Juris Doctor

scientic study of law, it is a law degree that in most common law jurisdictions is the primary professional preparation for lawyers. It is a three-year program in most
jurisdictions.[17][18]

1 Etymology and abbreviations

In the United States, the professional doctorate in law may
be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at
some law schools Doctor of Law (J.D. or JD),[19] or Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur. or DJur), respectively.[20]
Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while
the Latin for Doctor of JurisprudenceJurisprudentiae
Doctorliterally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge.

Example of a diploma from Suolk University Law School conferring the Juris Doctor degree.

The J.D./D.Jur. is not to be confused with Doctor of

Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD or LL.D.). In institutions
where the latter can be earned, e.g. Cambridge University, it is a higher doctorate representing a level of work
beyond a research doctorate and well beyond a taught degree such as the J.D. The LL.D. is invariably an honorary
degree in the United States.

The Juris Doctor degree or Doctor of Law degree

(J.D.), also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence
degree (D.Jur. or DJur), is a professional doctorate[1][2][3][4][5][6] and rst professional[7][8] graduate
degree[9][10][11] in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia,
and other common law countries. Many who hold the
2 Historical context
degree of Juris Doctor are individuals who practice law
and may choose to focus their practice on criminal law,
tort, family law, corporate law, and/or a wide range of 2.1 Origins of the law degree
other areas.
In Europe the rst academic degrees were law degrees,
To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a
and the law degrees were doctorates.[21][22][23] The foungiven state in the United States, the majority of indidations of the rst universities were the glossators of the
viduals holding a J.D. degree must pass a bar examina11th century, which were schools of law.[24] The rst unition.[12][13][14][15] The State of Wisconsin, however, perversity, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law
mits the graduates of its two law schools to practice law
by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who
in that state, and in its state courts, without having to take
were students of the glossolalia school in that city. The
its bar exam, a practice known as the Diploma PrivUniversity of Bologna served as the model for other law
ilege. In the United States, passing an additional bar
schools of the medieval age.[25]
exam is not required of lawyers authorized to practice
in at least one state to practice in the national courts of
the United States, courts commonly known as federal 2.2 The history of legal training in Engcourts. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar
land
of the federal court before they are authorized to practice
in that court.
The nature of the J.D. can be better understood by a reThe degree was rst awarded in the United States in the
late 19th century and was created as a modern version
of the old European doctor of law degree (such as the
Dottore in Giurisprudenza in Italy and the Juris Utriusque
Doctor in Germany and Central Europe).[16] Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the

view of the context of the history of legal education in

England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise
law.[26] The universities taught only civil and canon law
(used in a very few jurisdictions such as the courts of
1

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

be university based, where concentration on foundational

principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail
and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns
of Court.[35]
The Inns of Court continued but became less eective,
and admission to the bar still did not require any signicant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective
barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal
education provided in Europe and the United States.[28]
Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not
nally established until later in the century, and even then
the bar did not consider a university degree in admission
decisions.[28]
The Inns of Court of London served as a professional school for
lawyers in England

2.3 Legal training in colonial North America and 19th century U.S.
admiralty and church courts) but not the common law
that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training
for practising common law in England was undertaken at
the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of
the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with
individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium
of preparation.[27] However, because of the lack of standardisation of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities
became subsequently of importance for the education of
lawyers in the English speaking world.[28]
In England in 1292 when Edward I rst requested that
lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and
observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to
the institution of the Inns of Court system.[29] The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix
of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court
proceedings observation.[30] By the fteenth century, the
Inns functioned like a university akin to the University
of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very
specialized in purpose.[31] With the frequent absence of
parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of
the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for
lawyers grew.[32]
Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework
in law only in the context of canon and civil law and for
the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only.
The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged,
structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades.[33] The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an
act of parliament in 1729.[34] William Blackstone became
the rst lecturer in English common law at the University
of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish
the program for the purpose of professional study, and
the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in
nature.[34] Blackstone insisted that the study of law should

Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial

North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments
started using the services of professionals trained in the
Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American
Revolution there was a functional bar in each state.[36]
Due to an initial distrust of a profession open only to the
elite in England, as institutions for training developed in
what would become the United States they emerged as
quite dierent from those in England.[37]
Initially in the United States the legal professionals were
trained and imported from England.[38] A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established rst
in New York in 1730at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree
was required in addition to ve years of clerking and an
examination.[39] Later the requirements were reduced to
require only two years of college education.[39] But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education
was not required in England until the 19th century, so this
system was unique.
The clerkship program required much individual study
and the mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of
the law and ensure that it was being absorbed.[40] The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of
the law into a "commonplace book", which he would try
to memorize.[41] Although those were the ideals, in reality
the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to
study the law individually as expected. They were often
employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten
copies of documents. Finding sucient legal texts was
also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion
of the law may have diered greatly from his peers.[42] It
was said by one famous attorney in the U.S., William Livingston, in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerk-

2.3

Legal training in colonial North America and 19th century U.S.

ship program was severely awed, and that most mentors

have no manner of concern for their clerks future welfare... [T]is a monstrous absurdity to suppose, that the law
is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents.[41]
There were some few mentors that were dedicated to
the service, and because of their rarity, they became so
sought after that the rst law schools evolved from the ofces of some of these attorneys who took on many clerks
and began to spend more time training than practicing
law.[41]

19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers

as statesmen rather than as lawyers.[48] At the LL.B. programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale
continued to include cultural study, which included
courses in languages, mathematics and economics.[49] An
LL.B., or Bachelor of Laws, recognized that a prior bachelors degree was not required to earn an LL. B.
In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which
originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one oered in the
universities which oered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law.[50] The universities assumed
that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice,
while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.[50]
2.3.1 Revolutionary approach: Scientic study of
law

Tapping Reeve, founder of the rst law school in North America,

the Litcheld Law School, in 1773

In time, the apprenticeship program was not considered

sucient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their
clients needs.[43] The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were
well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law ofce, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners.[44] The establishment of formal faculties
of law in U.S. universities did not occur until the latter
part of the 18th century.[45] With the beginning of the
American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain
ended. The rst law degree granted by a U.S. university
was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William
and Mary, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the
rst university to use the LL.B. abbreviation in the United
States.[46]
The rst university law programs in the United States,
such as that of the University of Maryland established in
1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study,
including works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius.[47] It has
been said that the early university law schools of the early

Joseph Story, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, lecturer of law at Harvard and proponent of the scientic study of law

In part to compete with the small professional law

schools, there began a great change in U.S. university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale
began to oer a complete practitioners course which
lasted two years and included practical courses, such as
pleading drafting.[51] U.S. Supreme Court justice Joseph
Story started the spirit of change in legal education at
Harvard when he advocated a more scientic study of
the law in the 19th century.[52] At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard the education was
much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advo-

3 CREATION OF THE J.D. AND MAJOR COMMON LAW APPROACHES TO LEGAL EDUCATION

cated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jeerson at William

and Mary.[53] Nonetheless there continued to be debate
among educators over whether legal education should be
more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through
a rigorous scientic method, such as that developed by
Story and Langdell.[54][55] In the words of Dorsey Ellis,
Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library
as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for
learning those 'principles or doctrines of which law, considered as a science, consists.'"[56] Nonetheless, into the
year 1900 most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship was often required)
and most practitioners had not attended any law school
or college.[53]

were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training,
the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop.[61] At rst the
degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College
of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and
Cambridge, implemented an LL.B. degree.[62] This was
somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a bachelors degree in England.[63]
Thus, even though the name of the English LL.B. degree
was implemented at Harvard, the program in the U.S. was
nonetheless intended as practical or professional training,
and not, as in England, merely a bachelor of arts denoting
Therefore, the modern legal education system in the U.S.
[64]
is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practi- a specialization in law.
cal skill,[57] implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education
3.1.1 Creation of the Juris Doctor
in the U.S. and in the J.D. program of study.[58]

Creation of the J.D. and major

common law approaches to legal
education

The J.D. originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the
origination of the J.D., law students began law school
either with only a high school diploma, or less than the
amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelors degree. The LL.B. persisted through the middle
of the twentieth century, after which a completed bachelors degree became a required for virtually all students
entering law school. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and
have slowly been implemented outside the U.S., but only
recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees
which resulted from this new approach, such as the M.D.
and the J.D., are just as dierent from their European
counterparts as the educational approaches dier.

3.1

Legal education in the United States

Main article: Legal education in the United States

Professional doctorates were developed in the United
States in the 19th century, the rst being the Doctor of
Medicine in 1807,[59] but the professional law degree
took more time. At the time the legal system in the United
States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing. The status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous; therefore, the development of the legal degree took much time.[60] Even
when some universities oered training in law, they did
not oer a degree.[60] Because in the United States there

In the mid-19th century there was much concern about

the quality of legal education in the United States.
Christopher Columbus Langdell, who served as dean of
Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, dedicated his
life to reforming legal education in the United States.
The historian Robert Stevens wrote that it was Langdells
goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated
oneand not at the undergraduate level, but through a
three-year post baccalaureate degree.[65] This graduate
level study would allow the intensive legal training that
Langdell had developed, known as the case method (a
method of studying landmark cases) and the Socratic
method (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate high level law degree was proposed, the Juris Doctor,
implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach.[66] According to professor J. H. Beale,
an 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvards four professional schools of Theology, Law, Medicine and Arts
and Sciences were all graduate schools, and their degrees
were therefore a second degree. Two of them conferred a
doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The
change from LL.B. to J.D. was intended to end this discriminatory practice of conferring what is normally a rst
degree upon persons who have already completed their
primary degree.[67] The J.D. was proposed as the equivalent of the J.U.D. in Germany to reect the advanced
study required to be an eective lawyer.
The University of Chicago Law School was the rst to
oer it.[68] While approval was still pending at Harvard,
the degree was introduced at many other law schools including at the law schools at NYU, Berkeley, Michigan
and Stanford. Because of tradition, and concerns about
less prominent universities implementing a J.D. program,
prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard, Yale
and Columbia refused to implement the degree. Indeed,
pressure from them led almost every law school (except

5
at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illi- Training Course, BPTC and pupillage for barristers and
nois) to abandon the J.D. and readopt the LL.B. as the the LPC followed by a training contract for solicitors).
rst law degree by the 1930s.[69]
The bachelors degree originated at the University of
It was only after 1962 that a new pushthis time begun at Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford and
less-prominent law schoolssuccessfully led to the uni- Cambridge.[75] The arts designation of the degree tradiversal adoption of the J.D. as the rst law degree. Stu- tionally signies that the student has undertaken a certain
dent and alumni support were key in the LL.B.-to-J.D. amount of study of the classics.[76] On continental Europe
change, and even the most prominent schools were con- the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early
vinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 19th century but it continued at Oxford and Cambridge.
1969, and Yale, last, in 1971.[70] Nonetheless, the LL.B. Today Oxford oers the bachelors degree in law (B.C.L.)
at Yale retained the didactical changes of the practi- as a second entry program, contrary to the practice of all
tioners courses of 1826 and was very dierent from the other English universities. Cambridge followed the same
LL.B. in common law countries other than Canada.[51]
practice until relatively recently, renaming its LL.B. degree as LL.M. in 1982.[77]

Christopher Langdell, one of the scholars at Harvard who established the J.D.

Following standard modern academic practice, Harvard

Law School refers to its Master of Laws and Doctor
of Juridical Science degrees as its graduate level law
degrees.[71] Similarly, Columbia refers to the LL.M. and
the J.S.D. as its graduate program.[72] Yale Law School
lists its LL.M., M.S.L., J.S.D., and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs.[73] A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees in the United
States.

3.2

Major common law approaches

Because the English legal education is undergraduate and

provides a general education (retaining some of the characteristics of the liberal arts degree advocated by Blackstone) a great number of the graduates have no intention
of becoming solicitors or barristers.[78] The approach of
the English degree can be seen in the required curriculum, in which there is no study of civil procedure, and
relatively few courses in advanced law such as business
entities, bankruptcy, evidence, family law, etc.[79] There
has been a trend in the past twenty years in England to
introduce more professionally relevant courses in the curriculum, particularly in qualifying law degrees, and the
law school has taken a more central role in the preparation of lawyers in England,[79] but the degree is still more
scholarly or academic than those in North America. This
is also the case for other common law jurisdictions such
as in Australia, India and Hong Kong.
Legal education in Canada has unique variations from
other commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is
unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical
training occurs in the oce of a barrister and solicitor
with law society membership, and, since 1889, a university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship (which requirement was not implemented
until much later in England).[80] The education in law
schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States
at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and
elements of a liberal education.[81] The bar associations
in Canada were inuenced by the changes at Harvard,
and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement the
changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring
previous college education before studying law.[81]

The English legal system is the root of the systems of

other common-law countries, such as the United States.
Originally, common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in the Inns of Court. Even though it took nearly
150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal
training in England and Wales, the LL.B. eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer.
Nonetheless, in England and Wales the LL.B. is an un- 4 Modern variants and curriculum
dergraduate scholarly program and does not provide all
of the training required before becoming licensed in that Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of
jurisdiction.[74] Both barristers and solicitors must under- the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education
take two further periods of training (the Bar Professional is given, therefore law degrees are vastly dierent from

MODERN VARIANTS AND CURRICULUM

country to country, making comparisons among degrees

problematic.[82] This has proven true in the context of the
various forms of the J.D. which have been implemented
around the world.

sity of Tokyo (in Japan) and the University of Melbourne

(in Australia) are attempting to follow this model closely.
While the J.D. is considered a doctorate degree, lawyers
usually use the sux of "esquire" as opposed to the prex
Until about 1997 the J.D. was unique to law schools in doctor. Although calling a lawyer doctor would not be
the U.S. But with the rise in international success of law incorrect, it is more commonly employed in Europe and
rms from the United States, and the rise in students Asia than in the U.S. or Canada.
from outside the U.S. attending U.S. law schools, attorneys with the J.D. have become increasingly common 4.1.2 Replacement for the LL.B.
internationally.[83] Therefore, the prestige of the J.D. has
also risen, and many universities outside the U.S. have Canadian and Australian universities have law programs
started to oer the J.D., often for the express purpose of that are very similar to the J.D. programs in the United
raising the prestige of their law school and graduates.[83] States. These include Queens University, University
Such institutions usually aim to appropriate the name of of British Columbia, University of Alberta, University
the degree only, and sometimes the new J.D. program of of Victoria, Universit de Moncton, University of Calstudy is the same as that of their traditional law degree, gary, University of Saskatchewan, University of Maniwhich is usually more scholarly in purpose than the pro- toba, University of Windsor, University of Ottawa, Unifessional training intended with the J.D. as created in the versity of Western Ontario, York University[89] and UniU.S. Various characteristics can therefore be seen among versity of Toronto[90] in Canada, RMIT and the UniverJ.D. degrees as implemented in universities around the sity of Melbourne in Australia.[11] Therefore, when the
world.
J.D. program was introduced at these institutions, it was

4.1

Types and characteristics

Until very recently, only law schools in the United States

oered the Juris Doctor. Starting about 1997, universities in other countries began introducing the J.D. as a rst
professional degree in law, with dierences appropriate
to the legal systems of the countries in which these law
schools are situated.
4.1.1

Standard Juris Doctor curriculum

See also: Law school in the United States Curriculum

As stated by James Hall and Christopher Langdell, two
people who were involved in the creation of the J.D.,
the J.D. is a professional degree like the M.D., intended
to prepare practitioners through a scientic approach of
analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the Casebook and Socratic
methods).[86] It has existed as described in the United
States for over 100 years, and can therefore be termed
the standard or traditional J.D. program. The J.D. program generally requires a bachelors degree for entry,
though this requirement is sometimes waived. [87] The
program of study for the degree has remained substantially unchanged since its creation, and is an intensive
study of the substantive law and its professional applications (and therefore requires no thesis, although a lengthy
writing project is sometimes required[88] ). As a professional training, it provides sucient training for entry
into practice (no apprenticeship is necessary to sit for the
bar exam). It requires at least three academic years of
full-time study. Strictly dened, the United States is the
only jurisdiction with this form of a J.D., but the Univer-

a mere renaming of their second-entry LL.B. program

and entailed no signicant substantive changes to their
curricula.[91] The reason given for doing so is because
of the international popularity and recognizability of the
J.D., and the need to recognize the demanding graduate characteristics of the program.[92] Because these programs are in institutions heavily inuenced by those in the
UK, the J.D. programs often have some small scholarly
element (see chart above, entitled Comparisons of J.D.
Variants). And because the legal systems are also inuenced by that of the UK, an apprenticeship is still required
before being qualied to apply for a license to practice
(see country sections below, under Descriptions of the
J.D. outside the U.S.).

4.2 Descriptions of the J.D. outside the

U.S.
See also: Admission to practice law

4.2.1 Australia
The Juris Doctor is now oered at a number of Australian
Universities including: Australian National University,
University of Canberra, Bond University, Macquarie
University, RMIT, Monash University, University of
Melbourne, University of New South Wales, University
of Notre Dame Australia, RMIT University, University
of Southern Queensland, University of Sydney, The University of Newcastle, University of Technology, Sydney,
University of Western Australia, University of Western
Sydney, and Murdoch University. University of Queensland and University of New England used to oer Juris
Doctors degree. Now it has been discontinued.

4.2

Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.

Generally universities that oer the J.D. also oer the

LL.B.the LL.B. is for students without a prior degree
while the J.D. is oered as a post-graduate level degree
for those with a prior non-law bachelors degree. However, at some universities, for example the University of
Melbourne, RMIT University and the University of Western Australia, law can now only be studied at the postgraduate level and the J.D. has completely replaced the
LL.B.
An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of fulltime study, or the equivalent.

7
cling prior to independent practice.[102]
Use of the J.D. designation by Canadian law schools is
not intended to indicate an emphasis on American law,
but rather to distinguish Canadian law degrees from English law degrees, which do not require prior undergraduate study.[83] The Canadian J.D. is a degree in Canadian Law. Accordingly, United States jurisdictions other
than New York and Massachusetts,[103] do not recognize
Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically.[104][105]
This is equivalent to the manner in which United States
J.D. graduates are treated in Canadian jurisdictions such
as Ontario.[106] To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, some pairs of law
schools, such as the New York University (NYU) Law
School and Osgoode Hall Law School,[107] the University
of Ottawa Law School and the Michigan State University
Law School or American University,[108] and the University of Windsor Law School and the University of Detroit
Mercy Law School,[109] have developed joint AmericanCanadian J.D programs.

As with graduates of the LL.B, graduates of the J.D. need

to complete practical training requirement before they are
eligible for admission to practice. An exception is the
University of Technology Sydney which oers practical
training as part of their J.D. program enabling direct admission upon graduation. At universities oering both
the J.D. and the LL.B, the core curriculum is generally
the same for both degrees. However, J.D. students may
be taught separately and assessed dierently. In addition
students enrolled in the J.D. complete Post-graduate level Two notable exceptions are Universit de Montral and
electives and required to do two dissertations in general. Universit de Sherbrooke, which both oer a one-year
The Juris Doctor is a post-graduate entry degree. It is a J.D. program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the
professional degree which is similar to other graduate en[110][111]
try degrees which are now in Australia such as the Doctor state of New York.
of Medicine.
4.2.3 China
4.2.2

Canada

The J.D. degree, an undergraduate degree,[93][94][95][96]

is the dominant law degree in Canada, replacing the
traditional LL.B. degree prominent in Commonwealth
countries.[97] The University of Toronto became the rst
to rename its law degree from LL.B. to J.D. in 2001. As
with the second-entry LL.B., in order to be admitted to a
Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed
a minimum of 2 or 3 years of study toward a bachelors degree and scored high on the North American Law
School Admission Test.[98] As a practical matter, nearly
all successful applicants have completed one or more
degrees before admission to a Canadian common law
school.[99] All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of
three years, and have similar content in their mandatory
rst year courses. The mandatory rst year courses in
Canadian law schools outside Quebec include public law
(i.e. provincial law, constitutional law, and administrative
law), property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law,
and legal research and writing.[100] Beyond rst year and
other courses required for graduation, course selection
is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural
resources law, real estate transactions, employment law,
criminal law, and Aboriginal law.[101] After graduation
from an accredited law school, each provinces or territorys law society requires completion of a bar admission
course or examination, and a period of supervised arti-

J.D.'s are not generally awarded in the Peoples Republic of China (P.R.C.) instead,a J.M. (Juris Magister) is
awarded as the counterpart of JD in the United States,
the professional degree in law in China.[112] The primary
law degree in the P.R.C. is the bachelor of law. In the
fall of 2008 the Shenzhen campus of Peking University
started the School of Transnational Law, which oers a
U.S.-style education and awards both a Chinese masters
degree and, by special authorization of the government, a
J.D.[113]
4.2.4 Hong Kong
The J.D. degree is currently oered at The Chinese
University of Hong Kong,[114] The University of Hong
Kong,[115] and City University of Hong Kong.The degree
is known as the
in Chinese, and in Cantonese it
is pronounced as Faat Leot Bok Si.[116] The J.D. in Hong
Kong is almost identical to the LL.B. and is reserved for
graduates of non-law disciplines, but the J.D. is considered to be a graduate-level degree and requires a thesis
or dissertation.[117] Like the LL.B. there is much scholarly content in the required coursework. Although the
universities oering the degree claim that the J.D. is a
two-year program, completing the degree in two years
would require study during the summer term.[118] There
seems to be much confusion of the role or status of the
J.D. in Hong Kong, as the City University website states

that their J.D. is not a research doctorate.[119] Neither the

LL.B. nor the J.D. provides the education sucient for a
license to practice, as graduates of both are also required
to undertake the PCLL course and a solicitor traineeship
or a barrister pupillage.[120]

MODERN VARIANTS AND CURRICULUM

4.2.9 Philippines

In the Philippines, the J.D. exists alongside the more common LL.B. Like the standard LL.B, it requires four years
of study, is considered a graduate degree and requires
prior undergraduate study as a prerequisite for admission, and covers the core subjects required for the bar
4.2.5 India
examinations. However, the J.D. requires students to nish the core bar subjects in just 2 years; take elective
At this time the Juris Doctor does not exist in India; no courses (such as legal theory, philosophy, and sometimes
ocial entity in India authorizes the award of such a de- even theology); undergo an apprenticeship; and write and
gree. A new venture Jindal Global Law School sought to defend a thesis.[128]
start an academic program with a recognized Juris DocThe degree was rst conferred in the Philippines by the
tor degree,[121] and the plan is well on track according to
Ateneo de Manila Law School, which rst developed the
sources.
model program later adopted by most schools now offering the J.D.. After the Ateneo, schools such as the
University of Batangas College of Law and the De La
4.2.6 Italy
Salle Lipa College of Law[129] began oering the J.D.,
No university in Italy awards a Juris Doctor degree, nor with schools such as the Far Eastern University Instiare there any plans to implement the degree. However, tute of Law oering with De La Salle Universitys Raof Business for the countrys
the law degree in Italy is longer (5 years of coursework) mon V. Del Rosario College
[130]
rst
J.D.
MBA
program.
In 2008, the University of
[122]
than a standard undergraduate program,
and lawyers
the
Philippines
College
of
Law
began conferring the J.D.
[123]
in Italy often use the title of doctor
(Italian law auon
its
graduates,
the
school
choosing
rename its LL.B.
thorizes all university graduates, including undergraduprogram
into
a
J.D.
because
to
accurately
reect the na[124]
ates, to use the title of doctor).
ture of education the university provides as nomenclature does not accurately reect the fact that the LL.B. is a
professional as well as a post baccalaureate degree.[131]
4.2.7 Japan
In 2009, the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM)
[125]
and the Silliman University College of Law also shifted
In Japan the J.D. is known as Homu Hakushi (
).
The program generally lasts three years. Two year J.D. their respective LL.B Programs to Juris Doctor -applying
programs for applicants with legal knowledge (mainly un- the change to incoming freshmen students for School
[132][133]
The newly-established De La
dergraduate level law degree holders) are also oered Year 20092010.
[126]
Salle
University
College
of
Law is likewise oerimg the
.This curriculum is professionally oriented,
but does
J.D.
,
although
it
will
oer
the
program using a trimestral
not provide the education sucient for a license to praccalendar,
unlike
the
model
curriculum
that uses a semestice as an attorney in Japan, as all candidates for a litral
calendar.In
2014,
New
Era
University
has renamed
cense must have 12 month practical training by the Letheir
Bachelor
of
Laws
program
to
the
Juris
Doctor.
gal Training and Research Institute after passing the bar
[127]
examination.
4.2.10 Singapore
4.2.8

Mexico

To become a licensed lawyer, a person must hold the Licenciado en Derecho degree obtainable by four to ve
years of academic study and nal examination. After these undergraduate studies it is possible to obtain a
Maestria degree, equivalent to a masters degree. This
degree requires two to three years of academic studies.
Finally, one can study for an additional three years to obtain the Doctor en Derecho degree. It is not termed J.D.
but it essentially comparable for the purposes of the Mexican legal system. Since most universities and law schools
must have approval from the ministry of education (Secretara de Educacin Pblica) through the general oce
of professions (Direccion General de Profesiones) all of
the academic programs are similar throughout the country in public and private law schools.

The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.) is oered

at the Singapore Management University (SMU), and it is
treated as a qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission to the legal profession in Singapore.[134] A graduate of this programme is a qualied person under Singapores legislation governing entry to the legal profession,
and is eligible for admission to the Singapore Bar.[135]
However, like its counterpart the Bachelor of Laws
(LL.B.), whether obtained from the National University of Singapore, Singapore Management University or recognised overseas universities (approved
universities),[136] the SMU J.D. is not in itself sucient
for entry into the Singapore legal profession. Qualied
persons are still required to fulll other criteria for admission to the Singapore Bar, most importantly being the
completion of Part B of the Singapore Bar Examinations,

9
and completion of the Practice Training Contract.[137]

In academia

As a professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor is the degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession (as do the M.D. in the medical profession and the
D.D.S in the dental profession). While the J.D. is the
sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or
to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D. or
D.D.S.) is not a research degree.[138] Research degrees
in the study of law include the Master of Laws (LL.M.),
which ordinarily requires the J.D. as a prerequisite,[139]
and the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which
ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.[139] However, the American Bar Association has issued a Council
Statement,[140] advising law schools that the J.D. should
be considered equivalent to the Ph.D. for educational employment purposes. Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research
in order to be awarded tenure, most only have a J.D.
The United States Department of Education and the
National Science Foundation do not include the J.D. or
other professional doctorates among the degrees that are
equivalent to research doctorates.[141] Among legal degrees, they accord this status only to the Doctor of Juridical Science degree.[141] In Europe, the European Research Council follows a similar policy.[142]

See also
Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L.)
Bachelor of Laws (LL.B)
Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.)
Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.)
Doctor of Laws (LL.D)
Master of Laws (LL.M)

7 Notes and references

[1] Association of American Universities Data Exchange.
Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education. Retrieved
2010-09-01.
[2] National Science Foundation (2006). Time to Degree
of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients (PDF). InfoBrief,
Science Resource Statistics. NSF. 06-312: 7. Under Data
notes this article mentions that the J.D. is a professional
doctorate.
[3] San Diego County Bar Association (1969). Ethics Opinion 1969-5. Retrieved 2008-05-26.. Under other references dierences between academic and professional
doctorates, and contains a statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate
[4] University of Utah (2006). University of Utah The
Graduate School Graduate Handbook. Retrieved
2008-05-28.
[5] German Federal Ministry of Education. U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher
Education (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF)
on April 13, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-26. Report by
the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the
Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating
that the J.D. is a professional doctorate.
[6] Encyclopdia Britannica 3. 2002. p. 962:1a.
[7] U.S. Department of Education (2008).
USNEIStructure of U.S. Education - Graduate/Post Education
Levels. Archived from the original on 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
[8] College Blue Book (1999). Degrees Oered by College
and Subject. New York: MacMillan. p. 817.
[9] University of California, Berkeley. General Catalog
Graduate Education Graduate Degrees and Certicates. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
[10] University
of
Southern
California
(1995).
Undergraduate and Graduate Degree Programs.
Archived from the original on 2008-04-22. Retrieved
2008-05-25.
[11] University of Melbourne. About Use - The Melbourne
JD. Retrieved 2008-05-26.

Legal education

[12] North Carolina Board of Law Examiners -NCBLE 919848-4229. Retrieved 28 August 2015.

Admission to practice law

[13] VBBE - Welcome. Retrieved 28 August 2015.

Accelerated JD program

[14] http://admissions.calbar.ca.gov/Requirements.aspx

Law degree

[15] BOLE- OFFICIAL PAGE NEW YORK STATE BAR

EXAMINATION. Retrieved 28 August 2015.

Law school in the United Statesdescribes general

characteristics of the J.D. curriculum in the U.S.
Lawyer

[16] Stevens, R. (1971). Two Cheers For 1870: The American Law School, in Law in American History, eds. Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn. Boston: Little, Brown &
Co., 1971, p. 427.

10

[17] University of Washington School of Law. JD Program

& Policies. Retrieved 2008-09-02.
[18] Russo, Eugene (2004). The Changing Length of PhDs.
Nature 431 (7006): 382383. doi:10.1038/nj7006-382a.
PMID 15372047. Retrieved 2008-09-02.
[19] JD. Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford University Press. 6 December 2010 <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/view/
entry/m_en_us1259689>
[20] DJUR - Doctor of Jurisprudence - AcronymFinder. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
[21] Verger, J. (1999). "Lexikon des Mittelalters" 5. Stuttgart:
J.B. Metzler. |contribution= ignored (help)
[22] Verger, J. (1999). "Lexikon des Mittelalters" 3. Stuttgart:
J.B. Metzler. |contribution= ignored (help)

[43] Sonsteng, J. (2007). "A Legal Education Renaissance:

A Practical Approach for the Twenty-First Century" .
William Mitchell Law Review, Vol. 34, No. 1, Revised
April 2, 2008. Accessed May 26, 2008. page 13.
[44] Stein (1981).
[45] Stein (1981), 442.
[46] Kirkwood, M. and Owens, W. A Brief History of the Stanford Law School, 18931946, Stanford University School
of Law. Accessed May 26, 2008.
[47] Moline (2003), 794.
[48] Moline (2003), 795.
[49] Kirkwood, 19.
[50] Sonsteng (2007), 15.

[23] de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: A History of the University in

Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2

[51] Moline (2003), 798.

[24] Herbermann, et al. (1915). Catholic Encyclopedia. New

York: Encyclopedia Press. Accessed May 26, 2008.

[53] Moline (2003), 801.

[25] Garca y Garca, A. (1992). The Faculties of Law, A

History of the University in Europe, London: Cambridge
University Press. Accessed May 26, 2008.
[26] Stein (1981), 434, 435.
[27] Stein (1981), 434, 436.
[28] Stein (1981), 436.
[29] Stein, R. (1981). The Path of Legal Education from Edward to Langdell: A History of Insular Reaction, Pace
University School of Law Faculty Publications, 1981, 57
Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 429, p. 430.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[52] Moline (2003), 800.

[54] Stein (1981), 445.

[55] For detailed discussions of the development of Langdells
method, see LaPiana, W. (1994). Logic and Experience:
The Origin of Modern American Legal Education, New
York: Oxford University Press; and Stein, R. (1981). The
Path of Legal Education from Edward to Langdell: A History of Insular Reaction, Pace University School of Law
Faculty Publications, 1981, 57 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 429,
pp. 449450.
[56] Ellis, D. (2001). Legal Education: A Perspective on the
Last 130 Years of American Legal Training, 6 Wash.
U.J.L. & Pol'y 157, p. 166.
[57] Moline (2003), 802.

[30] Stein (1981), 431.

[58] Sonsteng (2007), 19.
[31] Stein (1981), 432.
[32] Stein (1981), 433.
[33] Stein (1981), 434.
[34] Stein (1981), 435.
[35] Moline, Brian J., Early American Legal Education, 42
Washburn Law Journal 775, 793 (2003).
[36] Moline (2003), 775.
[37] Stein (1981), 429.
[38] Stein (1981), 438.
[39] Stein (1981), 439.
[40] Moline (2003), 781.
[41] Moline (2003), 782.
[42] Moline (2003), 782 and 783.

[59] Reed (1921), 162.

[60] Reed (1921), 165.
[61] Reed (1921), 164.
[62] Reed (1921), 167.
[63] Reed (1921), 161; and Reed, A. (1928). Present-Day
Law Schools in the United States and Canada, Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin
21, Boston: Merrymount Press, p. 78
[64] Reed (1928), 74; and Reed (1921), 169.
[65] Stevens, R. (1971). Two Cheers For 1870: The American Law School, in Law in American History, eds. Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn. Boston: Little, Brown &
Co., 1971, p. 427.
[66] Harno, A. (2004) Legal Education in the United States,
New Jersey: Lawbook Exchange, page 50.

11

[67] William Roscoe Thayer; William Richards Castle; Mark

Antony De Wolfe Howe; Arthur Stanwood Pier, Bernard
Augustine De Voto, Theodore Morrison (1902). Shall
the degree be J. D. instead of LL. B.. The Harvard graduates magazine. Harvard Graduates Magazine Association. pp. 555556. Retrieved 24 August 2011. Cite uses
deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
[68] Herbermann, 112117.
[69] David Perry, How Did Lawyers Become Doctors?,
New York State Bar Journal, June 2012, 20 at p. 21, available at [www.heinonline.org|title=Heinonline] (login required).

[85] Singapore Management Universitys (SMU) Juris Doctor degree, Ministry of Law (Singapore). Retrieved 14
February 2014.
[86] Hall, J. (1907). American Law School Degrees, Michigan
Law Review, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 112117.
[87] ABA
Standard
502,
http://www.americanbar.
org/content/dam/aba/publications/misc/legal_
education/Standards/2015_2016_chapter_5.
http://lawschool.
authcheckdam.pdf ; See, e.g.
tiu.edu/how-to-apply/requirements/
and
http:
//www.cooley.edu/prospective/bachelors.html
and
http://www.lawdegree.com/content/admission/faq.asp

[70] David Perry, How Did Lawyers Become Doctors?,

New York State Bar Journal, June 2012, 20 at pp.
22-23, available at www.heinonline.org title=Heinonline
(login required); see also What is the dierence
between the LL.B. degree and the J.D.degree?".
asklib.law.harvard.edu. Retrieved 26 August 2012.;
Schoenfeld, M. (1963). J.D. or LL.B as the Basic Law
Degree, Cleveland-Marshall Law Review, Vol. 4, pp.
573579, quoted in Joanna Lombard, LL.B. to J.D. and
the Professional Degree in Architecture, Proceedings of
the 85th ACSA Annual Meeting, Architecture: Material
and Imagined and Technology Conference, 1997. pp.
585591.

[88] For example, see J.D. Substantial Writing Requirement,

NYU School of Law. Accessed July 23, 2009.

[71] Harvard Law School. Graduate Program. Retrieved 28

August 2015.

[95] Alberta Law

[72] Graduate Legal Studies. Columbia Law School. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
[73] https://www.law.yale.edu/study-law-yale/
degree-programs/graduate-programs
[74] John H. Langbein, Scholarly and Professional Objectives
in Legal Education: American Trends and English Comparisons, Pressing Problems in the Law, Volume 2: What
are Law Schools For?, Oxford University Press, 1996.
[75] Reed, (1921), 160
[76] Reed (1921), 161
[77] LLM. Retrieved 28 August 2015.

[89] Belford, T. (2009). "Why Change to a J.D. Degree?

[90] University of Toronto J.D. admissions FAQ .
[91] Belford, T. (2009). "Why Change to a J.D. Degree?
Globe Campus. Accessed August 24, 2009.
[92] idem
[93] Law. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
[94] Windsor Law

[96] UVic Calendar: Law Courses. Retrieved 28 August

2015.
[97] Dean Patrick Monahan on the Growing Number of
Canadian Law Schools Switching from the LLB to JD
Degree Designation. Osgoode Law School. May 2012.
Archived from the original on April 1, 2013.
[98] Archived July 15, 2009 at the Wayback Machine
[99] Archived December 10, 2007 at the Wayback Machine
[100] Osgoode Hall Law School - JD Program - Degree Requirements - First Year Courses. Osgoode.yorku.ca. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
[101] Canadian law school concentrations, certicates and jointdegree programs .

[78] Langbein, J. (1996). Scholarly and Professional Objec- [102] Law Law Society of Upper Canada (Ontario) PRP .
tives in Legal Education: American Trends and English
Comparisons, Pressing Problems in the Law, Volume 2: [103] University of Toronto - Faculty of Law: Prospective Students. Law.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
What are Law Schools For?, Oxford University Press.
[79] Langbein (1996).

[104] NYU Law. Law.nyu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-15.

[80] Reed (1921), 27.

[105] Foreign Legal Education. Nybarexam.org. 2011-04-27.

Retrieved 2011-08-25.

[81] Reed (1928), 390.

[106]

[82] See, Langbein (1996).

[107] NYU/Osgoode Joint LL.B/J.D. .

[83] University of British Columbia Board of Governors ap- [108] Michigan State University School of Law and the Univerproves request for LL.B to be renamed J.D. .
sity of Ottawa Joint J.D. - LL.B. Degree Program
[84] Verication of the data in this table can be found in the [109] University of Windsor / University of Detroit. J.D./LL.B.
subsequent paragraphs of this section.
Program Accessed June 1, 2008.

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

[110] University of Montreal J.D. (Programme No 2-328-1-1) [127] Foote, D. (2005). Justice System Reform in Japan. AnAccessed December 31, 2013.
nual meeting of the Research of Sociology of Law, Paris.
European Network on Law and Society.
[111] Universit de Sherbrooke - Diplme de 2e cycle en common law et droit transnational (Juris Doctor) Assessed [128] Ateneo de Manila Law School. Philippine Leadership
Crisis and the J.D. Program. Accessed April 7, 2008.
July 23, 2014.

[112] P.R.C. National Peoples Congress. Regulations of the [129]

Peoples Republic of China on Academic Degrees(2004).
[130] Curriculum models (2006). Philippine Association of
Accessed September 12, 2008.
Law Schools.
[113] http://www.stl.szpku.edu.cn/upFile/20106/
[131] University of Philippines College of Law. News. April
20106101133125.pdf
25, 2008.
[114] http://www.law.cuhk.edu.hk/programmes/juris-doctor.
[132] The Weekly Sillimanian Vol. LXXXII No.4: SU Law
php
adopts Juris Doctor Program. By: Princess Dianne Kris
S. Decierdo. Published July 15, 2009. Archived copies
[115] The University of Hong Kong. Juris Doctor (JD)
can be viewed and veried at the Sillimaniana Section of
Overview. Accessed December 15, 2008.
the Silliman University Main Library.
[116] The Chinese University of Hong Kong School of Law.
The Juris Doctor (JD) Programme. Accessed June 29, [133] PLM Curricula and Degree Programs
2008. City University of Hong Kong. Programmes and
[134] http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/practising-as-a-lawyer/unis/
Courses: Juris Doctor. Accessed June 29, 2008.
is-the-juris-doctor-degree-offered-by-the-singapore-management-university
html Singapore Management Universitys (SMU) Juris
[117] The University of Hong Kong. Juris Doctor (JD)
Doctor degree, Ministry of Law (Singapore), Retrieved
Overview. Accessed December 15, 2008. The Chinese
14 February 2014.
University of Hong Kong. JD Programme Structure. Accessed June 29, 2008. City University of Hong Kong.
Academic Programmes: Juris Doctor. Accessed June 29, [135] Rule 5A, Legal Profession (Qualied Persons) Rules
(Cap. 161, s.2(2)) , Ministry of Law (Singapore), Re2008.
trieved 14 February 2014.
[118] The University of Hong Kong. Juris Doctor (JD)
Overview. Accessed December 15, 2008. The Chinese [136] List of approved universities, Ministry of Law (Singapore),
Retrieved 14 February 2014.
University of Hong Kong. The Juris Doctor (JD) Programme: Courses and Recommended Sequences. Ac- [137] What admission requirements must I fulll?, Ministry of
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Law (Singapore), Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Academic Programmes: Juris Doctorate. Accessed June
29, 2008. (The City University website says at the top [138] Kenneth Kaoma Mwenda, Gerry Nkombo Muuka (eds.),
of the page that it is a two-year program, then later on
The Challenge of Change in Africas Higher Education
the same page, and on other pages in the site, says that
in the 21st Century, Cambria Press (2009) ; see esp.
normally, full-time J.D. students can complete the proMwendas comments on pp. 8788, in the section labeled
gramme in 3 years.)
The Academic Rank of a JD and the quoted material
from Pappas immediately preceding it.
[119] City University of Hong Kong. Programmes and Courses.
Accessed April 7, 2008.
[139] LL.M. Program Eligibility, Yale Law School
[120] Hong Kong Bar Association. General Admission. Ac- [140] Council Statements are intended to provide law schools
cessed June 1, 2008.
with guidance on a variety of issues and are advisory only.
Council Statements are not and should not be considered
[121] About O.P. Jindal Global University. O.P. Jindal Global
the equivalent of Standards, Interpretations, and Rules for
University. Accessed February 16, 2009.
the Approval of Law Schools.
[122] The Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza is a second level [141] http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/
(masters) degree, which does not require a previous bachusnei/us/doctorate.doc
elors degree for the admission
[142] PhD and Equivalent Doctoral Degrees: The ERC Policy
[123] Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates. Accessed
(PDF). Retrieved 2013-05-25.
February 16, 2009.
[124] Regio Decreto 4 giugno 1938, n.1269, art. 48 (in Italian).
Accessed February 16, 2009.
[125] Justice System Reform Council (2001). For a Justice System to Support Japan in the 21st Century.
[126] Yokohama National University Law School.Program Introduction and Deans Message. Accessed April 7, 2008.

8 External links

13

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Juris Doctor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor?oldid=704290274 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Rmhermen, LK~enwiki,

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Yamamoto Ichiro, Writerchick, Naraht, SchuminWeb, Nskinsella, JdforresterBot, Aaronw, Bgwhite, Cornellrockey, YurikBot, Jachin,
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Pstanton, Kablammo, HappyInGeneral, Marek69, JustAGal, RFerreira, EdJohnston, Oreo Priest, KrakatoaKatie, HarvardOxon, WRHowellJr, Tjmayerinsf, Mack2, Cjs2111, Serpents Choice, Andonic, Demophon, Fergdoug, VoABot II, X-factor, JaGa, Textorus, Gun Powder
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Azureth, Alanscottwalker, LarryJe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Iune, Zorrobot, Orielense, AprylMcHae, Swcrowe, Hallett87, Yobot, Legobot
II, Newportm, Mv-22, Bbb23, AnomieBOT, FranklinFields, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Seanr30.612, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Homobot,
Pizdetz, Quark1005, JurisDoctor1, Srich32977, Br71488, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, AlexanderKaras, Theowoo,
HJ Mitchell, Chattamaca, Wireless Keyboard, Citation bot 1, Maggyero, Fuzbaby, Jonesey95, Aclarado, Cockaigne Land, Lindasuppen,
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Monkbot, AurekBesh, Mobbiedick, Dj459, 1wicked, Thebmj and Anonymous: 742

9.2

Images

File:Joseph_Story.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Joseph_Story.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.oyez.org/justices/joseph_story/portrait/ Original artist: George Peter Alexander Healy
File:Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Juris_Doctor_diploma.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Swampyank at English Wikipedia
File:Langdell.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Langdell.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: not
stated Original artist: not stated
File:London-Inns-of-Court.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/London-Inns-of-Court.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Marc Baronnet Original artist: Marc Baronnet
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File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0