natural
drainage area.
3. Calculation of volumes.
4. Determination of intervisibility between stations.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELLING
There are five sources of error in leveling and their importance must be appreciated and
precaution taken to reduce their effects. These sources includes,
1. Instrumental error in equipment
2. Error in handling the equipments
3. Error due to displacement of equipments
4. Error in reading and booking
5. Error due to natural causes.
1. ERRORS IN EQUIPMENT
(a) Collimation Errors
This can be a serious source of error in leveling if sight length from one instrument position is
not equal since the collimation error is proportional to the difference in sight length. Hence in
all types of leveling, sights should be kept equal particularly by back sight and the foresights.
47

(b) Parallax:
This effect must be eliminated before any readings are taken.
(c) Defect of the Staff
This is possible that staff graduations may be incorrect and new repaired staff should be
checked against the steel tape. Particular attention should be paid to the base of the staff to
see if it has become badly worn.
This does not affect height difference if the same staff is used for all the leveling, but
introduces some errors if two staffs are being used for the same sources of levels.
When using a three section staff it is important to ensure that the staff is properly extended
by examining the graduations on either staff of each joint. If the joints became loose, the staff
should be returned for repair.
(d) The Pod Defect:
The stability of tripods should be checked before any field work commence by testing to see the
tripod head is screwed and the shoes at the base of each are not loose.
2. ERRORS IN HANDING EQUIPMENT
(a) Staff Not vertical
Since the staff is used to measure a vertical difference between ground and line of collimation,
failure to hold the staff vertical will result in incorrect readings.
(b) Instrument not Level
For automatic level this source of error is unusual, but for a tilting level in which the tilting
screws has to be adjusted for each reading.
This is a common mistake, the best procedure here to ensure that the main bubble is
centralized before and after a reading is taken.
3. ERRORS IN READING AND BOOKING
Extra care must be taken when reading the staff since an inverted images result in faulty
reading being recorded by inexperienced observer, although the image usually diminishes with
practice
Another source of reading error is sighting the staff over too long distance when it becomes
impossible to take accurate reading. It is therefore recommended that sighting distance should
be limited to 60m, but where absolutely unavoidable this may be increased to a maximum of
100m.
Many mistakes are made during the booking of the readings and the general rule is that staff
sightings must be carefully entered into the leveling table immediately after reading.
4. Errors Due to Displacement of Equipment
If the instrument is setup on soft or marshy ground, it may settle and alter the height of
collimation.
Change points must be chosen so that when turning the staff round or when replacing it after
removal no alteration of height takes place.
Always choose stable change points on hand ground and mark the staff position with chalk.
5. Errors due to Natural Causes

48

 The wind causes vibration of the level, tripod and the staff particularly when it is fully
extended thereby making accurate sighting impossible. Always shelter the staff and keep short
sights on windy weather. The staff should also be kept short.
TOPIC 7: COMPASS SURVEYING

Compass surveys are mainly used for the rapid filling of the detail in larger surveys and for
explanatory works. It does not provide a very accurate determination of the bearing of a line as
the compass needle aligns itself to the earths magnetic field which does not provide a constant
reference point.
THE PRISMATIC COMPASS

49

This is an instrument used for the measurement of magnetic bearings. It is small and portable
usually carried on the hand. This Prismatic Compass is one of the two main kinds of magnetic
compasses included in the collection for the purpose of measuring magnetic bearings, with the
other being the Surveyor's Compass. The main difference between the two instruments is that
the surveyor's compass is usually the larger and more accurate instrument, and is generally
used on a stand or tripod.
The prismatic compass on the other hand is often a small instrument which is held in the hand
for observing, and is therefore employed on the rougher classes of work. The graduations on
this prismatic compass are situated on a light aluminium ring fastened to the needle, and the
zero of the graduations coincides with the south point of the needle. The graduations therefore
remain stationary with the needle, and the index turns with the sighting vanes. Since the circle
is read at the observer's (rather than the target's) end, the graduations run clockwise from the
south end of the needle (0 to 360), whereas in the surveyor's compass, the graduations run
anticlockwise from north.
The prismatic attachment consists of a 45 reflecting prism with the eye and reading faces
made slightly convex so as to magnify the image of the graduations. The prism is carried on a
mounting which can be moved up and down between slides fixed on the outside of the case.
The purpose of this up-and-down movement is to provide an adjustment for focusing. The
image of the graduations is seen through a small circular aperture in the prism mounting, and
immediately above this aperture is a small V cut on top of the mounting, over which the vertical
wire in the front vane may be viewed. When the V cut, the vertical wire and the station whose
bearing is required are viewed in one line, the bearing is directly read off the graduated arc at
the point immediately underneath the vertical wire.
The oblong mirror located in front of the forward vane slides up and down the vane, and
is hinged to fold flat over it or to rest inclined at any angle with it.
This mirror is used for solar observations, or for viewing any very high object, and is not a
normal fitting to a compass. The two circular discs in front of the back vane are dark glasses
which can be swung in front of the vane when solar observations are being taken.
COMPONENTS OF A PRISMATIC COMPASS
Prismatic compass consists of a non-magnetic metal case with a glass top and contain the
following:
a. The Pivot: This is made of hardened steel ground to a fine tip.
b. The jewel: It is usually supported by a pivot.
c. The needles: Made of magnetized steel which is attached to the jewel.
d. The compass ring or card: graduated like a protractor from 0o to 360o in a clockwise
direction which is attached to the needle.
e. A spring brake: It is operated by the brake pin for damping the oscillations of the needle and
card.
f. A lifting level: For raising the card and needle off the pivot when not in use.

50

TOPIC 7a: TRAVERSE SURVEY:

If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known: it is possible to establish the
position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing and distances of other
surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of points linked with lines
linking them emerge. The traversing is the process of establishing these lines, is called
traversing, while the connecting lines joining two points on the ground. Joining two while
bearing and distance is known as traverse. A traverse station is each of the points of the
traverse, while the traverse leg is the straight line between consecutive stations. Traverses may
either be open or closed.
Open Traverse
An open traverse terminates in a point that is not predetermined as it neither returns to its
starting station nor closes on any point while bearing and height is known.
D

C
E
A
Fig 7a (i): Open traverse

CLOSED TRAVERSE
In a closed traverse, a traverse cogitates from a point whose bearing and height are known and
terminates in another point whose bearing and height are also known. The terminal point may
either be its starting point.

C
D

F
51

Fig 7a (ii): Closed traverse

TOPIC 7b: BEARINGS

Bearing is the angular distance of a point or line measured clockwise from a reference north.
The type of bearing obtained depends on the type of north used as reference. Magnetic
bearing is the bearing obtained when reference is made to magnetic north (MN). True bearing
or azimuth is the bearing obtained with reference to the true north (TN), while grid bearing is
the bearing obtained with reference to the grid north (GN). Bearings are measured in degrees,
minutes and seconds.
60 seconds = 1minute and
60minutes = 1degree
Relationship between Magnetic North and True North
The difference between magnetic north and true north at a point is known as the magnetic
variation and can be termed the declination for the point. This seen below.
TN

For west declination:

Magnetic bearing (MB) = d+a
Therefore, True bearing or azimuth
= MB-d

a
d

West d

Example1:
When the magnetic declination was 100w, the magnetic bearing of a line at Lissam was
observed to be 1750 301. What was the true bearing of the line?
Solution
At west declination, TB=MB-d
True bearing = 1750 301 - 100w = 1650 301
MN

TN

52
d

West d

For east declination:

Magnetic bearing (MB)= a-d
True bearing or azimuth = MB+d
Example2: compute the true bearing of a line in Costain, Lissam which magnetic bearing was
observed to be 1010 401 when the magnetic declination at Lissam was 010 351E
Solution:
At east declination, TB=MB+d
True bearing= 1010 401 + 010 351= 1030 151

Whole circle and reduced bearings

Bearings are in the range of 00-3600 which gives a complete circle. 00 shows the north, 900
represent east, 1800 represent south, and 2700 represent west. Whole circle bearing is the
direction of a line clockwise from the reference north while a reduced bearing is the angle
between the main line marking the direction to which bearings are referred.
N
1

Direction
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4

RB
N42E
S42E
S42W
N42S0W

WCB
400
2
1380
2220
3180

Note: the following formulae exist for determination of whole circle bearing (WCB)
1st quadrant, WCB = reduced bearing
2nd quadrant, WCB is 1800-RB
3rd quadrant, WCB is 1800+RB
4th quadrant, WCB is 3600 RB

FORWARD AND BACKWARD BEARINGS

The bearing of at the start or initial bearing of a point say A to another point, say B can be
described as the forward bearing (FB) of A to B while the bearing of point B to A is referred to
as a backward bearing (BB) of B to A as can be seen below:

53

N
N
Forward bearing of A-B

Backward bearing of B-A

From simple geometry, alternate angles that is backward bearing of B to A is equal to 180 0 +
forward bearing of A to B.
The general rule for bearing calculation is thus;
BB = 180 FB on the condition that
If FB <(less than) 1800; BB = FB+1800 and
If FB> (greater than) 1800 then BB=FB-1800
Also, in reduced bearings, forward bearings have the same numerical value as back bearings
with opposite letters.

Example.
Calculate and Fill in the table below
FORWARD BEARING
2190
180
?

BACKWARD BEARING
?
?
350

SOLUTION using FB180 =BB

FORWARD BEARING
2190
180
2150

BACKWARD BEARING
390
1980
350

CORRECTION APPLICABLE TO MEASURED MAGNETIC BEARINGS

The accuracy and use of the compass for measurement of magnetic bearings in a compass
traverse are reduced due to interference from electrical cables, iron ore etc. This interference is
known as local attractions. In order to eliminate this effect of local attractions, the bearing of
54

each line is observed twice ie forward and backward bearings. The difference of these readings
should give 1800 otherwise; we suspect one of the stations for local attractions.
Sample Example:
The following readings were observed in an open traverse survey with a prismatic compass.
Find out the nature of the error and correct accordingly.
From station
magnetic bearing
To station
0
A
220 30
B
0
B
40 30
A
B
1200 00
C
0
C
303 30
B
0
C
89 00
D
D
2650 30
C
Solution: using FB180=BB
Traverse leg
Bearing
A-B
2200 30
B-A
400 30
B-C
1200 00
C-D
3030 30
C-D
890 00
D-C
2650 30

Difference
1800 00

Error
000 00

Correction
000 00

1830 30

+030 30

-030 30

1760 30

-030 30

+030 30

Corrected
+2200 30
400 30
1200 00
3000 30
850 30
2650 30

OPERATION PROCEDURE OF A COMPASS

Remove the corner and open out the prism and window, holding the compass as level as
possible.
Then focus the prism by raising or lowering its case until the divisions appear sharp and clear.
If necessary with the needle on to its pivot.
Holding the compass box with the thumb under the prism (T) and the forefinger near the stud
(c), sight through the objector station lowering the eye to read the required bearing as soon as
the needle comes to rest naturally (or by simultaneously damping its swings by pressing the
stud (c)].
The bearing read will be a forward bearing and normally a whole circle bearing clockwise
angle between 0o to 360o.

Angle of Declination:
It is defined as the angle between the direction of the magnetic meridian and the true meridian
at any point.
STEPS IN USING A COMPASS
55

1) Check the compass between 3 survey beacons with known bearing, this will give a total
compass error
2) When using compass with tripod, screw the compass firmly to the tripod
3) Either erect tripod over a starting point having removed the ranging pole or stand firmly with
your back bone against the ranging pole.
4) Remove the compass lid and erect the fore sight and the back sight
5) Raise the compass to the eye and line up late the station
6) Having aligned the compass it should be held in a horizontal position and rending taken in
same position
7) The bearing is the rend to always read from right to the left and never from left to the
right
8) Rotate the compass through 360 and retake the bearing if it agree with the 1 st reading,
write down the result, if it does not rotate and take the bearing again, write down the reading
of the 3 which agree, if all the three readings are differed, then the compass is sticking and
should be examined
9) Move to the next station and sight back to the previous station take the reading (back
reading) following step (3 8)
10) Having taken the back bearing, the different between the two reading should be 180, if
you do not get the difference of 180, it means that either the previous with current reading or
both are wrong and this should be checked. If after checking, the readings do not yet agree, it
means there are some magnetic objects interfering with the compass at one or both station
and care must be taken to avoid them.
11) Sight the next station and repeat step 3 10
ERRORS IN USING THE COMPASS
1) The compass not checked before each survey exercise
2) The compass not very correct or very detective and such defect include:
(a) Damage to the fore or back sight.
(b) Damage to the prism
(c) Loose screws not been tightened
(d) Cord not rotating properly
(e) Presence of large air bubbles
3) The compass been held horizontal when taking the reading
4) The compass not been steadying when readings are taken
5) Reading taking from left to right instead of from right to left
6) Readings not being checked by rotating the compass
7) Reading not being check by taking both forward and backward bearing
8) Presence of local magnetical fraction such as
(a) Stone or rock
(b) Rail
(c) Vehicle
(d) Metal
(e) Rolled up chain
(f) matchet, parched Kofi, key, wrist watches e.t.c.
56

MAGNETISM
A magnetic is a suitable with low power to attract other magnetic substance such as iron, steel,
Nickel. This power of attraction is called magnetism in any magnet, magnetisary is more
concentrated or both end which are called north and south poles respectively. If two magnets
are brought together, the north pole of one will repels north of another on the other hand, the
north pole of one will attract of south. Pole of the magnetic needle whose South Pole point to
the earths North Pole or vice-versa. All compasses are called magnetic compasses.
This phenomenon is summarized thus: like poles repel unlike pole attract. This attraction
repulsion related its compare of the earth.
Earth magnetism: The end behaves as a huge magnet due to various numerals and electric
charge which are present on it. The earth magnetic north pole is near the earth geographical
south pole.
All other magnet set themselves along the line of force of the earth magnetic field that is bear
of magnet will set itself along the earth meridian which its south pole pointing to the north
polest the earth magnet north pole. A compass the convert of a bear magnet or base on the
principle they operate, in surveying, two north are commonly used these are true north or
geographical north and magnetic north.
True north on the global man of the earth, all lower longitude converse at two points. The point
at which this we converge at the extreme north is called the true north of the earth, it is also
called the geographical north. The true north is the farthest point north of the equator and is
permanently fixed. True north is therefore direction of the true north or geographical North
Pole at any particular point with surface of the earth.
Magnetic north is the direction at which the magnetic needle point, the magnetic needle is not
fixed but changes from place to place and from time to time. A core or the place between the
true north and the true south is called the True or geographical meridian and that between the
magnetic pole are called the magnetic meridian.
Magnetic variation and inclination is the angle between the magnetic north and true north or
the angle between the geographical meridian and magnetic meridian.
Magnetic variation is not constant but vary every year and place to place. Magnetic variation
can be determine by the following methods
1) From survey department: magnetic variation can be obtained from the department for any
particular place.
2) Stem and beacon: magnetic variation can be determine from standard beacon whose true
bearing is known total compass errors is a friction of magnetic variation and index error (MV +
index error)
3) Isogamic map/chart: is a map of the world or a country with line draw on it giving places. An
equal magnetic variation. The variation decreases west ward at the rate of 5 minutes per
annum e.g Assuming that the magnetic variation in Abeokuta in 1980 = 9, what will be the
magnetic variation in year 2000
2 1980 = 20 years 5 =
x 30 x = = 1.83 or degree = P.501
Magnetic variation = 9 - 150 = 7.101
57

Index error: is the error interest in a particular compass which is true to the fault of the
manufacturer, each compass has its own index error which is usually determine and known by
the manufacturer.
Total compass error: this equal to the magnetic variation index error (W S+). Thus, TCE
should always be determined for a compass and should be checked atleast once annually
where an index error of a compass is unknown the total compass error can be determined by
the method of standard beacon. Index error can if necessary be determined by subtracting the
MV from the TCE. The TCE should be started in the field book with the direction and date e.g.
6 551 W(1999). All bearing should be converted to true bearing before the survey is plotted
and all survey bearing should be plotted to true north. True bearing is determined by
subtracting the TCE from the magnetic bearing TB = MB TCE. If the magnetic variation is in the
west, true bearing is obtained by subtracting MV from MB, if the variation is in the east true
bearing is obtained by adding MV to MB
SOURCES OF ERROR IN COMPASS SURVEY (LOCAL ATTRACTION & OBSERVATIONAL ERROR):
Local attraction is the influence that prevents magnetic needle pointing to magnetic north pole
Unavoidable substances that affect compass are
- Magnetic ore
-

Underground iron pipes

High voltage transmission line

Electric pole etc.

Influence caused by avoidable magnetic substance doesnt come under local attraction
such as instrument, watch wrist, key etc

Detection of Local attraction

- By observing the both bearings of line (F.B. & B.B.) and noting the difference (1800 in
case of W.C.B. & equal magnitude in case of R.B.)
- We confirm the local attraction only if the difference is not due to observational errors.
If detected, that has to be eliminated
Two methods of elimination
- First method
- Second method
First method
- Difference of B.B. & F.B. of each lines of traverse is checked to note if they differ by
correctly or not.
-

The one having correct difference means that bearing measured in those stations are
free from local attraction
58

Correction is accordingly applied to rest of station.

If none of the lines have correct difference between F.B. & B.B., the one with minimum
error is balanced and repeat the similar procedure.

Diagram is good friend again to solve the numerical problem.

TOPIC 8: PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Plane Table is a field mapping instrument and for surveys of which the purpose is to construct a
map only, this method has important advantages. However, nothing is accomplished with the
use of plane that cannot be done with a transit and drawing room methods. Many factors offset
the advantageous use of one method or the other and these must receive due consideration in
choosing the best method for a given survey.
This is a method of survey that allows a surveyor to plot and create an accurate scale drawing
on site. The idea is to scale down the site to a site that fit onto the drawing board. A plane table
is a drawing board which is fixed onto a tripod, leveled, and orientated. An alidade is a sighting
device used to observe the salient points of the site.

FIG: A plane table

Have a good look at the site before you start the survey, time should be taken to walk round
and have a good look at the site or building that you are going to record. On a building, the
obvious features that you would want to record are the corners, doors and window opening,
replaces. More subtle features that you would look out for are changes in wall direction,
straight joints, blocked doors or windows.
59

PRINCIPLE OF PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

The principle of plane tabling is parallelism, meaning that the rays drawn from stations to
objects on the paper are parallel to the lines from the stations to the objects on the ground.
The relative positions of the objects on the ground are represented by their plotted positions
on the paper and lie on the respective rays. The table is always placed at each of the successive
stations parallel to the position it occupied at the starting station. Plane tabling is a graphical
method of surveying there the field work and plotting are done simultaneously and such survey
does not involve the use of a field book.
Plane table survey is mainly suitable for filling interior details when traversing is done by
theodolite sometimes traversing by plane table may also be done. But this survey is
recommended for the work where great accuracy is not required. As the fitting and fixing
arrangement of this instrument is not perfect, most accurate work cannot be expected.
Accessories of Plane Table:1. The Plane Table:The plane table is a drawing board of size 750 mm x 600 mm made of well seasoned wood like
teak, pine etc. The top surface of the table is well leveled. The bottom surface consists of a
threaded circular plate for fixing the table on the tripod stand by a wing nut. The plane table is
meant for fixing a drawing sheet over it. The positions of the objects are located on this sheet
by drawing rays and plotting to any suitable scale.
2. The Alidade:There are two types of alidade.
(i) Plain
(ii) Telescopic.
(a) Plain Alidade:The plain alidade consists of a metal or wooden ruler of length about 50 cm. One of its edge is
beveled and is known as the fiducial edge. It consists of two vanes at both ends which are
hinged with the ruler. One is known as the object vane and carries a horse hair; the other is
called the sight vane and is provided with a narrow slit.
(b) Telescopic Alidade:The telescopic alidade consists of a telescope meant for inclined sight or sighting distant objects
clearly. This alidade has no vanes at the ends, but is provided with fiducial edge. The function of
the alidade is to sight objects. The rays should be drawn along the fiducial ends.
3. The Spirit Level:The spirit level is a small metal tube containing a small bubble of spirit. The bubble is visible on
the top along a graduated glass tube. The spirit level is meant for leveling the plane table.
4. The Compass:There are two kinds of compass.
(a) The trough compass and
(b) The circular box compass.
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(a) The Trough Compass:The trough compass is a rectangular box made of non-magnetic metal containing a magnetic
needle pivoted at the centre. This compass consists of a D mark at both ends to locate the N-S
direction.
(b) The Circular Box Compass:It carries a pivoted magnetic needle at the centre. The circular box is fitted on a square base
plate sometimes two bubble tubes are fixed at right angles to each other on the base plate. The
compass is meant for marking the north direction of the map.
5. U-fork or plumbing fork with plumb bob:The U-fork is a metal strip bent in the shape of a U (hair pin) having equal arm lengths, the top
arm is pointed and the bottom arm carried a hook for suspending a plumb bob. This is meant
for centering the table over a station.
Methods of Plane Table Surveying
Four classes of plane tabling surveys are recognized:
Radiation method;
Intersection method;
Traversing method,
Resection method.
Radiation Method
Here, the plane table is set up at one station which allows the other station to be accessed. The
points to be plotted are then located by radiating rays from the plane table station to the
points. After reducing the individual ground distances on the appropriate scale, the survey is
then plotted. This method is suitable for small area surveys. It is rarely used to survey a
complete project but is used in combination with other methods for filing in details within a
chain length.

61

Figure: Plane Tabling using Radiation Method

The following steps are taken:
1. Select a point O such that all the points are visible
2. Set up and level the instrument at O
3. From O align the Alidade and draw radial lines towards. The stations A, B, C, D and E.
4. Measure the distances OA, OB, OC, OD and OE: scale and draw Oa, Ob, Oc, Od and Oe on the
paper.
5. Join the point a, b, c, d, and e to give the outline of the survey. Under revision
Intersection Method
In this method, two instrument stations are used with the distance between them called
based line serving as the base to measure and plot the other locations:
1. 2 points A and B are selected from which the rest of the stations can be seen.
2. Set up and level the plane table at A and mark it as a in the paper to coincide with A on the
ground.
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3. Sight B, C, D and E with the Alidade from a and draw rays which forwards them.
4. Measure AB, AC, AD and AE and using appropriate scale draw the corresponding paper
distance.
5. Remove the equipment from A to B and repeat the procedure using B as the measuring
station.
TRAVERSING METHOD
This is similar to that of Compass Survey or Transit Traversing. It is used for running survey lines
between stations, which have been previously fixed by other methods of survey, to locate the
topographic details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads, rivers, etc.

Figure: Plane Tabling using Traversing Method

Resection:Resection is the process of determining the plotted position of the station occupied by the
plane table, by means of sights taken towards known points, locations of which have been
plotted.
The method consists in drawing two rays to the two points of known location on the plan after
the table has been oriented. The rays drawn from the un-plotted location of the station to the
points of known location are called resectors, the intersection of which gives the required
location of the instrument stations. If the table is not correctly oriented at the station to be
63

located on the map, the intersection of the two resectors will not give the correct location of
the station. The problem, therefore, lies in orienting table at the stations and can be solved by
the following four methods of orientation.
(i) Resection after orientation by compass.
(ii) Resection after orientation by back sighting.
(iii) Resection after orientation by three point problem.
(iv) Resection after orientation by two-point problem.
(i) Resection after orientation by compass:The method is utilized only for small scale or rough mapping for which the relatively large
errors due to orienting with the compass needle would not impair the usefulness of the map.
The method is as follows:
1. Let C be the instrument station to be located on the plan. Let A and B be two visible
stations which have been plotted on the sheet as a and b. set the table at c and orient it
with compass. Clamp the table.
2. Pivoting the alidade about a, draw a resector (ray) towards A; similarly, sight B from b
and draw a resector. The intersection of the two resectors will give C, the required point.
(ii) Resection after orientation by back sighting:If the table can be oriented by back sighting along a previously plotted back sight line, the
station can be located by the intersection of the back sight line and the resector drawn through
another known point. The method is as follows:
1. Let C be the station to be located on the plan and A and B be two visible points which
have been plotted on the sheet as a and b. Set the table at A and orient it by back sighting
B along ab.
2. Pivoting the alidade at a. sight C and draw a ray. Estimate roughly the position of C on this
ray as C1.
3. Shift the table to C and centre it approximately with respect to C1. Keep the alidade on the
line c1a and orient the table by back sight to A, Clamp the table which has been oriented.
4. Pivoting the alidade about b, sight B and draw the resector bB to intersect the ray c1a in
C. Thus, C is the location of the instrument station.
The Three-Point Problem:
Statement:Location of the position, on the plan of the station occupied by the plane table by means of
observations to three well-defined points whose positions have been previously plotted on the
plan. The following are some of the important methods available for the solution of the
problem.
(a) Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper Method)
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(b) Graphical Method

(c) Lehmanns Method (Trial and Error Method)
(a) Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper method)
The method involves the use of a tracing paper and is, therefore also known as tracing paper
method.

Procedure:
Let A, B, C be the known points and a, b, c be their plotted positions. Let P be the position of
the instrument station to be located on the map.
(1) Set the table on P. Orient the table approximately with eye so that ab is parallel to AB.
(2) Fix a tracing paper on the sheet and mark on it P as the approximately location of P with
the help of plumbing fork.
(3) Pivoting the alidade at P, sight A, B, C in turn and draw the corresponding lines Pa, Pb
and Pc on the tracing paper. These lines will not pass through a, b and c as the orientation is
approximate.
(4) Loose the tracing paper and rotate it on the drawing paper in such a way that the lines pa,
pb and pc pass through a, b and c respectively. Transfer p on to the sheet and represent it as
p. Remove the tracing paper and join pa, pb and pc.
65

(5) Keep the alidade on pa. The line of sight will not pass through A as the orientation has not
yet been corrected. To correct the orientation, loose the clamp and rotate the plane table so
that the line of sight passes through A. Clamp the table. The table is thus oriented.
(6) To test the orientation, keep the alidade along pb. If the orientation is correct, the line of
sight will pass through B. similarly, the line of sight will pass through C when the alidade is
kept on pc.
Lehmanns Method:This is the easiest and quickest solution. The principles of the method are as follows:
(a) When the board is properly oriented and the alidade sighted to each control signals A, B and
C, rays drawn from their respective signals will interest at a unique point.
(b) When rays are drawn from control signals, the angles of their intersections are true angles
whether or not the board is properly oriented.
Procedure:1. Set the table over new station p and approximately orient it.
2. With alidade on a sight A, similarly sight B and C. The three rays Aa, Bb and Cc will meet at a
point if the orientation is correct. Usually, however, they will not meet but will form a small
triangle known as the triangle of error.
3. To reduce the triangle of error to zero, another point p is chosen as per Lehmanns rule.
4. Keep the alidade along pa and rotate the table to sight A. Clamp the table. This will give next
approximate orientation (but more accurate than the previous one).
Then sight B with alidade at b and C with alidade at c. The rays will again form a triangle of
error but much smaller.
5. The method has to be repeated till the triangle of error reduces to zero.
Lehmanns Rules:There are three rules to help in proper choice of the point p.
1. If the plane table is set up in the triangle formed by the three points (i.e. p lies within the
triangle ABC) then the position of the instrument on the plan will be inside the triangle of error,
if not it will be outside.
2. The point P should be so chosen that its distance from the rays Aa, Bb and Cc is proportional
to the distance of p from A, B and C respectively. Since the rotation of the table must have the
same effect on each ray.
3. The point p should be so chosen that it lies either to the right of all three rays or to the left
of all three rays, since the table is rotated in one direction to locate P.
Referring to the figure below:
66

By rule 1 p is outside the small triangle as p is outside the triangle ABC.

By rule 2, using the proportions for the perpendiculars given by scaling the distances PA, PB and
PC, it must be in the left hand sector as shown.
By rule 3, it cannot be in either of the sectors contained by the rays PA, PB and PC.

Indeterminate solution if point occupied at the circum circle of the three control points:Alternative Graphical Solution:(1) Draw a line ae perpendicular to ab at a. Keep the alidade a long ea and rotate the plane
Table till A is bisected. Clamp the table with b as centre, direct the alidade to sight B and
draw the ray be to cut ae in e Fig 28.1 (a)
67

(2) Similarly, draw cf perpendicular to bc at c. Keep the alidade along FC and rotate the
plane table till c is bisected clamp the table. With b as centre, direct the alidade to sight B
and draw the ray bf to cut cf in F Fig 28.1( b)
(3) Join e and F. Using a set sequre, draw bp perpendicular to ef. Then p represents on
the plane the position p of the table on the ground.
(4) To orient the table, keep the alidade along pb rotate the plane table till B is bisected. To
check the orientation draw rays aA, cC both of which should pass through p as shown in Fig.
28.1 (c).

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Graphical Method :There are several graphical methods available, but the method given by Bessel is more suitable
and is described first.
Bessels Graphical Solution :(1) After having set the table at station P, keep the alidade on ba and rotate the table so that
A is bisected. Clamp the table.
(2) Pivoting the alidade about b, sight to C and draw the ray xy along the edge of the
alidade. [Fig28.2 (a)]
(3) Keep the alidade along ab and rotate the table till B is bisected clamp the table.
(4) Pivoting the alidade about a, sight to C. Draw the ray along the edge of the alidade to
interest the ray xy in cf. *Fig 28.2 (b)+ Join cc.
(5) Keep the alidade along cc and rotate the table till C is bisected. Clamp the table. The table
is correctly oriented [Fig 28.2 (c)].
(6) Pivoting the alidade about b, sight to B. Draw the ray to intersect cc in p. Similarly, if
alidade is pivoted about a and A is sighted, the ray will pass through p if the work is
accurate.

69

70

The points a, b, c and p form a quadrilateral and all the four points lie along the circumference
of a circle. Hence, this method is known as Bessels method of Inscribed Quadrilateral.
In the first four steps, the sightings for orientation was done through a and b and rays were
drawn, through c. However, any two points may be used for sighting and the rays drawn
towards the third point, which is then sighted in steps 5 and 6.
Two Point Problem:Statement:Location of the position on the plan of the station occupied by the plane table by means of
observation to two well defined points whose positions have been previously plotted on the
plan.
Let us take two points A and B, the plotted positions of which are known. Let C be the point
to be plotted. The whole problem is to orient the table at C.
Procedure: (Refer below Fig 29.)
(1) Choose an auxiliary point D near C, to assist the orientation at C. set the table at D in
such a way that ab is approximately parallel to AB (either by compass or by eye judgment)
clamp the table.

71

(2) Keep the alidade at a and sight A. Draw the resector. Similarly draw a resector from b
and B to intersect the previous one ind. The position ofd is thus got, the degree of accuracy
of which depends upon the approximation that has been made in keeping ab parallel to AB.
Transfer the point d to the ground and drive a peg.

Fig Two point problem

(3) Keep the alidade at d and sight C. Draw the ray. Mark a point c1 on the ray by estimation
to represent the distance DC.
(4) Shift the table to C, orient it (tentatively) by taking backside to D and centre it with
reference to c1. The orientation is, thus the same as it was at D.
(5) Keep the alidade pivoted at a and sight it to A. Draw the ray to interest with the
previously drawn ray from D in c. thus, c is the point representing the station C1 with
reference to the approximate orientation made at D.
(6) Pivoting the alidade about c, sight B. Draw the ray to intersect with the ray drawn from D
to B in b. Thus b is the approximate representation of B with respect to the orientation
made at D.
(7) The angle between ab and ab is the error in orientation and must be corrected for. So that
ab and ab may coincide (or may become parallel) keep a pole P in line with ab and at a great
distance. Keeping the alidade along ab, rotate the table till P is bisected. Clamp the table. The
table is thus correctly oriented.
72

(8) After having oriented the table as above, draw a resector from a to A and another from
b to B, the intersection of which will give the position C occupied by the table.
It is to be noted here that unless the point P is chosen infinitely distant, ab and ab cannot be
made parallel since the distance of p from C is limited due to other considerations two-point
problem does not give much accurate results. At the same time, more labour is involved
because the table is also to be set on one more station to assist the orientation.

PROCEDURE FOR PLANE TABLING SURVEYING

73

Select a survey station

Once you have had a good look at the site, you will select a position for your survey station
from which you have a line of site to as many of the main points as possible. It is particularly
important to be able to see corners and places where a feature has a change in direction. Set
up the tripod legs over your selected survey station.
Prepare the drawing board
A piece of polyester drafting film is taped onto the drawing board with masking tape. The
corners are taped first with the film pulled tight, and then the edges fixed onto the tripod.
Orient the drawing board
When drawing a building you would orientate the long side of the board so that it is parallel to
the long axis of the building. If possible, for a site plan, you would oriented the board so that
north is up the page. For all plans it is important to check that the whole site is t on the board at
your chosen scale. A pin is positioned into the board to give a fixed point from which
observations and measurements can be taken.
The pin marks the position of your survey station on the board. Once the survey has
commenced the plane table should not be moved.
Carry out the survey
The alidade is placed against the pin and used to observe in turn, selected points. Rays are
drawn on the film and measurements between the points are taken with a 30m tape. The
measurement is written onto the drawn ray as a record. Subsequently, each point is plotted
along the ray at the selected scale, with a scale rule. Observations and measurements are taken
to as many points as required to allow the shape to be recorded. These plotted points create an
accurate framework around which the rest of the plan can be constructed. This method is most
useful for plans of single buildings or small sites within a radius of 30m from the plane table.
Larger sites
For larger sites multiple stations will be required. The second station must be plotted accurately
onto the plan from the first station and marked on the ground. It must lie within 30m of the
first station.
Equipment required for a plane table and alidade survey:
- Plane table,
- tripod legs,
- alidade,
- spirit level,
- 30m tape,
- polyester drafting film,
- hi-polymer 6H
- pencil,
- masking tape,
- pin, scale ruler
74

compass,
Ranging
rod for sighting,
plumb bob

TOPIC 9: THEODOLITE SURVEYING

Introduction
Theodolite is an angle measuring instrument used in surveying both vertical and horizontal
angles is measured using the theodolite. Theodolite are an important and accurate instruments
which are used in prolonging a line laying of pipelines and road networks in locating the
foundation points finding out differences in heights e.t.c
A theodolite basically consists of :
a. Telescope: Helps in bisecting the far of objects. Its an integral part of the theodolite.
b. Vertical circle: Has a vertical scale useful in vertical angle measurements circular graduated
are attached to the traction on telescope.
c. Horizontal plate: They support the telescope vertical circle and A. frame. They have
horizontal scale which helps in horizontal angle measurements.
d. Head and foot plate: These are the support plates on which the horizontal plate is made to
rest between head and foot plate, there are 3 foot screws which help in leveling the
instruments.
Axis of Theodolite:
Following are the major axes present in theodolite:
1. Horizontal/ trunion axis: It is an axis parsing though the centre of vertical circle and A. frame.
Telescope is supported and rotated about this axis in the vertical place.
2. Vertical axis: Its an axis passing through the centre of the level plates. Instrument is rotated
about this axis in the horizontal place.\
3. Axis of collimation: It is an axis passing through the centre of cross hair of the eyepiece of the
and the objective. This should run along the centre of the telescope tube.
4. Axis of plate level: It is an axis passing tangentially to the bubble of the spirit tube of the
horizontal plate, when the instrument is leveled.
Technical Terms
Centering: Its a process of placing the instrument over the identified point on the ground when
the instrument is centered the vertical axis should pass through the ground point about which
the instrument is centered.
75

Transiting/Plunging: Its a process of rotating the telescope about horizontal axis along the
vertical plane through 1800.
Face: It is a condition that tells informs the side or position of the vertical circle to the observer
Face left: If the vertical circle is to the left of the observer it is called face left observation
Face right: Its a condition when the vertical circle is to the light of the observer
Swing: It is a direction of rotation of the instrument about vertical axis in the horizontal plane
When the instrument is rotated in the clockwise direction it is called right swing. When the
instrument is rotated in the anticlockwise direction it is called left swing.
Temporary Adjustment: Before the instrument is put to field usage certain adjustments one to
be carried out so that the instrument is ready.
Fixing & Centering: It is an adjustment in which the instrument is attached to the tripod stand
and then placed exactly over the identified ground point.
Levelling: It is a stage of adjustment in which the instrument in made level w.r.t the mean
ground at the station.
1. The 3 foot screens are brought to the certain of their run
2. By adjusting the legs the head plate is made horizontal by eye judgment
3. The plate level is brought parallel to any of the two foot screens and the corresponding foot
screens are turned inwards or outwards simultaneously till the bubble is in the center of the
run
4. Plate level is turned perpendicular to its earlier position and the 3rd foot screen is turned
inwards or outwards till the bubble comes to the centre.
5. The steps 3 & 4 are repeated till the bubble is at the centre for any direction
Elimination of Parallax:
It is an adjustment in which the image of the bisected object is made to fall on the plane of
cross hair. It is done through the following steps:
1. Looking through the eyepiece lye piece is turned clockwise or anticlockwise till the cross hairs
are seen dark.
2. Telescope is turned to a far off object and looking through the eye piece the focusing screen
is turned till the clean image of the object is seen.
Measurement of Angles: Angle is a deviation between 2 objects measured with reference to a
point and expressed in degrees minutes and seconds. Using theodolite both horizontal and
vertical angles can be measured. Horizontal angles are measured and observed w.r.t horizontal
plate scale Horizontal plate scale in marked from zero to 360o. It consists of main scale and
vermin scale. Vernier scale is attached to upper plate and its movement is controlled by upper
clamp screw (U C S) Main scale is attached to lower plate and its movement is controlled
through lower clamp screw (LCS) The value of each big division in a main scale is 1 which is
76

divided into 3 parts there by value of each small division is 200 In version scale each big division
is 1 and is divided into 3 parts there by the smallest division = 20 (20second). There 20 is
the LC (least count) of theodolite.
General procedure for Angular Measurements
1. Both UCS & LCS are released Upper & lower plates are turned mutually till O of the version
co-insides with O (Zero) of the main scale.
2. The clamp screws are locked and lower tangential screw is used for accurate matching.
3. Releasing LCS instrument is turned towards the reference point P till accurate bisection is
made now the reading in the scale will be 00 0 0.

4. Releasing UCS the second object (Q) is bisected accurately and UCS is clamped.
5. The reading on the scale A & B is observed and entered.
In scale A complete reading is noted down i.e. M.S 1770 20 V.S - 9 40 1770 29 40 In scale
B only minutes and seconds are observed i.e, M.S -20 10 40 30 40
The true angle PRQ in the mean of scale A and scale B.
Horizontal angle measurement: Horizontal angles are measured in 2 methods
A) Method of repetition:
It is a method in which the angle between 2 points on objects in measured repeatedly
for n no. of times, in different formats the actual angle in each format will be.
The method is adopted
i) When there are few objects between which angle is required
ii) Very accurate value of the angle is required.

Q
77

Procedure:
1. Instrument is fixed and centered at R (the reference point)
2. Releasing UCS and LCS the horizontal plate reading is made 00 0 0 the clamp screws are
tightened.
3. Releasing UCS the telescope is turned to Q and UCS is clamped.
4. With Upper tangential screw bisection of point is made.
5. The reading of scale A and scale B are interred in the corresponding column of the tabular
column.
This completes 1st repetition.
6. Releasing LCS the telescope in turned back to of P LCS is clamped after bisection with this
the same reading which was at Q now will be at P.
7. The above procedure listed in step 3 and 4 is repeated to the required No. of repetitions
The accurate angle PRQ will be equal to the final reading/No. of repetitions
B) Method of Reiteration:-

The method is adopted when

78

(i) There are lot of objects b/w which we need the horizontal angle
(ii) When objects are spread all around the reference pt.
(iii) When it is necessary to check the adjustment or accuracy of the instrument.

Procedure:
1. Instrument is fixed and centered at the reference point or about the reference point O all
the temporary adjustments am ode Releasing UCS and LCS horizontal scale reading is made to
read o.00 and stoutly pt in bisected UCS + LCS a locked.
2. Releasing UCS each and every object is bisected in sequence and champed after every
bisection.
3. Scale A and scale B readings for each object bisections is observed and entered in the tabular
column.
4. The angle b/w any 2 objects is obtained by subtracted the reading observed at the 1st object
from reading observed at the next object.
5. Finally after the last point bisection the telescope should to be brought back to the startle
point to check 0.00.
Vertical angle measurements: The deviation of objects in the vertical plane will give the vertical
angle. Vertical angles are measured with respect to horizontal LOS which is taken as the
reference when the bisected objects are above the line of sight (los), vertical angle is called
Angle of elevation. When the bisected object is below the los vertical angle is called Angle of
depression Vertical angles are measured with the help of scale C and scale D which are on the
vertical circle or vertical plate. The marking are 00 to 900 an either side of 0 marking in vertical
circle main scale is attached to the telescope and hence it is movable. The vernier is attached to
the vertical plate and is fixed.
General Procedure:
1. Instrument is adjusted for temporary adjustment. But the leveling is done w.r.t the attitude
bubble only

2. Releasing the vertical clamp screw (VCS) telescope is turned till 0 of the main scale is in line
with 0 of the version and it is clamped.
3. Releasing the VCS, telescope is turned above or below the horizontal line of sight (los)
depending on the position of the object.
79

4. UCS in clamped and accurate bisection is made using vertical tangential screw.
5. The obtained ladings on the scale C & D are observed and entered in tabular Colum.
6. Angle of elevation are marked with +ve sign and angle of depression are signed a negative
sign
Eg: + 180 25 30 - 400 30 20 prolonging a Line: Prolonging a line is an important
supplementary work carried out by theodolite.
a) When theodolite is in adjustment:
This procedure helps in continuing a line during base line measurement in laying out pipe line
or roadway, setting out curves e.t.c the work is accurate and is faster.
Procedure:
1. Let AB be the line to be prolonged
2. Instrument is placed at pt B with all temporary adjustments
3. Releasing the UCS and LCS telescope is turned about the vertical axis till the peg or arrow at
pt A is bisected then the plate ensues i.e (UCS & LCS) are clamped.
4. Telescope is plunged there by line of sight shifts after B in line with AB.
5. Telescope is now rotated to bisect the tip of the ranging rod at a convenient distance. This
gives point C.
6. Now again the instrument is shifted to point C and the procedure in step 3 & 4 us repeated to
get further pints D,E,F etc and hence the line is prolonged.

b) When the theodolite is not in adjustment (Poor adjustment)

This method is adopted when the instrument is not in adjustment.
Procedure:
1. Let AB be the line which is to be continued on prolonged.
2. Instrument is centered about point B with all temporary adjustments.
3. The arrow kept at A is bisected and the horizontal plate is clamped
4. Telescope is transited and a pt C on other side of B is bisected. Releasing the horizontal plate,
pt A is again bisected by swinging the telescope and the horizontal plate is clamped
5. Transiting the telescope to bisect the earlier pt C, when we dont get C we bisect another
point C in the same line (Now instrument is said to be not in adjustment.
80

6. Distance C C is measured pt. C is obtained by measuring distance CC or C C = CC/2

7. Instrument is now shifted to point C which is in line with AB and the above procedure from
step 2 to 5 is repeated.
Permanent Adjustments of Theodolite & Dumpy Level Introduction:
Permanent adjustments are those which are carried out during or while manufacturing the
instrument. These adjustments are done so as to maintain the proper relationship between the
various fundamental axes of an instrument. Unlike temporary adjustments. These are to be
carried out at regular intervals periodically like once in a month a once in a year etc
Fundamental Axes of Theodolite: Following are the basic fundamental axes in a theodolite
1. Vertical axis
2. Horizontal axis
3. Axis of collimation
4. Axis of plate bubble/ level
5. Axis of Altitude bubble /level
Following are the desired relationship b/w the various axes for the proper functioning of
theodolite.
1. Plate level axis must be perpendicular to vertical axis: If this relation does not exist vertical
axis will not be truly vertical and hence we get error in centering of the instrument which gives
a very wrong observed value.
2. Horizontal axis must be perpendicular to vertical axis: This is essential to get accurate
horizontal angle measurements in any face.
3. Horizontal axis shall be perpendicular to axis of collimation (AOC): This is important while
prolonging a line or to eliminate the index error in the vertical circle.
4. Altitude bubble shall be parallel to axis of collimation (AOC): This relationship will reduce the
index error in the vertical forms as well as in getting concurrent values in different face
readings.
Permanent adjustments: Adjusting plate level axis: Aim: To get the plate level axis to be
perpendicular to vertical axis Necessity: To get proper and concurrent staff readings in different
face readings. To get the exact centering during angle measurements. Procedure:
1. Instrument is set with all temporary adjustments on a fairly level grand
2. A level staff kept approximately at a distance of 10m is bisected
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3. The level staff reading as well as the vertical circle reading in observed
Telescope is transited and then releasing the horizontal plate, theodolite is notated back
toward the staff
4. With the same vertical circle reading staff reading in observed.
5. It is the same reading as that of the first, instrument is in adjustment if not adjustment has to
be carried out.
Adjusting the Plate Level
1. The plate level is leveled with two foot screws and it is turned by 900 and is leveled again
using 3rd foot screw.
2. The plate level is brought back to initial position deviation of the bubble tube from the center
is observed.
3. Half the deviation is corrected using the foot screws and the other half deviation is corrected
by turning the screw of the bubble tube (Clip screw & nearer to altitude bubble))
4. The steps 1 to 3 is repeated till the bubble is in the center for all directions.
Adjusting the line of collimation (A.O.C must be perpendicular to HA + VA) Aim: To make
A.O.C or LOC pass through optical axis (axis joining centre of eye piece) By doing this axis of
collimation will be perpendicular to both vertical axis and horizontal axis Necessity: If A.O.C
coincides with optical axis, the face left and face right readings do not differ. This helps in
getting accurate horizontal vertical angle as well as in prolonging a line. AOC may not coincide
with optical axis if either horizontal cross main is moved up or down or vertical cross hair might
have moved left on right from their respective positions. Corrections / Adjustments Looking
through the telescope in the last position the horizontal cross hair is moved using capstans
screw on the telescope. Horizontal cross hair is moved till the mean of the two readings in
bisected. Testing and adjusting vertical cross hair
(i) Instrument is set at a convenient point O with all temporary adjustments such that we have
about 10m of level ground on either side
(ii) Pt. A on one side of the instrument is bisected with horizontal plates clamped
(iii) Telescope is transited to get point B on the other side
(iv) Releasing the horizontal plate telescope is rotated and point A is bisected again
(v) Transiting the telescope with change of face we try to bisect point B

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(vi) If B is bisected instrument is said to be in adjustment or else another Pt C is established in

line with B now the instrument needs to be adjusted
Connection or Adjustment
i. A point D on the ground is marked such that distance CD in 1/4th of CB
ii. Looking through telescope the trunion screw in the vertical A-frame is tuned till pt D is
bisected & connection
iii. The testing is repeated again till the same point is bisected
Adjusting the horizontal axis (Spire Test): Aim: Horizontal axis perpendicular to V.A Necessity:
If the horizontal axis is not prospered to V.A when the telescope is transited we do not get the
vertical plane but it will be scant thus during prolonging a line or while transferring foundation
points we do not get the designed straightness. Testing:
1. Instrument is established nears to high rised object like transmission town or multistoried
building with all temporary adjustments.
2. Top of the object is bisected and horizontal plate is clamped. Telescope is rotated down to
get a point on the ground mares to the station pt.(B)
3. Telescope is made to transit & the instrument swing back to bisect B again
4. Clamping the horizontal plate telescope is lifted up to bisect earlier point A if bisected
instrument is said to be another pt.C is noted and in adjustment if not corrections has to be
applied.
Rectification or Adjustments:
1) Looking through the telescope in the last stage trunion screw of the vertical frame is released
and the telescope is physically adjusted till the midpoint of AC is bisected.
2) The tasting procedure is repeated again with the corrections applied at the end of tartly till
point A is bisected. When telescope is transited in the different face.\
Adjustment of Altitude bubble: Aim: To make A.O.C llle TO Altitude bubble. When the altitude
bubble in leveled the axis passing through that should be parallel to the axis of collimation the
right should be truly property vertical axis. If this relation does not exist there will be error in
measurement of vertical angles Necessity: To get proper vertical angle we need the altitude
bubble axis to be parallel to axis of collimation.
Testing:
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1. Instrument is established at a convenient point on a level grand with all temporary

adjustments.
2. Instrument is leveled with respect to the foot screws.
3. Altitude bubble is leveled with a help of clip screw of the altitude bubble
4. Reading on a staff kept at about 100m is observed
5. Instrument is rotated about vertical axis and transited back , altitude bubble is checked again
and leveled if required
6. Reading on the staff is observed. If it is the same reading instrument is said to be in
adjustment if not correction has to be made.
Correction or Adjustments
1. The mean value of the two staff reading s is bisected by vertical tangential screw.
2. Releasing the capstan screw of the vertical plate venires is moved to coincide with O of the
main scale.
3. Testing is repeated to check the correctness.
ADJUSTMENTS OF DUMPY LEVEL Fundamental axis / line
Collimation axis / axis of line of sight
Vertical axis
Axis of bubble tube
Desired relation
i. Collimation axis perpendicular to axis of bubble tube
ii. Axis of bubble tube perpendicular to vertical axis
iii. Vertical axis perpendicular to horizontal cross hair
Relation: Dumpy level is again a precise instrument which helps in finding out the elevation for
heights of different points these levels are useful in calculation the volume of earthwork, or in
understanding the profile of the ground. Hence the permanent adjustments need to be
properly. This can be maintained by keeping the desired relations between various axes in place
Following are the fundamental axes in dumpy level: Collimation axis / axis of line of sight
Vertical axis Axis of bubble tube These fundamental axis should be in a desired relations among
themselves they are
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1. Collimation axis parallel to axis of bubble tube:

2. Axis of bubble tube should be perpendicular to vertical axis
3. Horizontal cross hair should be in a plane perpendicular to vertical axis
Collimation axis parallel to Axis of bubble tube: Aim: Collimation axis should be parallel to axis
of bubble tube Necessity: Only if axis of collimation is parallel to axis of bubble once the
instrument is leveled we get horizontal line of sight through telescope this is an important
aspect as the entire principle of leveling depends on horizontal line of sight. Testing: Two peg
tests adopted to rectify the collimation axis
1. Two level staffs are kept at 100m apart on a level ground say at A & B
2. Dumpy level to be tested in placed closed to staff A and reading on staff B is taken as ha &
hb. The difference in elevation between A and B is having which is partially correct \
3. Instrument is shifted and placed very close to staff B, such that telescope is in contact with
level staff
4. The staff readings on B and A are taken as ha and hb, the true difference between A and B
is obtained as ha ~ hb which is partially correct.
5. The actual difference in elevation between A and B is calculated as
(ha ~ hb) + (ha ~ hb) 2
6. If the difference in elevation obtained when instrument is at P is equal to difference in
elevation when the instrument in at Q instrument is said to be in adjustment. If not correction
has to be applied.
Correction/Adjustments
1) With the calculated the difference in elevation the correct staff reading at B is calculated as
Reading at A correct difference in elevation = Reading at B
2) Releasing the capstans screw on the today of the telescope and looking through the eye
piece diaphragm is moved till the calculated ready on staff B is bisected keeping instrument at
B.
Vertical axis perpendicular to bubble tube axis Aim: To make the bubble tube axis truly
perpendicular to the vertical axis Necessity: If the bubble tube axis is perpendicular to vertical
axis the true verticality of the instrument in maintained. Or else the telescope will not given the
horizontal line of sight Testing:
1) Instrument is placed on a level ground and is leveled in 2 positions of telescope
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2) When the telescope is in the second position above the third foot screw telescope is rotated
through 1800.

3) If the bubble in still in the center the instrument is said to be in adjustment, If not
rectification has to be done.
Rectification:
1) The no. of divisions by which bubble has moved is observed
2) Bubble is brought back by half the distance with the help of foot screw.
3) Remaining half the distance is rectified by releasing of adjusting the clip screw of the bubble
tube.
Horizontal cross hair should be in a plane perpendicular to vertical axis Aim: To make
horizontal cross hair perpendicular to vertical axis of the instrument. Necessity: If the relation
do not exists while finding out same RL points we will not be getting the same RL but points
having higher or lower RL points Also while calculating volume of earth work in longitudinal
retinoic we end up in calculating wrong values. Testing:
1. Instrument is set on a level ground with all temporary adjustments.
2. A sharp object is bisected at one end of the telescope (Right of the view or left of the view)
3. Observing through the eyepiece telescope is turned slowly so that object comes to the other
side of the view.
4. If image of the object moves along the H.A., the instrument is said to be in adjustment; if not
corrections has to be made.
Rectification:
1. Releasing the capstan screw of the telescope the objective is turned so that the horizontal
cross hair in approximately horizontal.
2. Testing is again repeated to check the adjustment.
Errors in Theodolite survey Following the sources that cause error in theodolite survey.
Instrumental errors
Personal errors
Natural errors

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1) Instrumental errors: This is due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument structural defects
in the instrument and imperfections due to wear Errors due to imperfect adjustment
i. Plate level axis not being perpendicular to ventricle axis
Due to this imperfectness, the vertical axis of the instrument will not be truly vertical and in the
centering of the instrument, we get error due to which wrong reading will be observed.
ii. Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis
Due to this, accurate horizontal angle measurement cannot be achieved and the vertical plane
will be slant when the telescope is transacted and hence do not get desired straightness.
iii. Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to axis of collimation:
Due to this error there will be index error in the vertical circle & prolonging a line will not be
easy and also if AOC is perpendicular to both HA+Va, We get correct and accurate horizontal &
vertical angles.
iv. Error due to AOC not being parallel to Altitude bubble.
If this error occurs there will be error in vertical angle measurement.
v. Error due to imperfect graduations index error
Sometimes there will be error in readings etched i.e adulations between the graduations due to
this error can be eliminated by taking the mean of the several readings distributed over
different portions of the graduated circle.

vi. Error due to eccentricity of vernier:

Due to this the difference between the two vernier readings will not be 1800 but there will be a
constant difference of other than 1800
2) Personal errors:
a. Error in manipulation
b. Errors in sighting & reading
a. Error in manipulation
i. Inaccurate centering: If the vertical axis of the instrument is not exactly over the station mark
the observed angles will either be greater smaller
ii. Inaccurate leveling: This is due to non-adjustment of plate levels. Due to this error, we do not
get correct reading when observing difference in elevation.
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iii. Slip: The error is due to the improper clamping of LCS or shifting head is loose on if the
instrument is not finely tightened on tripod head. Due to this error we get incorrect
observations.
iv. Error due to wrong manipulation of tangent screw
Using lower tangent screw for foresight and using upon tangent screw for back sight, which is
incorrect.
b. Error is sighting & Reading
i. Inaccurate bisection of points observed: The observed angles will be incorrect if the station
mark is not bisected accurately
ii. Parallax error: Accurate bisection is not possible, due to parallax. It can eliminate by focusing
the eyepiece & objective.
iii. Mistakes in setting the venire taking the reading and wrong booking of the readings.

c. Natural errors:
i. Unequal atmospheric reflection due to high temperature.
ii. Unequal expansion of parts of telescope and circles due to temperature changes.
iii. Unequal settlement of tripod.
iv. Wind producing vibrations
Trigonometric Levelling
Trigonometrical relations
Along with theodolite we use trigonometrical relations
To fill levels/height of objects
This survey is also called is Indirect leveling
Here, the height or elevations of objects which are must above the line of sight are calculated.
The vertical angle to the top of the object and the distance between instrument and base of the
object is collected in the field. These data are substituted in trigonometrical relations like sine,
cosine, tan e.t.c. to get the required height of the object.
To determine the height / elevation of the object.
A. When the base of the object is accessible
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Data collected: 0 Vertical angle to the top of object Horizontal distance between inst.
St and base of the object D mt.
Calculation: Elevation of top of lower= HI(P)+h In triangle ABC, tan = BC / AC = h / D h = D tan
And HIP = BM + BS This is a condition where, base of the object whose height is required in
accessible. Following procedure is adopted to determine the height of the object. Procedure:
1. Theodolite is set at a convenient position with all temporary adjustments so that the object is
visible.
2. The top of the object is bisected and the vertical angle is observed
3. The horizontal distance between the inst. St and base of the object is measured accurately.
4. With the telescope in horizontal position, staff reading on a Bm is observed (by taking BS)
5. The collected data are used to determine the elevation of the tower or object as shown in
calculations
B. When the base of the object is Inaccessible (single plane method)
i. When the perpendicular inst. Is at a lower level than 2nd inst. St Data collected: Instrument at
A O1 Vertical angle to top of object/tower S1 Staff reading on BM Inst. At B
O2 Vertical angle to top of object/tower
S2 staff reading on BM b Horizontal distance between st A and st B

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Calculation: RL of tower or height of tower = HIA + h1 h1 = D tan 1 ----------- (1) h2 = (b + D) tan

2 ---------- (2) (2) (1) D = *S + b tan 2+ / *tan 1 - tan 2+ This is a condition when the object
whose height is required will be in a thick forest on mid of a pond and we cannot reach the
base of the object. In such case, we take the help of the data collected from 2 inst. Stations and
calculate the height of the object. Procedure
1. Let Q be the top of the lower whose height of is required
2. Instrument is set at a convenient point with all temporary adjustments.
3. Bisecting the tip, the vertical angle to the object and staff reading on the BM is observed as
Q1 and S1 respectively.
4. When the top of the object is bisected horizontal plates are clamped
5. Telescope is transited and a ground point B for the second instrument station is bisected.
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6. Instrument is shifted and centered over B.

7. With all temporary adjustments vertical angle Q2 to the top of the object and staff reading
with telescope horizontal on BM as S2 are observed.
8. These datas are utilized to find the height of the object as shown in the calculations.
Data Collected: Inst. At A : Q1 vertical angle to top of the lower h1-ht of top of tower above
LOS. Inst At B : Q2 vertical angle to top of lower h2 ht of top of lower above LOS
b- Distance between 1st and 2nd inst
Calculation: h1 = D tan 1 h2 = (D + b) tan 2 But h1- h2 S1- S2 = S (D + b) tan 2 D tan
1 = h1- h2 =S D (tan 2- tan 1) + b tan 2 = S D = (S b tan 2) / (tan 2 tan 1)
Substituting D is h1 we get H1 = (S b tan 2) tan 1 / (tan 2 tan 1) R.L of top of
tower = S1 + BM + h1 (Procedure same as previous) To determine the height of an
object when the base is inaccessible (Double plane method) When the object is much
more above 4m. Calculation: RLp = BM + S1 + h1 In le SPQ, tan 1 = h1 / D h1 = D tan
1 In le ABC , by sine rule, we have D = *d sin 2+ / *sin (180 (1 + 2))+
Data collected: At instrument station A, 1 is the vertical angle to the top of the tower or
object. = horizontal angle measured between the line joining the object and first. Station to
the 2nd station S1 = Staff reading to staff held on BM. D = distance from 1st st. to 2nd st. At
instrument station b 2 is the vertical angle to the top of the tower 2 is the horizontal angle
measured between instrument and 2nd station to the 1st station. The method is adopted when
2nd station cannot be established in line with 1st station & object. Procedure:
1. Theodolite is established at a convenient pt.
2. Horizontal scale is made to read 00 0 0 and the instrument is turned by releasing only
LCS. Top of the tower is bisected to take the vertical angle O
3. Releasing UCS instrument is turned to the left or to the right, ground pt B in bisected as the
2nd st.
4. Instrument is shifted and centered about B with all temporary adjustments.
5. Vertical angle to the top the horizontal angle to first station is observed
The distance between first and second instrument st. is measured as d. PROBLEMS 1) In
order to find the elevation of top of signal (Q) observations were made from 2 stations C
& D in line with the signal and 80m apart the vertical angles observed to the top of the
signal from A and B are 30045 and 16010 respectively the staff reading on the BM of
RL 178.450 is 2850 & 3.580,, observed from stations respectively what is the RL of top
and bottom of the signal if the height of the signal is 5m above its base
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Data : 1 = 30045 2 = 16010 B = 80m SC = 2.850m SD= 3.580m

Solution we have to find RLQ = HIC + h1 But h1 = Dtan 1 Here D = S+btan 2 / tan 1 tan 2 Here S = SC SD = 3.580 2650 = 0.730 B = 80m D = 78.420
Substitute D is equation 1 we get, h1 = 78.420tan30045 = 46.650m h1 = 46.650m RLQ =
(178.450+2850)+46.650 = 227.950 RLQ = 227.950m RL of top of signal = 227.950m
Now, RL of bottom of signal = 227.950 5 = 222.95m 2)To find the elevation of top of a
hill, a flag staff 3m height was erected with its top as P observations were made from2
stations A +B 50m apart. The vertical angle observed from A and B to the top of the flag
staff is 11040 and 12050 rasp the horizontal angle at A between flag staff and B is
55030 and that at B between flag staff 7 A is 60015 If height of 105 at A is 346.150m
find the elevation of top of the hill. Data: flag staff height = 3m B = 50m 1 = 110 40
2 = 120 50 HI of inst = 346.150m Solution: To find RL of top of hill = HI +h1 3.0m But
h1 = D tan From le ABC, By applying sin rule we get, h1 = 9.95m To find the elevation
of top of the will = HI + h1 -3.0 = 346.150+9.95 3 353.120m RL of top of hill =
353.120m

TOPIC 10: Tacheometric Surveying

Introduction Also called as indirect leveling to find the height of object / RL of object only with
one instrument station RL is found & is calculated. Compared to previous measuring methods
this is very fast. Tachometric surveying is a type of surveying in which we determine the height
or elevation of the objects similar to leveling work. In this method, the horizontal distance to
the object base is not measured but calculated from the observed data. Hence the method is
fast easy and convenient. Thus the method is suitable to find out the elevation sin hilly areas,
river valley, rough terrain where the distance to the object from the instrument cannot be
measured. As all the calculations depends only on observed data. The method may not be
accurate. The staff man should be able to reach the point whose elevation is required. In
tachometric surveying and instrument called tachometer is adopted this is nothing but normal
venire theodolite fitted with stadia haired. Stadia hairs are the additional cross hairs placed one
above & one below the regular horizontal cross hair. Following are the different arrangements
of stadia hairs.

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Principle of tacheometric surveying: - Tachometric equation with usual notation.

Let us take and internal focusing telescope to obtain tachometric equation. As in the fig.F is a
focal point M is a midpoint and O is a vertical axis pt for the telescope. Proof: Let AB be the two
pts bisected on a level staff. The distance between AB is S its inverted image is seen on the
diaphragm as ab the distance between ab will be i(stadia internal) i.e., (Distance between top
and bottom stadia hair) from the le AMB & AMI AB / ab = u / v -------------- (1) Here u & v are
the conjugate distances and f is the focal length distance, d is the distance between vertical axis
& midpoint. The lens formula can be used i.e 1/f = 1/u + 1/v Multiplying uf on both sides u = f +
uf / v u = (AB / ab) v Substituting values
u = f + (s/i)f
Where AB = s, ab = i But D = Horizontal distance to the object is from the vertical axis of the
inst. D = u+d Substring the value of U from (2) we get. D = (f/i) s + (f + d) Here f, i, d are
constants for a given instrument. D = Ks + C K = is the multiplication constant C = additive const.
The values of K and C are constant for a given instrument. And no two instruments will have
same constants K and C hence this constant has to be determined for a given instrument before
a survey or starts working with that instrument. Determination of constants k and C
Tachometric constants K and C are determined in the field with the following procedure.
1. Instrument is set at a convenient point on a level ground withal temporary adjustments.
2. Horizontal plate of the instrument is clamped and along the plane ground points are marked
at regular intervals from the instrument ground point.

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3. Staff is held at all the marked points say A,B,C . And the corresponding staff intercept
(Upper hair heading lower hair reading) say SA, SB, SC,.are determined.
4. Knowing the distance to each staff point form the instrument the constant K & C are
determined as shown in the calculations
We have, D1= K SA+C D2= K SB+C
D3= K Sc+C Solving above e equations Equation2 equation 1 gives D2- D1 = (KSB+C) - (KSA+C)
= KSB - KSA D2- D1 = K(SB SA) K1 = D2 D1 / SB SA K2 =D2 D1 / SC - SA K3 = D3 D2 / SC SB True value of K = (K1 + K2 + K3) / 3 In the same way values are substituted in corresponding
equations to get value of C1, C2, C3 True value of C is obtained by taking the average C = (C1 +
C2 + C3) / 3 Systems of Tacheometers / Methods of tacheometers. Tachometric surveying can
be carried out in 2 different methods on systems
a. Stadia method
b. Non-stadia method
1. Stadia method: Its a system or method in which the stadia hairs are used to calculate the
required data. This method can be done in 2 ways,
a. Fixed hair method: Here the distance between top and bottom stadia hairs which in called as
stadia interval is fixed in the instrument
The staff readings corresponding to these top and bottom hairs are taken and the staff
intercept is calculated. Thus as the staff moves away from the instrument, staff intercept is
more and as the staff comes closed staff intercept is less therefore stadia interval is constant
and the staff intercept.
b. Movable hair method: In movable hair method the distance between stadia hairs stadia
interval can be varied here, the staff intercept in kept const for this staff intercept targets are
fixed on the level staff.
Whenever the staff reading is to be taken looking through the telescope the stadia hairs are
moved, so that they coincide to the targets on the staff It is difficult to measure accurately the
stadia interval Thus; in majesty of the practical work movable hair method is not adopted and
only fixed hair method is preferred.
Tacheometric equation for inclined line of sight:

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L = Inclined distance to pt. P D = Horizontal distance O = Vertical angle to mid cross hair S =
AB, S1 = A1B1 R = distance between microns hair to bottom of level staff V = distance between
horizontal Los to mid cross hair reads. When the object are above the line of sight to get the
staff intercept the telescope will be moved up and the LOS will be inclined and hence the
regular tachometric equation D = KSW +C1 cant be adopted. Let P be the point whose
elevation is required where staff is held vertically as shown in the fig. O is the vertical angel A
and B are top and bottom cross hair readings for inclined line of sight Staff is tilted so that it is
perpendicular to line of sight and A1B1 are top and bottom cross hair readings In le AA1C O is
very small hence A1C A
cos = A1C / AC
AC = AB / 2 2A1C = AB cos 2A1C =A1B1 (C is midpoint of A1B1) A1B1 = AB cos But A1B1 = S1 &
AB = S S1 = S cos Here L is the inclined distance which can be set as L = KS1 +C Substitute for
S1, we get L = K(S cos )+C But D the horizontal distance is L cos D = Lcos D = (K(S cos )+ C)
cos D = Ks cos2 + C cos Here Sin = V/L V = L sin Put L value from 2 We get V = (K(S cos
)+C) sin = KS cos sin + Csin Elevation of point P i.e RLp RLp = HI of station + (v-r) RLp =
HI + (v-r)
If the telescope is fitted with the Anallactic lens, then the additive constant C=(f+d) in totally
eliminated or is equal to zero. The equation reduced to D = KScos 2 V = KS sin2 / 2 When the
line of sight is inclined (downwards) When the line of sight is inclined downwards as in the fig.
the distance and elevation of equation will be same. D = KScos2 V = KS sin2 / 2 At point D
= HIp v r . Tacheometric equation for distance and elevation (when the staff is held normal
to the line of sight)
a. When the LOS is normal upwards
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When the staff is held normal the staff intercept S will be normal to the inclined distance
along the inclined line of sight. Therefore we can write L = KS+C But D = the horizontal distance
between the inst. & object D = P1D1 D = P1C1 + C1D1 From the figures In le PCC1 = cos x
P1C1 / L P1C1 = Lcos & C1D1 = r sin In le CC1D1 sin = C1D1/ r Substitutes the value of L
(1) from we get D = (KScos ) +rsin or D = KS cos + Ccos +rsin For telescope with
analectic lens And, we know that. V = Lsin (KS+C) sin V = KSsin +C sin For telescope with
anallactic lens Elevation of Pt D = HI +V r cos

b. When the line of sight is normal but downwards

Here, D = P1C1 + C1D1 = Lcos - rsin D = (KS+C) cos - rsin V = Lsin = (KS+C)sin
Depression/elevation of pt D RLp = HI V - rcos Non Stadia Method of Tacheometric
Surveying Its a method of tachometric surveying in which, the help of stadia hairs is not taken
into consideration some times, during tachometric surveying, the stadia hairs night fade away
then, Non stadia method will be of help Following are the 2 methods in Non-stadia method of
tachometric surveying
1. Tangential method
2. Sub-tense bar method.
1. Tangential method: It is a tachometric surveying in which the vertical angles to the two
targets fixed on the level staff are taken then using the trigonometrically relation, the required
distance f the object and elevation of the object is calculated.
Hence the angles to the tangent can be above or below the line of sight depending on this
condition following are the 3 conditions in tangential methods
Both angles are angles of elevation (i.e, above LOS)

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1. Here 2 targets are fixed at specified distance called S on the level staff
2. Level staff is held at the point whose elevation & distance in required
3. Theodolite is established at a convenient pt with all temporary adjustments.
4. Vertical angles 1 f2 to top and bottom targets are observed.
5. The distance elevation are obtained as in the calculation.
In le PC1 A tan 1 = AC1 / PC1 = V/D V = Dtan 1 ------------------- (1) In le PC1 B tan 2 = Dtan
2 V - S= Dtan 2 --------------- (2) Equation 1 equation 2
V-V+S= Dtan 1 Dtan 2
S= D (tan 1 tan 2) V = Dtan 1 V = S tan 1 / tan 1 tan 2 RLC = Elevation of pt.C = HI
+V- S - r
Both the angles are angles of depression. Calculations: In le PC1A = tan 1 = V/D V Dtan 1
In le PC1B1 = tan 2 = V+S/D V+S= Dtan 2 Equation 2 1 V + S - V = Dtan 2 - Dtan 1 S = D
(tan 2 - Dtan 1) D = S / tan 2 - tan 1 And elevation of pt C= HI V S r
One angle is angle of elevation and the other is angle of depression Calculation: In le PEA =
tan 1 = V/D V = D tan 1 In le PEB = tan 2 = S-V/D S-V= D tan 2 Equation 2 1 V + S - V =
= D (tan 1 D tan 2) D = Stan 1 - tan 2 And elevation of pt C = HI +V S r

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