ABSTRACT

Metal detectors are fascination machines. Many of the people who

use them are just as enthusiastic about extolling the virtues of their
favorite metal detector as they are about setting off in search of buried
treasure. This is the primary means by which we determine how well we
are doing our jobs, and what sort of things we need to do better.
Sometimes though, communication is difficult.
The most commonly used metal detection technology is very low
frequency (VLF), also known as induction balance. In this type of metal
detector, there are two rings: an outer coil called the transmitter coil and
an inner coil called the receiver coil. The transmitter coil has an electric
current running through it, which creates an electromagnetic field. This
magnetic pulse interacts with any conductive object it passes over,
causing that object to create a weaker magnetic field of its own; it is this
magnetic pulse from the object that the receiver coil senses. The
receiver coil is shielded from the transmitter coil's magnetic field, but
can pick up magnetic pulses sent by other objects. The receiver coil
amplifies these frequencies and sends them to the control box for
analysis.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

A metal detector or a weapon detector is a device which responds
to metal or any metallic weapon that may not be readily
apparent. The simplest form of a metal detector consists of an
oscillator producing an alternating current that passes through a
coil producing an alternating magnetic field. If a piece of
electrically conductive metal is close to the coil, eddy currents will
be induced in the metal, and this produces an alternating
magnetic field of its own. If another coil is used to measure the
magnetic field (acting as a magnetometer), the change in the
magnetic field due to the metallic object can be detected.

1.1 Background study

Metal detectors or weapon detectors work by transmitting an
electromagnetic field from the search coil into the ground. Any
metal objects (targets) within the electromagnetic field will
become energized and retransmit an electromagnetic field of
2

their own. The detectors search coil receives the retransmitted

field and alerts the user by producing a target response. Special
metal detectors are capable of discriminating between different
target types and but this design cannot be set to ignore unwanted
targets. So any metal can be detected.

Radio Transmission and Reception

Half of a metal detector is the common radio. Metal Detection
is achieved, basically, by the transmission and reception of a
radio wave signal. The block diagram on the facing page
illustrates the basic components of a typical metal detector. The
battery is the power supply. The transmitter electronic oscillator
at the extreme left of the diagram generates a signal. The
transmitter signal current travels from the transmitter oscillator
through a wire (search coil cable), to the search coils transmitter
winding (antenna), and the transmitter antenna is a few turns of
electrical wire, generally wound in a circular fashion.

Fig 1.1 Preview of the existing system

Electromagnetic Field Generation
As the current circulates in the transmitter antenna, an invisible
electromagnetic field is generated that flows out into the air (or
other surrounding medium, i.e.: air, wood, rock, earth materials,
water, etc.) in all directions. If this electromagnetic field were
visible, it would appear to be in the shape of a gigantic, three
dimensional doughnut, with the transmitter antenna embedded in
its center. Electromagnetic field theory states that field lines
cannot cross one another. Consequently, they crowd together as
they pass through the circular antenna, but they are not crowded
on the outside. It is fortunate this crowding takes place, because
the intensity (density) of the field lines is the very phenomenon
that enables metal detection in the area adjacent to the search
4

coil to take place. In the drawing at the bottom of the next page
note the area indicated as the two dimensional detection
patterns. This is the site of maximum field crowding; it is here that
metal detection occurs as a result of two major phenomena
eddy current generation and electromagnetic field distortion.
1.2 Statement of problem
Security is one of the vital need of every man, both in homes
and offices, so metal detectors where invented to be used in
monitoring weapons and any metal weapon found on people
when entering through the entrance of the environment such
as door or gate.
1.3 Aim and objectives
The aim of this project is to design and construct a weapon or
metal detector which is used to monitor of detect metallic
objects in a hiding environment. This work also shows the
design and implementation of a locally made weapon or metal
detector and the various stages use in designing it.
1.4 Scope of the project
In this project a student should be able to illustrate the
operation metal detector or weapon system, how it can be
used for security implementation, features and requirement of

a metal detector and also can improve the workability

principals of a security system to assure security dependent.
1.5 Project limitations
a As a fast way to increase security intrusion protection
1.6 Project report organizations
Chapter one carries the introduction, aim and objective, scope of
study, limitation of the work, significance and the project report
organization of the work. Chapter two carries the literature review
of the work along with other reviews of the project. Chapter three
carries the project design methodology and steps which lead to
the construction of the project. Chapter four testing the project
design, observation and Bill of engineering. Chapter five carries
summary and conclusion.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin of the project
A metal detector or metallic weapon detector is an electronic
instrument which detects the presence of metal nearby. Metal
detectors are useful for finding metal inclusions hidden within
objects, or metal objects buried underground. They often consist
of a handheld unit with a sensor probe which can be swept over
the ground or other objects. If the sensor comes near a piece of
metal this is indicated by a changing tone in earphones, or a

needle moving on an indicator. Usually the device gives some

indication of distance; the closer the metal is, the higher the tone
in the earphone or the higher the needle goes. Another common
type are stationary "walk through" metal detectors used for
security screening at access points in prisons, courthouses, and
airports to detect concealed metal weapons on a person's body.
The simplest form of a metal detector consists of an oscillator
producing an alternating current that passes through a coil
producing an alternating magnetic field. If a piece of electrically
conductive metal is close to the coil, eddy currents will be induced
in the metal, and this produces a magnetic field of its own. If
another coil is used to measure the magnetic field (acting as a
magnetometer), the change in the magnetic field due to the
metallic object can be detected.
The first industrial metal detectors were developed in the 1960s
and were used extensively for mineral prospecting and other
industrial applications. Uses include de-mining (the detection of
land mines), the detection of weapons such as knives and guns
(especially

in

airport

security),
8

geophysical

prospecting,

archaeology and treasure hunting. Metal detectors are also used

to detect foreign bodies in food, and in the construction industry
to detect steel reinforcing bars in concrete and pipes and wires
buried in walls and floors.
2.1 Overview
The First Metal Detector Appears
Back in the mid 1800s, after the invention of electricity, many
scientists, scholars, and gold miners began experimenting with
the idea of developing a machine that could locate metal buried
underground. A device like this would be incredibly useful to the
many prospectors still looking for gold after the Gold Rush and,
as a result, could make the first person to perfect a metal
detector very, very rich.
The first metal detector mentioned in history, however, actually
has nothing to do with finding gold. Instead, it was used in an
attempt to save President James Garfield after he was shot in
Washington, D.C. on July 2, 1881, at the Baltimore and Potomac
Railroad Station by Charles J. Guiteau. The President had been
9

shot in the back, but, luckily, the wound did not kill him.
Unfortunately though, doctors couldnt locate the bullet and
Garfield continued to suffer.
One of his visitors during that time, Alexander Graham Bell, built
a metal detector specifically to try to help find this bullet, but,
sadly, his attempts were unsuccessful. It turns out the metal
springs in the bed President Garfield was lying on confused the
machine and rendered it essentially useless. President Garfield
finally died of infection from his wound September 19, 1881.
Improving the Original Metal Detector Design
Although the first metal detector didnt help save the 20th
President of the United States, the machine Alexander Graham
Bell made was a viable metal detector and it went on to be the
prototype for which all other metal detectors from that time
forward have been based. Initially, these machines were really
big, complicated, and ran on vacuum tubes. But, they were useful
and continued to rise in popularity as a result. Most importantly
these early metal detectors were used to find and clear

10

landmines, and unexploded bombs across Europe after WWI and

WWII.
At about the same time Gerhard Fisher, the founder of Fisher
Metal Detectors, made an important discovery in his work on
navigational systems. The radio beams he was using were being
distorted every time there was an ore bearing rock in the area. As
he was trying to work out the kinks in his system, he reasoned
that this type of technology on a smaller scale might be useful as
a metal detector. In 1925 Fisher was granted the patent on the
first portable metal detector and he sold his first Fisher machine
to the public in 1931.
The 1950s to Present Day Metal Detectors
Even though Fisher was granted the first patent on a metal
detector, hes just one of many who refined and perfected the
technology currently being used in your metal detector. Another
major player in the development of todays metal detectors is
Charles Garrett, the founder of Garrett Metal Detectors. An
electrical engineer by trade, Garrett started metal detecting as a
hobby in the early 1960s. After trying a variety of the machines
11

on the market he couldnt find one that was able to do all he

wanted. So he began work on his own metal detector. After much
research he was able to create a machine that eliminated
oscillator drift, as well as several unique search coils he patented
all of which essentially revolutionized metal detector design up to
that point.
Other factors that have greatly influenced the development of
metal detectors as we know them today include transistors invented in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William
Shockley - as well as discriminators, new search coil designs, and
wireless technology. All of these things and more have allowed
the metal detector to become the lightweight, portable, easy to
use, deep seeking machines we know today.
With the number of players involved both professional and
amatuer, as well as the rapid pace of technological advancement
as a whole, the future of metal detectors is anyones guess. What
can be almost guaranteed though is that metal detectors will
continue to evolve and change in order to find even more
treasure. Treasure hunters just dont quit and, as you can see by
12

the history of the metal detector up to this point, its these

passionate, inventive people whove made metal detectors the
machines they are today; and wholl continue to influence the
future of metal detecting. http://www.metaldetector.com/learn/metal-detector-history/history-ofthe-metal-detector#sthash.5m9ir5Jn.dpuf

History and development

Early metal detector, 1919, used to find unexploded bombs in

France after World War 1.
Towards the end of the 19th century, many scientists and
engineers used their growing knowledge of electrical theory in an
attempt to devise a machine which would pinpoint metal. The use
of such a device to find ore-bearing rocks would give a huge
13

advantage to any miner who employed it. Early machines were

crude, used a lot of battery power, and worked only to a very
limited degree. In 1874, Parisian inventor

Gustave Trouv

developed a hand-held device for locating and extracting metal

objects such as bullets from human patients. Inspired by Trouv,
Alexander Graham Bell developed a similar device to attempt to
locate a bullet lodged in the chest of American President James
Garfield in 1881; the metal detector worked correctly but the
attempt was unsuccessful because the metal coil spring bed
Garfield was lying on confused the detector. [1]
Modern developments
The modern development of the metal detector began in the
1920s. Gerhard Fisher had developed a system of radio directionfinding, which was to be used for accurate navigation. The system
worked extremely well, but Fisher noticed that there were
anomalies in areas where the terrain contained ore-bearing rocks.
He reasoned that if a radio beam could be distorted by metal,
then it should be possible to design a machine which would detect
metal using a search coil resonating at a radio frequency. In 1925
14

he applied for, and was granted, the first patent for a metal
detector. Although Gerhard Fisher was the first person granted a
patent for a metal detector, the first to apply was Shirl Herr, a
businessman from Crawfordsville, Indiana. His application for a
hand-held Hidden-Metal Detector was filed in February 1924, but
not patented until July 1928. Herr assisted Italian leader Benito
Mussolini in recovering items remaining from the Emperor
Caligula's galleys at the bottom of Lake Nemi, Italy, in August
1929. Herr's invention was used by Admiral Richard Byrd's Second
Antarctic Expedition in 1933, when it was used to locate objects
left behind by earlier explorers. It was effective up to a depth of
eight feet.[2] However, it was one Lieutenant Jzef Stanisaw
Kosacki, a Polish officer attached to a unit stationed in St
Andrews, Fife, Scotland, during the early years of World War II,
who refined the design into a practical Polish mine detector.[3]
They were heavy, ran on vacuum tubes, and needed separate
battery packs.
The design invented by Kosacki was used extensively during the
clearance of the German mine fields during the Second Battle of

15

El Alamein when 500 units were shipped to Field Marshal

Montgomery to clear the minefields of the retreating Germans,
and later used during the Allied invasion of Sicily, the Allied
invasion of Italy and the Invasion of Normandy.[4] As it was a
wartime research operation to create and refine it, the knowledge
that Kosacki created the first practical metal detector was kept
secret for over 50 years.
Further refinements
Many manufacturers of these new devices brought their own
ideas to the market. White's Electronics of Oregon began in the
1950s by building a machine called the Oremaster Geiger
Counter. Another leader in detector technology was Charles
Garrett, who pioneered the BFO (Beat Frequency Oscillator)
machine. With the invention and development of the transistor in
the

1950s

and

1960s,

metal

detector

manufacturers

and

designers made smaller lighter machines with improved circuitry,

running on small battery packs. Companies sprang up all over the
USA and Britain to supply the growing demand.

16

Modern top models are fully computerized, using integrated

circuit

technology

to

allow

the

user

to

set

sensitivity,

discrimination, track speed, threshold volume, notch filters, etc.,

and hold these parameters in memory for future use. Compared
to just a decade ago, detectors are lighter, deeper-seeking, use
less battery power, and discriminate better.
Larger portable metal detectors are used by archaeologists and
treasure hunters to locate metallic items, such as jewelry, coins,
bullets, and other various artifacts buried shallowly underground.
Discriminators
The biggest technical change in detectors was the development
of the induction-balance system. This system involved two coils
that were electrically balanced. When metal was introduced to
their vicinity, they would become unbalanced. What allowed
detectors to discriminate between metals was the fact that every
metal has a different phase response when exposed to alternating
current. Scientists had long known of this fact by the time
detectors were developed that could selectively detect desirable
metals, while ignoring undesirable ones.
17

Even with discriminators, it was still a challenge to avoid

undesirable metals, because some of them have similar phase
responses e.g. tinfoil and gold, particularly in alloy form. Thus,
improperly tuning out certain metals increased the risk of passing
over a valuable find. Another disadvantage of discriminators was
that they reduced the sensitivity of the machines.
New coil designs
Coil designers also tried out innovative designs. The original
induction balance coil system consisted of two identical coils
placed on top of one another. Compass Electronics produced a
new design: two coils in a D shape, mounted back-to-back to form
a circle. This system was widely used in the 1970s, and both
concentric and D type (or widescan as they became known) had
their fans. Another development was the invention of detectors
which could cancel out the effect of mineralization in the ground.
This gave greater depth, but was a non-discriminate mode. It
worked best at lower frequencies than those used before, and
frequencies of 3 to 20 kHz were found to produce the best results.
Many detectors in the 1970s had a switch which enabled the user
18

to

switch

between

the

discriminate

mode

and

the

non-

discriminate mode. Later developments switched electronically

between both modes. The development of the induction balance
detector would ultimately result in the motion detector, which
constantly checked and balanced the background mineralization.
Pulse induction

A pulse induction metal detector with an array of coils

At the same time, developers were looking at using a different
technique in metal detection called pulse induction. Unlike the
beat frequency oscillator or the induction balance machines which
both used a uniform alternating current at a low frequency, the

19

pulse induction machine simply magnetized the ground with a

relatively powerful, momentary current through a search coil. In
the absence of metal, the field decayed at a uniform rate, and the
time it took to fall to zero volts could be accurately measured.
However, if metal was present when the machine fired, a small
eddy current would be induced in the metal, and the time for
sensed current decay would be increased. These time differences
were minute, but the improvement in electronics made it possible
to measure them accurately and identify the presence of metal at
a reasonable distance. These new machines had one major
advantage: they were mostly impervious to the effects of
mineralization, and rings and other jewelry could now be located
even under highly mineralized black sand. The addition of
computer control and digital signal processing have further
improved pulse induction sensors.

20

CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 Project specification
This is the design and construction of a metallic object detector
which can detect changes in frequency of the oscillatory unit
when any metallic object or any material carrying metallic object
comes close to it.
This also blinks LED to show increase in frequency and closeness
of metal to the devices.
3.2 Concept review
The design and construction of the project didn't just come, many
designs of a weapon detecting devices has already existed long
ago.
3.3 Analysis of operations

21

when the devices is powered using a 9volts battery it powers the

led on showing that the system is now on, when the and metallic
component comes close to it

will automatically blinks an led

show the closes of metal on the device.

3.4 Block diagram of the project

22

POWER
SUPPLY

3.4.1 Functions of each block

a. The LC Circuit comprises the twin coil use to sense the metal in
its wire loop
b. the Proximity sensor is use to detect voltage level when any
metalllic weapon comes close to it.
c. Led and Buzzer are the two output signal that indicates to the
user of a metal being detected
d. Power supply supplies voltage to the entire circuit network

23

CHAPTER FOUR: DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING

4.1 Design procedures
4.1.1 Information gathering
24

The knowledge of how to design a weapon detector system did

not just came from anywhere even due a lot of information came
through inspirations of different ways (bio devices: Magxim
Electronics journal on Electronics & psychological effects 3 Edition
2012 for things to be down there is a source of information via
knowledge which is not only on teachings but also with metal
physical inspiration). Different sources where visited in other to
get the clear view of how to design a metal detector (weapon
detector), this ways include internet sites where a lot of
information of different designs can be archived. Come to school
premises where the knowledge is being passed from teachers to
students. Others include pea groups and book reading etc.

4.1.2 Project resource centers

This includes:
a.
b.
c.
d.

internet resource centers

experimental aids and observation
Teachers and lectures
And digital electronics by J.K Mehta
4.1.2 Choice of Materials

25

The materials I used were from the information I got from the
internet and I have to develop the work through the source I
found online that is treating the same case.
The circuit diagram used is the diagram which was design as
a prototype but also works to revive some information about
the circuit analysis of the devices which I later entered more
design like the alarm unit and the led blinking to give a
better operation of the device.

4.2 Circuit diagram of the design

4.2.1 Circuit diagram analysis

When the device is power, the power supply unit supplies voltage
and current to the entire circuit which initialized every component
in the circuit to it working state, then the proximity sensor unit
controls the alarm and led indicator when metal is detected.
4.3Design implementation steps

26

In this design, we are to design and construct weapon detector

system which when installed in a door can detect metal of
metallic weapon and also when placed on top or close to a metal.
Here, we are to show the various steps took while trying to
archive a working system (prototype system) of a metal weapon
system.
4.2.1 Component listing
a. Resistors(1k,10k,4k7,5k6)
b. Transistor (c1815, Mosfet irf3205)
c. Rectifier diode (1n4007)
d. Buzzer (12v)
e. 40turns 0.5mm air coil

4.2.2Component analysis and descriptions

Here, the whole components is discussed. The choice of
component was obtained from the circuit diagram analysis which
visually illustrates the various component connection between
each other, from there the components used was named and
given values form the parameters and so from there we obtained

27

our choice of components. This is feather analysis in the circuit

diagram analysis.
4.3 Component description
4.3.1 Diode Rectifier
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it
in one direction with far greater ease than in the other. The most
common

kind

of

diode

in

modern

circuit

design

is

the

semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.

Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such
as Figure below. The term diode is customarily reserved for
small signal devices, I 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power
devices, I > 1 A.

Fig 4.1 Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate

the direction of electron current flow.

28

When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either

allow or prevent current through the lamp, depending on the
polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure below)

Fig 4.2 Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is
forward biased. (b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is
reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed
to flow through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased.
Conversely, when the battery is backward and the diode blocks
current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be
thought of as like a switch: closed when forward-biased and
open when reverse-biased.
Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's arrowhead
points against the direction of electron flow. This is because the
diode symbol was invented by engineers, who predominantly use

29

conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing current as

a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source
to

the

negative

(-).

This

convention

holds

true

for

all

semiconductor symbols possessing arrowheads: the arrow

points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and against
the permitted direction of electron flow.
Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device
called a check valve. A check valve allows fluid flow through it in
only one direction as in Figure below.

Fig 4.3 Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow
permitted. (b) Current flow prohibited.
Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they
open and allow flow if the pressure across them is of the correct
30

polarity to open the gate (in the analogy shown, greater fluid
pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the
opposite polarity, the pressure difference across the check
valve will close and hold the gate so that no flow occurs.
Like check valves, diodes are essentially pressure- operated
(voltage-operated) devices. The essential difference between
forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage
dropped across the diode. Let's take a closer look at the simple
battery-diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating
voltage drops across the various components in Figure below.

Fig 4.4 Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased.

(b) Reverse biased.

31

A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small

voltage across it, leaving most of the battery voltage dropped
across the lamp. If the battery's polarity is reversed, the diode
becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the battery's voltage
leaving none for the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a selfactuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the
reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes sense. The most
substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more voltage
when conducting than the average mechanical switch (0.7 volts
versus tens of millivolts).
This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the
action of the depletion region formed by the P-N junction under
the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage applied is across
a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists around the
region of the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure below
(a)) The depletion region is almost devoid of available charge
carriers, and acts as an insulator:

32

Fig 4.5 Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic

symbol, physical part.
The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b)
such that the anode (pointing end) corresponds to the P-type
semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at (b)
corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the
cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode
on the symbol.
If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this
depletion region expands, further resisting any current through it.
(Figure below)
33

Fig 4.6 Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N
junction, the depletion region collapses becoming thinner. The
diode becomes less resistive to current through it. In order for a
sustained current to go through the diode; though, the depletion
region must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a
certain minimum voltage to accomplish, called the forward
voltage as illustrated in Figure below.

34

Fig 4.7Inceasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion

region thickness.
For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts,
nominal. For germanium diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3
volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction comprising
the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is
why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward
voltages. Forward voltage drop remains approximately constant
for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode voltage
drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch.
For most simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a
conducting diode may be considered constant at the nominal
figure and not related to the amount of current.
<="" a="">
Actually, forward voltage drop is more complex. An equation
describes the exact current through a diode, given the voltage
dropped across the junction, the temperature of the junction, and
several physical constants. It is commonly known as the diode
equation:
35

The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N
junction due to the action of temperature, and is called the
thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room temperature, this is
about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and assuming a nonideality
coefficient of 1, we may simplify the diode equation and re-write it
as such:

36

You need not be familiar with the diode equation to analyze

simple diode circuits. Just understand that the voltage dropped
across a current-conducting diode does change with the amount
of current going through it, but that this change is fairly small
over a wide range of currents. This is why many textbooks simply
say the voltage drop across a conducting, semiconductor diode
remains constant at 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium. However, some circuits intentionally make use of the
P-N junction's inherent exponential current/voltage relationship
and thus can only be understood in the context of this equation.
Also, since temperature is a factor in the diode equation, a
forward-biased P-N junction may also be used as a temperaturesensing device, and thus can only be understood if one has a
conceptual grasp on this mathematical relationship.
A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it,
due to the expanded depletion region. In actuality, a very small
amount of current can and does go through a reverse-biased
diode, called the leakage current, but it can be ignored for most
purposes. The ability of a diode to withstand reverse-bias voltages

37

is limited, as it is for any insulator. If the applied reverse-bias

voltage becomes too great, the diode will experience a condition
known as breakdown (Figure below), which is usually destructive.
A diode's maximum reverse-bias voltage rating is known as the
Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV, and may be obtained from the
manufacturer. Like forward voltage, the PIV rating of a diode
varies with temperature, except that PIV increases with increased
temperature and decreases as the diode becomes cooler -exactly opposite that of forward voltage.

Fig 4.7 Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward biases for Si,
and reverse breakdown.
Typically, the PIV rating of a generic rectifier diode is at least 50
volts at room temperature. Diodes with PIV ratings in the many
thousands of volts are available for modest prices.
Types of diode
38

There are many different types of diodes that are available for use
in electronics design. Different semiconductor diode types can be
used to perform different functions as a result of the properties of
these different diode types. Semiconductor diodes can be used for
many applications. The basic application is obviously to rectify
waveforms.
Backward diode:

This type of diode is sometimes also called

the back diode. Although not widely used, it is a form of PN

junction diode that is very similar to the tunnel diode in its
operation. It finds a few specialist applications where its particular
properties can be used.
BARITT diode:

This form of diode gains its name from the

words Barrier Injection Transit Time diode. It is used in microwave

applications and bears many similarities to the more widely used
IMPATT diode.
Gunn Diode:

Although not a diode in the form of a PN junction,

this type of diode is a semiconductor device that has two

terminals. It is generally used for generating microwave signals.

39

 Laser diode:

This type of diode is not the same as the ordinary

light emitting diode because it produces coherent light. Laser

diodes are widely used in many applications from DVD and CD
drives to laser light pointers for presentations. Although laser
diodes are much cheaper than other forms of laser generator,
they are considerably more expensive than LEDs. They also have
a limited life.
Light emitting diodes:

The light emitting diode or LED is one

of the most popular types of diode. When forward biased with

current flowing through the junction, light is produced. The diodes
use component semiconductors, and can produce a variety of
colours, although the original colour was red. There are also very
many new LED developments that are changing the way displays
can be used and manufactured. High output LEDs and OLEDs are
two examples.
Photodiode:

The photo-diode is used for detecting light. It is

found that when light strikes a PN junction it can create electrons

and holes. Typically photo-diodes are operated under reverse bias
conditions where even small amounts of current flow resulting
40

from the light can be easily detected. Photo-diodes can also be

used to generate electricity. For some applications, PIN diodes
work very well as photo detectors.
PIN diode:

This type of diode is typified by its construction. It

has the standard P type and N-type areas, but between them
there is an area of intrinsic semiconductor which has no doping.
The area of the intrinsic semiconductor has the effect of
increasing the area of the depletion region which can be useful for
switching applications as well as for use in photodiodes, etc.
PN Junction:

The standard PN junction may be thought of as

the normal or standard type of diode in use today. These diodes

can come as small signal types for use in radio frequency, or
other low current applications which may be termed as signal
diodes. Other types may be intended for high current and high
voltage applications and are normally termed rectifier diodes.
Schottky diodes:

This type of diode has a lower forward

voltage drop than ordinary silicon PN junction diodes. At low

currents the drop may be somewhere between 0.15 and 0.4 volts

41

as opposed to 0.6 volts for a silicon diode. To achieve this

performance they are constructed in a different way to normal
diodes having a metal to semiconductor contact. They are widely
used as clamping diodes, in RF applications, and also for rectifier
applications.
Step recovery diode:

A form of microwave diode used for

generating and shaping pulses at very high frequencies. These

diodes rely on a very fast turn off characteristic of the diode for
their operation.
Tunnel diode: Although not widely used today, the tunnel diode
was used for microwave applications where its performance
exceeded that of other devices of the day.
Varactor diode or varicap diode:

This type of diode is used in

many radio frequency (RF) applications. The diode has a reverse

bias placed upon it and this varies the width of the depletion layer
according to the voltage placed across the diode. In this
configuration the varactor or varicap diode acts like a capacitor
with the depletion region being the insulating dielectric and the

42

capacitor plates formed by the extent of the conduction regions.

The capacitance can be varied by changing the bias on the diode
as this will vary the width of the depletion region which will
accordingly change the capacitance.
Zener diode:

The Zener diode is a very useful type of diode as

it provides a stable reference voltage. As a result it is used in vast

quantities. It is run under reverse bias conditions and it is found
that when a certain voltage is reached it breaks down. If the
current is limited through a resistor, it enables a stable voltage to
be produced. This type of diode is therefore widely used to
provide a reference voltage in power supplies. Two types of
reverse

breakdown

are

apparent

in

these

diodes:

Zener

breakdown and Impact Ionisation. However the name Zener diode

is used for the reference diodes regardless of the form of
breakdown that is employed.
Semiconductor diodes are widely used throughout all areas of the
electronics industry from electronics design through to production
and repair. The semiconductor diode is very versatile, and there

43

are very many variants and different types of diode that enable all
the variety of different applications to be met.
Diode as a rectifier
Rectifier circuits may be single-phase or multi-phase (three being
the most common number of phases). Most low power rectifiers
for

domestic

equipment

are

single-phase,

but

three-phase

rectification is very important for industrial applications and for

the transmission of energy as DC (HVDC).
Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the
positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other
half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform
reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification
requires a single diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a
three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating
direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than
full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to
eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

44

Fig 4.8 Half-wave rectifier

The no-load output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier for a
sinusoidal input voltage is:

Where: Vdc, Vav - the DC or average output voltage,

Vpeak, the peak value of the phase input voltages,
Vrms, the root-mean-square value of output voltage.
Full-wave rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to
one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Fullwave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform
to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average
output voltage. Two diodes and a center tappedtransformer, or

45

four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source (including

a

transformer

without

center

tap),

are

needed. [3]

Single

semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or

common anode, and four-diode bridges, are manufactured as
single components.

4.9 Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two
diodes

back-to-back

(cathode-to-cathode

or

anode-to-anode,

depending upon output polarity required) can form a full-wave

rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the transformer
secondary to obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge
rectifier, but the power rating is unchanged.

46

Fig 4.10: Full-wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and 2

diodes.

Fig 4.11: Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes.
The average and root-mean-square no-load output voltages of an
ideal single-phase full-wave rectifier are:

Very common double-diode rectifier vacuum tubes contained a

single common cathode and two anodes inside a single envelope,
achieving full-wave rectification with positive output. The 5U4 and
5Y3 were popular examples of this configuration.

47

Diode Bridge

Fig 4.12 Detail of a diode bridge, rated at 1000 Volts x 4 Amperes,

a handmade diode bridge. The wide silver band on the diodes
indicates the cathode side of the diode.
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a
bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of
output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common
application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge
rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a
two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared
to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a centertapped secondary winding.
4.3.2 Transistors
48

Fig 4.13transistor images

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and
switchelectronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of
semiconductor

material

with

at

least

three

terminals

for

connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to

one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through
another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power
can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify

signal.

Today,

some

transistors

are

packaged

individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated

circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern
electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic
systems.

Following

its

development
49

in

1947

by

American

physicistsJohn Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the

transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the
way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers,
among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE
milestones in electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded
the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement.
Simplified operation

Fig 4.14 a simple circuit diagrams to show the labels of a npn

bipolar transistor. (C1815)
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to
use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to
control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This

50

property is called gain. It can produce a stronger output signal, a

voltage or current, that is proportional to a weaker input signal;
that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can
be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by
other circuit elements.
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in
how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals
labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base
terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can
control or switch a much larger current between the collector and
emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are
labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can
control a current between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a
circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals
depending on the current in the base. Because internally the base
and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a
voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base
51

current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the

material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.
Types

PNP

P-channel

NPN

N-channel

BJT

JFET

BJT and JFET symbols

P-channel

N-channel

JFET

MOSFET enh

MOSFET dep

JFET and IGFET symbols

Fig 4.15 Transistors are categorized by
52

 Semiconductor

material

(date

first

used):

the

metalloidsgermanium (1947) and silicon (1954) in amorphous,

polycrystalline and monocrystalline form; the compoundsgallium
arsenide (1966) and silicon carbide (1997), the alloysilicongermanium (1989), the allotrope of carbongraphene (research
ongoing since 2004), etc.see Semiconductor material
Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), insulated-gate bipolar
transistor, "other types"
Electrical polarity (positive and negative): npn, pnp (BJTs); nchannel, p-channel (FETs)
Maximum power rating: low, medium, high
Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio (RF),
microwave frequency (the maximum effective frequency of a
transistor is denoted by the term

, an abbreviation for transition

frequencythe frequency of transition is the frequency at which

the transistor yields unity gain)

53

 Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, superbeta, matched pair
Physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic,
surface mount, ball grid array, power modulessee Packaging
Amplification

factor

hfe,

(transistor

beta)[33]

or

gm

(transconductance).
Thus, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surfacemount, BJT, npn, low-power, high-frequency switch.
4.3.3 Resistors
Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the flow
of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage across the
component drives the current through it and this energy appears
as heat in the component.
Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an omega
.
1

is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in

54

k
1 k = 1000

and

M .

1 M = 1000000 .

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1

or as high as 10 M .
Resistors connected in Series

Fig 4.16 Resistor connected in series

When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance
is equal to the individual resistances added together. For example
if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series their combined
resistance, R, is given by:

55

R1 + R2

Resistors connected in Parallel

Combined resistance in series: R = R1 + R2
R=
This

can

be

extended

for

R1 R2

more

resistors:

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ...
Note that the combined resistance in series will always be greater
than any of the individual resistances.
Combined

resistance

of

two resistors in parallel:

Fig

4.17

Resistors

connected

in parallel
When

resistors

are

connected

in

parallel

their

combined

resistance is less than any of the individual resistances. There is a

special equation for the combined resistance of two resistors R1
and R2:
56

For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult

equation must be used. This adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of
each resistance to give the reciprocal of the combined resistance,
R:
1/R=1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to
use!
Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less
than any of the individual resistances.
How to read Resistor Colour Codes

Table 4.1 Resistor color code

Brow
Black

Orang
Red

n
0

Gree

Viole Gra

Yellow
e

Blu

White
n

The mnemonic
57

Bad Boys Ravish Only Young Girls But Violet Gives Willingly
Black is also easy to remember as zero because of the
nothingness common to both.

Fig4.18 Resistor color code representation

First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold ( 5%) and
sometimes silver (10%). Starting from the other end, identify the
first band - write down the number associated with that color; in
this case Blue is 6. Now 'read' the next color, here it is red so
write down a '2' next to the six (you should have '62' so far.) Now
read the third or 'multiplier' band and write down that number of
zeros.
In this example it is two so we get '6200' or '6,200'. If the
'multiplier' band is Black (for zero) don't write any zeros down. If

58

the 'multiplier' band is Gold move the decimal point one to the
left. If the 'multiplier' band is Silver move the decimal point two
places to the left. If the resistor has one more band past the
tolerance band it is a quality band.
Read the number as the '% Failure rate per 1000 hour' this is
rated assuming full wattage being applied to the resistors. (To get
better failure rates, resistors are typically specified to have twice
the needed wattage dissipation that the circuit produces) 1%
resistors have three bands to read digits to the left of the
multiplier. They have a different temperature coefficient in order
to provide the 1% tolerance.

At 1% most error is in the

temperature coefficient - i.e. 20ppm.

4.3.4 Electromagnetic coil

"Winding"

redirects

here.

For

(disambiguation).

59

other

uses,

see

Winding

The magnetic field lines (green) of a current-carrying loop of wire

pass through the center of the loop, concentrating the field there
An electromagnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a wire in the shape of a
coil, spiral or helix.[1][2] Electromagnetic coils are used in electrical engineering, in
applications where electric currents interact with magnetic fields, in devices such
as inductors, electromagnets, transformers, and sensor coils. Either an electric
current is passed through the wire of the coil to generate a magnetic field, or
conversely an external time-varying magnetic field through the interior of the coil
generates an EMF (voltage) in the conductor.
A current through any conductor creates a circular magnetic field around the
conductor due to Ampere's law.[3] The advantage of using the coil shape is that it
increases the strength of magnetic field produced by a given current. The magnetic
fields generated by the separate turns of wire all pass through the center of the coil
and add (superpose) to produce a strong field there.[3] The more turns of wire, the
60

stronger the field produced. Conversely, a changing external magnetic flux induces
a voltage in a conductor such as a wire, due to Faraday's law of induction.[3][4] The
induced voltage can be increased by winding the wire into a coil, because the field
lines intersect the circuit multiple times.[3]
The direction of the magnetic field produced by a coil can be determined by the
right hand grip rule. If the fingers of the right hand are wrapped around the
magnetic core of a coil in the direction of conventional current through the wire,
the thumb will point in the direction the magnetic field lines pass through the coil.
The end of a magnetic core from which the field lines emerge is defined to be the
North pole.
Transducer coils

The sensor coil of a metal detector.

61

These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to

electric signals, and vice versa. A few types:
Sensor or pickup coils - these are used to detect
external time-varying magnetic fields
Inductive sensor - a coil which senses when a magnet
or iron object passes near it
Recording head - a coil which is used to create a
magnetic field to write data to a magnetic storage
medium, such as magnetic tape, or a hard disk.
Conversely it is also used to read the data in the form of
changing magnetic fields in the medium.
Induction heating coil - an AC coil used to heat an
object by inducing eddy currents in it, a process called
induction heating.
Loop antenna - a coil which serves as a radio antenna,
to convert radio waves to electric currents.

62

 Rogowski coil - a toroidal coil used as an AC measuring

device
Musical instrument pickup - a coil used to produce the
output audio signal in an electric guitar or electric bass.
Flux gate - a sensor coil used in a magnetometer
Magnetic phonograph cartridge - a sensor in a record
player that uses a coil to translate vibration of a needle
to an audio signal in playing vinyl phonograph records.

4.5 Component testing

Before the design and implementation phase, the system built
has to be tested for Durability, Efficiency, and Effectiveness and
also ascertain if there is need to modify this design. The system
was first assembled using a breadboard. All components were
properly inserted into the breadboard from whence some tests
were carried out at various stages.

63

Similar components like resistors were packed together. Other

components includes capacitor, preset switches, transformer,
diodes (rectifier) LED, transistor, voltage regulator etc
Reference was made to resistor color code data sheet to ascertain
the expected values of resistors used. Each resistor was tested
and the value read and recorded. Also for transistor test the DMM
was switched to the diode range with the symbol
The collector, base and emitter junctions were tested in the
following order. The collector, emitter and base pins were gotten
from the data analysis on power transistor.
To ensure proper functioning of components expected data, the
components were tested using a digital multimeter (DMM).
Resistors were tested to ensure that they were within the
tolerance value. Faulty resistors were discarded . The LEDs were
tested to ensure that they were all working properly.
4.6 Design Steps
This are the various steps we took on the design of this project
4.4.1 Component placing and wiring

64

Here, the whole components were place into the vero board
according to its position in the circuit diagram, the legs were bend
to avoid living its space and to avoid it from failing off.

4.7 Component soldering

The components were solder using a soft thick lead oxide and the
component connections was done with a tiny flexible wire we got
from a networking cable to join one component to the other
according to the circuit diagram.
4.8 Circuit test
As a prototype design, we have to copy an existing system which
makes use of a twin coil metal detector.
4.9 Packaging
After the packaging some errors was discovered due to wrong
packaging which affected the reading of the data by the coil
module but was corrected by packing the panels to different
location inside the adoptable box.
4.10 Final test
65

The final test was undergone for proper function and design
usage.

CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary
This section of this project report forms the concluding part of the
write up and takes a look at some of the problems encountered
during the progressive job on the system and also brings in
suggestions for further improvement and/or enhancement for the
system design.

66

The design and development of this project has really been

challenging, as I have been faced with choices far beyond what I
expected. But in the long run the result paid off.
After the complete design of the system, the deviation between
the expected result and the actual result was very close. The
performance and efficiency was beyond expectation and from
every ramification, the design of the project was a success.

5.2 Problem encounter

During the course of the design of this system, there were series
of problems which came in the way of achieving the design goals
of this project, most of them where over come via share
troubleshooting, in some cases some parts require redesigning
and the software debugging also created a bit of a problem.
One major setback of this project is the availability of components
required to build the hardware of the system. In most cases I had
to look through electrical catalogs to obtain replacements of some
of the components which are not available in the market.

67

After developing the software for the microcontroller, it was very

difficult to find a firm/individual to help program the chip (burning
the embedded software on to the chip). This posed serious
problem as it brought about delay in the design time and it was
also costly, this also affected the overall cost of the system.
The final packaging of the design was also another trouble, as this
actually caused problems on the circuit board. Such problems
include

partial

contact

within

the

circuit

board,

between

components and also with the wiring. This was actually one of the
most challenging aspects of the circuit implementation phase.
Due to this fact, there was a lot of soldering and de-soldering to
ensure that the circuit was well implemented.
5.3 Solutions to those problems
It will be more appreciated if the system is designed to a bypass
button security system in cooperated system so to help reduce
stress if the system malfunction

5.4 Recommendation
a. Avoid water spillage onto of the design.
68

b. Supply the necessary voltage to the system by plugin its

power dc battery of 12dc.
c. Ensure proper placement before running the design.

5.5 Conclusion
Going through the planning, flow process, design and debugging
the system had really been a tough one; but on the whole it has
been a chance to show case a little bit of craftsmanship.

Reference
Appendixes
List of Tables
List of Figures.

69