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CO 2 UTILIZATION VIA INTENSIFIED AND INTEGRATED MINERAL CARBONATION:

PROCESS AND PRODUCTS OPTIMIZATION
*R.M. Santos1, P.C.M. Knops2 and K. Rijnsburger2
1

Sheridan Institute of Technology

7899 McLaughlin Road
Brampton, Canada L6Y 5H9
(*Corresponding author: rafael.santos@sheridancollege.ca)
2

Innovation Concepts B.V.

Lombardstraat 12
Gorinchem, The Netherlands 4201 BH
ABSTRACT
To overcome the challenges of mineral CO 2 sequestration, this work utilizes a unique proprietary
Gravity Pressure Vessel (GPV) reactor technology, and focuses on reaction products of high economic
value. The GPV provides intense process conditions through hydrostatic pressurization and heat exchange
integration that harvests exothermic reaction energy. Here, laboratory-scale tests of the envisioned process
was performed in tubular and continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) autoclave reactors. The mineral
used was Olivine (~Mg 1.6 Fe2+ 0.4 (SiO 4 ) + ppm Ni/Cr), although asbestos, steel slags and oil shale residues
are also under investigation. The effect of several process parameters on reaction extent and product
properties was tested: CO 2 pressure, temperature, residence time, additives (buffers, lixiviants, chelators,
oxidizers), solids loading, and mixing rate. The products (carbonates, amorphous silica and Chromite) were
physically separated (based on size, density and magnetic properties), characterized (for chemistry,
mineralogy and morphology) and tested in intended applications (e.g. as pozzolanic carbon-negative
building material). Economically, it is found that product value is the main driver for mineral carbonation,
rather than, or in addition to, the sequestered CO 2 . The approach of using a GPV and focusing on valuable
reaction products could thus make CO 2 mineralization a feasible and sustainable hydrometallurgical
process.
KEYWORDS
Mineral carbonation, CO 2 sequestration, Olivine, Carbonate, Silica, Chromite, Gravity Pressure Vessel,
Process intensification, Building materials, Mineral separation.

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INTRODUCTION
The continuous CO 2 emissions are causing multiple environmental effects, but given the available
quantity of fossil fuels a drastic reduction is not likely to happen in the near future. The emitted CO 2 partly
remains in the atmosphere as a gas, and partly is taken up by one of natures carbon cycles. There are three
carbon cycles: the short organic cycle (the storage of CO 2 in biomass), the long organic cycle (the storage
of CO 2 in fossil fuels and other organic forms), and the long inorganic cycle (the storage of CO 2 in
minerals, e.g. Lime and Dolomite). Carbon capture by mineral carbonates has the highest capacity and
storage stability; hence it is viewed as a potential route to permanent CO 2 sequestration at large (industrial)
scales (Lackner, 2003). Prof. W.S. Broecker (Broecker, 2008) stated: I am also convinced that, in the long
term, we must turn to solutions that involve chemical neutralization (immobilization) of CO 2 , as opposed
to simply storing it in gaseous form. ..Ultimately, we must learn to economically bind CO 2 with the
magnesium and calcium contained in silicate rocks, whether it be under in situ or ex situ conditions.
This research focuses on the inorganic carbon cycle, namely mineral carbonation. However, the
goal is not simply CO 2 sequestration, but also to use CO 2 as a feedstock to produce valuable materials.
Plenty of materials are suitable as input minerals, such as Wollastonite (Calcium-silicate) and Olivine (Mgsilicate). In addition, residual products from mines and industrial processes could also be used (examples:
asbestos, oilshale residue, nickel mining tailings, red mud and steelmaking slags). From a chemical point
of view, the reaction between the carbonic acid and the alkaline material is a typical neutralization reaction.
The main challenge is that the geochemical process to capture CO 2 is rather slow, making it unsuitable for
large scale industrial implementation unless process intensification can be engineered. In addition,
economic challenges exist, as associated operating costs can be high, while CO 2 prices remain relatively
low.
The main research objective of this work is therefore to accelerate the kinetics of the reaction,
from the geological time scale to the industrial time scale, in an economic manner. More specifically, to
conform to process limitations of the Gravity Pressure Vessel (GPV) reactor technology, introduced later,
the maximum residence time should not exceed 90 minutes. This requirement is tied to production and
recovery of sufficient quantities of valuable products in an acceptable processing time. The acceleration
takes place at high temperatures and pressures, and by the use of additives and other optimization
parameters. As for economics, the aim is to generate valuable products (minerals and reaction heat energy)
that off-set processing costs, independent of CO 2 prices.
Olivine
The focus of this research is on the mineral Olivine ((Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 ). There are several advantages
of using Olivine for mineral carbonation: 20 years of scientific research; commonly mined mineral;
extensive mineral reserves; relatively fast carbonation rate (from a geological perspective); relatively
inexpensive mineral (with low value current applications); contains, besides Mg-silicates, also Fe-, Cr-,
and Ni- compounds (i.e. potential metal ore). The Olivine reaction with CO 2 proceeds as follows
(considering only Forsterite and omitting the metallic compounds):
Mg 2 SiO 4 + 2CO 2 + H 2 O SiO 2 + 2MgCO 3 + H 2 O (H= 2.7MJ/kg,CO 2 )

(1)

The exothermic nature of the process means that the process is spontaneous, but still rather slow.
At ambient conditions, the typical weathering rate is only 1-10 m per year (ten Berge, van der Meer,
Steenhuizen, Goedhart, Knops, & Verhagen, 2012). Prior research indicates that Olivine carbonation is
accelerated in aqueous environment, under elevated salt concentrations (e.g. seawater), under abrasive
conditions (to remove passivating layers), at elevated temperatures, and when exposed to organic acids
(e.g. plant roots have been shown to increase the dissolution rate of Olivine). As such, these strategies are
combined and implemented in the GPV process.

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The starting point of the present research is the optimization of Olivine carbonation achieved by
OConnor, Dahlin, Rush, Gerdemann, Penner and Nilsen (2005) in slurry reactors. The optimal conditions
consisted of: temperature of 185 C; 100 bar pressure (CO 2 + H 2 O); 0.64 M NaHCO 3 additive; 1 M NaCl
additive; finely ground Olivine (about 20 m diameter). Using traditional autoclaves technologies, these
high temperatures and pressures consume excessive amounts of energy, which lowers net CO 2
sequestration and overall plant energy efficiency. For this reason, the GPV technology is introduced.
Gravity Pressure Vessel
The GPV (illustrated in Figure 1) is a plug-flow autoclave that consists of three concentric tubes:
the innermost is termed downcomer, the middle one is termed upcomer, and the outermost is termed jacket.
The reactor is built deep into the ground, with lengths that can reach up to 2400 m, resulting in hydrostatic
built pressures that can reach 120 bar. The reactor feed is a slurry of water and milled Olivine. As the
slurry flows into the downcomer tube, it is preheated by the counter-flowing slurry in upcomer. Once the
stream temperature of the downcomer is sufficiently high, carbonation commences, generating exothermic
heat that continues to drive the reaction. Carbon dioxide is injected at multiple levels along the
downcomer; the total CO 2 feed rate is marginally higher than the stoichiometric amount required for
complete carbonation. The reacting slurry flows back up the upcomer, eventually giving up its heat to
preheat the new feed. Nominal volumetric slurry flow rate is 85 m3/h, which results in one hour residence
time in the reactor. The jacket flow can be used during the reactor start-up to provide initial heat to ignite
the reaction, or to recover excess heat during reactor steady-state operation.

Figure 1 Conceptual layout of CO 2 Energy Reactor (not to scale) (Santos et al., 2013, licensed under
CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)
The GPV configuration leads to a few unique advantages: a built-in heat exchanger (U-tube-intube design); pressure is built up by hydrostatic forces; mixing is turbulent and abrasive (autogenously)
with no moving parts; residence time is a direct function of reactor half-length; small footprint;
underground installation. Also, by continuously recycling exothermic reaction heat, up to 70% of the
energy can be conserved (Santos, Verbeeck, Knops, Rijnsburger, Pontikes, & Van Gerven, 2013). For
these reasons, the energy consumption in a GPV is estimated to be only a fraction of traditional reactor
designs. The main design limitations of the GPV are: residence time maximum of ~90 minutes (depending
on depth and diameter); maximum pressure ~150 bar (depending on the gas/solid/water volume ratios in

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combination with the depth); maximum temperature ~300C (due to mechanical considerations); and
continuous liquid phase required.
The first patent of the GPV technique was granted for wet-air oxidation of sewage sludge
(McGrew, 1981). As an extension of that design, and based on lessons learned from 12 years of operational
experience in Apeldoorn (the Netherlands), Innovation Concepts B.V. has patented the application of GPV
to mineral carbonation (Rijnsburger & Knops, 2011). The reactor technology has been termed CO 2
Energy Reactor.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
The Olivine was supplied by Sibelco and produced at their Norwegian mine located at Aheim (west
coast of Norway, south of lesund). This is a standard product (GL30), typically used for sandblasting, and
was therefore consistent in terms of properties. The chemical composition of the Olivine, determined by
Wavelength Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (WDXRF), and evaluated as oxides (with iron in Fe2+ state),
was: MgO 44.8 wt%; SiO 2 43.7 wt%; FeO 8.5 wt%; Al 2 O 3 1.06 wt%; Cr 2 O 3 0.62 wt%; NiO 0.50 wt%.
The mineralogical composition of the Olivine, determined by Quantitative X-ray Diffraction (QXRD)
is presented in Table 1. This composition is close to Forsteritic Olivine (Mg 1.8 Fe 0.2 SiO 4 ), as has been
previously reported for Aheim Olivine. It should be emphasized that Fayalite does not exist as a separate
mineral phase; instead, the Olivine mineral lattice is occupied primarily by magnesium (i.e. Forsterite) and
iron is present as a substitution for magnesium in the crystal lattice.
Table 1 Mineral composition of GL30 Olivine (crystalline fraction), determined by QXRD
Mineral phase
Forsterite
Forsterite, ferrian
Enstatite, ferrian
Enstatite
Clinochlore
Chromite
Phlogopite
Actinolite
Magnetite
Antigorite

Mass %
81.8
5.82
3.36
2.94
2.40
1.60
1.44
0.33
0.28
0.03

Besides the standard GL30, tests were also conducted on milled GL30, obtained using a rotary mill
and passing 80 micron sieve, and GL10, which is a fines reject from the GL30 production process.
Chemical and mineralogical properties of GL10 were similar to GL30.
Carbonation Reaction
Given the hydrostatic pressurization of a Gravity Pressure Vessel and its dependence on length to
achieve the desired residence time, it is not possible to faithfully scale it down. In order to test the
mineralization process, a Rocking Autoclave was built as a lab-scale representation of the foreseen fullscale process (Figure 2). The rocking autoclave consists of a 1.8 litre tube, which can be filled with the
material, fluids and additives and then sealed, pressurized and heated.
The tube is positioned vertically and regularly rotated 180 in order to simulate the slurry flow in
the GPV and to promote mixing. The rotation is performed rather quickly (within one second), and then
paused in order to let the solids descend in the liquid and the gas moves up. Once this sequence is passed,

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the autoclave is rotated the other way around, such that the top becomes the bottom and vice versa. This is
continuously repeated for the duration of the reaction, in addition to the heating up and cooling down
periods. There is no other mixing regime imposed except for the natural flow pattern created by flipping
the autoclave back and forth. This gentle mixing, compared to rotating impellers, contributes to reduction
of pressure fluctuations within the reactor, which can have benefits for the reaction (a topic of present
research, not reported here).

Figure 2 Schematic of lab-scale Rocking Autoclave (a) and actual picture of Rocking Autoclave at
~45 rotation (b)
During the test, a preferred temperature/time profile can be applied by controlling electric heat
supply and cooling water supply (Figure 3). While rocking and under heat, CO 2 (92% purity, balance N 2 )
is added to carry out the carbonation. The envisioned process will not require high purity CO 2 (mineral
carbonation proceeds according to CO 2 partial pressure), although minimizing inert gases (such as N 2 ) is
desired to reduce compression costs. Low levels of impurities such as SO 2 can also be handled in the GPV
process since they will become neutralized (e.g. sulphate production).

Figure 3 Simulated full-scale GPV T&P profile (a); Experimental Rocking Autoclave T&P profile (b)

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Once the reaction was completed, the cooled reactor contents were decanted to separate the solid
phase from the liquid phase. The thickened slurry was rinsed and decanted again to remove salts. When
using coarser Olivine, gravity separation was used to separate reaction products (carbonate and silica
particles) from unreacted/passivated Olivine particles. Typically the latter was the heavier phase, except
when compared to Chromite-rich grains that were even heavier. When using finely milled Olivine,
decantation was not performed to separate phases. Solids were oven dried prior to further characterization
and application.
The studied process parameters included: solids-to-liquid ratio; Olivine particle size (prepared by
milling); type and concentration of additives (salts, organic acids, inorganic acids, chelating agents,
oxidizing agents); reaction time; reaction temperature (maximum and profile); and CO 2 pressure. For
brevity, select results are presented here. The investigated effects of these parameters were: reaction
kinetics and conversion; product composition and morphology; ease of product separation (from the
unreacted/passivated feed and between different product phases).
Product Characterization
Solids were characterized for chemical and crystalline mineral composition using XRF and QXRD
methods, respectively. The carbonate content of solids was determined by Thermogravimetric Analysis
(TGA). Particle size distribution of powders was determined by wet Laser Diffraction. The morphology of
particles was inspected by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), with point elemental analysis by EnergyDispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX). Specific surface area was determined by BrunauerEmmettTeller
(BET) Nitrogen Adsorption. Liquid samples were characterized by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) for elemental composition.
Product Application
The primary application of the reaction products that has been investigated to date is as substitute
material in mortar and concrete applications. The reaction products are sufficiently stable to be used in
bound applications (i.e. no undesirable hydration swelling) as aggregate, and possess sufficient level of
pozzolanic activity to partly replace cement in the building materials. The pozzolanic character imparts the
highest value to the product, and as such has been focus of research. It can be maximized through
optimization of separation, specific surface area and amorphous silica content. This is a topic of ongoing
research and will not be presented here.
In addition to building materials application, recovery of metallic components (primarily nickel
and chromium) from carbonated Olivine is also a topic of interest and ongoing research. Santos, Van
Audenaerde, Chiang, Iacobescu, Knops and Van Gerven (2014), and Chiang, Santos, Van Audenaerde,
Monballiu, Van Gerven and Meesschaert (2014), have reported on nickel extraction efforts using chemical
and biological means. Further work on physical separation is ongoing, but will not be presented here.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figures 4, 5 and 6 present experimental results on the effects of pressure, temperature and particle
size on the carbonation conversion of Olivine within the Rocking Autoclave. In addition to these graphical
results, tests were also conducted on the effects of reaction time, solids loading, use and concentration of
organic acid additives; these will be briefly discussed in the text.
Effect of Pressure
As expected increasing pressure results in higher conversion (Figure 4). One explanation is that a
higher pressure results in more CO 2 being dissolved in the aqueous phase, producing more carbonic acid.
Hence, the pH of the solution is lowered, which speeds the mineral dissolution rate (i.e. leaching of
magnesium from Olivine). In addition, as the concentration of carbonate anions (CO 3 2-) increases, the

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precipitation of the MgCO 3 is favoured. Continuous precipitation of carbonate enables further leaching of
magnesium, thereby never reaching solubility limits.

Figure 4 Pressure effects on the carbonation conversion (tests conditions: GL30 Olivine, 20% m/m solids
loading, 175 C, 180 minutes, 0.64 M NaHCO 3 , 0.056 M organic acids)
The pressure dependence is noted to be linear in the conversion range covered (5-20%), which is
in agreement with prior work of Santos et al. (2014). In that work, which used a continuously stirred tank
reactor (CSTR), much higher conversion were reached (up to 100%) as a result of longer residence times
(up to 72 hours) and smaller particle size. The present relatively low conversion is mainly due to the use of
GL30 Olivine, which is relatively coarse. For the intended full-scale GPV, finer Olivine would be used
(more details on particle size effect discussed later).
Effect of Temperature
Temperature was also seen to affect carbonation conversion (Figure 5). There are a few
phenomenon that are depending on temperature. First, the solubility of CO 2 decreases with higher
temperatures. This results in a higher pH, which is detrimental for the mineral dissolution rate. Second, and
conversely, the dissolution rate of silicate minerals increases with higher temperatures. Combining these
effects, it is clear that an optimum temperature exists for each mineral.

Figure 5 Temperature effects, without organic acids, on carbonation conversion (tests conditions: GL10
Olivine, 20% m/m solids loading, 100 bar pressure, 360 minutes, 0.64 M NaHCO 3
In the case of Olivine, the optimum has been reported to be about 175 C (Kwon, Fan, DaCosta, &
Russell, 2012). However, if the CO 2 pressure is further increased, as in the present study, it is possible to
conduct the carbonation at yet higher temperatures, since the lower solubility is counteracted. Therefore, at
100 bar pressure, the optimum temperature lies around 220 C.

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From thermodynamic calculations, mineral stability be calculated. These calculations are pressure,
temperature and composition dependent. Such calculations show that at higher temperatures Magnesite
(anhydrous magnesium carbonate) is favoured. In comparison, a number of hydrated minerals is favoured
at milder conditions (e.g. hydromagnesite, nesquehonite, etc.). Therefore, operating at higher temperatures
enables production of a consistently pure carbonate mineral.
Effect of Reaction Time
The reaction conversion versus time is also linear (data not plotted), but after approximately 400
minutes no further carbonation was reached. The main issue is the formation of passivating layers. These
can be caused by the precipitation of the Mg- and Fe ions on the surface of the incompletely reacted
particles, or by the formation of a residual silica layer once the alkaline and metallic elements are leached.
Through SEM imaging both of these phenomenon can be observed, and are focus of ongoing research. In
intensely stirred processes (CSTR autoclave), such layers are removed due to particle-particle, particlewall, and particle-impeller interactions. Mixing in the Rocking Autoclave is much gentler (gravitational
with low settling velocity). In the full-scale GPV, mixing will be considerably more turbulent, due to plug
flow, hence particle abrasion is expected to be more extensive, resulting in linear carbonation conversion
trend up to high conversion values. Research is ongoing on the effect of mixing rate on carbonation
conversion.
Effect of Particle Size
Because the reaction proceeds by surface-controlled mineral dissolution mechanism, it is
imperative that a high surface-to-volume ratio is created by first crushing and milling the freshly mined
mineral to a specific particle size. However, mechanical grinding is an energy consuming step and thus
diminishes net CO 2 sequestration of the process. In particular, milling to average size of < 20 m is very
expensive.
Rocking Autoclave tests have been performed with several particle size distributions: standard
GL30 (avg. ~110 m), milled GL30 (avg. 20 m), and GL10 (avg. 18 m). The results (Figure 6) show
that smaller average particle size results in higher carbonation conversion. An average particle size of
around 20 m, combined with optimized processing conditions and implementation in the turbulent GPV
would appear to deliver conversion of roughly 50%. This means that the weathering rate is somewhat less
than 6.7 m/hour. Hence, product separation remains a necessary post-reaction step.

Figure 6 Particle size effects on carbonation conversion (tests conditions: 20% m/m solids loading, 100
bar pressure, 175 C, 180 minutes, 0.64 M NaHCO 3 , 0.056 M organic acids)
Effect of Solids Loading
In theory, a higher solid loading in the Rocking Autoclave means more particle-particle
interaction, which should increase the carbonation conversion by removing the passivating layers from the

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surface of the Olivine. However, this effect does not take place in the Rocking Autoclave between 20%
and 45% m/m solids loading ratios. This can be attributed to the gentle mixing regime. In the GPV, the
effect of solids loading on carbonation conversion should be more prominent. In addition, higher solids
loading leads to higher production capacity of each GPV. At the same time, pumping limitations
(economic and technical) would place a limit on the maximum feasible solids loading.
Effect of Additives
To improve the overall reaction rate, one must speed up the rate limiting step. In the present
process, mineral dissolution limits the rate. Increasing the leaching rate of magnesium can proceed by
decreasing the pH, adding acids or organic ligands. It should be noted that any extractant must be stronger
than the silicic acid, to enable leaching of the silicate, but at the same time must be weaker than carbonic
acid, since it should be replaced by the carbonic acid in the precipitation step. Another option is adding a
buering agent (e.g. NaHCO 3 ) that will regulate the leaching-precipitation mechanisms, particularly
promoting carbonate anion formation. Additives do, however, pose challenges because they can be costly
and need to be removed and recycled from the end slurry. They can also be harmful to the environment.
The effect of additives on the carbonation rate is significant. The effect of NaHCO 3 are mentioned
in various publications, like Barat et al. (2006), and has been confirmed in the present work
(concentration of at least 0.5 M is beneficial). Substitutes for sodium bicarbonate like ammonium
bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate have been tested, but show lower carbonation conversion than
sodium bicarbonate.
NaCl is another commonly used additive for increasing the carbonation rate and conversion.
Rocking Autoclave tests, however, showed no significant increase. Chloride limits the amount of
applications for the carbonated Olivine and causes a higher capital expenditures (CAPEX) due to corrosion
effects. Hence, it makes sense to eliminate this additive.
Organic acids are typically used for removing scale from piping and reactor systems. Noting that
residual acids appeared to improve carbonation conversion, tests were conducted on different acids at
different concentrations. A proprietary mixture at a concentration of 0.056 M delivered optimal results.
Acids that did not deliver good results included lactic, citric and formic acids. A scientific explanation for
the effects of the combination of organic acids has not yet been found.
Product Characterization
The pressure in a Rocking Autoclave (and full-scale GPV) is much more constant than in a CSTR.
The mixing between the solids and fluids (gases, water and supercritical CO 2 ) is done by flow and gravity.
Due to this continuous mixing, no significant pressure fluctuations takes place, and the precipitation
process is more preferentially organized (e.g. silica on silica and carbonate on carbonate). Only during the
pressure release at the end of the batch, does precipitation occur on residual Olivine particles. This was
noted both by the decrease in conversion degree with sequential batches of the same solids, and under the
SEM inspection.
Due to the preferred precipitation, purer solids are formed. This is visualized in Figure 7, which
shows a general view of the evenly sized product particles (separated by decantation from unreacted, and
heavier, Olivine), and a magnified view of the particle morphology. Using EDX, it was possible to
differentiate Magnesite-rich particles (which consist of agglomerated primary crystals) and silica-rich
particles (which consist of colloidal aggregates of primary spherical particles). Some particles are a
combination of the two products.
Valorization of the product can be maximized by separating the two main phases: carbonate and
silica. A preliminary trial was performed to separate these phases by density. The two produced fractions (a
floating and a sinking fraction) are characterized by both TGA (mass loss upon heating, showing the

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amount of sequestered CO 2 ) and by QXRD (showing the mineralogical composition). Figure 8 presents the
TGA profile of two fractions, one of density < 2.76 g/cm3 and another of density between 2.76 and
3.33g/cm3. It is evident that the denser fraction is richer in carbonate; this was verified by QXRD. The less
dense fraction is richer in silica, as verified by its greater amorphous mineral content. Further optimization
is needed to better separate the two materials.

Figure 7 SEM images of carbonated Olivine fines (product); right-hand image indicates Magnesite-rich
and silica-rich particles, identified by morphology inspection and verified by EDX

Figure 8 TGA results of floating and sinking carbonated Olivine fines (product) particles
To understand the mechanism of colloidal silica formation, partially reacted Olivine particles were
inspected by SEM. Figure 9 shows an image of spherical silica particles (~0.5 m) forming on the furnace
of Olivine. These particles later form clusters of colloidal silica (5 - 25 m) (Figure 9). The surface of the
dissolving Olivine particle is seen as being crackled (Figure 9).
The nickel separation is still subject of study. Nickel is contained in the Olivine matrix (it takes
the place of a magnesium) and is therefore released when the Olivine is being dissolved. Chelating agents
could be a way to capture this valuable product. Santos et al. (2014) investigated post-carbonation leaching
of nickel from the reaction products.
The Chromium is present as Chromite micro-crystals in the Olivine. These were concentrated in
the densest material fraction upon gravity separation (density > 3.3 g/cm3). These particles were identified
by SEM-EDX (Figure 10). Some of the partially-reacted Olivine was also present in this fraction. The
presence of Chromite was also noticed by the appearance of small blackish particles during the decantation
separation of the unreacted Olivine immediately after processing. Further separation optimization is

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required to maximize recovery of these particles. Preliminary tests have showed that these particles are
highly magnetic, so both density and the magnetic separation could be used to separate Chromite from the
other materials.

Figure 9 SEM image of dissolving Olivine particle surface

Figure 10 SEM image of particles with density > 3.3 g/cm3; Chromite particles (indicated) were detected
by EDX
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the CO 2 Energy Reactor can be an important component of the multi-array of
carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technologies needed to substantially reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and stabilize, if not reduce, atmospheric levels. Compared to other CO 2 sequestration
techniques, a major advantage of the present approach is the production of several valuable products
(Magnesite, colloidal silica, Chromite particles), which can help off-set processing costs. Given that the
amount of Fe, Ni and Cr are not high, at small scales (~100 kilotonnes range) the production of the
magnesium carbonate and silica remain as the main economic drivers. At large scales (megatonnes) the
metal components, along with the sequestered CO 2 and the exothermic re-usable heat energy also become
important economic drivers.
As mentioned throughout the article, several research questions are still under investigation. The
main challenges are further intensification of the reaction, to achieve high product recoveries within the

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GPV limitations, and better separation of the product fractions. In addition, testing of the products in
potential applications, as an aggregate or pozzolan replacement, is under way. Current focus is on building
materials, papermaking and polymer applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Prof. Tom Van Gerven and Prof. Jan Elsen (KU Leuven) for
their valued contribution and for permitting access to their analytical equipment. Sibelco is thanked for the
supply of Olivine. The work was partially supported by the Dutch Institute for Sustainable Process
Technology (ISPT).
REFERENCES
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