Professional Documents
Culture Documents
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II
NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
COURSE CODE: CEC242
YEAR I- SE MESTER I
THEORY
Version 1: December 2008
COURSE INDEX
PAGE
WEEK ONE
1.0 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND REVOLUTION
1.01 Bronze Age
1.02 The Iron Age
1.03 The Middle Age
1.04 Industrial Revolution-19th Century
1.05 Atomic, Nuclear and Space Era-20TH Century
1.06 Computer and Information Age (1950-Date)
1.20 Evolution of Technological Civilizations
1.30 Indices of developed society
1.31 Energy Supply
1.32 Transportation System
1.33 Communication system
1.40 Summary
1.50 Nomadic and Past Nomadic Era
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WEEK TWO
2.0 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
2.01 19th Century
2.02 20th Century
2.10 Scientific Management
2.11 Objectives of Scientific Management
2.12 Principles of scientific management
2.13 Advantages of scientific management
2.14 Some Aspects of Scientific Management
2.15 Non Human Aspects
2.20 FREDERICK .W. TAYLOR (1856-1917)
2.30 HENRY LAWRENCE GANTT 1861-1919
2.40 HENRI FAYOL (1841-1925)
2.50 FRANK GILBRETH (1868-1924)
2.51 The One Best Way:
2.52 Motion Study
2.53 Time Study
2.54 Three-position Plan of Promotion
2.60 ELTON MAYO (1880-1949)
2.70 The role of Civil Engineer in National Development
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WEEK THREE
3.0 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS (PROCESSES)
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3.15 Motivation
3.16 Effective communication
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WEEK FOUR
4.0 DESIGNING AN ORGANIZATION
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WEEK FIVE
5.0 Parties To Civil Engineering Contracts And Their Inter Relationships
5.01 Client
5.02 Consultant
5.03 Contractor
5.10 Contract Documents
5.20 Statement of the Scope of the Contract
5.30 Data affecting the execution of the works.
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WEEK SIX
6.0 Types And Scope Of Civil Engineering Contracts
6.10 Bills of Quantities Contract
6.20 Schedule-of-Rates Contracts
6.30 Lump-sum Contracts
6.40 Cost-plus percentage Contract
6.50 Cost-plus Fixed-fee Contract
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WEEK SEVEN
7.0 Student Excursion
7.1 Visit a construction site
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WEEK EIGHT
8.0 PROJECT PLANNING AND COST CONTROL
8.1 Project Planning-Network Techniques
8.2 Deterministic Project Planning (CPM) Preparation
8.21 METHODS OF PREPARING A (CPM) NETWORK
8.30 The Elements of an Activity on- an -Arrow Network
8.40 Principle of Dependency
8.41 Merge Event & Burst Event
8.42 Common Errors in Logicality of Network Diagrams
8.43 Dummy Activity
8.44 Identify Dummies
8.45 Logic Dummies
8.50 Network Construction
8.60 Activity Duration
8.61 Project Duration
8.62 Application of NWT
8.63 Limitations
8.70 Technique OF Estimation
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WEEK NINE
9.0 MATERIAL QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES
9.01 Concrete
9.02 Cement
9.03 Water
9.04 Admixtures
9.1 Mixing
9.2 Transportation
9.3 Placement
9.4 Curing
9.5 Property Monitoring
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WEEK TEN
10.0 Concrete Mix Design
10.1 Definition
10.11 Purpose of Mix design
10.12 Objects of Mix design
10.13 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportion
10.2 Types of cement
10.21 Maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate.
10.22 Grading of combined aggregate
10.23 Water / Cement ratio
10.24 Workability
10.25 Durability
10.26 Quality Control
10.30
Grades of concrete and requirements for structures
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10.40 Methods of Concrete Mix Design
10.50 The Department of Environments Design (DOE Method)
10.51 Step by Step Procedure to DOE mix design
10.6 Determination of cement content
10.61 Determination of Total Aggregate Content
10.62 Determination of Fine Aggregate
10.7 Worked example as class-room demonstration
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and general construction
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WEEK ELEVEN
11.0 Construction Machine, Plants and Labour
11.01 Introduction
11.1 Classes of Mechanical Equipment
11.2 General Factors in the Selection of Construction Equipment
11.3 Selection Process
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WEEK TWELVE
12.0 Earth Moving Equipment
12.10The Utilization of Earth-Moving Equipment
12.2 Fundamentals of Earth-Moving
12.3 Materials
Swell
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Load Factor
Compatibility
WEEK THIRTEEN
13.0 Maintenance
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Maintenance Department
13.3 Breakdown Maintenance
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WEEK FOURTEEN
14.0 Effective Methods Of Transferring Knowledge And Skills To Subordinates
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14.01 Introduction
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14.02 Parties Involved in the Transfer Process
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14.20 Principles of Knowledge and Skill
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14.30 Transfer by Engaging the Principles of Effective Supervision
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14.40 Transfer by Engaging the Principles of Effective Scientific, Technical and Technological
Teaching
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Conclusion
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WEEK FIFTEEN
15.0 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
15.1 Definition of some Accounting Terms
15.11 Book-Keeping
15.12 Financial Accountant
15.13 Business
15.14 Transaction
15.15 A Cash Transaction
15.16 A Credit Transaction:
15.2 Starting a Business
15.21 Assets
15.22 Fixed Assets
15.23 Current Assets
15.24 Purchases
15.25 Sales
15.26 Stock
15.27 Liabilities
15.28 Current Liabilities
15.29 Long Term Liabilities
15.30 Capital
15.31 Drawings
15.32 Accounting Equation
15.3 Double Entry System
15.4 An Account
15.5 Features of an Account
15.6Steps to follow in According by the Double Entry System
15.7 Double Entry and Accounts
15.8 Classification of Accounts
15.81 Personal Accounts
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WEEK ONE
1.0 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND REVOLUTION
Mans social structure was transformed from the wandering nomadic to organized
settlements or post nomadic era. This developed out of the need to have agricultural
communities and protection for each other. The soil cultivation resulted in the sudden
stoppage of wandering and of periodic food supply.
This agricultural discovery, however, brought about rough division of labour whore
man does the heavier task while the wife and children do the lighter domestic tasks. The
development of settlements brought out the creation of new ideas and needs of the society in
terms of security, organization and efficiency in doing things. This led to a more efficient
system of production and occupational division of labour and introduction of trade by barter;
this development however resulted into the formation of what is now called the market place
where exchange of surplus food and other items takes place.
Mans bare hands were his first tool followed by wood, bones, stones and metal tools
in this order. However this premature age pored way for more technical activities in the
bronze age where bronze, alloy of tin and copper, was mans first hard metal, utilized in the
making of weapons, tools and other domestic utilities. Some typical examples of tools
developed in this era include the following: Bows, arrows, axes, spoons, cutlasses, knives,
chisels, gorges, razors, boats and chariots.
Other technical innovations in this era is the introduction of the tongs for handling hot
metals, bellows for metallurgical processes and development of wax process for castings.
Infact, the first technological revolutions ended with the bronze age by the year 2500 BC.
The first solid metal called iron was accidentally discovered by a man who saw
glooming show from a stone in fire, which produced a solid black form after cooling.
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Cooking utensils made from clay was developed out of the need to store and cook cereals.
The development of textile machines for spinning cotton, wool and the looms for weaving
materials. The need to meet the growing human population as a result of limited animal skin.
The periodic flooding of the valleys of the river Nile in Egypt, Indus in former India, the
Mesopotamia in Iraq gave birth to the idea of irrigation which subsequently enhance food
production and improved cropping.
However, the development and growth of settlements, cities & towns led to the birth
of auxiliary services emanating from agriculture, such as black & white smiths, wheel
wrights, shoe makers and plough makers, builders and tails. More so, the idea of labour
division brought about specialization in smelting, casting, working in copper and the
formation auxiliary occupation like bakery and brewing. The use of ox-drawn plough and
wheel cart started in the Indus valley about 2,300-1, 700 BC.
Later, the tribesman in the mountains of Armania discovered the use of heavier and cheaper
steel utilized to produced tools and weapons as a substitute to the rate and costly light bronze.
Iron tools made possible the cutting of funnels, building of bigger and better ships and
weapons.
The idea of technological societies started with the independent craftsman in athons
who grouped together and were recognized as a specialized technical field.
This era saw the collapse of Roman Empire, most agricultural communities became
self-reliant. Technological innovations were further resuscitated when scholarship was added
to manual labour. In other to protect injurious artisanship, sort of regulatory bodies called
slide were formed. The slides boosted incentives to invent and improve the then existing
technologies by adopting and developing and developing borrowed techniques and
technologies.
This period also saw the birth of trade fairs that boosted technological innovations and
developments. This later resulted into a religious fair of modest honest trading.
This religious fair in the twelfth century (1200AD) took advantages of its location in
Germany and centrally developing Europe which brought about exchange of technological
ideas and inventions from all over the world. These ideas and inventions of many diverse
cultures were welded together in Europe to create a foundation for the new technological
modern society which was the spring board of the later industrialized revolution. Invention
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and developments of this age include water wheel, wind wills. Steering ships with rudder and
compass instead of ears & sails, improved ploughs, clocks, printing technology and so forth.
This is the age of important scientific discoveries, trade, acquisition and adoption of
technologies from about 1450-1660 AD.
1.04 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-19th CENTURY
Industrial revolution started in the 19th century and still remains the hallmark of the
modern technological civilization. The economy and social system of the era contributed
principally to the great achievements of that time. In their era influence, power and money
are acquired mainly by technological means. There were more profit and spectacular increase
in the standard of living as a result of increased national turn over. During this period, there
was a great shift of energy/.technological orientation from scholarly theories about the
universe to research and development relevant to domestic economic growth. More also,
trade in real business commenced and other contrivances such as wheel, steam engine,
steamship, and radio were made.
1.05 ATOMIC, NUCLEAR AND SPACE ERA-20TH CENTURY
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However, recent studies into Atomic and Nuclear energy shows that it could be used for
generating an alternative power supply but with harmful by product which could be used to
make nuclear weapons. The disastrous of nuclear power plant in the then USSR in 1986,
which saw the maiming of many people, exemplified the negative aspect of nuclear energy
utilization.
Computer, the major device for data and information manipulation and transfer was first
recognized when sticks and ropes were used as first analog computer device. However, the
modern computers evolved from the mid-twentieth century-1950s ranging from the vacuum
tube relays to transistors; to small scale integrated circuits (IC) to the initial large scale ICs
such as Pentium II & III which are now connected to form networks. The networks are
interconnected to form internet. The present information super highway makes the world link
together in a manner never imagined before. Through this interconnected networks, products,
services, information and ideas of various technological innovations are shared worldwide
with much better efficiency, leading to the rapid changing technological achievements
presently. More so, recent development into software and micro chips has led to more
advance operation in the ICT world with smaller apertures capable of storing larger
information than before and also the emergence of OS (operating system) like Microsoft XP,
and other windows products.
Matter and the earth formations, are all due to technology. There isnt a single exception to
this basic fundamental truth. Is there any?
The basic reality of life is that the history of civilization of mankind and that of Nations are
all related in one way or the other to engineering and also technology.
Anthropologists have recently formulated a theory of cultural evolution in which human
developments has three stages of savagery, barbarism and civilization .A close observation of
our environment reveals that technological development started from the time of creation to
the present day super technological breakthrough and achievements.
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In all these giant strides in the evolution up to the present day society, there is one discipline
that runs parallel or the prime motivator of human development and this is Engineering or
Technology.
Energy Supply
ii.
Transportation System
iii.
Communication system
Any society or nation that has sufficient and reliable Energy supply, Transportation, and
communication systems is necessarily developed. Apply these parameters to any of the
advanced nations and the result will be confidently positive. But the very low developed
nations will rate low in any of three indices above . Every modern society is tied together by
these three infrastructures. The interaction of these systems makes possible the emergence
and development of societies. Engineering/Technology, of course, is the essential factor in
shaping these infrastructures.
In Nigeria, much of these strategic and vital infrastructures are all based 0n foreign
technology due to the non-optimal utilization of human resources available in engineering
field. A few examples are given to buttress Nigerias overdependence on foreign technology.
(Gulma)
1.
POWER
CAPACITY
TYPE OF
PLANT
(MW)
PLANT
KAINJI
760
HYDRO
SUPPLIER
COUNTRY
OF ORIGIN
GEC
U.K.
12
2.
3.
JEBBA
540
SHIRORO 600
HYDRO
HYDRO
ASEA
SWEDEN
HITACHI
JAPAN
VOEST ALPINE
AUSTRIA
VOEST ALPINE
AUSTRIA
HITACHI
JAPAN
GEC
U.K.
VOEST ALPINE
AUSTRIA
CHAST-MAIN
U.S.A.
HITACHI
JAPAN
4.
EGBIN
1320
STEAM
5.
SAPELE
1020
GERMAN
GAS
BROWN
SWEDEN
TURBINE
BOVERI)
SWISS
GAS
ABB(ASEA
GERMAN
TURBINE
BROWN
SWEDEN
BOVERI)
SWISS
G.E.
U.S.A
GAS/DIESEL G.E.
U.S.A.
6.
7.
AFAM
DELTA
700
876
GAS
TURBINE
8.
IJORA
60
TOTAL=5876MW=6GW
THE WORKS INVOLVED
1. CIVIL WORKS
2. ELECTRO-MECHANIC
3. SUB-STATION
4. PROTECTION GLASS
Conspicuously, it can be seen that many of the generating plants at any state of the
construction, that is the civil work, mechanical/electrical, and the safety control are nearly all
foreign. Infact, even the overhauling is being done by foreign experts. The same applies in
the Turn Around Maintenance (TAM) of all the refineries, Aluminum Smelting Company
(ALSCON), Ikot Abasi, and the steel rolling mills.
1.32 Transportation System
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The available traveling modes in Nigeria include the roads, railways, inland waterways, the
ocean liners, and airplanes. None of these traveling modes are in adequate capacity or
available at all hours. At nights, traveling is generally unsafe and fuel availability for sale is
almost nil. These hazards and inconveniences of, generally, all night distant journeys are
clearly manifestations of under-development.
1.33Communication system
Anyone who a travel to any part of the developed society knows what good
communication network is, a telephone is assured all times. By the time the last digit of
number being called is pressed, the line through unless it is ready engaged. Telephone and
cellular mobile units are available in few major cities and towns in Nigeria. But the system
failure is rampant. Towns with analogue telephone connections are difficult to reach.
Furthermore, available lines are severely limited.
1.40 Summary
Summarily, it is the emergence of effective and reliable energy supplies, transportation, and
communica5tions that make a developed society. One can look at the setting in any of the
well-developed nations and one could clearly observe the high standards in all of these three
determinant characteristics.
1.50 Nomadic and Past Normadic Era
Right from the time of the existence of man on the earth, began the quest by man to
combat the harsh conditions of the environment to meet the basic need of food, clothing and
shelter. Man began to hunt for animal flesh and gather fruits as food, animal skin and plant
fig as clothes, plant and physical shades for shelter.
This trial and error approach led to the accidental discovery of domesticated animals which
led to the organized agricultural practice of sowing, planting and reaping. Fire was
discovered so that food can be cooked rather than eaten raw or dried.
Mans social structure was transformed from the wandering nomadic to organized
settlements or post nomadic era. This developed out of the need to have agricultural
communities and protection for each other. The soil cultivation resulted in the sudden
stoppage of wandering and periodic food supply.
This agricultural discovery brought about rough division of labour where man does the
heavier task while the wife and children does the lighter domestic tasks. The settlement
development brought out the creation of new ideas and needs of the society in terms of
security, organization and efficiency in doing things. This led to a more efficient system of
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production and occupational division of labour and introduction of trade by barter. Markets
were formed for the exchange for surplus food and other items.
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WEEK TWO
2.0 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
Management is the basic, integrating process of business activities that surround our daily
life. It may be defined as achieving results by coordinating the activities of other people. It is
concerned with the proper use of both human and non human resources of any establishment,
Non human resources like money, materials, machinery etc. This means that the manager or
group of managers provide leadership which results in the achievements of the stated
objectives of the organization or an establishment. E.g. Tate and Lyle, Kwara Polytechnic or
University of Ilorin a non profit organization like the Red Cross, Churches, Mosque just to
mention a few. From the foregoing definition we can see that management is very complex
and it is often best defined in dynamic functions or the ways it operates. Thus management is:
1. All human efforts to increase human efficiency in an organization.
2. The techniques of effective utilization of men and material resources to obtain the
desired results.
3. The process and agency which directs and guides the operations of any organization.
4. Group of managers.
5. Getting things done through other people.
6. To forecast and plan, to organize, command coordinate, control and to make
decisions.
7. A social process that entails responsibilities for the effective/efficient planning
regulation of the operations of an enterprise.
Management predates human existence. God himself started the concepts, principles and
practice of managements. However opinions vary with the historian on the subject matter of
history and the development of management. Management from the old French word
management refers to the act of conducting, directing. Also from the Latin word Manu
agree is to lead by hand. Management therefore characterizes the process of leading, and
directing all or part of an organization, often a business, through the deployment and
manipulation of resources such as human, financial, material & intellectual. One can also
think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis
and of adjusting some initial plan and as the actions taken to reach ones intended goal. This
applies even in situations where planning may not have taken place. Situational management
may therefore proceed and sometimes subjoin purposive management.
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Frederick W. Taylor was a pioneer in this field and he is considered as the father of scientific
management.
The scientific methods are usually stated as:
a) Observation and collection of data
b) Analysis of the data collected
c) Classification of results
d) Development of hypothesis
e) Testing hypotheses through experiments
f) Application of the laws for predicting future circumstances.
The use of scientific methods to solve management problems was necessary after the
industrial revolution when industries grew in numbers and complexities. Also the system
used at that time was very crude, un-scientific and was incapable of solving management
problems. The prevalent problems at that time include proper selection of men, materials and
machines, what constitute a day job, maintaining of harmonious and cordial relationship
between the employer and workers. The methods employed. Was so inefficient that one of
the pioneers of scientific management, Dr. Jones made the following observations:
a) Current performance and the methods prescribed by craft and tradition were crude and
wasteful because the tools and apparatus used were not fitted to its purposes.
b) Workmen everywhere were performing task for which they were not fitted.
c) No one, workmen or manager, was aware of the time a given piece of work should
take and also how much work a first class should do in a day.
d) Managers were not aware of the impact or influence of delays and vacations on the
workers. As method before better methods of management had to be sought to take
care of things problems in the face of fierce competition and rivary that accompanied
industrial revolution.. Some of the pioneers in this field include Frederick W. Taylor,
Henry Gantt, and Frank Gilbreth.
2.11 Objectives of Scientific Management
The objectives of scientific management could be inferred from the testimony Taylor
made to the house (House of Representative) committee in 1912 in the U.S.A. it could be
summarized as follows:
a) To bring maximum prosperity for employers through increased productivity at
minimum costs.
b) To improve efficiency of the workers-through better training in the proper use of tools
implements.
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c) To provide maximum prosperity to the worker by increase their wages which will
eventually enhance their live hood.
d) To maintain workers/employees relations by creating a harmonious industrial
environment as a consequent of a mental revolution.
e) To provide cheaper goods and services to the community.
2.12 Principles of scientific management
The principles of scientific management are contained in the famous Taylors
principles:
1) replacing rules of thumb with science
2) obtaining harmony in group action, rather than discord
3) achieving co-operation between management and workers as opposed to chaotic
individualism
4) Working for maximum output. rather than restricted output
5) Developing all workers to the fullest extent possible for mutual benefits-(labour and
management}.
2.13 Advantages of scientific management
1. Scientific management has changed the entire management technique which
ultimately increased efficiency.
2. It helps in proper and standard planning of each workers task and operation.
3. It helps in controlling
4. It helps in proper selection, training, placement and development of the workers
together with a provision of incentive wages and satisfactory service conditions.
5. It helps to create harmonious and cordial relationship between the labour and the
management.
6. It helps to raise the standard of living of the workers through increased output and
reduced cost per unit.
7. It helps to ensure technical efficiency through the standardization of tasks, tools,
equipments, raw materials etc.
8.
It helps to remove the traditional antagonistic attitude stance of the employees and
employers towards each other and makes them understand that they have common
interests. Hence it brings mental revolution.
9. It brings more prosperity to both workers and employers i.e. more profit implies more
wages.
10. Cheaper and standard goods to the customers.
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To get the most suitable man various procedures must be employed e.g. psychological test;
test to ensure both physical and mental fitness.
2) Training: Training is art of imparting the required knowledge and techniques to perform
certain duties. It is the corner stone of any efficient management. It helps to improve the
efficiency and skills of workers and also as a control device. It is required in the face of
outburst of technological changes and expansion of business.
3) Motion and time analysis is done by production standards on factory jobs. It has a two fold
process. The first process is the motion analysis to determine the best way of doing a
particular job by eliminating unnecessary movements. It includes breaking down the job into
its simplest elements, eliminating unnecessary motions and establishing a pattern for efficient
production.
Once the motion analysis is completed, the worker is trained in the new method. Then the
industrial engineer conducts a time study analysis, using a stop watch, to determine how
much time is required to perform the job under actual factory conditions. A number of
observations will be made to determine fairly the amount of time required for a particular job.
Allowances will however be made for variations in the workers work pattern as a result of
chances, or unusual circumstances e.g. workers fatigue, production delays etc. These factors
are incorporated into the average observed time to determine standard time for performing a
job and can judge what a normal pace is for doing that job.
4) Fatigue Study- It is a study conducted to determine weakness after hard work. When
workers perform some duties after sometime efficiency begin to diminish. Therefore
management (industrial engineers) conducted a study to determine the causes of fatigue.
Findings show that long hours of work, monotony of work, unhealthy working environment,
and constant strain under poor leadership are the contributing factors. Management has to pay
attention to these findings because fatigue decreases efficiency and productivity, it also
lowers quality of work and strains labors management relationships.
5) Wage Incentives- Wage incentives lends to motivate workers to improve production
output or productivity, efficiency and quality of work. If workers are motivated labour turns
over will also be reduced and good workers will be attracted.
i) Taylor introduced Differential piece rate. This involves the higher and the lower rates.
The higher rate for the fast and efficient worker while the lower rate was for the workers who
failed to perform the standard job within the standard time.
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ii) Taskes and bonus system was another method of paying wages under scientific
management. It was introduced by Lawrence Gantts. The system guarantees a day wage
workers and bonus for any extra of the task bonus is attained. It is on a daily basis.
iii) Emersons introduced another system known as efficiency wage. Under this system
bonus is computed on a weekly and monthly basis.
6) Labour/Management relations- For any management to succeed there must be good
corporation and harmonious relationship between labour and the management team. Taylor
realized this and pointed out its importance. He said among other things that good
corporation between labour and management brings changes in the attitude of the workers
and the management and therefore brings about a mental revolution.
2.15 NON HUMAN ASPECTS
Non human aspects of scientific management include the following:
a) Tools and equipments
b) Machine speeding
c) Factory conditions
d) Materials
e) Functionalization
f) Planning room
1) Good tools- for good performance good tools and equipments are required. For
equipment to function effectively, it must be properly installed and maintained. These
scientific managers paid particular attention to the proper installation, maintenance
and accessibility of machines in the factory to enhance productivity and efficiency.
2) Machine Speeding-The speed of the machine is very important for good productivity
and efficiency. The speed should be standardized. When a standard speed is achieved
then it could be adjusted to the desired speed.
3) Factory Conditions-Good working environment is required for good productivity
and efficiency. The scientific managers realized this and therefore made adequate
provisions for proper ventilation colour, heating, cooling, lighting, drinking water,
rest or recreation as the case may be.
4) Material- Great importance is attached to the good supply of quality materials.
Researches were conducted to discover or invent new raw materials that will enhance
productivity and product quality.
5) Functionalization- Scientific management encourages division of labour. Delegation
of authority rest solely on functions and or techniques. Therefore each manager or
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worker is assigned a job in which he is best fitted. This method tends to encourage
professionalism. It helps management to get detailed information and expert advice.
To achieve better productivity, Taylor suggested the Functional type of
organizational in place of line and staff form of organization. He further suggested
functional foreman to replace a single foreman who serve as the sole administrative
figure. It tends to relieve the manager and the foreman of unnecessary burden.
6) Planning Room-Taylor suggested separate planning room whereby specially trained
planners will do planning jobs. According to Taylor, order of work, preparation of
instruction cards, compilation of time study records and machine speed records,
entering of costs records etc. are to be done in the planning room.
Scientific management focuses on worker and machine relationships. Organizational
productivity can be increased by increasing the efficiency of production processes. The
efficiency perspective is concerned with creating jobs that economize on time, human energy,
and other productive resources. Jobs are designed so that each worker has a specified, wellcontrolled task that can be performed as instructed. Specific procedures and methods for each
must be followed with no exceptions.
share. After careful studies he discovered that low productivity in the industry was, according
to him as a result of:
a) Unclear concept of managerial responsibility
b) Lack of measured standard for defining tasks
c) Widespread inefficiency of labour and Systematic soldiering.
To improve efficiency and productivity he made the following recommendation
which was later christened as Taylors principles.
a) The rule of thumb must be replaced with science he believed there is a science for
every work therefore management must discover it.
b) The scientific selection and progressive development of the workers training teaching,
development of workers should be the responsibility of the management and to be
scientifically done too.
c) Achieving co-operation between workers and the management.
d) There should be division of work between the workers and the managementmanagement to take over all work for which they are better fitted than the workmen.
These principles are designed enhance the productivity and efficiency of workers in
an organization and they form the basic principles of scientific management.
a) Time study principles: Taylor recommended accurate measurement of all productive
efforts to determine a standard time for all work done in the factory. He used a stop watch to
achieve these objectives
b) Piece-rate principles: There should be a direct relationship between wages and output.
The rates should be based on standards to be determined by time study analysis in addition a
worker should be given the job in which he is best fitted for. Differential piece rates was
recommended for rewarding the good workers-higher rates for fast and efficient workers and
lower rates for slow workers who are unable to attain the targets.
c) Separation of planning from performance: Planning should be done by management and
good atmosphere for performing the planned job to be provided too planning should be based
on the time of study and other data that are scientifically collected include standard tools,
implements and methods.
d) Scientific methods of work management should scientifically define the methods of doing
a job and not the workers.
e) The principle of managerial control. Managers are to be trained and taught how to apply
scientific management for principles in the art of controlling.
24
should
provide
favorable
environment
which
will
make
workers
25
27
He believed motion study could be used in all work including production, research labs,
government and civil offices etc. According to him improper arrangement of men and
materials are responsible for wasteful motions and efforts which caused delay and has
negative effect on workers morale.
2.53 Time Study
He developed a new type of time study that was more accurate than Taylors. He used
speed clock instead of stop watch used by Taylor. He also took motion pictures in three
dimensions to find out the exact time.
2.54 Three-position Plan of Promotion
To attract desirable applicants, to fill a position, he developed a plan known as three
position plan of promotion. According to him, each worker should be seen as occupying three
positions at the same time.
1) His previous job- The job he held before he got promotion to his present job.
28
30
WEEK THREE
3.0 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS (PROCESSES)
3.01 DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT
Management is a process of getting things done through other people, in other words
management are individuals or group of individuals who have authority and responsibility in
getting things done in an organization.
Henri Fayol (1919) defines management as to forecast duet plan, to command and organize,
and to coordinate and control. Stonel and Wankel (1988) viewed management as a process of
planning, organizing, leading and controlling the efforts of organization members and of
using all other organizational resources to achieve stated organizational seals. Management is
therefore a system that consist of interdependent and interacting parts that forms a unified
whole. It consists of the:
a) Input- Human resources
- Machines
- Finance/capital
- Materials
3.11 PLANNING
Planning simply refers to the process of determining corporate objectives and how they
will be accomplished; In other words it is the process of setting goals and objectives for an
organization and determines how to achieve such goals and objectives. It is anticipating
decision in designing an environment for the effective performance of individual working
together in groups. However, for effective planning in an organization certain process should
be followed:
1) Scan the environment: - The organization should be aware of the opportunities and
threats in the environment, the consumer needs, the resources available, the
management size, the competition and the scio-economic and political factor and also
the strengths and weakness of the company.
2) Set objectives and goals in relation to the mission purpose of the organization. This
should answer questions such as: where are we in the organization, where do we
want to be and when?
3) Selecting the best alternatives
4) Implement the plan, monitor it and develop feedback mechanism for organizational
effectiveness, planning should be seen as the foundation of managerial functions,
Therefore careful attention should be taken both in the process and implementation of
plans.
3.12 ORGANISING
Organizing is concerned with activity and authority relationship of an enterprise. It is a
management process which has as its outcome the resultant organizational structure.
Organizing therefore is simply the grouping of activities necessary to attain the enterprise
objectives and the assignment of each group to a manager with necessary authority to
supervise it. Managers who are tasked to perform this function and creature and intelligent
and possess adequate information about the enterprise objectives, polices, Procedures,
programs, rules and other available resources. The steps to organizing are:
1) Review plans
2) List task
3) Group tasks into jobs
4) Group jobs
5) Assign work
6) Delegate authority
3.13 CONTROLLING
32
33
34
WEEK FOUR
4.0 Designing an Organization
Every organization is made up of human and physical resources. These resources are
brought together in order to accomplish a predetermined goal. In order to accomplish these
objectives, tasks must be identified, the tools and technology required must be provided and a
structure of relationships must be identified. It is the function of management to determine
the best structure that will optimize the utilization of resources.
Management
organizes
these resources. Thus organization is a means of achieving the best result from concerted
effort. Organization deals with people that determine the type of people required and required
and their relationships. Thus the type of personnel and structure required in a hospital is
different from the personnel and structure required in a weaving enterprise or a university.
4.01 Meaning of Organization
An organization can be seen as an entity. This is true of all business enterprises,
churches, hospitals, or clubs. It can be seen as a process of coordinating individual efforts to
accomplish a common objective, An organization is a group of people bound together to
provide unity of action for the achievements of a pre-determined objective. All management
teorists-Fayol, Follet, e.t.c recognize this important management function. Organization is
very fundamental to human nature. Man is a social animal and shares relationship with his
neighbors. The subject of organization is central to sociology, psychology and even
anthropology.
4.10 Kinds of Organization
Organizations can be classified into two broad headings such as:
(a) Formal and
(b) Informal organizations.
4.11 Formal and Informal Organizations
The later is human interaction that occurs simultaneously and naturally without overt
influence. Formal Organizations can be seen as a direct opposite of informal organization. It
is a planned pattern of group behavior designed to achieve an objective.
Most relationships found in many business enterprises are formal. The main reasons for
formal organizations are:
1. to establish efficient and logical patterns of interrelationships among members of the
group.
35
Asst. Chief
Measurement Engr.
Agent
Manager (Fin.
And Admin.)
36
Engineers
Quantity surveyor
Fin
37
Manager
Finance
Manager
marketing
38
Plant
Supervisor
Advertising
Manager
Chief
Engineer
Controller
Treasurer
Field
Sales
Manager
Salesmen
In this chart, the solid lines represent the flow of authority and dashed or broken lines
indicate a staff or advisory relationship.
The advertising manager can advise salesmen but he has no direct control over them.
Authority relationships are discussed in full below.
Line and staff structure is best used when the organization is relatively large and serving a
big market.
39
It should be observed that line authority is the back-bone of hierarchy; staff and functional
authority only supplement the line. In Nigeria, especially in small and medium organizations,
a person serves as line, staff and functional personnel at the same time. A personnel executive
advises the production manager or personnel matters, supervise his own department and sets
out policy guidelines on personnel matters.
4.60 Authority and Responsibility
Authority as used in the text is the right to act or decide. It describes the relationship
between and among people or groups. A person has authority if he has the right to command
and expect obedience from the subordinate.
No organization could survive if authority had not been vested in some people. In fact, an
organization is nothing but a structure of authority flows from the top downward. In
designing an organization, the authority relationship is clearly defined. It is the responsibility
of those in whom authority is vested to coordinate the activities of the organization in order to
accomplish organizational goals.
Organizational authority is vested in the position not on individuals. The authority is vested
in the position not on individuals. The authority is given to an employee because he needs the
degree of authority in order to achieve a given level of productivity or sales. When the
individual resigns, the authority is inherited by another employee who occupies the position.
In this case we speak of the authority of the manager, the powers of the authority of the
manager, the powers of the president or the governor.
4.70 Power and Influence
At this juncture, it is necessary to distinguish between power and influence in order to
contrast them with authority. Power is the ability an individual has to compel another to do
something against his will despite any resistance. A man who holds a business man at
gunpoint demanding that the businessman should surrender his goods has power to take
possession of the goods. Power is evident in a situation when A has control over B or can
force B to do something he does not want to do despite resistance.
Influence, unlike authority, is not vested in an individual. A has influence over B if he can
modify or affect Bs behavior. Thus influence is a very moderate form of power. A person
influences his friend because of the rapport they have established over the years. One who
influences, uses persuasion and suggestion to achieve a desired end. Influence takes place in
all interpersonal relationships. Unlike power which implies a fear of punishment, harm or
loss of status, influence does not.
40
One of the great authorities in the field of management, Chester I. Barnard made the
following observation on the acceptance of theory:
If a directive communication is accepted by one to whom it is
addressed, its authority for him is confirmed or established. It is admitted
as the basis of action. Disobedience of such a communication is a denial
of its authority for him. Therefore, under this definition the decision as
to whether an order has authority or not lies with the person to whom it
is addressed, and does not reside in person of authority or those who
issue these orders.
The acceptance theory places great emphasis on subordinate acceptance of the
authority of the superior. Generally a subordinate will recognize and accept his
supervisors authority if he perceives that his directives are in keeping with
organizational purposes and will lead to the attainment of his own objectives. The
authority, an individual has to effect compliance could be reinforced by other means
such as persuasion, coercion, use of power, economic or special sanctions. A
manager does not depend on acceptance for the execution of his functions; if he did,
there would be conflicts and organizational objectives would suffer.
The basic error of the acceptance theorists consists not only in conceiving
authority, without sanctions, but also in overlooking the powerful effect of social
institutions, which confer powers that supersede individual desires.
The effectiveness of ones authority could be influenced by acceptance but may
not necessarily be nullified by the accepting agents attitude. Acceptance theory
appears to place emphasis on leadership which deals with the ability to influence
others behavior in order to achieve a given objective. Management has authority
and if this authority is not fully accepted by subordinates, it could use power or
sanctions to secure compliance. The acceptance of employment in an organization
implies the acceptance of authority in the establishment.
The acceptance of authority is enhanced by the personal qualities of the manager,
such as technical competence, supportive behavior and dynamism. These qualities
of leadership are fundamental to the effectiveness of management and not
necessarily in the source of authority.
4.90 Limits of Authority
Formal authority is very fundamental to the attainment of organizational objectives. All
managers who occupy positions of responsibility are vested with it. Effective utilization of
42
44
WEEK FIVE
5.0 PARTIES TO CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS AND THEIR
NTER-RELATIONSHIPS
The maim parties to civil engineering contracts, their roles, responsilvlihes
And interrelationships are as described below:
5.01 Client
The client may be the sponsor (financier), promoter or employer of other parties such
as consultant or contractor for the execution of the project. He may be someone appointed by
the sponsor or promoter to employ or engage others for project execution. If the client is not
the sponsor, he becomes the first link in the reporting chain, who reports directly to the
project owner or sponsor and carries the responsibility for all major project decisions.
The client undertake, to fulfill his own side of the consultancy or contract agreement
just as the consultant and contractor are expected to do in the consultancy or contract
agreement format known as form of agreement. The client owes it a duty to ensure steady
cash flow to provide the enabling environment for speedy and smooth execution of the
project.
5.02 Consultant
He is a specialist or an expert entrusted with the task of providing necessary
professional and technical services in the areas of planning, designing, financial estimation
and evaluation, project implantation, management and maintenance. He prepares the tender
document as the basis for appointment of contractors and sub-contractors or suppliers to
execute the job. He supervises, appraises and evaluates the works of the contractor and raises
appropriate certificates based on the budget approved by the client; and makes
recommendation to the client about the progress of work and payments to be made to the
contractor both in terms of the original content of the BOQ on the date of the tender and the
45
fluctuation and variation claims verified and approved by the consultant. Where the
consultant indicts the contractor for breach of contract, he can prescribe appropriate sanctions
in accordance with the conditions of contract.
5.03 Contractor
The contractor is a person or a company appointed by the client, usually in
conjunction with the clients consultant to implement the requirements of a project. The
contractor may be appointed through open tendering, selective tendering or negotiated tender.
The consultant / contractor may appoint the sub-contractors through the project manager. The
contractors other functions include:
a) Mobilization to site in a formal handing over exercise jointly by the practices
involved.
b) Prepare a workable and realistic work Programme at the instant of the consultant.
c) Delivers and maintains plants and materials on site.
d) Constructs site office and provides utility services on site.
e) Makes himself available at any appointed time for site visits, inspections and
meetings.
f) Sends written observation to the consultant on notable differences between the
contract drawings and BOQ.
g) Provides insurance cover to workers and ensures safety of persons and security of
the site.
46
the rules of evidence, be introduced by either party as evidence, of such intentions. In the sort
of contract we are considering the contract documents will usually comprise some or all of
the following:
- A statement of the scope of the contact
- Data (e.g. site conditions, climate) affecting the execution of the works.
-Bills of Quantities (especially in civil engineering and building construction); Priced
schedules or Plant (in plant supply contracts)
- Programme for the construction / completion of the works.
- The conditions of contract
- Site regulations.
- The Form of tender: the offer.
- Unconditional acceptance of the tender.
- Guarantees or bonds.
- A formal Agreement.
- Additions or variations of the above made during negotiations or subsequently by
agreement between the parties.
A normal contract document comprises but not restricted to the following:
a) Form of agreement
Although under English law, a valid contract may be formed purely by documents
constituting an offer and an unconditional acceptance, it is sometimes necessary or
advantageous to embody or confirm the contract by drawing up a formal agreement.
The standing orders of many public bodies, (for example local and country councils) require
that all contracts over a certain sum are so embodied in a formal agreement which has to be
signed and sealed as a corporate document on their behalf by certain officials they have
empowered to do so.
47
To stress that the contract is with the employer in cases in which the enquiry, tenders,
negotiation, and correspondence have all been handled by the engineer
To tidy-up a contract situation when there have been extensive negotiations following
the tender and the contract documentation and details have suffered involved
modification.
b) Conditions of contract
The conditions of contract are the Rules by which the contract is run. They set out
the rights and obligations of the parties and agree the action that will be taken by the
parties if various eventualities arise during the course of the contract. The range of
eventualities they cover varies from case to case depending on the nature of the contracts
the conditions of contract may run to several pages of print. For really large contracts,
they may extend to several volumes.
Contract conditions form much of the legal basis of the contract on which any ruling
by the courts would be made. Consequently they need to be written with care and
precision so as to be clear and unambiguous. Luckily many of the points to be covered are
common to a large number of types of contract and, in addition, experience has led to a
form of words which is generally acceptable to both parties.
As
consequence there exists a number of standard forms of conditions of contract which have
fairly wide recognition in the U.K and some which are recognized internationally. The
48
use of these can remove a lot of the need for composing new conditions for each and
every contract.
c) The Technical Specification
The technical specification describes in details the information provide by the contract
drawings and the BOQ. It describes in detail the work to be executed under the contract
and the nature and quality of the materials, components and workmanship. It may also
contain clauses specifying the order in which the various stages of the works are to be
carried out, the methods to be adopted in the execution of the work and details of any
special facilities that are to be provided by contractors or sub-contractors.
d) Bill of Quantities
The BOQ contains the schedule of items of work to be carried out under the contract
with quantities inserted against each item. These quantities are prepared in accordance
with CESmm3 Civil Engineering standard methods of measurement 3. Due to the small
side of many of the drawings composed to the large extent of work involved in a contract
and the uncertainties about certain site conditions, the quantities inserted in a bill are
often approximate. Nonetheless, the quantities should be as accurate as the information
available permits and the descriptions against each item must conform to the actual work
involved.
In most cases, the unit rates inserted by the contractor against each item in the BOQ
normally includes the overhead charges and profit, but subject to the approach adopted in
pricing method-related charges and the adjustment item in the grand summary.
One of the main functions of civil engineering, BOQ is to provide a basis on which
tenders can be obtained, priced and compared. After the contract has been signed, the
rates in the priced BOQs can be used to assess the value of the work executed on
continuous basis, from the commencement to the completion of the project.
49
e) Contract Drawings
The contract drawings shows in details the nature and scope of work to be carried out
under the contract. The drawings should be thoroughly, comprehensively and clearly
detailed to enable the contractor to satisfactorily price the BOQ. The drawings should
include the site plan depicting the existing features at the site and the proposed work
including full descriptions and explanatory notes where such emphasis is desirable. The
more explicit arise bothering on the scope and character of the works. More so, ample
figured dimension should be inserted sufficiently to facilitate effective and accurate takingoff of quantities and in setting constructional work on site. Drawings may incorporate or be
accompanied by schedules such as bar bending schedule for steel reinforcement,
manhole/sewer schedules etc.
f) Arbitrator
An Arbitrator is a person appointed by mutual consent of the parties to a project
dispute, to adjudicate on the dispute via an award which normally binds on the parties
concerned with the dispute. He (arbitrator) is in most cases a private person acting in a
judicial manner. An arbitrator must be a specialist or an expert in the project area where the
parties are in dispute.
If the parties to a dispute fails to appoint an arbitrator within one calendar month, of
either party serving on the other party a written notice to concur in the appointment of an
arbitrator, then they may have to resort to a natural body e.g. a professional body
recognized by the two parties to appoint an arbitrator for them.
An arbitrator must be neutral and unbiased against or in favor of any of the parties for his
award or decision to be final and binding on the parties or he runs the risk of
disqualification or have his award rejected.
g) Site meetings / Progress reports
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Site meetings may be conducted on weekly fortnightly or monthly basis depending on the
nature, size and complexity of the project. The parties to a project site meeting often include
the consultants (employers representative) and the contractor or his representative, the
representative of the beneficiary of the project ( if different from the client) etc. It is the
satisfactory duty of the engineer or the consult to ensure that the contractor together with
nominated sub-contractors and suppliers comply with the specifications and standard of
workmanship in accordance with the conditions of contract and articles of agreement. The
minutes of the meetings are always complied and collated to form the basis for the monthly
or weekly PROGRESS REPORTS. This often includes valuation and financial statements
forwarded to the client or employer on regular bases while the execution of the project lasts.
a. Circumstances that couldnt nave been reasonably foreseen before the signing of the
contract.
b. Additional requirements of the employer.
c. Compliance with new government orders and legislation.
d. Correction of errors or omissions in the contract drawings and contract bills.
e. Non-availability of materials. Goods or services specified in the contract.
f. Substations of materials, goods and workmanship specified in the contract.
h) Fluctuation
Fluctuation arises from charges in wages and other incidental expenses for labour as well as
prices of materials quoted in the contract bills at the date of tender. The employer is
compelled to entertain fluctuations only in terms of approved basic wages and emoluments
and certain materials and sections of the works as listed in the appendix to the contract. In
Nigeria, the prices contained in the contract bills are based on the rates o0f wages and
emoluments and other expenses payable by the contractor for labour costs in accordance with
51
the rates of wages fixed by FOBACEC, current at the date of tender and applicable to the area
concerned.
In a situation where the wages and emoluments are increased or decreased due to government
policy after the official date of tender, then the additional costs thereupon, shall be made
payable to the contractor accordingly. Similarly, the prices contained in the contract bills are
based on the prevailing market prices of materials in a given location at the date of tender.
This includes purchase tax (such as VAT) and import duty (if any). Here again the contractor
is entitled to additional claims if it is confirmed that the prices went up after the date of
tender.
5.20 Statement of the Scope of the Contract
The statement of the scope of the contract is made by the Employer in inviting tenders. It
introduces the subject of the contract and explains in broad terms what the employer will
require by way of work or plant from the successful Tenderer, and by when he will want to
be complete or in operation.
5.30 Data affecting the execution of the works.
Data affecting the execution of the works is issued by the employer with the invitation to
tender and includes such things as Site geological data, access, limitations on working hours,
local conditions, other work being carried out on the site, machinery, services and supplies
which the employer will provide for the contractors use, and so on. All such points may
affect the Tenderers costs and hence his offer.
Works and the more obvious the point at which the contract requirements have been
adequately fulfilled: in the absence of a precise specification the employer always tends to
expert more and the contractor to give less.
52
WEEK SIX
6.0 TYPES AND SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS
Like any legal contract, a valid civil engineering contract posses three distinct traits
of offer, acceptance and consideration. A promoter (or client) propose
s for a civil engineering project and makes offer, with a clear consideration, to a contractor
formerly conveys his acceptance of the offer; a binding contract is automatically
established between the two parties. The types of contracts encountered in civil engineering
can be classified into fixed-price contracts such as (i) Bill of Quantities Contract, (ii)
Schedule Of Rates Contract, (iii) Lump-sum Contract; and non-fixed-price contracts such
as cost fee reimbursement contracts like (i) Cost-plus percentage contract, (iii) Cost-plus
fluctuating fee contract, (iv) Target Cost Contract, (v) Package-deal or Turnkey contract.
The types of contracts enumerated above are now discussed in details as follows:
6.10 Bills of Quantities Contract
In this type of contract, an un-priced Bill of Quantities, prepared in accordance with
Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement (CESMM), is inserted in the tender
document for every prospective contractor to price. This contract, also known as measure
and value contract, is the commonest and most widely used form of contract for works of
civil engineering construction of medium and large scale extent, where the quantities of the
bulk of the works can be ascertained from the contract drawings with reasonable accuracy
before the commencement of the work. The total sum tendered under this contract is the
sum of the individual items as priced in the bill, including any prime costs, lump sums, and
provisional sums The quantity of all items of work to be done as contained in the bill are
not approximate, they are exact, being measured as accurately as possible from the
drawings. When the work is constructed, the quantities are replaced by the measurement of
the actual quantity of work the contractor carries out under each item.
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The advantages or superiorities of this type of contract over any other are that:
i)
The contractor is paid for the actual amount of work carried out, thus limiting
the risk element borne by him.
ii)
The method gives freedom to alter the work of construction and yet remains the
basis of fair payment between the client and the contractor.
iii)
iv)
The bill itself gives every tenderer a very clear conception of the type, scope,
extent and the details of the work to be carried out.
From the following, if this type of contract is properly handled, it promises to be the
most equitable type of agreement between the client and the contractor as it invites the most
competitive prices from the contractors and it leaves the way open to the engineer to
exercise his responsibilities properly by allowing him to alter the amount of work
undertaken so that it best suits all the revealed conditions at the site. This type of contract
also comes under the class of fixed-price contracts because the unit rates tendered by the
contractor for individual items in the bill are fixed. However, it does not give a fixed total
sum because the actual quantity of work measured in the field may be different from the
quantities of work measured from the design drawings; but if the construction follows the
design closely, the total price paid by the employer may not be far different from the total
sum tendered.
6.20 Schedule-of-Rates Contracts
This type of contract is used for execution of civil engineering operations where it is
not possible to put into bill of quantities, measurement of quantities based on the contract
drawings. A typical example of this is a contract for the sinking of a borehole for a water
supply scheme. It is frequently not possible to state well in advance to what depth a
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contractor should go to sink the borehole to strike water of the required quantity. There are
occasions where it may be imperative to commence a construction work before design and
preparation of contract drawings; i.e before measurement of quantities can be made such
drawings. In this case a schedule of rates contract suffices. The contractor should be informed
that all the items in the schedule of rates are to be considered as provisional items.
This type of contract may take one or two forums. The client may supply a schedule
of unit rates covering each item of work and ask the contractors, when tendering, to state a
percentage above or below the given rates for which they would be prepared to execute the
work. Alternatively, and as is more usual, the contractors may be requested to insert prices
entered will enable the most favorable offer to be ascertained. This type of contract is suitable
for maintenance and similar contracts, where it is not possible to give a realistic quantity of
work to be undertaken. Another merit of this type of contract is that it can be used for
projects of long duration because the schedules can be prepared fairly quickly.
Also, during the execution of early stage of a project by a contractor selected from a
schedule of adequately detailed rates, a BOQ can be prepared for the remainder of the work.
This bill can be priced using the rates inserted in the original schedule by the contractor
already engaged on the site, or alternatively, competitive tenders can be obtained, and if
appropriate, another contractor can be engaged for subsequent phases. For instance, the
substructure of a power station can be measured and valued in accordance with schedule of
rates, while the substructure can be handled based on BOQ contract.
In as much as this type of contract is in a way similar to BOQ contract, contrasting
features between them should be appreciated. The differences are:
i)
Quantities against the individual items are either not inserted or they are entered in
estimated amounts or in round-figure provisional quantities.
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ii)
There is no implied guarantee that all or any given proportion of the items will be
carried out; therefore, each item must carry its own overheads, and bring the
contractor adequate reward if undertaken in large or small quantity, irrespective of
the amount of work executed under other items. In a BOQ contract, the setting up
and overhead costs to the contractor will be spread over the bill items (except the
provisional items), in the knowledge that the great majority of theses items will be
carried out.
iii)
More items are schedule for temporary work than usually appear in a BOQ (e.g.
items such as for setting up plant,etc) because the amount of temporary work that
a contractor may have to carry out is uncertain.
iv)
This type of contract also enables the contractor and the engineer to cooperate at the
design stage in the in the development of new techniques in an effective and economical way.
The schedule of rates should ideally be an opportunity to discuss the relationship of plant
usage and site organization to the design of scheme.
6.30 Lump-sum Contracts
In this type of contract, the contractor undertakes to carry out certain specified works for a
fixed sum of money. Naturally, the nature, scope and extent of work to be carried out should
be clearly and unambiguously delineated in a well dimensioned and detailed drawing and the
specification for materials and workmanship should be well thought out to the understanding
of the contractor or his agents. BOQ is not required. This form of contract is suitable for
small scale projects thats are carried out above the ground level and clearly visible, such as a
road resurfacing contract.
Lump-sum contracts can be used advantageously provided:
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i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Small projects like low cost houses, garages, depots, factory sheds or other buildings of
modest size and traditional design can be built under this type of contract; or the contract may
be used for the supply and building-in of equipment of different kinds. Quit often a large
BOQ contract may contain within it single items which are in effect lump-sum contracts for
portions of the work within the overall contract.
Advantages
ii)
iii)
iv)
Disadvantages
i)
There is always a contractual dispute immediately the client or the engineer wants
an alternation of design leading to additional works during construction, or if the
job itself runs into unforeseen troubles;
ii)
It is not an equitable system because one party to the contract may be unjustifiably
favoured to the detriment of the other.
57
is vulnerable to abuse because there is no incentive for efficiency, economy and optimal
utilization of resources. For example, an unscrupulous contractor may want to take undue
advantage of apparent loopholes in the system to exploit the client because the less efficient
the contractor, the more the cost of the work and the more his profit.
The engineer in charge of the project will also not fare better because of efficiency
problem which might turn him into a sort of dictator as he has the authority to sanction the
contractor as he deems fit, thereby making him to work at cross purposes with matters are so
sanctioned, every invoice, pay sheet, plant record, materials sheet, etc, will probably have to
go before the clients auditors before it can be finally authorized for payment.
This type of contract is only used in an emergency, for a limited period, before there
has been time to draw up some other form of contract. Otherwise, it is not a worthy form of
arrangement; it does not give enough freedom, it sows seed of mistrust from the beginning, it
saddles all parties with a great deal of paper work, and it is seldom efficient.
6.50 Cost-plus Fixed-fee Contract
This type of contract requires that the contractor be paid the actual costs he incurred in the
execution of the work plus a fixed lump sum to cater for is profits and overheads, which has
previously been agreed upon and does not fluctuate with the final cost of the project. The
fixed fee may be tendered in competition with other contractors, or it may be negotiated
between the client and the contractor. Although, no real incentive exists for the contractor to
secure efficient working arrangement on the site, he has the advantage of earning the fixed
fee as quickly as possible to release his resources for other jobs. This form of contract is also
beneficial to the client.
This type of contract may be highly acceptable and useful depending on the efficiency
of the contractor. With the ever growing global competition, there is no doubt that this type of
contract would be the right way to tackle difficult civil engineering projects. It puts the
58
engineer and the contractor in harmonious working relationship, so that they can act jointly to
produce the highest quality of workmanship possible at the most economical cost. It also
gives great freedom to adopt different methods of construction or to tackle
Unusual problems or wriggle out of unforeseen troubles. However, going by the
unpredictability of human perfection, the client and the engineer must be doubly sure that the
contractor is competent, reputable and can undertake the work with the highest degree of
accuracy.
6.60 Package-deal (All-in) Contract
Under the package-deal contract, the client frequently using the services of an engineer,
normally gives his requirements in concise, detailed outlines to contractors who are asked to
submit full details of design, construction and cost, and probably including maintenance of
the work for a limited period. A situation whereby the individual contractors are required to
prepare a design that will favour him in the long run and the overall cost of the project may
not be within the clients budget.
Furthermore, the evaluation and comparison of the contractors tenders may be complicated
as each contractor is likely to interpret the clients brief in a different way, necessitating
adjustment that may be needed to reduce the tenders to a common basis for the purposes of
comparison. This type of contract has been used extensively in chemical and oil industries
and for the design and construction of nuclear power stations. It is a type of contract that
sometimes finds favor with overseas clients or contractors. This type of contract may sound
attractive, but it may be subject to operational difficulties especially in times of inflation and
when the basic technology is changing rapidly.
59
WEEK SEVEN
7.0 STUDENT EXCURSION
7.1 Student shall visit a construction site within Kaduna Metropolis.
7.2 The Lecturer/Instructor is required to make all necessary
arrangement with a construction site.
7.3 It is expected that the site will be an active one; where students
will also be expected to appreciate what the have learnt to date and
use their mind to follow what they are to be subsequently taught.
60
WEEK EIGHT
8.0 PROJECT PLANNING AND COST CONTROL
Planning can be applied in varying degrees of detail. Depending on the stage at
which it is being carried out. As an example, for construction work, project planning is
usually divided into pre-tender planning, pre-contract planning and short term planning on
site.
1) Pre-tender project planning is done to allow the estimator to arrive at an estimate of cost
based on the proposed methods of working and an estimate of the time required
carrying out the work. Programming at the pre-tender stage is usually in an outline form
to consider only the phasing of the main operations, since much information is not at
the time available.
2) Pre-contract project planning is carried out when the contract has been won and the
project is considered more fully. Project planning at this stage includes the overall
programme, labour schedules, plant schedule, and material schedules e.t.c. The overall
programme should not break the operations does exxeccives or it will become
unrealistic.
3) Short term project planning on site is done in greater detail and the programmes at this
stage are broken much further. The cost control must be carried out to make project
planning effective, as without cost control project planning loses much of its value. It
must be applied continuosly to update the plans and to enable reconsideration of list of
the work ahead in the light of what has already taken place.
The braking down of task is greater detail for short term project planning on site
could be acheaved using a programmed network techniques.
This is where our discussion shall be focused. However, the resulting overall programme
could be converted to bar chart. The bar chart method presentation also shows enough
information, e.g. float times on all activities could be shown is often argued by some
project consultants or managements that for small projects, planning by bar charts may be
drawn direct and are quite satisfactory. Also, many contractors use bar charts as they are
thought to be less involved.
The use of network techniques requires producing programme showing movement of
resources starting with drawing a network, analyzing it and the scheduling which also
61
involves resource allocation. These techniques are particularly applicable to one off
projects and hence are of considerable use for many construction projects.
8.1 PROJECT PLANNING-NTWORK TECHNIQUES
The planning and control of a large-scale project may be accomplished by utilizing an
activity network as the modeling technique. One example being the critical path method.
The CPM is classified under the deterministic procedures. Another example is the
Programme Evaluation and Review Technique. The PERT is classified under the
probalistic procedure. Acceptance of these procedures has been widespread by project
consultants/management for the following reasons:1) The concepts are easy to understand and apply.
2) They introduce objectivity in project planning and control.
3) They reduce the complexity of the project planning and control process by breaking
the project down into its individual components.
8.2 DETERMINISTIC P ROJECT PLANNING (CPM) PREPARATION
The first stage in the preparation of CPM diagrams is to make a list of the activities to
be used. The amount of detail required in the breakdown depends on many factors, such as
the size of the project or the stage of planning i.e. pre-tender, pre-contract, or short term. One
activity in a CPM network drawn at the pre-tender stage may be broken down into a number
of activities at a later stage. To avoid misunderstanding, diagrams are arranged so that time
flows from left to right. When drawing network diagrams it is important to remember that
off site activities such as delivery of plaster board can be critical and must therefore be
included on the diagram.
8.21 METHODS OF PREPARING A (CPM) NETWORK
There are three (3) basic methods of preparing a diagram.
i) the activity-on-the-arrow system-AOA
ii) the activity-on-the-node system-AON
iii) Event or mile stone system- which largely represented by the PERT method.
We shall endeavor to concentrate on AOA system.
. An arrow is used to
The length and shape of the arrow presented in a diagram is significant. The direction of
arrow as earlier mentioned indicates direction of workflow, usually left-to-right. The part of
an arrow usually represents the starting point of a particular activity. A brief description, of
what the activity represents as part of the task and the expection time (duration time) usually
written against the arrow. As each activity is considered the following questions should be
asked.
1) Which activity must be completed before this activity can start?
2) Which other activities cannot start until this activity is completed?
3) Event- These are represented by numbers. That is at either end of the arrow there must
appear an event. This event is mile stone or point, node, connector, at which an
operation, the activity is completed or another can start.
Tail
or
preceding
event
Fig1: Showing events 1&2
Head
or
succeeding
event
The cycle at the head of the arrow represents the event, or the mile stone, or the point in
time when one can say that the activity (
activity arrow is the time one can say activity can commence.
However, an event may be represented by
In brief, one can say that an event is the start and/or finish of an activity or group of
activities.
8.40 PRINCIPLE OF DEPENDENCY
All networks are constructed logically on the principle of dependency. Dependency principle
states that:i)
63
ii)
No activity can be started until the event which immediately precedes it has been
reached.
This principle is one of the basic logic of a network diagram. The two exceptions to these
basic rules are the starting event and final event of the network diagram.
Events
Activities
9
8
10
Activity 9-10 cannot start until activities 7-9& 8-9 are completed. An event will not be said to
be reached until a number of activities preceding it have been completed. This event 9 cannot
be said to have been reached until activities 7-9 & 8-9 preceding it have been completed.
8.41 MERGE EVENT & BURST EVENT
Merge Event: - An event into which a number activity enter and one (or several) leave
is known as merge node. An event such as D in fig.3 below can be described as a merge
event because a number of arrows merge into it.
Burst Event: - Event that have one (or several) entering activities, but generating a number of
emerging activities is known as burst node. An event such as F in Fig 4a and 4b can be
described as a burst event.
D
Merge event
C
Fig: 3: showing merge event- D
64
Burst event
Burst event
Fig 4b: showing burst event-F
8.42 Common Errors in Logicality of Network Diagrams
Two errors in logic may come about when drawing a network, particularly if it is a
complicated one. These are known as looping and dangling errors.
Looping error- Consider the diagram in fig 5 below.
P
8
Q
10
time to perform nor consume resources. They are used either to make the sequence clear (See
fig7.0 below) or to give a unique numbering system (see fig 7.1, 7.2, 7.3). If a dummy is not
used here, two activities would have the same reference .e.g. joinery 1st fix and elect work 1st
fix (see fig 7.1) would have the same preceding and succeeding event. This is not acceptable
when using a computer for planning and analysis. It is therefore essential that a unique
numbering system be used.
(See Fig 7.2&7.3)
19
21
23
18
20
22
65
Fig.7.0 Activity 21-23 cannot start until activities 19-21 and 18-20 are completed, but activity
20-22 can start when activity 18-20 is completed and is not dependent on activity 19- 21.
Joinery
Joinery
1st fix
1st fix
Elect-work
10
10
1st fix
Elect-work
1st fix
10
Joinery
9
11
1st Fix
Situation
10
11
Fig6: Showing error due to dangling
This is because activity represented by the dangling arrow (activity 9-11) is under
taken with no result.
Note:
i)
All nodes, except the first and he last must have at least one activity entering and
one activity leaving them. This we have earlier pointed out.
66
ii)
All activities must start and finish with a node, except the first set of starting
activity/activities and the last set of finishing activity/activities.
iii)
15
15
L
B
B
Fig: 8 Logical dumming presentation use to separate activities A&K and B&L
8.50 NETWORK CONSTRUCTION
15
L
The first thing to be done is to identify the programmes objective. The objective will be
represented by the last event in the network to which all various branches of the network
must eventually coverage.
67
It is sometimes inevitable in the majority of network that the logic will demand that, in
number of instance, one activity arrow crosses another. By arranging or re-arranging the
diagram carefully, it is possible to avoid too many such situations.
When the diagram has been drawn on a piece of paper, it must be very critically examined
to ensure that it represents the required and desirable method of carrying out the work. Also
examine carefully that the logic is correctly endured and that the p4rinciple of dependency
applies logically throughout the diagram.
Having considered and reconsidered the network to ensure that the planning logic is
sound, the necessity arises to estimate the duration (time) which will be involved in carrying
out each of the activity, in order that the scheduling process may be commenced.
TEi=
TE
68
Max (TEh+Yhi)
And
Tli=
Tls
Min (Tlk-Yik)
69
4) Organizing very big functions like national or international games, big exhibitions,
e.t.c.
5) Defence establishments.
8.63 LIMITATIONS
1) Network technique is simply a tool to help the management; hence its effectiveness
depends on how well it is used by the management.
2) Its accuracy depends on the estimation of the data used in the network.
3) It is useful only, if it is updated regularly and decisions for corrective actions are
taken timely.
ADVANTAGES
1) Detailed and thoughtful planning provides better analysis and logical thinking.
2) Identifies the critical activities and focus them to provide greater managerial attention.
3) Network technique enables management to forecast project duration more accurately.
4) If is a powerful tool for optimization of resources by using the concept of slack.
5) It provides a scientific basis for monitoring, review and control, to evaluate effect of
slippages.
6) It helps in taking decision (i) to overcome delays, (ii) on crashing programme (iii)
optimizing resources, and (iv) on other concrete actions.
7) It helps in getting better co-ordination amongst related fields.
8) It is an effective management tool through a common and simple language, providing
common understanding.
8.70 TECHNIQUE OF ESTIMATION:
improve the job planning process. Well, there are time (PERT), human and material, and
value costs. In many cases these methods are used in combination and they can contribute to
better result, if used wisely. It is always assumed, that planning and estimation are identical
twins. They go hand-in-hand when it comes to management of resources.
Time resources is best handled with PERT methods. Progress Evaluation Review
Technique (PERT), its basic concept is that the program is divided into discrete detailed
scheduled tasks which are drawn up into an integrated network.
All the significant variables of time, resources, and technical performance are allocated to
each task or activity. This system creates a systematic reporting technique which enables
70
management to compare actual performance with the original program plan, thereby
permitting a continuous check on the program status.
The operation of PERT can be divided into the following five broad categories:
1) Establishment of objectives
2) Creation of plans
3) Establishment of schedules
4) Evaluation of performance
5) Arrival at decision and action.
Drwg
The corrective feedback permits the project supervisor to implement changes in the program
or plans of action or schedules if the program objective of schedule or cost is in danger or
not.
The PERT system uses a unique language. The following are the most fundamental
terms which are used:
1) Activity: An element of work effort in a program.
2) Event: A specific point in the program usually representing the start or completion of
an activity. An event does not have any dimension in time or effort.
3) Network: A graphic representation of a program consisting of activities and events
which is known as inter-connected paths.
4) Most likely time, m: The most realistic estimate of time that it would take to
complete an activity.
71
5) Optimistic Time, a:
would consume.
6) Pessimistic Time, b: The longest period of time that the completion of an activity
would consume.
7) Expected Time, Te:
The expected time is statistically derived from the most likely, optimistic, and
pessimistic times as expressed by the formula:
Te =
a + 4m + b
6
completion of a specified work efforts. TE is the summation of all the expected time
Te along a particular path.
9) Latest Allowable Date, TL:
delaying the completion of the program. The latest allowable time is calculated by
subtraction the expected elapsed periods or expected times (Te) of activities from the
date of the last event. If the end date coincides with the date represented by TE, then
TL = TE.
10) Positive Slack Time: The amount of excess time predicted for the achievement of a
particular event. Negative slack indicates the amount of slippage that exist prior to
reaching a particular event. Slack time is the difference between the latest allowable
date and the expected date (TL-TE).
11) Critical Path: The path of a network that requires the longest period of time to
complete. It is the path that possesses the smallest positive slack or the greatest
negative slack.
72
Drwg
The above diagram shows a network using the PERT technique. The arrows represent tasks
to be done, while the cycle, show what are known as events. Events, in PERT language, are
simply stages in the progress of the project. The tasks, or activities, require manpower,
material, facilities and other resources, while events represent specific accomplishments that
are the result of work.
If you were building a house, for example, the first activity might be digging the
foundation. This would be an activity or task that would required the use of resources and
would be indicated on the diagram by an arrow.
The completion of this task, which would mean you were ready to go on to the next step,
would be an event and would be indicated by a circle. The longest path in terms of time
through the network is the critical path of the project. It indicates a series of jobs which must
be done in sequence and which will take longer than the other sequence of jobs that can be
going along simultaneously. It is critical because the time spent on this path determines the
total time to be spent on the entire project. There is always a need to shorten the time spent on
critical path, so that the time in total, spent on the project would be shortened.
Material Estimation: The estimates of material cost are fairly straight forward, normally
based on the current level of market prices. For short term projects (1 year or less) the current
market prices are used. However, for project spanning a long period, the material cost may be
modified to anticipate the price the company expects to pay at some future date. The
modification factor is usually based on price indices and trends.
73
WEEK NINE
9.0 MATERIAL QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES
Details of the quality of materials of materials to be used in the works will be contained in the
material and workmanship specifications and these should be read carefully and mastered.
All materials to be used must be certified by the supervising engineer and samples must be
kept permanently in the engineers site office. If the contractor cannot find the material
specified and alternative but approved equal may be certified for use by the engineer. Testing
to ensure quality may have to be done and a sample of material and record of test results kept.
Quality control procedures for common engineering materials are as follows:
9.01 Concrete
To ensure the required characteristics of concrete, concrete must be properly constituted with
good quality materials, properly mixed, properly transported, properly placed, properly
worked and properly cured. Any laxity in any of the processes described may result in poor
finished concrete. Therefore all processes must be monitored by the supervising engineer.
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
Coarse aggregate may be washed but only dry aggregate can be in the
concrete; washed aggregates contain unquantifiable amount of water which
has not been taken into consideration in design.
9.02 Cement
74
Depending on the project, various types of cement of cement may be specified other than
the popular Ordinary Portland Cement. However, if a contractor wishes to use one other
than specified, the properties must be investigated to ensure that it will not have adverse
effect on the short and long term properties of the concrete.
(i)
(ii)
Where cement replacement materials are to be used, check that proportion used is as
specified.
(iii)
Cement must be powdery , lumps are sign of hydration, reject lumpy cement, no
sieving of cement must be allowed.
9.03 Water
This is sometimes taken for granted but this should be monitored properly. Water for
concreting should be:
i)
ii)
iii)
Not containing chemicals which may be harmful to the concrete in the short or long
term. High level of chloride or sulphate should be avoided.
9.04 Admixtures
Admixtures are chemicals that are used to modify the wet properties of concrete to either
delay solidification or assist workability. Whatever may be reason for usage or specification,
ensure that:i)
The admixture to be used has proper specifications and documentation from the
manufacturers, keep information in your record.
ii)
iii)
It will not affect the strength properties of the concrete adversely , if it will ensure
provision is made to cover this. Some workability agents delay strength gain,
therefore prop removal should be delayed accordingly.
iv)
9.1 Mixing
i)
Mixing should be done according to mix design. The engineer should ensure
proper specification of mix. Specifying a mix as 1:2:4 is not complete until the
water/cement (w/c) is added. If a mix is been prescribed, it should be specified
whether it is by weight or by volume. Nigerians generally work to volume but this
must be specified.
NB:
75
Avoid specifying mix except you are dead sure of the quality of all materials to be
used.
ii)
Where only grade has been specified, the contractor must submit results of trial
mixes which he aims to use to Satisfy the specification before the commencement
of work or any casting is done. If no such results are available, trial mixes must be
made on site and tested at the appropriate age before any casting is allowed.
iii)
Mixing must be thorough and until a uniform consistency is obtained. This is best
achieved mechanically but it is possible with proper hand mixing (no rush job
should be allowed)
iv)
9.2 Transportation
Where the concrete is to be transported over a long distance or it has to wait for a long time
before placement, mechanical agitation should be ensured. Transportation should not result in
segregation.
9.3 Placement
i)
Test workability at the beginning of each casting and do so at regular interval, eye
test of flow can be misleading (for slump test, aim for 50-75mm slump). Test must
be carried out by you and according to the relevant code.
ii)
Concrete should not be poured from a great height to avoid segregation and it
should not be moved over a great distance from the point of placement by the use
f vibrator.
iii)
Concrete should be placed in small layers, each layer being worked properly
before the next layer. Interlayer working should be discouraged.
iv)
v)
Form work of large depth placement should be provided with inspection windows
to ensure that the full depth is filled with compacted concrete and that there are no
large air pockets.
vi)
vii)
9.4 Curing
A good concrete mix, properly placed and worked will still produce less than desirable
strength, if it is not properly cured. Therefore the curing regime must be properly monitored
and ideally, the curing regime of the structure must be the same as that of the test samples.
The idea of curing test specimens under water for 28 days but wetting structure for only 2
days should be discouraged totally. The engineer must approve the curing method of the
contractor and therefore he must ensure that it will produce the desirable strength of concrete.
At least, three (3) specimens are taken for each casting and for each time the test
is to be carried out. Therefore if one is interested in the 7 days, 14 days and 28
days strength of the concrete, nine (9) specimens must be taken randomly during
the casting.
ii)
He takes the specimen himself and not delegates others or ask the contractor to do
it.
iii)
The specimen is taken according to the relevant code of practice. For example the
specimen must not be compacted with a vibrator but a tamping rod as specified by
the British code.
iv)
The specimen is marked as soon as possible to identify it and the location of pour.
v)
The specimen is removed from the mould in his presence and put under the
appropriate curing regime.
vi)
The specimen are taken out from the curing place on the day of the test and taken
out for testing under his supervision.
vii)
viii)
He compares the strength obtained to the specified strength making allowance for
normal engineering tolerance and normal statistical distribution of data. Plot or
tabulate result and use any of the assessment methods for analysis.
ii)
77
iii)
Are of the specified yield strength. Tensile strength test must be carried out on
each tone of reinforcement, on samples taken randomly from each size and type of
bars.
iv)
Are not brittle and can be bent to the required shape. Bending test on each size
and type of bar must be carried out on each batch.
v)
Free from grease or oil, this is very important for plain bars which derive their
bond strength solely from adhesion.
vi)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Bolts and nuts are of the right type, size and number.
v)
vi)
Bolt holes are well formed and are at least the minimum distance form free edges.
vii)
viii)
ix)
9.8 Timber
The Engineer should ensure that:
i)
The right type of timber with appropriate structural strength is used. If possible
approve ONLY timber from known and certified company.
ii)
Timbers are straight and have uniform dimension through out their length.
iii)
iv)
Members do not have knots or holes in areas which may adversely affect their
strength or which may attract cracks or splitting.
v)
vi)
Nails used are of the right size which will keep the members together and pass the
maximum force that the member will be subjected to.
vii)
viii)
ix)
Timber is appropriately stored on site (under a roof and stacked with separators
for further seasoning).
79
WEEK TEN
10.0 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
10.1 Definition
Cement concrete is a very useful constructional material whose properties can be
modified readily at will. The desired properties of concrete can be obtained by using
ingredients in a certain proportion. Thus, determining the relative amount of materials is
known as mix design. Hence, mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable
ingredients of concrete and determining their relative quantities for producing concrete of
certain (specified) minimum properties as strength, durability and consistency etc, as
economically as possible.
10.11 Purpose of Mix design
From the definition of mix design, it can be seen that the purpose of mix design is two
fold as follows:
2. To achieve the stipulated minimum strength and durability.
2. To make the concrete in the most economical way.
Cost wise all concretes depend mainly on two factors
(a) Cost of materials and
(b) Cost of labour.
The cost of form work, batching, mixing, transporting, and curing e.t.c. is nearly the same for
good as well as bad concrete work.
Thus, to achieve economy, the main attention should be directed to the cost of materials. As
the cost of cement is many times more than other ingredients, thus the attention mainly
should be directed to the use of little amount of cement as possible consistent with the
strength and durability. Mix proportions provided by the designs are called as prescribed
mix.
10.12 Objects of Mix design
The objects of mix design are:
i To decide the proportions of materials this will produce concrete of required properties.
ii. The mix proportions should be selected in such a way that the resulting concrete is of
desired workability while fresh and it could be placed and compacted easily for the
intended purpose.
80
iii. The fresh concrete should be fluid enough to fill the form work and surround the
reinforcement fully and
iv the hardened concrete should develop required strength and durability.
2. Type of cement
6. Workability
7. Durability.
Grade designation
Grade designation specifies the characteristics compressive strength of concrete.
the cement. The choice of the type of cement depends upon the requirements of its
performance.
i.
When very high compressive strength is required, Portland cement conforming to IS 8041-1978 and
ii.
for mass concrete work, low heat Portland cement conforming to IS- 269-1979 can
be used.
ii.
It should not be more than 1/4th of the minimum thickness of the member
It should be less by 5 mm than the minimum clear distance between the reinforcement.
It should be less by 5 mm than the minimum cover to the reinforcement
It should be less by 5 mm than the spacing between the prestressing cables.
for normal structural concrete work, the maximum size of aggregate may be
used as 38 mm
for high strength concrete it may be 10mm to 20 mm.
For dense concrete, it is essential that the fine and coarse aggregates be well
graded.
The locally available aggregate generally do not conform to the standard grading.
In such situations the aggregate should be combined in suitable proportions, so
that the resulting grading is close to the desired grading. The aim of combining the
aggregate is to:
10.24 Workability
For satisfactory placing and compacting of concrete the workability is controlled by many
factors as:
shape and size of the section to be concreting
82
incomplete compaction,
ii.
There are various methods of determining the workability of concrete, measure by different
methods. Hence, it is desirable to decide the test method before starting the concrete work.
For comparable concretes workability measured by different, methods is shown in Table 1.1.
10.25 Durability
It can be defined as the resistance to internal and external deteriorating influences. The
requirements of durability may be achieved by restricting:
the minimum cement content and
minimum water-cement ratio as given in Table 1.2.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Controlling these factors is important to minimize the difference between the minimum
strength and characteristic main strength of the mix, thus reducing the cement content. The
method of controlling these differences is called quality control.
10.30 Grades of concrete and requirements for structures and general construction
Now let us look at the grades of concrete and their requirements for structures and
general construction. This is important since a mix should be designed to produce a specific
grade of concrete for a specific use, having the required workability and characteristics
strength not less than as given in Table 1.3.
Preliminary test:
Is defined as the test conducted in a laboratory in the trial mix concrete produced in the
laboratory for designing a concrete mix before actual concreting at site, to verify:
Note: Student should know that for all important civil engineering works controlled
concrete should be used.
iv Work test
A test conducted either in the field or in a laboratory, usually on the specimen made
on actual site of works, out of concrete being used in the works is called works test.
v Nominal mix concrete.
Where it is not practical to use controlled concrete, ordinary concrete of nominal mix is used.
Nominal mix grade for this type of concrete vary from M5, M7.5, M10, M15 and M20 as
per I.S 456 1978.The proportion these mixes are given in Table 1.4.
10.40 Methods of concrete mix design
There are various methods of mix design concrete. Some of these methods are
enumerated below:
(i)
Arbitrary method
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)
(xiv)
(xv)
(xvi)
Now a day out of the above methods, the following are commonly used:
1. ACI committee 211 method
2. DOE method
3. Indian standard method
4. Rapid method of mix design
Our lecture will now examine the DOE design method in detail (step 9).
10.50
THE
DEPARTMENT
OF
ENVIRONMENTS
DESIGN
METHOD
(DOE METHOD)
The DOE method of mix design is an improvement over Road Note No.4.This (Road
Note 4) method of concrete mix design or proportioning mainly is based on the extensive
field and laboratory experiments carried out by Road Research laboratory in U.K .The Road
Note No.4 method was published for the first time in 1950.This method of mix design was
most popular and widely used up to 1970 all world.
The DOE method was first published in 1975 and revised in 1988.The DOE method
of mix design is applicable to all types of concrete mixes including roads, while Roads Note
No.4 was applicable to roads and air fields only. This method can also be used for concrete
containing fly ash. DOE method is a standard method of mix design in NIGERIA now. This
method used the relationship between water/cement ratio and compressive strength
depending on the type of cement and aggregate used. The water contents required to give
various levels of workability, as very low, low, medium and high expressed in term of slumps
or Vee Bee time or compacting factor, are determined for the two types of aggregate as
crushed aggregate and gravel. This method is suitable for mix design of normal concrete
mixes having 28 days cube compressive strength up to 75 MPa for non air entrained concrete
.The step by step procedure of mix design is given below
The method will be clearer from the work example later presented.
Student should note that:
even when the water-cement ratio is fixed, the compressive strength of concrete is
influenced by various factors such as
type of cement
type of aggregate
maximum size of aggregate
surface texture of aggregate
Thus it is desirable to establish relation between the strength of concrete and free
water/cement ratio for the materials to be used and site conditions
weight of water
w/c ratio
86
The quantity of cement obtained by the above relation should be compared with
the minimum cement content specified from durability considerations as given in
Note 02: If the specific gravity of aggregate is not known its value for uncrushed aggregate
may be taken as 2.6 and 2.7
Note 03: For crushed aggregate specific gravity may be assumed as shown on curves A and
B of the Fig.1.3.The aggregate content is determined by subtracting the weights of cement
and water cement from the Fig.1.3.
10.62 Determination of fine aggregate
The proportion of fine aggregate in total aggregate is determined from Fig 1.4
max.size of aggregates,
ii.
iii.
iv.
Knowing the proportion of fine aggregate from Fig 1.4 the weight of fine aggregate may be
obtained by multiplying the total weight of aggregate by this proportion.
Knowing the fine aggregate the weight of coarse aggregate can be found.
The coarse aggregate can further be divided into different fractions depending upon the shape
of aggregate. Generally figures given in Table 1.12 may be adopted.
A civil engineering work requires target concrete cube strength of 45 MPa at 28 days. Design
the concrete mix for the desired work given the following information.
(1) Type of cement
= 20 mm
= 10.30 mm
= 2.65
= 50%
Cement content
From w/c ratio 0.5 and water content 160 kg.
Cement content = 160 = 320.4 kg
0.5
Note: From durability consideration, the quantity of cement should be used as 350 kg/m3
.Thus adopt greater cement content as 350 kg/m3
88
= 27%
2180 27
100
= 350kg/m3
(b) F.A
= 588.6kg/m3
(c) C.A
= 1591.4kg/m3
= 160kg/m3
= 2490kg/m3
ii.
iii.
tested at 28 days to judge the suitability of concrete for the desired work.
iv.
89
WEEK ELEVEN
11.0 Construction Machine, Plants and Labour
11.01 INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering construction (practice) requires the extensive use of construction machinery
(plant) and equipment for proper execution. Plant and equipment frequently encountered in
Civil Engineering jobs include:
Bulldozers
Scrapers
Graders
Cranes
Loaders
Hoists
Logging Arches
Trenchers
Tractors
Pipe Laying Equipment
Winches
Compactors
Trucks
Air Compressors
Poker Vibrators
Concrete Mixers etc.
With the ever increasing cost of labour and rapid growth in construction technology, it
becomes imperative to use more and more mechanical equipment in association with the
available manpower for construction works. Largely because of the temporary nature of
construction organization on site, when compared with that of a factory based production
unit, the mechanization of the industry has been a slow and indifferent process. Only with
very careful consideration, investigation and planning can be the most suitable equipment for
any particular project can be chosen.
Such planning must be backed up by a thorough experience of the use of all types of plants,
together with an understanding of the engineering fundamentals involved. Correctly chosen
90
and well operated plant will enable a construction project to be completed on time and on
budget (cost).
No contractor can possibly own outright every single item of mechanical equipments that he
will be called upon to use over a period of years. There are many (items of ) specialist
equipments that he may require frequently, thus, he cannot afford , however, in an already
short of capital situation to have it tied up in idle machinery that is seldom taken out of the
plant-yard (for use on site). On the other hand, there is no item of plant that can be said to be
universally standard, although much of the equipment currently in use falls into broad
standard classes. A contractor must buy equipments on which he estimates that he can make a
profit. His assessment whether to buy the plant outright or to hire it as required must be
premised on a very sound economic investigation.
There are some obvious circumstances in which he will have little difficulty in making up his
mind. Such situation might well be one in which a single project is large enough to bear the
cost of a specific item of plant, irrespective of its ultimate salvage value or whether its
subsequent employment is likely. (e.g. crane).
Many large, long term earthmoving contracts may well support the purchase of earthmoving
equipment for their exclusive use. Many other short term types of contracts will bear the cost
of a concrete-batching or mixing plant if concrete is to be mixed in large quantities.
11.1 CLASSES OF MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
There are numerous ways of classifying mechanical equipment according to its:
Function
Mobility
Mode of Operation
Motivation
It is convenient in the first instance, to classify all mechanical equipment into three broad
classes in accordance with its mode of operation and production since the calculation of
output is of prime consideration when making rational (productive) selection. The
classification is:
a) That where the machines have an intermittent cycle of work; - such a machine operates a
series of work cycles, each of which is a complete operation on itself. The rate at which
work cycles are carried out determines the production or output of the machine. Most
earthmoving equipment falls into this category. Mechanical Shovels are typical examples.
Concrete mixers of the batch type and Pile-Drivers are examples which are not
earthmovers.
91
b) That where the machines have a continuous flow type of production; - In this category
comes most of the equipment using pipe and/or conveyor belts for distribution purposes.
This class includes pumps of all types (including those for pumping), conveyors for
distributing concrete, concrete aggregates and execrated materials, and air compressors.
c) That where the machines have intermittent production flow consequently falls between
classes (a and (b above. The class of the equipment is of the type that often operates
continuously over a defined surface area but, on completion of its particular sweep,
ceases operation and has its position adjusted so as to resume production in another area.
An example of such an operation is the use of Grader in working on a road formation. It
grades through the length currently under construction and at the end of its sweep run, it
turned, repositions, and commence grading another sweep run. This cycle of operation is
continued until the whole area to be graded is covered.
11.2 General Factors in the Selection of Construction Equipment
Three of the most important points to be considered in selecting mechanical equipment for a
given construction project are:
a) Physical dimensions and nature of the work involved.
b) The duration of the project and
c) The specification for the work (cost).
Having arrived at what is necessarily an appropriate answer to these three points, the question
of the combination of manpower and machines, which is estimated will enable the work to be
carried out in the best possible time combined with the lowest possible cost, must be
considered. Much discussion will take place at the pre-tender planning stage, and during the
cost estimating process, about the general construction methods which will be used for a
particular contract, and particularly so for all the major operations which make up the
contract.
Having decided the method of construction, it then becomes necessary to translate this into
terms of mechanical equipment which is either available or can be made available for the
contract, and which can be obtained for a minimum cost.
11.3 Selection Process
Equipment is productivity and utilization must be given adequate consideration in the
selection process. High productivity and utilization of equipment will bring about a reduction
in cost and an increase in profit made. The most effective way of judging the degree of
utilization often (item of mechanical) equipment is to spread the direct charges, which
become payable over the output of the machine in such a way that unit costs are obtained. For
92
instance, In the use of excavation machine if the hire charges are related to each cubic meter
of material which is excavated, and the figure so obtained is then compared with that allowed
at the tender stage, some measure of the Actual Efficiency against Expected will be obtained.
It has been stated earlier no contractor may own all the plant that he may need over a period
of years. Hiring of equipment is usually adopted to balance up the contractors mechanical
equipment fleet. The overall profitability of the contracts being carried out by the contractor
is of prime importance and plant must be bought and hived with a view of maximizing this
profitability. The selection of the equipment to be bought and those to be hired should be
informed by a sound economic analysis of the project(s) involved.
Sound and thorough planning is the only basis on which plant selection can be nationally
made. Many of the construction processes which take place on a site requires for the
successful completion, the combination of a number of mechanical equipment.
93
WEEK TWELVE
12.0 EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT
12.10The Utilization of Earth-Moving Equipment
The selection of equipment for carrying out the earth-moving process is one of the most
critical of all in the field of mechanical equipment utilization. The principles which govern
the proper selection of such equipment can also be appli9ed in modified form to most other
types of plant.
It is not possible to lay down very rigid rules concerning the selection of plant to carry out a
specific earth-moving operation. Almost all operations of this type ca be carried out by a
variety of different types and sizes of machines. Many combinations give comparable results.
There are , however, a number of fundamental principles, some or all of which must be taken
into a/c for the proper careful consideration of every operation. An understanding of the
principles which are involved will lead to a sounder and more rational choice of machine
with the likelihood of a higher rate of production at a lowest cost.
The factors to be considered are as follows:
a) The physical properties of the materials to be moved.
b) The rolling resistance of the ground to be covered.
c) The gradient of haul-roads and working surfaces.
d) The capability of the machine to accelerate under given conditions.
e) The coefficient of the running surface.
f) The altitude and ambient temperature of the working site.
g) The capacity efficiency of the soil container.
h) The working efficiency of the machine.
i) The efficiency of the machine operator (human).
j) The weather conditions at the time of operation.
k) The condition and length of the haul-roads.
l) The service and downtime of the machine.
Some of these factors concern materials to be moved and some of the external conditions
which prevail at the time of the movement. Some are concerned with the characteristics of
the machines chosen to do the moving and one, at least, concerns the individual who operates
the machine.
94
Each factor must be considered on its own merits and the total effect of all the relevant
conditions must be assessed for a given situation.
12.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF EARTH-MOVING
Most Civil Engineering works/constructions involve a great deal of earth-moving operations.
That is the movement of earth materials from where it is not needed to where it is needed.
The success of individual civil engineering contractors can be tried to the degree to which the
fundamental principles of earth moving are understood and applied to equipment on any
given job.
12.3 Materials
Earth-Moving is a sequence of changing the layer or strata of the land OR the transportation
of the earths surface according to the desires and designs of men.
Earth resists being moved (generally), materials that make up the earth undergo a process of
geological changes as they are being moved from their respective geological deposit. The
changes are the results of the properties of the materials.
However, the nature of the material is less important. What is of most important is the
physical properties of the material which in effect influences its loadability by the earthmoving equipment.
Loadability is the degree of ease with which earth material can be dug and loaded from their
natural state. This is a function of the loading characteristics of the material which in turn is a
function of its physical geological properties. Earths surface is made of sizable number of
elements, compounds and mixtures.
For the purpose of earth-moving, materials are classified into 3:
1) Rock Materials: - This includes rocks formation and hardpan or boulders. Usually
their loading process involves blasting or ripping into boulder or large stone sizes
before loading. The choice of equipment for loading depends on the loading (and
unloading) characteristics of the material. Other materials are masonry and concrete
structures and pre-cast concrete, large boulders etc.
2) Soil Material: - This includes geological deposits ranging from coarse to fine grains.
It also includes quarry dust and other river weathering material subjected to
denudation. They include- gravel, sand, silt and clay.
3) Rock-Soil mixture: - These are earth materials made of combination of rock and soil
particles of different gradation.
95
Earth materials may have moisture depending on weather conditions, drainage, and retention
quality of the material. Materials being moved have three properties that are of vital concern
to the earth-mover/equipment used. These are:
i.
Weight of Material
ii.
iii.
Compatibility
One should note that moisture content of an earth material seriously affects its loadability.
The factors influences moisture content of an earth material varies. Some of which are
beyond human control e.g. Rain, weather condition. The moisture retention property of earth
material e.g. humidity, sun heat etc. can be controlled to some extent, but is also difficult and
very expensive. The technique of control to be adopted is a function of quantity of soil.
Affects the way a scraper will load, a bulldozer will push, or a motor grader
will cast material.
Weight also affects the turning, maneuvering and hauling in high speed
ranges is directly influenced.
Swell:
This is the ability of earth material to increase in volume when it is removed from its natural
state (bank) to a loose state. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the increase in volume
when compared with the original.
i.e. Swell =
Change in vol
100
Original vol
96
Increase in vol
100
Original vol
Note: if the swell of a dry clay = 30%. This statement means that a 1.0m3 of clay in the bank
(i.e natural state) will fill a space of 1.3m3 in loosened state.
Load Factor:
This is the percentage decrease in density (kg/m3) of a material from its natural state is its
loosened state. The concept of swelling and load factor is important in earth moving. This is
because generally earth materials are measured in bank metres.
Density =
Mass
= kg / m3 .. (a)
Volume
Load Factor =
Loose Density
. (b)
BankDensity
Percentage Swell =
1 100 . (c)
Load Factor
.
Bank State
100%
Loose
VL
lL
ML
ML
VL
M
VL = L
lL
lL =
Vb
lb
Mb
lb =
Mb
Vb
. (1)
Vb =
Mb
lb
. (2)
(100+x)%
. (3)
. (4)
VL > Vb
But
M b = M L Constant
L.F =
lL
lB
lb
lL
V Vb VL
V
Also percentage swell =
= 1 100 Constant
100 = L
Vb
0
Vb
97
lL
Percentage swell =
1 100 b 1 100
Mb
lL
l
b
Percentage Swell =
1 100
L.F
Compatibility
.
Loose
..
..
..
..
Compacted
Void Reduction
Denser
Moisture Reducer
98
It is also necessary for a better finishing. There are various methods in the construction
industry of achieving adequate degree of compaction. Some of these methods are:
i.
Rolling (rollers)
ii.
iii.
Pulverizing
iv.
Vibrating
v.
Addition of water
Usually for a given volume of earth material, the compacted state is such that material
particles come closer together (grain-to-grain contact) than the state of bank enhances
(usually due to overburden and addition of water) when in the bank.
..
..
..
..
Save volume heaped and
Bank State
compacted
(i)
Density Increase
(ii)
Volume Reduce
(iii)
No change in
Loose Volume
Compacted Volume
Mass
Illustration
Bank volume
1m 3
1.3m 3
0.75m 3
75% by volume (25% shrinkage)
200kg (Swell)
200kg (Shrink)
We can see that when a given volume of earth is well compacted, it is expected that
its compacted volume will be lesser than the bank volume. (i.e. Shrinkage).
Compacting effort is greater than overburden pressure.
Pay Volume:
The pay volume is the basis for payment of earthmoving work. This depends on the
specification of choice adopted by the engineer preparing the tender-document. Pay volume
could be either (on the basis of):
i.
Bank Volume
ii.
Loose Volume or
iii.
Compacted Volume.
However, for most Civil Engineering work the bank volume is adopted as the basis for
payment of earth-moving works.
99
WEEK THIRTEEN
13.0 MAINTENANCE
13.1 Introduction
Every machine is thoroughly tested and inspected by the manufacturers before selling it
and by the purchaser before it is put to use. When it is used, it will be subjected to wear and
tear hence proper attention should be given to protect the machine and its components from
undue wear and thus protect them from failures. A proper attention means lubrication,
cleaning, timely inspection and systematic maintenance. Maintenance of a machine means
efforts directed towards the up-keep and the repair of that machine.
A major part of the expenditure is generally on the men, material and maintenance in an
industry. Every machine will require repairs even if it is best designed, hence the repair must
be done at such a time when it may have least disruptions, i.e. machine may be repaired when
it is not being used or its use may be postponed without affecting the production of the whole
concern. Therefore, checking of the machine is generally done when it is not in operation, so
that the defect, if any, can be immediately and easily rectified without causing extensive
damage to the plant.
In this way, we say that maintenance is responsible for the smooth and efficient working of
an industry and helps in improving the productivity. It also helps in keeping the machines in a
state of maximum efficiency with economy.
Realizing the high importance of maintenance of plants and equipments, National
Productive Council, undertook the survey of engineer industries, and found that due to failure
of the plants, equipment and machineries, non-availability is 28 percent. Looking to this high
percentage of failures, it is essential that the engineering units should improve their
maintenance system.
100
Works
Chief Maintenance Engineer
Supdt. Plant
Maintenance
1.
Supdt. Repair
shop
Supdt. Power
house (Mech)
Phones
Supdt. Power
supervisor house (Elec.)
Supdt
Supdt. Road
Building
maintenance
Supdt. Power
Maintenance
Maintenance
Each superintendent is responsible for the maintenance, overhauls, checking, repairs etc. He
should be an experienced person and should be able to decide the quantum and periodicities
for inspection and overhaul etc. Some changes in the organization may be done in the
factories depending upon the considerations.
101
Supdt.
Sanitation and
Water Supply
Maintenance
n
Types of Maintenance
Generally, maintenance can be done in the following two ways:
1. Breakdown maintenance.
2. Preventive maintenance.
In the first case of maintenance, repair can be done after the breakdown occurs while in the
second case maintenance is done on the basis of prediction or on the basis of periodical
checking.
(ii)
due to gradual wear and tear of the parts, which can be eliminated to a large
extent by regular inspections, known as preventive maintenance. From
experience it can be decided that, when a part should be replaced, so that
breakdown can be avoided.
In breakdown maintenance, defects are rectified only when the machine cannot perform its
function any longer, and the production department is compelled to call on the maintenance
engineer for the repairs. After repairing the defect, the maintenance engineers do not attend to
the machine again until another failure occurs.
In this type of maintenance, repair shall have to be done on failure, thus it may disrupt the
whole production. If it is performing an important work. This method is much expensive also
due to increase of depreciation cost, payment to idle operators, overtime to the maintenance
staff for doing the emergency repairs.
importance of the machine and its delicacy. This periodic inspection or checking helps to find
out the reasons leading to breakdown and to rectify them when they are in minor stages. Thus
the repair can be done when one wants to do it, i.e. when it has least effect on the production
schedule. Further this repair requires lesser time as compared to that of breakdown repair and
thus down time is reduced by doing preventive maintenance.
Objects
Preventive maintenance has following main objects:
1. To obtain maximum availability of the plant by avoiding breakdowns and by reducing
the shutdown periods to a minimum.
2. To keep the machine in proper condition so as to maintain the quality of the product.
3. By minimizing the wear and tear, preserve the value of the plant.
4. To ensure for the safety of the workers.
5. To keep the plant at the maximum production efficiency.
6. To achieve all the above objectives with most economical combination.
Important machines: These are those machines which can disrupt whole of
the production are delicate and require much time for the repair. More stress
should be given for the inspection of these machines and schedule for
inspection, cleaning, lubrication, should be adhered to rigidly.
(ii)
2. Lubrication: Mechanical components like gears, bearings, brushes and other friction
surfaces etc., give good performance for long periods, when they are systematically
lubricated. Systematically lubricated, Systematic lubrication means the application of
right type of lubricant at the right time, at the right place and in right quantity. For
lubrication, a schedule should be prepared and should be followed strictly.
3.
Storage of Spare Parts: Sometimes machine remains idle for want of spare parts for
considerable time and thus it affects considerably loss of production. But the judgment
and experience of high order is required for deciding the number of such parts, as
storage of a large number of parts must be determined by considering different factors
such as source of supply, delivery period and availability of that spare part in the market.
Standardization will help to reduce the spare parts inventory and will also help in
specialization of maintenance of particular type of machine.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Due to planned spare parts replacement, lesser spare parts are needed to store at all
times.
(vi)
An operator gets used to the sound and working of his machine and notices any
change immediately, which helps in investigation and rectification of the defect
then and there. If operators are changed frequently, immediate check up and
timely repair cannot be possible.
(ii)
It is easy to pin-point operators with bad operating habits,. To remove these habits
training can be arranged or disciplinary actions can be taken as the case may be.
(iii)
Periodic maintenance is generally conducted by the maintenance crew, specially trained for
this purpose. The period should be decided on the basis of past experiences as explained
earlier. Apart from this, operating instructions should carefully be followed by the operators.
In case any abnormal sound or behaviour is noticed in the machine, he should immediately
bring this into the notice of maintenance crew, so that the defect can be rectified immediately.
Care must be taken that it may not be left for the later date.
Inspections and lubrication schedules should be strictly followed. Inspection schedule should
include the inspection of tools, accessories and other equipments.
105
2) Proper control of work i.e. priority be fixed with care and after consultation with
production engineering department.
3) Correct, clear and detailed instructions be given to the maintenance crew and to
the operators.
4) Operators should be well trained.
5) A good lubrication Programme should be chalked out.
6) Proper maintenance record should be chalked out.
7) Adequate stock of spares should always be kept.
8) Surroundings should be dust free and clean with proper ventilation and
illumination.
9) Manufacturers of the machine should be consulted as and when required.
10) Maintenance department should remain in contact with planning and purchasing
department in deciding the type of machine tools to be purchased. A machine tool
to be purchased should be of best design, adequately safe, good lubrication
arrangements, minimum of moving parts, easy availability of spares etc.
106
WEEK FOURTEEN
14.0 EFFECTIVE METHODS OF TRANSFERRING KNOWLEDGE
AND SKILLS TO SUBORDINATES.
14.01 INTRODUCTION
a) Knowledge, as it relates to engineering practice, could be defined as, the information
obtained, by way of formal or informal education or training project. In other words,
knowledge is a power that motivates the principal actors of an engineering project in
carrying out their duties specifically and efficiently. Hence knowledge is acquired
through a training process.
b) Skill, on the other hand, could be defined, also as it relates to engineering practice, as
the ability to apply acquired knowledge in order to get desired results. Skill is the
technological know-how for certain engineering operations. Skill should improve with
experience gained on the job.
c) Knowledge and skill are, therefore, complimentary in the execution of engineering
projects as knowledge without skill could produce slow and uneconomical results,
while skill without knowledge of the fundamental could yield unsafe and uncertain
results. Knowledge and skill, hence, must be transferred from one part of the
engineering organizational structure into the other so as to be able to obtain reliable
results from the project execution. The process of transfer of knowledge and skill by a
superior to a subordinate is an art on its own, which when carefully studied and
understood by the superior becomes a skill.
Drwg
107
A supervisor is nay person who is in charge of and is responsible for the actions,
efforts and behavior of one or more other people. A supervisor exercises formal
authority as conferred by the organization and is therefore in a formal leadership role,
exercising authority and accepting responsibility for personnel in his group or
organizational unit.
By virtue of historical usage and custom,. There is a status connotation with
the terms supervisor and Manager. In many organizations a supervisor refers to a
foreman, group leader, or some low-level manager who heads a group of workers,
usually at the bottom level of the organization.
In some other organizations, supervisors are the subordinates of the managers.
In such cases, Managers have greater authority and higher responsibilities.
The Operative Workers are those personnel involved in performing the
operative tasks such as, designing, creating, researching and developing, installing,
constructing, producing, manufacturing, operating and maintaining the product,
machine, system of service.
14.30
TRANSFER
BY
ENGAGING
THE
PRINCIPLES
OF
EFFECTIVE
SUPERVISON
1) Treat each of your subordinates as a distinct and valued individual. Show respect and
courtesy. Get to know and understand him his personal interests, family background,
qualifications, experiences, education and training etc.
2) Give praise and credit when due. It is far better to:108
i.
Praise
ii.
iii.
Criticize
iv.
Belittle and
v.
Discourage subordinates.
Than to
Where possible, indicate what contribution that effort has made to the organization
and let other personnel especially superiors know about the good work.
3) Continually stress and reiterate the organizations objectives .point out to your
subordinates the target that your organizational unit is aiming for and when you expect
such to beaclieved .This would enable them develop interest in the relevant knowledge
and skill your want to impart on them.
4)
to integrate
Try to aim for high ideals and standards of ethical conduct, in practical and realistic
terms .Remember that there is always the tendency for subordinates to follow your own
example.
6)
Never reprimand any individual subordinates in front of others especially his peers or
subordinates. Reprimands privately, make sure of your facts and always listen to the
subordinates side of the story.
7)
Always show confidence .Never show disappointments .Do not show that you are
worried even if you are. Do not have regrets, show hope, optimism and belief in the
cause .
8) Learn to delegate and train your subordinates accordingly, give clear, simple and direct
instructions and then trust your subordinates. Encourage people to accept greater
responsibilities and to undertake a variety of tasks.
9) Always listen and head the advice and suggestions made by your subordinates. They can
sometimes see things you have overlooked. Have a flexible mind and adapt your actions
to charged situations.
10) Be loyal to your subordinates and in turn youll find they will become loyal to you. If you
make a mistake, admit it.
11) Always try to simplify the problem. Sort out the wheat from the chaff. Do not become
immersed in details. Sometimes, certain details may be important sort out the essential
details and concern yourself with important issues.
109
12) Always retain a sense of humor, especially when things look bleak. It is better to belittle
one self rather than to belittle or mock others. Integrity and honesty are important to both
your superiors and subordinates.
14.40
TRANSFER
BY
ENGAGING
THE
PRINCIPLES
OF
EFFECTIVE
110
10) Lay emphasis on certain procedures that required sound scientific background and
technical knowledge and if possible refer them to the relative fundamental principles
required.
11) Do not hide anything. Your ability to maximally transfer knowledge and skill depends
directly on your ability to explain everything you know satisfactorily.
CONCLUSION
All the principles outlined above can only become effective when the supervisor/foreman,
using his own initiatives, engages the principles on a systematic and consistent basic. They
have to become past-and-parcel of him as there could be need to engage any one, two or more
of these principles at any point in time in order to transfer knowledge and skills to his
subordinates.
111
Basically, as a leader moves from one level to the next, human skills become more
important. The supportive rationale is that as leaders advance in an organization, their task
becomes less involved with the actual production activity or technical areas and they become
more concerned with discipline and guiding the organization as a whole. Human skills,
however, are extremely important to leaders regardless of levels at which they find
themselves, because the common denominator of all management levels is people.
With this sort of understanding of discipline and leadership role in mind, there are
some concrete actions that the leaders can use in order to encourage a site climate that is both
comfortable and productive. These take place on two levels. The first, PREVENTION,
implies that there are certain actions that the leader can do which will prevent misbehavior
from happening. This generally requires a fair amount of organization and forethought on the
part of the leader to accomplish, but is the less stressful of the two types of intervention that
leaders might choose to apply. Weber (1982) describes this approach as the Instructional
Management approach. This approach is based on the premise that carefully designed and
implemented ground rules will prevent many site discipline problems. The second level is
REMEDIATION. This means an action by the leader in response to some inappropriate
workers behaviour. This is sometimes called the brush fire approach, for unless the leader
is careful, he or she may spend a good portion of the day dealing with behavioral problems
after they occur.
14.60 PREVENTION
1)
Establish clear expectations for behaviour which focus on the positive behaviors that
you wish to encourage (that is, what workers should do). We all need to know what
the acceptable parameters for behaviour are in our social interactions. Too often the
site becomes a guessing game. Will the leader get angry if I do this? Is it surprising
that workers TEST leaders by seeing how far they can push misbehavior? They are
trying to establish those limits, by being very upfront in stating what behaviors are
acceptable, the leaders no longer has hidden agenda that the workers must guess at.
This does not mean to imply that the source of these rules must come exclusively
from leaders. Workers are very effective at identifying behaviors that are conducive to
good working environment and will often be more willing to accept rules that they
have generated themselves. However if this latter approach is applied, it is important
for the leader to have thought through the kinds of rules which are acceptable to avoid
unreasonable or irrational rules from becoming site law. According to Evertson
Emmer, Clements, Sanford and Worsham (1984) one of the surest ways to
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b)
c)
behaviour or not.
Through such a planned teaching of ground rules, the likelihood of clearly understood
expectations might be expressed.
2)
Think through outcomes for misbehavior which are acceptable to you and follow
through with these outcomes. It is easy to be caught up in the anger of a confrontative
situation and dole out disciplinary measures which is unacceptable. If it really
acceptable to dismiss a worker from the site for not completing a given task. Doesnt
this just reinforce the behaviour which is being subjected to disciplinary action?
According to Seifert (1983), William Classer suggests that leaders should rather try to
use the natural consequences for unacceptable behaviour. For example, if a worker
misbehaves on the site, he or she can have the site privileges removed for a period of
time. Leaders need to think through the kinds of behaviour problems that can happen
and determine ways that they are comfortable dealing with those problems.
3)
4)
the central task of the leader is to establish and maintain effective and
productive site group.
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The site group is a social system containing properties common to all social
systems and is characterized by certain conditions that are compatible with those
properties and
The site management task of the leader is to establish and maintain conducive
working environment.
5)
can be avoided by a little foresight. Workers dont enter a working environment with
the same constraints that are common. Hence, they are
not as tolerant of
disorganization or confusion with equal vigour. Such as giving brochures that contain
the rules and regulations before expecting the workers to settle on site help greatly in
preventing the kinds of misbehaviours that cause the leaders concern.
6)
7)
behaving? Give the worker parameters, but allow the worker the responsibility to
make decisions. Abdul, find a place in the workshop to put your cigarette so that you
would not be tempted to smoke during working hours is more effective than Abdul,
bring that cigarette to me right now. The former affirms Abduls worth as an
individual and as a responsible person while the latter only succeeds in setting up a
confrontative situation in which neither Abdul nor the leader can win. According to
Glasser (1969). the worker has the responsibility to make the decision from his own
evaluation thus learns responsibility.
8)
does not have to ask the workers permission to expect their compliance with the
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leaders wishes. Asking will you please bring your time card over here? Leaves open
the possibility for worker to respond NO at which the leader has not left a way out
but a confrontation. By framing behaviour as statements, the leader can always
respond that wasnt a question, it is a statement - please bring your time card here.
14.70 Remediation
1)
Deal with the behaviour directly and specifically. Avoid statements such as I dont
like the way that you are acting. This becomes an indictment of the worker than the
particular behaviour. Be specific about the behaviour that is offensive so that the
worker understands what it is that he or she is doing inappropriately. That doesnt
mean that the worker cant be asked to identify the
but be sure that when you are finished with your discussion, that the worker clearly
understands what behaviour was not acceptable.
2)
place where workers can choose to go when the weight of the world is too much to
handle. Workers in this area are not to be bothered by ANYONE, including the
manager (who may also go to this are if needed). The worker may go to the time-out
corner without feeling that they will be punished. What this effectively was is to put
the responsibility on the worker to decide when he or she is able to work with a
group.
3)
Deal with behaviour quietly, and when possible, individually do not set up facesaving power struggles. Some of us likes to be embarrassed in front of others.
Disciplining a worker in front of peers often leads to a power struggle where the
leader even though that may not be the view that he or she holds. Yet it is important
to save face in front of other workmates. This is no win situation. A lot of these
guiding principles really centre on one idea if we truly care about workers and
express that care willingly and openly, we establish the kind of positive site
environment that prevents many of the inappropriate behaviours from happening.
14.80 SUMMARY
Problems in discipline can best be avoided through anticipating them and making
plans for their elimination.
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Certain details in the routine of managing, if given close attention, will go far
toward removing the seed of disciplinary troubles, as nicely put by Evicson and
Seefeld (1960) the most important of all requirements in discipline is that the
leader or manager must at all times be in control. Therefore, you as the site
leader or manager must always be in control.
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WEEK FIFTEEN
15.0 Introduction and definitions
This chapter is very vital to you, who is a beginner in this subject. The ability to grasp and
comprehend the following accounting term will lay a very solid foundation to give you
confidence in building a good career.
TRANSACTIONS. There are two types of transactions: CASH and CREDIT transactions.
15.15 A CASH TRANSACTION: Is the transaction where goods or services are supplied to
a customer and the MONEY paid at precisely the same time, either by cash or cheque.
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15.22 FIXED ASSETS: Are resources or property of a durable nature, for long-term use
in the business and are not primarily meant for resale or for conversion into cash. E.g.
Land, building, fixtures and fittings, plants and machines, motor vehicles, e.t.c.
15.23 CURRENT ASSETS: Are resources or property which represent cash or are to be
primarily changed into cash and have short life duration as the business continues. E.g.
cash in hand, stock, debtors, cash at bank, e.t.c.
Note: Alternatively, current assets are known as circulating assets. A debtor is one who owes
money.
Converted to
used to buy
CASH
Goods sold for cash
Debtors
CHEQUE
BANK
Pay Cheque
Pay
STOCK
Cash
Debtor
s
Sold to
15.24 PURCHASES: When goods are bought for the purpose of selling to make profit, they
are termed purchases account for they are not meant for sale but intended to be
permanently used in the business. However, when a business trades in machines, i.e. buying
and selling of machines, then the purchases of machines for sale in this case, are included in
purchases account.
15.25 SALES: When goods for the purpose of selling (i.e. purchases) are sold to make profit,
they are termed sales.
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The sale of a fixed asset intended for permanent use should not be included in sales
account.
15.26 STOCK: The current Asset- Stock: is the total goods left when sales are made out
the goods purchased. This is what appears in the balance sheet as closing stock.
Therefore, purchase of goods will add to stock while sales of goods are a reduction in
stock.
Also, when customers return goods previously sold out to them to a trader, it is addition to
the stock of the trader. This is known as RETURNS INWARDS in the traders record.
And a return of goods previously bought by a trader to his supplier is reduction into the
stock of the trader. This is known as RETURN OUTWARDS in the books of the trader.
Purchases &
Returns Inwards
Addition to
Stock +
STOCK
Subtraction
From stock
15.27 LIABILITIES: Are debts for which a business or an individual is liable or responsible
to settle arising from past transactions. There are current liabilities and long term liabilities.
Capital is a special form of liability; it is what the business owes the owner.
15.29 LONG TERM LIABILITIES: Are debts of which settlement is to be made after a
long period of time say after a year. E.g. Bank loan, Loan from individuals, Debentures
e.t.c.
15.30 CAPITAL: Is the contribution by the owner in cash or kind to the business or
accumulated by him out of profits ploughed back into the firm. Capital is thus indebtedness
or a liability of the business to the owner. It is the amount due to the owner and owed by the
business.
It is pertinent here for the reader to regard the owner or proprietor as someone separate
from the business. Thus when the owner puts money or any resource (asset) into the business,
ii is regarded as the business owing the owner. In other words it is the owners commitment
to the business financially and materially.
15.31 DRAWINGS: When the owner or the proprietor takes any property belonging to the
business (firm) for his private use, the property withdrawn is known as drawings. This may
be withdrawal from cash or from purchases or any property. Goods withdrawn by the owner
is charged to his account at cost and purchases account credited.
119
Thus, two accounts are maintained for the owner viz. capital and drawings accounts.
In recording transactions of the business, student should note that he/she is recording for the
business and not for the owner. This is vital.
15.32 ACCOUNTING EQUATION: When the business is liable to only the owner, the
accounting equation is expressed as total assets equal capital. That means all the assets were
provided by the owner.
This is represented by an equation:
A=C. . . . . . . . . . . . .(ii)
Where A=assets and C=capital
On the other hand where the business is liable to the owner and other external parties, the
accounting equation is expressed as total assets equal owners capital (equity) plus liabilities.
That means the owner and other people/ organization provided the total assets.
The equation is represented by:
All the 3 items in the equation are variables, i.e. they are not constant or fixed.
Whenever two of the items are known the other can be calculated by simple addition or
subtraction. For example, Bello started a business with building30, 000, Motor van 20,500,
Cash 6,500, Loan from E. Kind 15,000.
The capital can be calculated because assets and liability (of loans) are given. From the
equation C=L=A, we can deduce that, C=A-L. Therefore, Capitals=Assets (Motor van 20,
500, + Building 30, 000+ Cash 6, 500) - Liability (loan 15, 000) = 42,000.00.
A
i.e.
57, 000
L
-
15, 000
C
=
42, 000
NOTE: The accounting equation is the expression of the financial position statement, the
balance sheet.
Since capital is a special liability to the firm it is convenient to refer to the C+L as the
liabilities side of the equation and A as Assets side of the equation.
15.3 DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM:
There are two aspects involved in every financial transaction. For example in a single
transaction of a trader selling goods to a customer by cash, the two aspects are:
a) The GIVING of goods (by the trader)
b) The RECEIVING of payment of cash (by the trader).
There is a GIVING and a RECEIVING. This two-fold aspect involved in every
transaction gave rise to double entry system.
120
The system of double entry book-keeping which is believed to have originated in the
fifteenth (15th) century is fundamental to the recording of financial transactions. This dual or
double aspect to every transaction affects assets, capital or liabilities, revenue and expenses.
The double entry system is operated effectively by accounts.
15.4 AN ACCOUNT:
An account records changes of an asset or liability of the business. Thus there are accounts
like: Buildings account (for transactions involving building), Loan-Goodness account (for
transactions involving loan from goodness) Motor vans account (for transaction involving
motor van) and so on for every asset, liability and for capital. An account will therefore
contain the record of the life history of the increase or decrease of an asset or liability.
GIVING.
The left hand side of each account is called the DEBIT side (abbreviated as DR) and
represents the side of account that receives the goods, services or money. To debit (DR) an
account means entering the amount of money (N) of the value of goods or services received
into the account and are termed a debit entry.
The right hand side of an account is called the CREDIT side (abbreviated as CR) and
represents the side of the account, that GIVES goods, services or money. To credit (CR) an
account means entering the amount in money (N) of the value of goods or services given out
of the account and it is termed a credit entry.
Each transaction affects two accounts, one account to be debited and the other to be
credited with the same amount. In other words, if one account has RECEIVED another
account has GIVEN. The general rule is:
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Date
Details
Folio
Amount
Date
Details
Folio
Amount
Each account (abbreviated as A/c) has columns for date, particulars or details, folio and
amount for both the DR and CR side as shown above. The date columns record1 when (day)
the transaction took place, the particulars or details columns record the name of the account
for which value is received or given. The folio columns record the page of the accounts in the
details columns, where double entry is completed. The amounts columns record the value
given or received in terms of money.
NOTE: To identify accounts in a statement of transaction always look for names of assets
mentioned or liabilities mentioned in the statement of transaction, also the type of expense
(e.g. rent) or the type of revenue (e.g. sales).
Using accounts we can effect the double entry system with the aid of some transactions.
st
1 Transaction
On January 1, 19Y6, B. Joe started business and deposited N400, 000 (inherited from his
father) to the business bank account.
NOTE: Here the two accounts involved in the transaction are capital (owners A/c) and a
bank A/c. In identifying the account involved in this transaction bank and the owner of the
business (capital) are mentioned in the statement of transaction.
So, Bank A/c is RECEIVING (from capital) Capital A/c ism GIVING (to bank) Applying
the general rule:
DR Bank A/c.
CR Capital A/c.
NOTE: We have followed the 3 steps in recording by the double entry system outline above.
P.g1
122
DR
Capital A/c
Date
Details
Folio
CR
Amount
Date
Details
Folio
Amount
19Y6
Jan. 1 Bank
400, 000
Pg. 2
DR
Capital A/c
Date
Details
Folio Amount
19Y6
Jan. 1 Capital
Date
CR
Details Folio
19Y6
Amount
250, 000
2nd Transaction
On January 5; Joe bought a Motor Van for N250, 000 by cheque. Here, the two accounts
involved in the transaction are: a) Motor Van A/c (RECEIVING from bank) -DR Van
b) Bank A/c (Giving to motor van)
-CR Bank
NOTE: We have already opened a bank account so we continue with the same account for all
further transactions involving bank account. We only need to open motor vans account.
Pg. 3
DR
Date
Folio Amount
19Y6
Jan. 5
Date
CR
Details Folio Amount
N
Bank
250, 000
3rd Transaction
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On January 9, Joe took loan from Mrs. Goodness in cash N50, 000. The two accounts
involved in this transaction are:
a) Cash Account (RECEIVING from loan Account Mrs. Goodness): DR cash
b) Loan Account Mrs. Goodness (GIVING to cash account): CR Loan Mrs.
Goodness Account.
Pg. 4
DR
Date
Folio Amount
Date
CR
Details
Folio Amount
19Y6
Jan. 9
N
cash
50, 000
Pg. 5
DR
Date
Cash A/c
Details
Folio
Amount Date
19Y6
CR
Details
Folio Amount
50, 000
4th Transaction
On Jan 10, goods were bought for resale for N16, 000 from G. Garba to be paid for at a
later date.
The two accounts involved in this transaction are:
a) Purchases account (RECEIVING from G. Garba): DR
G. Garba
G. Garba
Pg. 6
DR
Purchases A/c
Date
Details
19Y6
Jan. 10
G. Garba
Folio
Amount Date
CR
Details
Folio
Amount
N
16,000
124
DR
Date
Pg. 7
CR
G. Garbas A/c
Details
Folio
Amount Date
Details
Folio
19Y6
Jan. 10 Purchases
Amount
N
16, 000
The folio columns have been used assuming that each account is on a separate page as
indicated on them.
125
The way in which the two aspects of every transaction is determined and how the general
rule is applied is tabulated below; (This is not necessary when the student is fully grounded in
the understanding of the basic knowledge of the system).
Date
Transactions
Identification of A/c
March 1
March 4
Cash receiving
Capital giving
DR
CR
cash
capital
DR
CR
Motor van
cash
March 18
Equipment receiving
Equipmech giving
DR
CR
equipment
equipmech
March 25
Cash receiving
Loan mercy Giving
DR
CR
cash
Loan Mercy
March 31
Equipmech Receiving
Cash giving
DR
CR
Equipmech
Cash
DR
Capital
CR
19Y5
Mar. 1 Cash
DR
Cash A/c
19Y5
N
Mar. 1 Capital
8, 500
Mar. 25 Loan Mercy 4, 000
DR
19Y5
Mar. 4 Motor van
Mar. 31 Equipmech
N
8, 500
CR
N
6, 500
2, 500
CR
DR
CR
19Y5
Mar. 1 Equipmech
N
2,500
DR
19Y5
Mar. 4 Cash
19Y5
N
6, 500
19Y5
CR
N
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Mar. 31 Cash
DR
2, 500
CR
N
4,000
15.81 PERSONAL ACCOUNTS: They are accounts dealing with persons either as an
individual, Mr. Bello, or a firm (Partnership), AB & partners or a company (Alfa ltd. Co) A
company is regarded as a legal person. These personal accounts could be either Creditors or
debtors.
Capital is a special personal account. In the example 1 above, Equipment Co is an
example of personal account.
15.82 IMPERSONAL ACCOUNTS Are those dealing with things and not persons.
Impersonal accounts are of two types: Real and Nominal accounts.
15.83 Real Accounts Are those dealing with tangible things i.e. Real things that can be
touched e.g. Building, Machinery Bank, Cash and many Fixed Asset.
Real accounts record transactions of property and material of tangible objects.
15.84 Nominal Accounts Are those dealing with intangible things i.e. they are existing in
name only but cannot be seen or touched. They are not real. E.g. Rent, Rates, wages,
discounts and many other expense or income account.
Nominal accounts record items of expenses incurred and income received, losses made and
gains obtained. Nominal account deals with expenses and revenue that have been used up and
expired within a giving accounting period.
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Debit
Credit
a) Personal accounts
DR Receiver
CR Giver
b) Real accounts
DR Property acquired
CR Property used
c) Nominal accounts
DR Expenses/ losses
CR Income/ gains
d) Cash accounts
DR Receipts
CR Payments
NOTE: Cash accounts is under real accounts, it is shown separately because of its
importance.
128
SALES
LEDGER
LEDGER
Main book of accounts
(containing all .types of
accounts)
Contains customers or
debtors personal
accounts
PURCHASES
LEDGER
Contains suppliers or
Creditors Personal
Accounts.
CASH BOOK
(LEDGER)
GENERAL
LEDGER
NOTE: Private Ledger also might be kept for the accounts of the owner of the business to
contain capital account. Drawings account, and trading, profit and loss accounts.
This problem calls for the division of the ledger into different books according to their
specific function or purpose. Viz:
a) SALES LEDGER: This is the ledger for customers personal Accounts, called sales
ledger, or debtors ledger i.e. all the Debtors Accounts are removed from the main
ledger to the sales ledger.
b) PURCHASES LEDGER: This is the ledger for suppliers Personal Accounts, called
the purchases ledger or creditors ledger i.e. all the creditors accounts are removed
from the main ledger to this ledger.
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c) CASH BOOK: The ledger for the receipt and payments of money of many both by
cash and cheque is called cash book, i.e. the bank and cash accounts are removed
from the main ledger to this ledger.
d) The remaining accounts would be contained in a ledger called a GENERAL LEDGER
or a NOMINAL LEDGER.
These ledgers contain accounts and are pan of the double entry system.
130
b) PURCHASES JOURNAL The journal for all the creditors suppliers. This
records all the CREDIT purchases as they are made daily. It is known as purchases
day book or simply Purchases Book.
c) RETURNS INWARDS JOURNAL The journal for all the returns by the
customers of the goods previously sold to them. This is also known as Returns
Inwards Book or Sales Returns Book.
d) RETURNS OUTWARD JOURNAL The journal for all returns to the supplier of
the goods previously bought from them. This is also known as Returns Outwards
Book or Purchases Returns book.
e) GENERAL JOURNAL The journal for all other transactions apart from cash
transactions and the day books already mentioned.
These journals are not accounts and do not form part of the double entry system.
They are only books of original entry before posting to the various ledgers. They are
considered later in detail.
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132