UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
COURSE CODE: CEC242
YEAR I- SE MESTER I
THEORY
Version 1: December 2008

COURSE INDEX

PAGE

WEEK ONE
1.0 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND REVOLUTION
1.01 Bronze Age
1.02 The Iron Age
1.03 The Middle Age
1.04 Industrial Revolution-19th Century
1.05 Atomic, Nuclear and Space Era-20TH Century
1.06 Computer and Information Age (1950-Date)
1.20 Evolution of Technological Civilizations
1.30 Indices of developed society
1.31 Energy Supply
1.32 Transportation System
1.33 Communication system
1.40 Summary
1.50 Nomadic and Past Nomadic Era

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WEEK TWO
2.0 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
2.01 19th Century
2.02 20th Century
2.10 Scientific Management
2.11 Objectives of Scientific Management
2.12 Principles of scientific management
2.13 Advantages of scientific management
2.14 Some Aspects of Scientific Management
2.15 Non Human Aspects
2.20 FREDERICK .W. TAYLOR (1856-1917)
2.30 HENRY LAWRENCE GANTT 1861-1919
2.40 HENRI FAYOL (1841-1925)
2.50 FRANK GILBRETH (1868-1924)
2.51 The One Best Way:
2.52 Motion Study
2.53 Time Study
2.54 Three-position Plan of Promotion
2.60 ELTON MAYO (1880-1949)
2.70 The role of Civil Engineer in National Development

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WEEK THREE
3.0 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS (PROCESSES)

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3.01 Definition of Management

3.10 Management Functions
3.11 Planning
3.12 Organising
3.13 Controlling
3.14Staffing

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3.15 Motivation
3.16 Effective communication

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WEEK FOUR
4.0 DESIGNING AN ORGANIZATION

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4.01 Meaning of Organization

4.10 Kinds of Organization
4.11 Formal and Informal Organizations
4.20 Organization Charts
4.21 Organization chart
4.30 Organization Structure
4.40 Forms of Organization
4.41 Line Organization
4.42 Line and Staff Organization.
4.5 Authority Relationship
4.51 Line Authority
4.52 Staff Authority
4 .53 Functional Authority
4.60 Authority and Responsibility
4.70 Power and Influence
4.80 Sources of Authority
4.81 Institutional Source
4.82 Subordinate-Acceptance source.
4.90 Limits of Authority
4.91 Level in the Organization
4.92 Superior Authority
4.93 Subordinate Acceptance

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WEEK FIVE
5.0 Parties To Civil Engineering Contracts And Their Inter Relationships
5.01 Client
5.02 Consultant
5.03 Contractor
5.10 Contract Documents
5.20 Statement of the Scope of the Contract
5.30 Data affecting the execution of the works.

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WEEK SIX
6.0 Types And Scope Of Civil Engineering Contracts
6.10 Bills of Quantities Contract
6.20 Schedule-of-Rates Contracts
6.30 Lump-sum Contracts
6.40 Cost-plus percentage Contract
6.50 Cost-plus Fixed-fee Contract

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6.60 Package-deal (All-in) Contract

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WEEK SEVEN
7.0 Student Excursion
7.1 Visit a construction site

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WEEK EIGHT
8.0 PROJECT PLANNING AND COST CONTROL
8.1 Project Planning-Network Techniques
8.2 Deterministic Project Planning (CPM) Preparation
8.21 METHODS OF PREPARING A (CPM) NETWORK
8.30 The Elements of an Activity on- an -Arrow Network
8.40 Principle of Dependency
8.41 Merge Event & Burst Event
8.42 Common Errors in Logicality of Network Diagrams
8.43 Dummy Activity
8.44 Identify Dummies
8.45 Logic Dummies
8.50 Network Construction
8.60 Activity Duration
8.61 Project Duration
8.62 Application of NWT
8.63 Limitations
8.70 Technique OF Estimation

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WEEK NINE
9.0 MATERIAL QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES
9.01 Concrete
9.02 Cement
9.03 Water
9.04 Admixtures
9.1 Mixing
9.2 Transportation
9.3 Placement
9.4 Curing
9.5 Property Monitoring

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9.6 Reinforcing Bars

9.7 Structural Steel
9.8 Timber

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WEEK TEN
10.0 Concrete Mix Design
10.1 Definition
10.11 Purpose of Mix design
10.12 Objects of Mix design
10.13 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportion
10.2 Types of cement
10.21 Maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate.
10.22 Grading of combined aggregate
10.23 Water / Cement ratio
10.24 Workability
10.25 Durability
10.26 Quality Control
10.30
Grades of concrete and requirements for structures
84
10.40 Methods of Concrete Mix Design
10.50 The Department of Environments Design (DOE Method)
10.51 Step by Step Procedure to DOE mix design
10.6 Determination of cement content
10.61 Determination of Total Aggregate Content
10.62 Determination of Fine Aggregate
10.7 Worked example as class-room demonstration

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and general construction
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WEEK ELEVEN
11.0 Construction Machine, Plants and Labour
11.01 Introduction
11.1 Classes of Mechanical Equipment
11.2 General Factors in the Selection of Construction Equipment
11.3 Selection Process

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WEEK TWELVE
12.0 Earth Moving Equipment
12.10The Utilization of Earth-Moving Equipment
12.2 Fundamentals of Earth-Moving
12.3 Materials
Swell

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Load Factor
Compatibility

WEEK THIRTEEN
13.0 Maintenance
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Maintenance Department
13.3 Breakdown Maintenance

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13.4 Preventive Maintenance

13.5 Functions or Element of Preventive Maintenance
13.6 Advantages of Preventive Maintenance
13.7 Maintenance Procedure

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13.8 Requirements for Good Preventive Maintenance 109

WEEK FOURTEEN
14.0 Effective Methods Of Transferring Knowledge And Skills To Subordinates
111
14.01 Introduction
111
14.02 Parties Involved in the Transfer Process
111
14.20 Principles of Knowledge and Skill
112
14.30 Transfer by Engaging the Principles of Effective Supervision
113
14.40 Transfer by Engaging the Principles of Effective Scientific, Technical and Technological
Teaching
114
Conclusion
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WEEK FIFTEEN
15.0 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
15.1 Definition of some Accounting Terms
15.11 Book-Keeping
15.12 Financial Accountant
15.13 Business
15.14 Transaction
15.15 A Cash Transaction
15.16 A Credit Transaction:
15.2 Starting a Business
15.21 Assets
15.22 Fixed Assets
15.23 Current Assets
15.24 Purchases
15.25 Sales
15.26 Stock
15.27 Liabilities
15.28 Current Liabilities
15.29 Long Term Liabilities
15.30 Capital
15.31 Drawings
15.32 Accounting Equation
15.3 Double Entry System
15.4 An Account
15.5 Features of an Account
15.6Steps to follow in According by the Double Entry System
15.7 Double Entry and Accounts
15.8 Classification of Accounts
15.81 Personal Accounts

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15.82 Impersonal Accounts

15.83 Real Accounts
15.84 Nominal Accounts
15.9 Rules for Entering up personal Accounts:
15.10 Rules for Entering up Real Accounts
15.11 Rule for Entering up Nominal Accounts
15.12 Division of the Ledger
15.12:1 Ledger
15.13 Division of the Journal

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WEEK ONE
1.0 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND REVOLUTION

Mans social structure was transformed from the wandering nomadic to organized
settlements or post nomadic era. This developed out of the need to have agricultural
communities and protection for each other. The soil cultivation resulted in the sudden
stoppage of wandering and of periodic food supply.
This agricultural discovery, however, brought about rough division of labour whore
man does the heavier task while the wife and children do the lighter domestic tasks. The
development of settlements brought out the creation of new ideas and needs of the society in
terms of security, organization and efficiency in doing things. This led to a more efficient
system of production and occupational division of labour and introduction of trade by barter;
this development however resulted into the formation of what is now called the market place
where exchange of surplus food and other items takes place.

1.01 BRONZE AGE

Mans bare hands were his first tool followed by wood, bones, stones and metal tools
in this order. However this premature age pored way for more technical activities in the
bronze age where bronze, alloy of tin and copper, was mans first hard metal, utilized in the
making of weapons, tools and other domestic utilities. Some typical examples of tools
developed in this era include the following: Bows, arrows, axes, spoons, cutlasses, knives,
chisels, gorges, razors, boats and chariots.
Other technical innovations in this era is the introduction of the tongs for handling hot
metals, bellows for metallurgical processes and development of wax process for castings.
Infact, the first technological revolutions ended with the bronze age by the year 2500 BC.

1.02 THE IRON AGE

The first solid metal called iron was accidentally discovered by a man who saw
glooming show from a stone in fire, which produced a solid black form after cooling.
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Cooking utensils made from clay was developed out of the need to store and cook cereals.
The development of textile machines for spinning cotton, wool and the looms for weaving
materials. The need to meet the growing human population as a result of limited animal skin.
The periodic flooding of the valleys of the river Nile in Egypt, Indus in former India, the
Mesopotamia in Iraq gave birth to the idea of irrigation which subsequently enhance food
production and improved cropping.
However, the development and growth of settlements, cities & towns led to the birth
of auxiliary services emanating from agriculture, such as black & white smiths, wheel
wrights, shoe makers and plough makers, builders and tails. More so, the idea of labour
division brought about specialization in smelting, casting, working in copper and the
formation auxiliary occupation like bakery and brewing. The use of ox-drawn plough and
wheel cart started in the Indus valley about 2,300-1, 700 BC.
Later, the tribesman in the mountains of Armania discovered the use of heavier and cheaper
steel utilized to produced tools and weapons as a substitute to the rate and costly light bronze.
Iron tools made possible the cutting of funnels, building of bigger and better ships and
weapons.
The idea of technological societies started with the independent craftsman in athons
who grouped together and were recognized as a specialized technical field.

1.03 THE MIDDLE AGE

This era saw the collapse of Roman Empire, most agricultural communities became
self-reliant. Technological innovations were further resuscitated when scholarship was added
to manual labour. In other to protect injurious artisanship, sort of regulatory bodies called
slide were formed. The slides boosted incentives to invent and improve the then existing
technologies by adopting and developing and developing borrowed techniques and
technologies.
This period also saw the birth of trade fairs that boosted technological innovations and
developments. This later resulted into a religious fair of modest honest trading.
This religious fair in the twelfth century (1200AD) took advantages of its location in
Germany and centrally developing Europe which brought about exchange of technological
ideas and inventions from all over the world. These ideas and inventions of many diverse
cultures were welded together in Europe to create a foundation for the new technological
modern society which was the spring board of the later industrialized revolution. Invention
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and developments of this age include water wheel, wind wills. Steering ships with rudder and
compass instead of ears & sails, improved ploughs, clocks, printing technology and so forth.
This is the age of important scientific discoveries, trade, acquisition and adoption of
technologies from about 1450-1660 AD.
1.04 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-19th CENTURY
Industrial revolution started in the 19th century and still remains the hallmark of the
modern technological civilization. The economy and social system of the era contributed
principally to the great achievements of that time. In their era influence, power and money
are acquired mainly by technological means. There were more profit and spectacular increase
in the standard of living as a result of increased national turn over. During this period, there
was a great shift of energy/.technological orientation from scholarly theories about the
universe to research and development relevant to domestic economic growth. More also,
trade in real business commenced and other contrivances such as wheel, steam engine,
steamship, and radio were made.
1.05 ATOMIC, NUCLEAR AND SPACE ERA-20TH CENTURY

This era saw the exploration of space pioneered by a Russian, Konstantin k.

Tsiokorsky and an American called Robert h. Goddard and a German, Herman Oberth. In this
era, Solviet launched it first artificial satellite into the earth orbit in 1957, three months
America launched Explorer 1 in 1961, subsequent after the launche of Sputruk 2 with a line
dog to prove mans survival in the space by the missions. In 1969, American astronauts Neil
Armstrong and Edwin.E. Aldrim of Apollo II lunar module became the first humans to set
foot on the moon on 20th July of that year.
Further studies saw the exploration of the moon, stars, mercury and other planets to
collect samples for study of possibility of life. These discoveries has led to the launching of
better meteorological and communication satellite in our orbit and space leading to improve
defence and communication services.
Development in this era indicated the use of Atomic energy during the second war when
American dropped atomic bomb on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with over
200,000 people killed and thousands ruined in 1945.

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However, recent studies into Atomic and Nuclear energy shows that it could be used for
generating an alternative power supply but with harmful by product which could be used to
make nuclear weapons. The disastrous of nuclear power plant in the then USSR in 1986,
which saw the maiming of many people, exemplified the negative aspect of nuclear energy
utilization.

1.06 COMPUTER AND INFORMATION AGE (1950-DATE)

Computer, the major device for data and information manipulation and transfer was first
recognized when sticks and ropes were used as first analog computer device. However, the
modern computers evolved from the mid-twentieth century-1950s ranging from the vacuum
tube relays to transistors; to small scale integrated circuits (IC) to the initial large scale ICs
such as Pentium II & III which are now connected to form networks. The networks are
interconnected to form internet. The present information super highway makes the world link
together in a manner never imagined before. Through this interconnected networks, products,
services, information and ideas of various technological innovations are shared worldwide
with much better efficiency, leading to the rapid changing technological achievements
presently. More so, recent development into software and micro chips has led to more
advance operation in the ICT world with smaller apertures capable of storing larger
information than before and also the emergence of OS (operating system) like Microsoft XP,
and other windows products.

1.20 Evolution of Technological Civilizations

Matter and the earth formations, are all due to technology. There isnt a single exception to
this basic fundamental truth. Is there any?
The basic reality of life is that the history of civilization of mankind and that of Nations are
all related in one way or the other to engineering and also technology.
Anthropologists have recently formulated a theory of cultural evolution in which human
developments has three stages of savagery, barbarism and civilization .A close observation of
our environment reveals that technological development started from the time of creation to
the present day super technological breakthrough and achievements.

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In all these giant strides in the evolution up to the present day society, there is one discipline
that runs parallel or the prime motivator of human development and this is Engineering or
Technology.

1.30 Indices of developed society

As enunciated earlier in a somewhat different form, civilization is a condition of human

society characterized by a high level of cultural and technological achievements and
corresponding complex society and political development.
Throughout the history of human growth and development, there are three indices that
indicate a civilized and developed society. Whichever society has high standard performance
of all the three parameters is necessarily a developed society.
These three indices of development are:
i.

Energy Supply

ii.

Transportation System

iii.

Communication system

Any society or nation that has sufficient and reliable Energy supply, Transportation, and
communication systems is necessarily developed. Apply these parameters to any of the
advanced nations and the result will be confidently positive. But the very low developed
nations will rate low in any of three indices above . Every modern society is tied together by
these three infrastructures. The interaction of these systems makes possible the emergence
and development of societies. Engineering/Technology, of course, is the essential factor in
shaping these infrastructures.
In Nigeria, much of these strategic and vital infrastructures are all based 0n foreign
technology due to the non-optimal utilization of human resources available in engineering
field. A few examples are given to buttress Nigerias overdependence on foreign technology.
(Gulma)

1.31 Energy Supply

Table 1.31 The Eight NEPA Generating Stations
S/No.

1.

POWER

CAPACITY

TYPE OF

PLANT

(MW)

PLANT

KAINJI

760

HYDRO

SUPPLIER

COUNTRY
OF ORIGIN

GEC

U.K.

12

2.

3.

JEBBA

540

SHIRORO 600

HYDRO

HYDRO

ASEA

SWEDEN

HITACHI

JAPAN

VOEST ALPINE

AUSTRIA

VOEST ALPINE

AUSTRIA

HITACHI

JAPAN

GEC

U.K.

VOEST ALPINE

AUSTRIA

CHAST-MAIN

U.S.A.

HITACHI

JAPAN

4.

EGBIN

1320

STEAM

5.

SAPELE

1020

STEAM (720) ABB(ASEA

GERMAN

GAS

BROWN

SWEDEN

TURBINE

BOVERI)

SWISS

GAS

ABB(ASEA

GERMAN

TURBINE

BROWN

SWEDEN

BOVERI)

SWISS

G.E.

U.S.A

GAS/DIESEL G.E.

U.S.A.

6.

7.

AFAM

DELTA

700

876

GAS
TURBINE

8.

IJORA

60

TOTAL=5876MW=6GW
THE WORKS INVOLVED
1. CIVIL WORKS

*ALL SUPPLIERS ARE FOREIGN

2. ELECTRO-MECHANIC

* ALL OVER-HAULINGS ARE FOREIGN

3. SUB-STATION

* MINOR MAITENANCE ARE DONE BY

NIGERIANS

4. PROTECTION GLASS
Conspicuously, it can be seen that many of the generating plants at any state of the
construction, that is the civil work, mechanical/electrical, and the safety control are nearly all
foreign. Infact, even the overhauling is being done by foreign experts. The same applies in
the Turn Around Maintenance (TAM) of all the refineries, Aluminum Smelting Company
(ALSCON), Ikot Abasi, and the steel rolling mills.
1.32 Transportation System

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The available traveling modes in Nigeria include the roads, railways, inland waterways, the
ocean liners, and airplanes. None of these traveling modes are in adequate capacity or
available at all hours. At nights, traveling is generally unsafe and fuel availability for sale is
almost nil. These hazards and inconveniences of, generally, all night distant journeys are
clearly manifestations of under-development.
1.33Communication system
Anyone who a travel to any part of the developed society knows what good
communication network is, a telephone is assured all times. By the time the last digit of
number being called is pressed, the line through unless it is ready engaged. Telephone and
cellular mobile units are available in few major cities and towns in Nigeria. But the system
failure is rampant. Towns with analogue telephone connections are difficult to reach.
Furthermore, available lines are severely limited.
1.40 Summary
Summarily, it is the emergence of effective and reliable energy supplies, transportation, and
communica5tions that make a developed society. One can look at the setting in any of the
well-developed nations and one could clearly observe the high standards in all of these three
determinant characteristics.
1.50 Nomadic and Past Normadic Era
Right from the time of the existence of man on the earth, began the quest by man to
combat the harsh conditions of the environment to meet the basic need of food, clothing and
shelter. Man began to hunt for animal flesh and gather fruits as food, animal skin and plant
fig as clothes, plant and physical shades for shelter.
This trial and error approach led to the accidental discovery of domesticated animals which
led to the organized agricultural practice of sowing, planting and reaping. Fire was
discovered so that food can be cooked rather than eaten raw or dried.
Mans social structure was transformed from the wandering nomadic to organized
settlements or post nomadic era. This developed out of the need to have agricultural
communities and protection for each other. The soil cultivation resulted in the sudden
stoppage of wandering and periodic food supply.
This agricultural discovery brought about rough division of labour where man does the
heavier task while the wife and children does the lighter domestic tasks. The settlement
development brought out the creation of new ideas and needs of the society in terms of
security, organization and efficiency in doing things. This led to a more efficient system of

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production and occupational division of labour and introduction of trade by barter. Markets
were formed for the exchange for surplus food and other items.

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WEEK TWO
2.0 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
Management is the basic, integrating process of business activities that surround our daily
life. It may be defined as achieving results by coordinating the activities of other people. It is
concerned with the proper use of both human and non human resources of any establishment,
Non human resources like money, materials, machinery etc. This means that the manager or
group of managers provide leadership which results in the achievements of the stated
objectives of the organization or an establishment. E.g. Tate and Lyle, Kwara Polytechnic or
University of Ilorin a non profit organization like the Red Cross, Churches, Mosque just to
mention a few. From the foregoing definition we can see that management is very complex
and it is often best defined in dynamic functions or the ways it operates. Thus management is:
1. All human efforts to increase human efficiency in an organization.
2. The techniques of effective utilization of men and material resources to obtain the
desired results.
3. The process and agency which directs and guides the operations of any organization.
4. Group of managers.
5. Getting things done through other people.
6. To forecast and plan, to organize, command coordinate, control and to make
decisions.
7. A social process that entails responsibilities for the effective/efficient planning
regulation of the operations of an enterprise.
Management predates human existence. God himself started the concepts, principles and
practice of managements. However opinions vary with the historian on the subject matter of
history and the development of management. Management from the old French word
management refers to the act of conducting, directing. Also from the Latin word Manu
agree is to lead by hand. Management therefore characterizes the process of leading, and
directing all or part of an organization, often a business, through the deployment and
manipulation of resources such as human, financial, material & intellectual. One can also
think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis
and of adjusting some initial plan and as the actions taken to reach ones intended goal. This
applies even in situations where planning may not have taken place. Situational management
may therefore proceed and sometimes subjoin purposive management.

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2.01 19th Century

Modern management as a discipline began as an offshoot of economics in the 19th century.
Classical economist such as Adam Smith and John Stuart mill provided a theoretical
background to resource allocation, production and pricing issues. About the same time,
innovators like Eili Whitney, James watt and Matthew soulton developed technical
production elements such as standardization, quality control procedures, cost accounting,
interchangeability of parts and work planning.
By the middle of the 19th century, marginal economist Alfred Marshall and Leon Walras
and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical understanding of
management. Joseph Wharton offered the first orfjklfkl in1881. By about 1900 we find
managers trying to place their theories on a thoroughly scientific basis. Examples include
Henry Townes science of mgt 1890s, Fredrick winshow Taylors scientific mgt (1911), frank
and Hillian Gilbreths applied motion study (1917) and Henry Haganttis Chart (1910).

2.02 20th Century

The first comprehensive theories of mgt appeared around 1920. People like Henri Fayol
and Alexandra Clurchi described the various branches of mgt and their inter-relationships. In
the early 20th century, people like Ordwatt Tead, Walter Scoth and J.moonery applied the
principle of psychology to management, while other writers Elton Mayo, Mary Parker Follet,
choster Bernard, max weber, rensis hekert and Chris arguing approached the phenomenon of
mgt from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker wrote one of the corporations published in
1946. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackelt combined the statistical theories of Ronald fishor and
Throton C. fry with micro economic theory and save both to the science of operation research
to solving management problems in the areas of logistics and operations. But, towards the
end of the 20th century mgt came to consist of a number of separate branches which are, but
are not limited to the followings:
a) Operations and production mgt
b) Marketing mgt
c) Strategic management
d) Human Resources mgt.
2.10 SCIENTIFIC MANANGEMENT
Scientific management is the application of scientific methods to solving management
problems with the ultimate aim of increasing productivity. An American production engineer,

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Frederick W. Taylor was a pioneer in this field and he is considered as the father of scientific
management.
The scientific methods are usually stated as:
a) Observation and collection of data
b) Analysis of the data collected
c) Classification of results
d) Development of hypothesis
e) Testing hypotheses through experiments
f) Application of the laws for predicting future circumstances.
The use of scientific methods to solve management problems was necessary after the
industrial revolution when industries grew in numbers and complexities. Also the system
used at that time was very crude, un-scientific and was incapable of solving management
problems. The prevalent problems at that time include proper selection of men, materials and
machines, what constitute a day job, maintaining of harmonious and cordial relationship
between the employer and workers. The methods employed. Was so inefficient that one of
the pioneers of scientific management, Dr. Jones made the following observations:
a) Current performance and the methods prescribed by craft and tradition were crude and
wasteful because the tools and apparatus used were not fitted to its purposes.
b) Workmen everywhere were performing task for which they were not fitted.
c) No one, workmen or manager, was aware of the time a given piece of work should
take and also how much work a first class should do in a day.
d) Managers were not aware of the impact or influence of delays and vacations on the
workers. As method before better methods of management had to be sought to take
care of things problems in the face of fierce competition and rivary that accompanied
industrial revolution.. Some of the pioneers in this field include Frederick W. Taylor,
Henry Gantt, and Frank Gilbreth.
2.11 Objectives of Scientific Management
The objectives of scientific management could be inferred from the testimony Taylor
made to the house (House of Representative) committee in 1912 in the U.S.A. it could be
summarized as follows:
a) To bring maximum prosperity for employers through increased productivity at
minimum costs.
b) To improve efficiency of the workers-through better training in the proper use of tools
implements.
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c) To provide maximum prosperity to the worker by increase their wages which will
eventually enhance their live hood.
d) To maintain workers/employees relations by creating a harmonious industrial
environment as a consequent of a mental revolution.
e) To provide cheaper goods and services to the community.
2.12 Principles of scientific management
The principles of scientific management are contained in the famous Taylors
principles:
1) replacing rules of thumb with science
2) obtaining harmony in group action, rather than discord
3) achieving co-operation between management and workers as opposed to chaotic
individualism
4) Working for maximum output. rather than restricted output
5) Developing all workers to the fullest extent possible for mutual benefits-(labour and
management}.
2.13 Advantages of scientific management
1. Scientific management has changed the entire management technique which
ultimately increased efficiency.
2. It helps in proper and standard planning of each workers task and operation.
3. It helps in controlling
4. It helps in proper selection, training, placement and development of the workers
together with a provision of incentive wages and satisfactory service conditions.
5. It helps to create harmonious and cordial relationship between the labour and the
management.
6. It helps to raise the standard of living of the workers through increased output and
reduced cost per unit.
7. It helps to ensure technical efficiency through the standardization of tasks, tools,
equipments, raw materials etc.
8.

It helps to remove the traditional antagonistic attitude stance of the employees and
employers towards each other and makes them understand that they have common
interests. Hence it brings mental revolution.

9. It brings more prosperity to both workers and employers i.e. more profit implies more
wages.
10. Cheaper and standard goods to the customers.
19

The following criticisms have been leveled against scientific management:

1. It reduces workers to innest object another mindless machines that has no feelings or
values.
2. Relationships between workers and workers are very impersonal.
3. It only encourages increased output and efficiency hence workers must completely
submit to the needs of machine.
4. The conditions under which workers work have ceased to exist.
5. Production and efficiency are now almost ready.
6. Workers received time and motion studies with hostility they feel that it will benefit
only the company while adversely affecting the workers.
7. Job simplification will lead to monotony, boredom, lack of challenge, and ultimately a
dehic introduction.
8. If proper and advance notice is not given to workers, workers can alter their normal
work rate thus influencing the results of observation adversely.
9. The one best way does not give enough room for individual differences in term of job
abilities and skills.
10. In adequate sampling, only a small number of the work force was sampled and only
best workers already performing the job were studied.
11. Work day and work week were inadequately sampled.
12. The simultaneous use of both hands in time and motion studies may not be feasible.
13. Later workers device better methods of doing things do it better thereby defeating the
idea of one best way of doing things.
2.14 Some Aspects of Scientific Management
Basically scientific management could be broadly divided into human and non-human
aspects. The human aspects include the following:
a) Selection of workers
b) Training
c) Time and motion analysis
d) Fatigue study
e) Wage incentive
f) Labour/management relations.
1) Selection of workers: Selection of workers is very important because productivity of
worker is directly related to the fitness of workers. If a worker is not fit to do a job he is not
going to be productive. Therefore the most suitable man for a job is Taylors first class man.
20

To get the most suitable man various procedures must be employed e.g. psychological test;
test to ensure both physical and mental fitness.
2) Training: Training is art of imparting the required knowledge and techniques to perform
certain duties. It is the corner stone of any efficient management. It helps to improve the
efficiency and skills of workers and also as a control device. It is required in the face of
outburst of technological changes and expansion of business.
3) Motion and time analysis is done by production standards on factory jobs. It has a two fold
process. The first process is the motion analysis to determine the best way of doing a
particular job by eliminating unnecessary movements. It includes breaking down the job into
its simplest elements, eliminating unnecessary motions and establishing a pattern for efficient
production.
Once the motion analysis is completed, the worker is trained in the new method. Then the
industrial engineer conducts a time study analysis, using a stop watch, to determine how
much time is required to perform the job under actual factory conditions. A number of
observations will be made to determine fairly the amount of time required for a particular job.
Allowances will however be made for variations in the workers work pattern as a result of
chances, or unusual circumstances e.g. workers fatigue, production delays etc. These factors
are incorporated into the average observed time to determine standard time for performing a
job and can judge what a normal pace is for doing that job.
4) Fatigue Study- It is a study conducted to determine weakness after hard work. When
workers perform some duties after sometime efficiency begin to diminish. Therefore
management (industrial engineers) conducted a study to determine the causes of fatigue.
Findings show that long hours of work, monotony of work, unhealthy working environment,
and constant strain under poor leadership are the contributing factors. Management has to pay
attention to these findings because fatigue decreases efficiency and productivity, it also
lowers quality of work and strains labors management relationships.
5) Wage Incentives- Wage incentives lends to motivate workers to improve production
output or productivity, efficiency and quality of work. If workers are motivated labour turns
over will also be reduced and good workers will be attracted.
i) Taylor introduced Differential piece rate. This involves the higher and the lower rates.
The higher rate for the fast and efficient worker while the lower rate was for the workers who
failed to perform the standard job within the standard time.

21

ii) Taskes and bonus system was another method of paying wages under scientific
management. It was introduced by Lawrence Gantts. The system guarantees a day wage
workers and bonus for any extra of the task bonus is attained. It is on a daily basis.
iii) Emersons introduced another system known as efficiency wage. Under this system
bonus is computed on a weekly and monthly basis.
6) Labour/Management relations- For any management to succeed there must be good
corporation and harmonious relationship between labour and the management team. Taylor
realized this and pointed out its importance. He said among other things that good
corporation between labour and management brings changes in the attitude of the workers
and the management and therefore brings about a mental revolution.
2.15 NON HUMAN ASPECTS
Non human aspects of scientific management include the following:
a) Tools and equipments
b) Machine speeding
c) Factory conditions
d) Materials
e) Functionalization
f) Planning room
1) Good tools- for good performance good tools and equipments are required. For
equipment to function effectively, it must be properly installed and maintained. These
scientific managers paid particular attention to the proper installation, maintenance
and accessibility of machines in the factory to enhance productivity and efficiency.
2) Machine Speeding-The speed of the machine is very important for good productivity
and efficiency. The speed should be standardized. When a standard speed is achieved
then it could be adjusted to the desired speed.
3) Factory Conditions-Good working environment is required for good productivity
and efficiency. The scientific managers realized this and therefore made adequate
provisions for proper ventilation colour, heating, cooling, lighting, drinking water,
rest or recreation as the case may be.
4) Material- Great importance is attached to the good supply of quality materials.
Researches were conducted to discover or invent new raw materials that will enhance
productivity and product quality.
5) Functionalization- Scientific management encourages division of labour. Delegation
of authority rest solely on functions and or techniques. Therefore each manager or
22

worker is assigned a job in which he is best fitted. This method tends to encourage
professionalism. It helps management to get detailed information and expert advice.
To achieve better productivity, Taylor suggested the Functional type of
organizational in place of line and staff form of organization. He further suggested
functional foreman to replace a single foreman who serve as the sole administrative
figure. It tends to relieve the manager and the foreman of unnecessary burden.
6) Planning Room-Taylor suggested separate planning room whereby specially trained
planners will do planning jobs. According to Taylor, order of work, preparation of
instruction cards, compilation of time study records and machine speed records,
entering of costs records etc. are to be done in the planning room.
Scientific management focuses on worker and machine relationships. Organizational
productivity can be increased by increasing the efficiency of production processes. The
efficiency perspective is concerned with creating jobs that economize on time, human energy,
and other productive resources. Jobs are designed so that each worker has a specified, wellcontrolled task that can be performed as instructed. Specific procedures and methods for each
must be followed with no exceptions.

2.20 FREDERICK .W. TAYLOR (1856-1917)

Frederick Winslow Taylor was the father of the scientific
management movement He believed that management should be based on well
recognized, clearly defined and fixed principles, instead of lazy ideas. Taylor was born in
Philadelphia on March 20 1856. He was to study at Harvard University but he had to shelve
the idea because of the condition of his eye sight.
In 1878 he went to Midvale steel company as a machine shop laborer. As a result of his
hard work he had rapid promotions. He was a shop clerk, machinist, gang boss, foreman,
maintenance foreman, head of the chew office and chief engineer.
He studied at night and earned degree in mechanical engineering from Stevens
Institute of Technology in1883. His purpose was to maximize efficiency and productivity.
When he discovered he could not arouse enthusiasm in the workers he suggested
money/wage incentive should be given to workers who are efficient. This he thought would
benefit both the workers and the employers. According to him workers and employers should
not argue on how profit should be divided but both workers should work together on how
greater efficiency and productivity could be achieved so that there will be more profit to
23

share. After careful studies he discovered that low productivity in the industry was, according
to him as a result of:
a) Unclear concept of managerial responsibility
b) Lack of measured standard for defining tasks
c) Widespread inefficiency of labour and Systematic soldiering.
To improve efficiency and productivity he made the following recommendation
which was later christened as Taylors principles.
a) The rule of thumb must be replaced with science he believed there is a science for
every work therefore management must discover it.
b) The scientific selection and progressive development of the workers training teaching,
development of workers should be the responsibility of the management and to be
scientifically done too.
c) Achieving co-operation between workers and the management.
d) There should be division of work between the workers and the managementmanagement to take over all work for which they are better fitted than the workmen.
These principles are designed enhance the productivity and efficiency of workers in
an organization and they form the basic principles of scientific management.
a) Time study principles: Taylor recommended accurate measurement of all productive
efforts to determine a standard time for all work done in the factory. He used a stop watch to
achieve these objectives
b) Piece-rate principles: There should be a direct relationship between wages and output.
The rates should be based on standards to be determined by time study analysis in addition a
worker should be given the job in which he is best fitted for. Differential piece rates was
recommended for rewarding the good workers-higher rates for fast and efficient workers and
lower rates for slow workers who are unable to attain the targets.
c) Separation of planning from performance: Planning should be done by management and
good atmosphere for performing the planned job to be provided too planning should be based
on the time of study and other data that are scientifically collected include standard tools,
implements and methods.
d) Scientific methods of work management should scientifically define the methods of doing
a job and not the workers.
e) The principle of managerial control. Managers are to be trained and taught how to apply
scientific management for principles in the art of controlling.

24

f) Functional Management Principles: Taylor recommended that industrial organization

should be designed in such a way that it best solved their problems and the strict application
of the live and military principle should be reconsidered.
g) The Worker Job: Taylor said it is the responsibility of the management to determine what
constitute a days job. This could be done by conducting a time and motion analysis by the
management. The working man (Labour union) According to Taylor, if his scientific
management principles are implemented there will not be any need for labour union. It is said
however note that some of the efficiency Experts misused his principles by paying workers
less and therefore his principles were considered anti union. He was not against unions.

2.30 HENRY LAWRENCE GANTT 1861-1919

Henry Gantt was one of the contemporaries of Taylor. He too was a mechanical engineer
and he joined Taylor at Midvale Steel Company in1887.
He married some Taylors ideas and did much consulting work on scientific selection of
workers and the development of incentive homes systems. He had a better understanding than
Taylor of workers psychology. This was manifested in the importance he attached to the
morale boosting and the use of no financial rewards to achieve it. According to, Gantt,
management

should

provide

favorable

environment

which

will

make

workers

psychologically fit for his job.

Taylor laid emphasis on methods-analysis and organization of work, while Gantt
emphasized men. His concept of motivation is very much the same as one perceive it today.
Gantt is best remembered for his development of his charts-a graphic method of depicting
plans and making it possible for managers to have better control. He emphasized time and
cost in planning and controlling work. His famous Gantt Chart is in wide use today and he
was the forerunner of such modern techniques PERTH. Program Evaluation and Review
Technique.
He is also remembered for his Task and Bonus system of wage payment which was based
on Taylors piece rate system except that it was more flexible. There is fixed rate of payment
for every worker and a bonus is an extra rewards for the worker who complete their jobs. His
bonus system provide bonus not only for the workers but for the foreman too. This method
too relied solely on the outcome of time and motion study analysis.

25

2.40 HENRI FAYOL (1841-1925)

Fayol is considered as the father of modern management theory. He was a French
Engineer by profession. He is popularly known as the Universalist because he believed there
should be a single administrative science whose principles could be used in all administrative
cases in any organization. According to him, managers need nothing more than the principles
and that at upper level of management, managers depend on less and less on technical
knowledge of what he is managing. This means the need for technical knowledge decreases
with a rise in the management hierarchy. This should not be misunderstood however because
he believed that even at the top, top managers could not depend on administrative skills
alone. In fact, in discussing the qualities heeded by top management, he gave administrative
ability a weight of only 50% in the case of a very large firm, only 25% in the case of small
firm top manager.
Fayol found that activities of an industrial undertaking could be broadly divided into six
groups. Activities and undertaking:
1. Technical (production-manufacture)
2. Commercial (buying, selling, exchange)
3. Financial (search for optimum use of capita)
4. Security (protection of prosperity and persons)
5. Accounting(including statistics, stock taking, balance sheet (costs) )
6. Managerial (planning, organization, command, coordination and control)
He pointed out that these activities are present in businesses of every size. In his book he
spent much time on the analysis on the sixth since he believed that the first five were well
known. His concept of universality of management principles gives rooms for flexibility, in
application. According to him, to apply the same principle twice in identical conditions,
allowance must be given for different changing circumstances for men and other variables.
Fayol listed fourteen (principles) based on his experience. The principles are summarized as
follows:
1. Division of work: The economist considers it necessary for specialization to enhance
efficiency. Fayol applied it to all kinds of work, managerial as well as technical.
2. Authority and Responsibility: Fayol distinguished between a managers official
authority (deriving from his office) and personal authority (deriving from his
experience, moral worth, intelligence e.t.c.) Authority should commensurate with
responsibility; this means the holder of an office should have adequate authority to
carry out all the responsibilities assigned to him. He also suggested that generally
26

speaking, responsibility is feared as much as authority is sought after, and fear of

responsibility paralyses much initiative and destroys many good qualities.
3. Discipline: He said that discipline requires good superiors at all levels since discipline
is respect for agreements which are directed at achieving obedience, application,
energy and the outward marks of respect. Therefore the state of discipline of any
group of people depends on the quality of its leaders.
4. Unity of Command: This means of or any action subordinate should receive orders
from superior only. He saw dual command as a disease whether it is caused by
imperfect demarcation between departments or by a superior giving order to an
employee without going via the intermediate superior.
5. Unit of direction: There should be one and one plan for each activity. The relates to
the organization of the body corporate and not the personnel.
6. The interest of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over that of
the general interest of the organization.
7. Remuneration: Remuneration and methods of payment should be fair, satisfying
both employer and employee alike.
8. Centralization: This refers to the degree to which authority is concentrated or
dispersed. Individual circumstances should dictate the extent of it.
9. Scalar Chain: This describe the chain of superiors from the lowest to highest rank.
Formal communication is up and down the lines of authority.
10. Order: Fayol believed there should be a place for everything and everything in its
place.
11. Equity: There should be fair play.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel: He discovered that unnecessary turnover to both the
cause and effect of bad management It has often been recorded that a mediocre
manager who stays infinitely preferable to outstanding managers who merely come
and go.
13. Initiative: It is essential to encourage and develop this capacity to the fullest.
14. Esprit de corps: Personnel must not be split up. Verbal communication is preferable
to written communication, which is frequently abused, causing friction between
departments. In union there is strength. Fayol considered the main elements of
management to be planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.

27

2.50 FRANK GILBRETH (1868-1924)

Frank and his wife Lillian Gilbreth were contemporary of Taylor. They both supported
and developed Taylors ideas. Frank gave up going to the university to become bricklayer so
as to make quick money. Like Taylor, he received quick promotions. He rose (became) the
chief superintendent of a building construction within ten years. Later he became a building
contractor himself. He became interested in wasted motions in work. Later his contracting
firm became a consulting firm-consulting on how to improve human productivity. Lillian
Gilbreth worked very closely with her husband; she had doctoral degree in industrial
psychology in1915. She was known as first lady of management. Lillian was interested in
the human aspect of work while her husbands interest was in efficiency-searching for the
one best way of doing a job.
They discovered that job dissatisfaction has its origin not in the monotony of job but
managements lack of interest in workers.
2.51 The One Best Way:
Gilbreths interest in the one best way of doing a job Waslater christened as a system of
short cut of laying bricks. The one best way was the way which involved the fewest motions
performed in an area that is most comfortable and accessible too. By applying his methods in
bricklaying, the numbers of motions were reduced thus increasing efficiency and
productivity.

He believed motion study could be used in all work including production, research labs,
government and civil offices etc. According to him improper arrangement of men and
materials are responsible for wasteful motions and efforts which caused delay and has
negative effect on workers morale.
2.53 Time Study
He developed a new type of time study that was more accurate than Taylors. He used
speed clock instead of stop watch used by Taylor. He also took motion pictures in three
dimensions to find out the exact time.
2.54 Three-position Plan of Promotion
To attract desirable applicants, to fill a position, he developed a plan known as three
position plan of promotion. According to him, each worker should be seen as occupying three
positions at the same time.
1) His previous job- The job he held before he got promotion to his present job.
28

2) His present job- The position he is occupying now.

3) The next job- The next higher job he would like to be promoted to. The implications
of this plan are that three records must be kept.
a) Individual record
b) Collective records and
c) Records of personnel in charge of promotion
Gibreth work as similar to Taylors but was independent of his. His emphasis was on
motion study and less on time study and financial incentives. He believed there was one
best way of doing a job and that could be discovered by time study. His major
contribution was his regards for human elements- Taylors short comings.

2.60 ELTON MAYO (1880-1949)

Elton Mayo was a professor of industrial research psychology at the Graduate school of
Business, Harvard University between 1927&1947 in the U.S.A. He was an Australian by
birth but an American by naturalization. Between 1927 and 1932 he and Fritz Roethlisberger
made a historic study at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company. In the
experiments he tries to find out the effect of changes in certain variables (working conditions)
on the productivity of workers. The variables were lighting, heating; rest periods, incentive
pay system e.t.c. In the Hawthorne experiments he used five girls as guinea pigs. They tried
changing the above variables but noticed that the changes in the variables did not seem to
explain changes in output productivity were increasing. They then came together conclusion
that other factors were responsible. They suggested that the relation among the group
members between the group members and the supervisors were the critical variables-i.e.
social attitudes and relationships of work groups. According to them productivity was
increasing when illumination was changing because the test group began to be noticed and
were feeling important sense of belong. This phenomenon arising basically from people
being noticed has been known as the Hawthorne effect. Humans are social. The following
conclusions could be drawn from the Hawthorne experiments:
1. That the level of productivity is directly related to the workers attitude or morale.
2. That the worker should be allowed to have inputs in the changes to be made so as to
get his full co-operation and understanding- sense of belonging is more important than
any other thing else.
29

3. That the influence of group on individual performance is very great. It must be

emphasized that all the variables reinforced each other.
Unlike Taylor, Mayo was more concerned about the human aspects of productivity. He
believed that economic motive on which Taylor much emphasized, was not as important as
the emotional and non-logical attitudes and sentiments.
They said Attitudes to people, as people, may be more important than such factors as rest
periods, benefits, money e.t.c. People are not merely instruments.
2.70 The role of Civil Engineer in National Development
1. Abundant employment
2. Good food.
3. Moderate houses.
4. Good health.
5. Drinkable water.
6. Sound education.
7. Regular electricity.
8. Good roads.
9. Extensive rail transportation.
10. New water ways transportation.
11. Safe flight facilities.
12. Security of lives and properties. (national defense plans execution)

30

WEEK THREE
3.0 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS (PROCESSES)
3.01 DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT
Management is a process of getting things done through other people, in other words
management are individuals or group of individuals who have authority and responsibility in
getting things done in an organization.
Henri Fayol (1919) defines management as to forecast duet plan, to command and organize,
and to coordinate and control. Stonel and Wankel (1988) viewed management as a process of
planning, organizing, leading and controlling the efforts of organization members and of
using all other organizational resources to achieve stated organizational seals. Management is
therefore a system that consist of interdependent and interacting parts that forms a unified
whole. It consists of the:
a) Input- Human resources
- Machines
- Finance/capital

- Materials

b) Process Planning, organizing, staffing, influencing, leading, directing, motivation,

communication, controlling and coordination.
c) Output- Achievement of objectives, production, marketing, accounting & finance,
Engineering, Administration, purchasing and supply and quality assurance/control.
However, the operations of each subsystem depend on each other and determine the overall
success of the organization. These subsystems must be properly coordinated so as to achieve
organizational objectives.
3.10 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
Management objectives are achieved when its functions are carried out. The tenets of
management rest squarely on its concomitant function. Its functions include the followings.
1) Planning
2) Organizing
3) Coordinating
4) Controlling
5) Budgeting
6) Motivating
7) Staff and
8) Effective communication
31

3.11 PLANNING
Planning simply refers to the process of determining corporate objectives and how they
will be accomplished; In other words it is the process of setting goals and objectives for an
organization and determines how to achieve such goals and objectives. It is anticipating
decision in designing an environment for the effective performance of individual working
together in groups. However, for effective planning in an organization certain process should
be followed:
1) Scan the environment: - The organization should be aware of the opportunities and
threats in the environment, the consumer needs, the resources available, the
management size, the competition and the scio-economic and political factor and also
the strengths and weakness of the company.
2) Set objectives and goals in relation to the mission purpose of the organization. This
should answer questions such as: where are we in the organization, where do we
want to be and when?
3) Selecting the best alternatives
4) Implement the plan, monitor it and develop feedback mechanism for organizational
effectiveness, planning should be seen as the foundation of managerial functions,
Therefore careful attention should be taken both in the process and implementation of
plans.
3.12 ORGANISING
Organizing is concerned with activity and authority relationship of an enterprise. It is a
management process which has as its outcome the resultant organizational structure.
Organizing therefore is simply the grouping of activities necessary to attain the enterprise
objectives and the assignment of each group to a manager with necessary authority to
supervise it. Managers who are tasked to perform this function and creature and intelligent
and possess adequate information about the enterprise objectives, polices, Procedures,
programs, rules and other available resources. The steps to organizing are:
1) Review plans
2) List task
3) Group tasks into jobs
4) Group jobs
5) Assign work
6) Delegate authority
3.13 CONTROLLING
32

Controlling is a vital management function in that it ties the subordinates performance

to the enterprise plans. No matter how effective the execution of other management
functions, control is still needed to ensure that the enterprise objectives are accomplished
according to plans.
In essence, controlling is simply the process of comparing performance with standards and
correction of any observed deviations, It is directly related to planning. The controlling
process that plans are being implemented properly. In the reality controlling involves the
process through which standards for performance of people and processes are set,
communicated and applied. Control facilitates delegating activities to employees, since
supervisors are ultimately held accountable for their employees performance, timely
feedback on employee activity is necessary.
3.14 STAFFING
Staffing as a management function is a general term used to describe activities is
getting people into the organization as employees. It involves job analysis, man power
planning, recruitment, selection, placement and the socialization process in an organization.
This is done by identifying workforce requirements, knowing the number of staff available,
recruiting, placing, planning the carrier, comperisation and training or otherwise developing
both new candidates and current job holders on how to accomplish their tasks effectively and
efficiently.
3.15 MOTIVATION
It involves finding incentives which satisfy workers needs and increase workers
commitment and effort towards the goals and objectives of the organization. In other words,
it involves a process of encouraging or inducing employees or perhaps a way of giving a
person a reason for doing the things you want him to do.
3.20EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Communication establishes relationships and makes organizing possible. Every
message has a purpose or objective. In essence, in any organizational context, messages
typically have a definite objective to motivate, to inform, to teach, to persuade, entertain, and
to inspire people the comprised organization. Effective communication in the organization
centers on well defined objectives that support the organizations goal and mission. In other
words, the use of modern information technology enhances the effectiveness and efficiency
of any organization most especially day to day running of the establish due to an effective
communication mechanism put in place at a particular time in a specific area.

33

34

WEEK FOUR
4.0 Designing an Organization
Every organization is made up of human and physical resources. These resources are
brought together in order to accomplish a predetermined goal. In order to accomplish these
objectives, tasks must be identified, the tools and technology required must be provided and a
structure of relationships must be identified. It is the function of management to determine
the best structure that will optimize the utilization of resources.

Management

organizes

these resources. Thus organization is a means of achieving the best result from concerted
effort. Organization deals with people that determine the type of people required and required
and their relationships. Thus the type of personnel and structure required in a hospital is
different from the personnel and structure required in a weaving enterprise or a university.
4.01 Meaning of Organization
An organization can be seen as an entity. This is true of all business enterprises,
churches, hospitals, or clubs. It can be seen as a process of coordinating individual efforts to
accomplish a common objective, An organization is a group of people bound together to
provide unity of action for the achievements of a pre-determined objective. All management
teorists-Fayol, Follet, e.t.c recognize this important management function. Organization is
very fundamental to human nature. Man is a social animal and shares relationship with his
neighbors. The subject of organization is central to sociology, psychology and even
anthropology.
4.10 Kinds of Organization
Organizations can be classified into two broad headings such as:
(a) Formal and
(b) Informal organizations.
4.11 Formal and Informal Organizations
The later is human interaction that occurs simultaneously and naturally without overt
influence. Formal Organizations can be seen as a direct opposite of informal organization. It
is a planned pattern of group behavior designed to achieve an objective.
Most relationships found in many business enterprises are formal. The main reasons for
formal organizations are:
1. to establish efficient and logical patterns of interrelationships among members of the
group.

35

2. to secure advantages of specialization or division of labour whereby the optimum

utilization of talents can be realized.
3. to coordinate activities of the of the component parts in order to facilitate the
realization of the goals of the organization.
In Nigeria, the problem of formal organization is not so acute because of the nature of
Nigerian business. As an organization grows, the component parts become more complex, the
technology changes and requires special expertise and consequently, more attention. Small
enterprises do not require the same magnitude of tasks as large ones and are therefore easier
to design.
4.20 Organization Charts
An organizational chart is a visual device that shows the various departments and how
they relate to one another. The organization chart helps the employees, the board of directors
and stockholders to see at a glance, the division of responsibility and lines of authority. One
of the major advantages of an organization chart is that it helps in studying how to modify or
improve the relationship and areas of responsibilities within the organizational structure. An
organization can operate without a formal, drawn organization chart, but the presence of the
chart gives evidence of a thoughtful planned structure. Nevertheless, it shows the existence of
a workable structure. Never the less, it shows the existence of certain positions identified by
boxes and line of authority shown by solid straight lines connection, The figure below shows
an example of an organization chart.

4.21 Organization chart

Chief Resident
Engineer

Asst. Chief Water

Engineer

Asst. Chief
Measurement Engr.

Agent

Asst. Chief Engineer

(Elect / Mech)

Manager (Fin.
And Admin.)

36

Engineers
Quantity surveyor

Fin

4.30 Organization Structure

Sound Organization structure involves dividing activities into departments,
divisions, Units sub-units, defining relationships between the heads and members that make
up the units. A good structure;
a) identifies the operating departments (sales department, Production department, and
finance department).
b) isolates the service department (Personnel, research)
c) places emphasis on balancing the structure.
d) Shows the role of committees in the organization.

One of the major problems confronting management is to decide the organizational

structure to be adopted. Important questions relating to duties and role of each department
and line executive have to be clearly defined. A decision has to be made whether the
organization is to be decentralized or centralized and the type of staff required for each task
has to be determined. As Simon succinctly summarized it, the important features of an
organization to be designed include:
a) Division into sections and units, number of levels, locations of decision-making
authority, distribution of and access to information, physical layout of building, type
of people recruited, what behaviors are rewarded and so on.
In the process of designing an organization, managers invent, develop and analyze
alternative forms for combining these elements.

37

A good organizational design is one that leads to the attainment of organizational

objectives. A good organizational design is not one that is fixed and will never require a
change. The system is subjected to change when the environment in which it operates
changes or when the company is expanding its operations or changing its objectives or during
the process of re-organization. A good organization is judged by its economic performance,
ability to survive in a dynamic environment and the growth and satisfaction of the members.
4.40 Forms of organization
4.41 Line organization: In a typical line organization, authority flows in a straight line
from Board of Directors to the Managing Director and to lower management levels. Every
line executive has identified responsibilities and authority assigned to him and has the
supporting staff to execute the functions. A manager with line authority is answerable for the
performance of his subordinates. Those employees with line function are responsible for the
immediate attainment of organizations objective. The flow of authority and responsibility is
usually straight or direct and accountability is easily established.

The advantages of Line Organization.

1. This structure is simple and easily understandable by all, accountability is easily
established. Conflict of authority is reduced to a minimum.
2. It lends itself to quick decision-making. Decision making is vested in one person who is
in charge of the department.
3. Expenses related to overhead are reduced to a minimum as the role of executive
specialists is eliminated.
4.42Line and Staff Organization.
This form of structure resembles the line structure only those specialists are included in the
organizational arrangements. Decisions are made by line executives with the advice of staff
executives. Staff executives are experts in their fields (accountants, lawyers, personnel
specialists, engineers etc.) they advise the line executives who are directly responsible for the
immediate attainment of the organizational goals. Figure 5.2 shows the line and staff
structure.
Line and Staff Organization Structure
Director
General
Manager
Production

Manager
Finance

Manager
marketing

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Plant
Supervisor

Advertising
Manager

Chief
Engineer
Controller

Treasurer

Field
Sales
Manager

Salesmen

In this chart, the solid lines represent the flow of authority and dashed or broken lines
indicate a staff or advisory relationship.
The advertising manager can advise salesmen but he has no direct control over them.
Authority relationships are discussed in full below.
Line and staff structure is best used when the organization is relatively large and serving a
big market.

4.5 Authority Relationship

4.51 Line Authority: As pointed out, Line authority Connotes command relationship. This
is the authority that makes one expect obedience from subordinates. Line authority has been
described as the chain of command as it flows from the stockholders to the Board of
Directors, to Managing Director all the way to the operative employees. As Fox observed,
Line position in an organization are those concerned directly with the creation and
distribution are those concerned directly with the creation and distribution of salable utilities
or with the management of such activity.
4.52 Staff Authority: This position is advisory in nature. Gene rally, staff executives are
specialists who study a problem, identify the alternatives and make recommendations to the
chief executive for decision. He advises, and to advise is not to decide-only the line executive
is vested with that authority unless this power is delegated to him.
4.53Functional Authority: This process allows a staff executive (engineers, Lawyers,
accountants, advertising managers) to make decisions and implement them within clearly
defined guidelines. This process reduces the work load of line executive by taking advantage
of the expertise of the staff executive. The staff authority aims at supplementing the activities
of line authority. This process helps to reduce the usual conflict between line and staff
executives.

39

It should be observed that line authority is the back-bone of hierarchy; staff and functional
authority only supplement the line. In Nigeria, especially in small and medium organizations,
a person serves as line, staff and functional personnel at the same time. A personnel executive
advises the production manager or personnel matters, supervise his own department and sets
out policy guidelines on personnel matters.
4.60 Authority and Responsibility
Authority as used in the text is the right to act or decide. It describes the relationship
between and among people or groups. A person has authority if he has the right to command
and expect obedience from the subordinate.
No organization could survive if authority had not been vested in some people. In fact, an
organization is nothing but a structure of authority flows from the top downward. In
designing an organization, the authority relationship is clearly defined. It is the responsibility
of those in whom authority is vested to coordinate the activities of the organization in order to
accomplish organizational goals.
Organizational authority is vested in the position not on individuals. The authority is vested
in the position not on individuals. The authority is given to an employee because he needs the
degree of authority in order to achieve a given level of productivity or sales. When the
individual resigns, the authority is inherited by another employee who occupies the position.
In this case we speak of the authority of the manager, the powers of the authority of the
manager, the powers of the president or the governor.
4.70 Power and Influence
At this juncture, it is necessary to distinguish between power and influence in order to
contrast them with authority. Power is the ability an individual has to compel another to do
something against his will despite any resistance. A man who holds a business man at
gunpoint demanding that the businessman should surrender his goods has power to take
possession of the goods. Power is evident in a situation when A has control over B or can
force B to do something he does not want to do despite resistance.
Influence, unlike authority, is not vested in an individual. A has influence over B if he can
modify or affect Bs behavior. Thus influence is a very moderate form of power. A person
influences his friend because of the rapport they have established over the years. One who
influences, uses persuasion and suggestion to achieve a desired end. Influence takes place in
all interpersonal relationships. Unlike power which implies a fear of punishment, harm or
loss of status, influence does not.

40

In an organization, the interpersonal relationship sometimes dictates the use of authority,

power or influence. A supervisor can also influence an employee to accept position.
Authority is a source of influence and a potential source of power.
A physician may persuade a patient to submit himself to operation. He has in this instance
knowledge-based influence just as personal characteristics such as self-confidence, honesty,
appearance, or dynamism can give one charisma based influence. In Nigeria a persons
appearance influences the receptionist to decide whether the visitor will see a manager
without waiting or not. So it is in service establishments such as the post-office, banks, and
even restaurants and hotels.
4.80 Sources of Authority
As pointed out, an organizational authority is a right to act, to punish and to reward. A
person who possesses this authority usually has equal responsibility to match. Authority is
vested in a position and the position becomes the source of authority for who ever steps into
it.
4.81 Institutional Source
It is often said that authority is derived from the ownership of property. This is the case
because, in Nigeria, the constitution permits the ownership of private property and its
management. Once an entrepreneur has been given a license to operate a business, ha has
authority from the country to own and manage the enterprise. This authority he can delegate
to his agents or subordinates as he deems fit. Any person who accepts employment with the
organization is subject to the authority of the owner or his representatives.
In organizations people often refer to responsibility being delegated instead of authority and
responsibility go hand-in-glove. One cannot operate without the other. An entrepreneur
cannot operate his labour he owes them a reasonable wage and he has authority to enforce
compliance for the rules and regulations that govern interpersonal relationships. The origin of
authority, whether in economic institution or in social institution where private property is
non-existent may be traced to the elements of basic group behavior. As these elements
change, the institution must change.
This authority transmitted from the basic social institution to entrepreneurs and managers is
aptly called formal authority. This formal authority so granted could be called institutional or
societal.
4.82 Subordinate-Acceptance source.
The acceptance of authority theory postulates that the source of managerial authority
emanates from the subordinate acceptance of the authority that the manager holds over them.
41

One of the great authorities in the field of management, Chester I. Barnard made the
following observation on the acceptance of theory:
If a directive communication is accepted by one to whom it is
addressed, its authority for him is confirmed or established. It is admitted
as the basis of action. Disobedience of such a communication is a denial
of its authority for him. Therefore, under this definition the decision as
to whether an order has authority or not lies with the person to whom it
is addressed, and does not reside in person of authority or those who
issue these orders.
The acceptance theory places great emphasis on subordinate acceptance of the
authority of the superior. Generally a subordinate will recognize and accept his
supervisors authority if he perceives that his directives are in keeping with
organizational purposes and will lead to the attainment of his own objectives. The
authority, an individual has to effect compliance could be reinforced by other means
such as persuasion, coercion, use of power, economic or special sanctions. A
manager does not depend on acceptance for the execution of his functions; if he did,
there would be conflicts and organizational objectives would suffer.
The basic error of the acceptance theorists consists not only in conceiving
authority, without sanctions, but also in overlooking the powerful effect of social
institutions, which confer powers that supersede individual desires.
The effectiveness of ones authority could be influenced by acceptance but may
not necessarily be nullified by the accepting agents attitude. Acceptance theory
appears to place emphasis on leadership which deals with the ability to influence
others behavior in order to achieve a given objective. Management has authority
and if this authority is not fully accepted by subordinates, it could use power or
sanctions to secure compliance. The acceptance of employment in an organization
implies the acceptance of authority in the establishment.
The acceptance of authority is enhanced by the personal qualities of the manager,
such as technical competence, supportive behavior and dynamism. These qualities
of leadership are fundamental to the effectiveness of management and not
necessarily in the source of authority.
4.90 Limits of Authority
Formal authority is very fundamental to the attainment of organizational objectives. All
managers who occupy positions of responsibility are vested with it. Effective utilization of
42

authority promotes organizational harmony and consequently the realization of intended

goals. Certain factors limit the amount of authority a particular executive possesses. These
factors include ones level in the organization, superior authority and subordinate acceptance.
4.91 Level in the Organization
As discussed previously, authority is delegated from top to bottom. The higher a manager
is within the organizational hierarchy, the more authority he possesses. The managing
director has more authority than deputy and the deputy possesses more authority than the
managers and supervisors. The higher the functions a manager has, the more the authority
that is vested in him for the effective execution of these functions.
4.92 Superior Authority
In this authority, an executive has his influence by the authority of those above him. A
superior authority influences the authority delegated to lower executives in any organization.
The production managers authority to produce is influenced by the organizations
established policies and producers. He cannot recruit employees in order to achieve
production quota without following the guidelines for recruitments. He could also be asked
by a superior authority to stop production until certain conditions are fulfilled.
Closely allied to the influence of the superior authority that limits his authority, is
overlapping authority. Where authority overlaps, authority is held in abeyance until it is
resolved. Situations arise in an organization where two executives engage in a dispute as to
who has the authority to approve an expenditure, to authorize the purchase of equipment or to
hire employees. A labour union on strike has the ability to frustrate the efforts of management
to function effectively. It has to be noted that that authority is not cancelled by power conflict
between executives, management or labour unions, or government and entrepreneurs. When
conflicts arise, authority is held in abeyance until the conflict is resolved.
4.93 Subordinate Acceptance
The acceptance of authority by subordinates helps in the expeditious attainment of desired
goals. Failure to accept ones authority produces the opposite effect. Refusal to accept ones
authority does not cancel ones authority; it only reduces ones effectiveness in the given
situation. The degree to which the manager is rendered ineffective depends on the amount of
power he has to evoke penalties to effect compliance. Ability to evoke punishment and to
reward is implicit in all formal authority.
A good executive does not have to punish the entire item but when the need arises, it is
reassuring to know that one could exact compliance. For conditions must be met before a
message is accepted as authoritative:
43

1. It must be understood by the recipient.

2. It must be consistent with the purpose of the organization.
3. It is not incompatible with the personal interests of the recipient.
4. It is within the mental and physical abilities of the recipient.
Many experts have stressed the fact that the acceptance theory could be misleading as the
manager could be tempted to manipulate the situation in order to obtain acceptance from
subordinates.
Other factors that limit effectiveness of authority include technological constraints,
economic limitations, social limitations and organizational constraints.
Responsibility
People in authority are answerable to somebody for their use of authority. This is
responsibility. Responsibility implies obligation. A person to whom one delegates authority is
obliged to execute satisfactorily the assigned duty. Responsibility originates from a superior
subordinate relationship. A subordinate must answer to his boss for the use of formal
authority just as a man answers to his friends for informal authority. In organizations,
responsibility is shared. When a manager authorizes an employee to execute a task, the
obligation created by this delegation from the supervisor to subordinate is shared.

44

WEEK FIVE
5.0 PARTIES TO CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS AND THEIR
NTER-RELATIONSHIPS
The maim parties to civil engineering contracts, their roles, responsilvlihes
And interrelationships are as described below:
5.01 Client
The client may be the sponsor (financier), promoter or employer of other parties such
as consultant or contractor for the execution of the project. He may be someone appointed by
the sponsor or promoter to employ or engage others for project execution. If the client is not
the sponsor, he becomes the first link in the reporting chain, who reports directly to the
project owner or sponsor and carries the responsibility for all major project decisions.
The client undertake, to fulfill his own side of the consultancy or contract agreement
just as the consultant and contractor are expected to do in the consultancy or contract
agreement format known as form of agreement. The client owes it a duty to ensure steady
cash flow to provide the enabling environment for speedy and smooth execution of the
project.
5.02 Consultant
He is a specialist or an expert entrusted with the task of providing necessary
professional and technical services in the areas of planning, designing, financial estimation
and evaluation, project implantation, management and maintenance. He prepares the tender
document as the basis for appointment of contractors and sub-contractors or suppliers to
execute the job. He supervises, appraises and evaluates the works of the contractor and raises
appropriate certificates based on the budget approved by the client; and makes
recommendation to the client about the progress of work and payments to be made to the
contractor both in terms of the original content of the BOQ on the date of the tender and the

45

fluctuation and variation claims verified and approved by the consultant. Where the
consultant indicts the contractor for breach of contract, he can prescribe appropriate sanctions
in accordance with the conditions of contract.
5.03 Contractor
The contractor is a person or a company appointed by the client, usually in
conjunction with the clients consultant to implement the requirements of a project. The
contractor may be appointed through open tendering, selective tendering or negotiated tender.
The consultant / contractor may appoint the sub-contractors through the project manager. The
contractors other functions include:
a) Mobilization to site in a formal handing over exercise jointly by the practices
involved.
b) Prepare a workable and realistic work Programme at the instant of the consultant.
c) Delivers and maintains plants and materials on site.
d) Constructs site office and provides utility services on site.
e) Makes himself available at any appointed time for site visits, inspections and
meetings.
f) Sends written observation to the consultant on notable differences between the
contract drawings and BOQ.
g) Provides insurance cover to workers and ensures safety of persons and security of
the site.

5.10 Contract Documents

A contact should always specify what documents, letters, specifications e.t.c. are to be
regarded as the contract documents, and these normally define the contract. If however in a
court of law, the contract document themselves leave uncertainty as to the true intentions of
the parties at the time of signing the contract. Other letters and documents might. Subject to

46

the rules of evidence, be introduced by either party as evidence, of such intentions. In the sort
of contract we are considering the contract documents will usually comprise some or all of
the following:
- A statement of the scope of the contact
- Data (e.g. site conditions, climate) affecting the execution of the works.
-Bills of Quantities (especially in civil engineering and building construction); Priced
schedules or Plant (in plant supply contracts)
- Programme for the construction / completion of the works.
- The conditions of contract
- Site regulations.
- The Form of tender: the offer.
- Unconditional acceptance of the tender.
- Guarantees or bonds.
- A formal Agreement.
- Additions or variations of the above made during negotiations or subsequently by
agreement between the parties.
A normal contract document comprises but not restricted to the following:
a) Form of agreement
Although under English law, a valid contract may be formed purely by documents
constituting an offer and an unconditional acceptance, it is sometimes necessary or
advantageous to embody or confirm the contract by drawing up a formal agreement.
The standing orders of many public bodies, (for example local and country councils) require
that all contracts over a certain sum are so embodied in a formal agreement which has to be
signed and sealed as a corporate document on their behalf by certain officials they have
empowered to do so.

47

Confirmation of a contract in a formal agreement can be of value:

-

To emphasize the formality and importance of the contract.

To summarize the highlights of a complex contract.

To stress that the contract is with the employer in cases in which the enquiry, tenders,
negotiation, and correspondence have all been handled by the engineer

(in his role

as agent for the employer).

-

To schedule the items forming the contract documentation.

To tidy-up a contract situation when there have been extensive negotiations following
the tender and the contract documentation and details have suffered involved
modification.

b) Conditions of contract
The conditions of contract are the Rules by which the contract is run. They set out
the rights and obligations of the parties and agree the action that will be taken by the
parties if various eventualities arise during the course of the contract. The range of
eventualities they cover varies from case to case depending on the nature of the contracts
the conditions of contract may run to several pages of print. For really large contracts,
they may extend to several volumes.
Contract conditions form much of the legal basis of the contract on which any ruling
by the courts would be made. Consequently they need to be written with care and
precision so as to be clear and unambiguous. Luckily many of the points to be covered are
common to a large number of types of contract and, in addition, experience has led to a
form of words which is generally acceptable to both parties.

As

consequence there exists a number of standard forms of conditions of contract which have
fairly wide recognition in the U.K and some which are recognized internationally. The

48

use of these can remove a lot of the need for composing new conditions for each and
every contract.
c) The Technical Specification
The technical specification describes in details the information provide by the contract
drawings and the BOQ. It describes in detail the work to be executed under the contract
and the nature and quality of the materials, components and workmanship. It may also
contain clauses specifying the order in which the various stages of the works are to be
carried out, the methods to be adopted in the execution of the work and details of any
special facilities that are to be provided by contractors or sub-contractors.
d) Bill of Quantities
The BOQ contains the schedule of items of work to be carried out under the contract
with quantities inserted against each item. These quantities are prepared in accordance
with CESmm3 Civil Engineering standard methods of measurement 3. Due to the small
side of many of the drawings composed to the large extent of work involved in a contract
and the uncertainties about certain site conditions, the quantities inserted in a bill are
often approximate. Nonetheless, the quantities should be as accurate as the information
available permits and the descriptions against each item must conform to the actual work
involved.
In most cases, the unit rates inserted by the contractor against each item in the BOQ
normally includes the overhead charges and profit, but subject to the approach adopted in
pricing method-related charges and the adjustment item in the grand summary.
One of the main functions of civil engineering, BOQ is to provide a basis on which
tenders can be obtained, priced and compared. After the contract has been signed, the
rates in the priced BOQs can be used to assess the value of the work executed on
continuous basis, from the commencement to the completion of the project.

49

e) Contract Drawings
The contract drawings shows in details the nature and scope of work to be carried out
under the contract. The drawings should be thoroughly, comprehensively and clearly
detailed to enable the contractor to satisfactorily price the BOQ. The drawings should
include the site plan depicting the existing features at the site and the proposed work
including full descriptions and explanatory notes where such emphasis is desirable. The
more explicit arise bothering on the scope and character of the works. More so, ample
figured dimension should be inserted sufficiently to facilitate effective and accurate takingoff of quantities and in setting constructional work on site. Drawings may incorporate or be
accompanied by schedules such as bar bending schedule for steel reinforcement,
manhole/sewer schedules etc.
f) Arbitrator
An Arbitrator is a person appointed by mutual consent of the parties to a project
dispute, to adjudicate on the dispute via an award which normally binds on the parties
concerned with the dispute. He (arbitrator) is in most cases a private person acting in a
judicial manner. An arbitrator must be a specialist or an expert in the project area where the
parties are in dispute.
If the parties to a dispute fails to appoint an arbitrator within one calendar month, of
either party serving on the other party a written notice to concur in the appointment of an
arbitrator, then they may have to resort to a natural body e.g. a professional body
recognized by the two parties to appoint an arbitrator for them.
An arbitrator must be neutral and unbiased against or in favor of any of the parties for his
award or decision to be final and binding on the parties or he runs the risk of
disqualification or have his award rejected.
g) Site meetings / Progress reports

50

Site meetings may be conducted on weekly fortnightly or monthly basis depending on the
nature, size and complexity of the project. The parties to a project site meeting often include
the consultants (employers representative) and the contractor or his representative, the
representative of the beneficiary of the project ( if different from the client) etc. It is the
satisfactory duty of the engineer or the consult to ensure that the contractor together with
nominated sub-contractors and suppliers comply with the specifications and standard of
workmanship in accordance with the conditions of contract and articles of agreement. The
minutes of the meetings are always complied and collated to form the basis for the monthly
or weekly PROGRESS REPORTS. This often includes valuation and financial statements
forwarded to the client or employer on regular bases while the execution of the project lasts.
a. Circumstances that couldnt nave been reasonably foreseen before the signing of the
contract.
b. Additional requirements of the employer.
c. Compliance with new government orders and legislation.
d. Correction of errors or omissions in the contract drawings and contract bills.
e. Non-availability of materials. Goods or services specified in the contract.
f. Substations of materials, goods and workmanship specified in the contract.
h) Fluctuation
Fluctuation arises from charges in wages and other incidental expenses for labour as well as
prices of materials quoted in the contract bills at the date of tender. The employer is
compelled to entertain fluctuations only in terms of approved basic wages and emoluments
and certain materials and sections of the works as listed in the appendix to the contract. In
Nigeria, the prices contained in the contract bills are based on the rates o0f wages and
emoluments and other expenses payable by the contractor for labour costs in accordance with

51

the rates of wages fixed by FOBACEC, current at the date of tender and applicable to the area
concerned.
In a situation where the wages and emoluments are increased or decreased due to government
policy after the official date of tender, then the additional costs thereupon, shall be made
payable to the contractor accordingly. Similarly, the prices contained in the contract bills are
based on the prevailing market prices of materials in a given location at the date of tender.
This includes purchase tax (such as VAT) and import duty (if any). Here again the contractor
is entitled to additional claims if it is confirmed that the prices went up after the date of
tender.
5.20 Statement of the Scope of the Contract
The statement of the scope of the contract is made by the Employer in inviting tenders. It
introduces the subject of the contract and explains in broad terms what the employer will
require by way of work or plant from the successful Tenderer, and by when he will want to
be complete or in operation.
5.30 Data affecting the execution of the works.
Data affecting the execution of the works is issued by the employer with the invitation to
tender and includes such things as Site geological data, access, limitations on working hours,
local conditions, other work being carried out on the site, machinery, services and supplies
which the employer will provide for the contractors use, and so on. All such points may
affect the Tenderers costs and hence his offer.
Works and the more obvious the point at which the contract requirements have been
adequately fulfilled: in the absence of a precise specification the employer always tends to
expert more and the contractor to give less.

52

WEEK SIX
6.0 TYPES AND SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS
Like any legal contract, a valid civil engineering contract posses three distinct traits
of offer, acceptance and consideration. A promoter (or client) propose
s for a civil engineering project and makes offer, with a clear consideration, to a contractor
formerly conveys his acceptance of the offer; a binding contract is automatically
established between the two parties. The types of contracts encountered in civil engineering
can be classified into fixed-price contracts such as (i) Bill of Quantities Contract, (ii)
Schedule Of Rates Contract, (iii) Lump-sum Contract; and non-fixed-price contracts such
as cost fee reimbursement contracts like (i) Cost-plus percentage contract, (iii) Cost-plus
fluctuating fee contract, (iv) Target Cost Contract, (v) Package-deal or Turnkey contract.
The types of contracts enumerated above are now discussed in details as follows:
6.10 Bills of Quantities Contract
In this type of contract, an un-priced Bill of Quantities, prepared in accordance with
Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement (CESMM), is inserted in the tender
document for every prospective contractor to price. This contract, also known as measure
and value contract, is the commonest and most widely used form of contract for works of
civil engineering construction of medium and large scale extent, where the quantities of the
bulk of the works can be ascertained from the contract drawings with reasonable accuracy
before the commencement of the work. The total sum tendered under this contract is the
sum of the individual items as priced in the bill, including any prime costs, lump sums, and
provisional sums The quantity of all items of work to be done as contained in the bill are
not approximate, they are exact, being measured as accurately as possible from the
drawings. When the work is constructed, the quantities are replaced by the measurement of
the actual quantity of work the contractor carries out under each item.
53

The advantages or superiorities of this type of contract over any other are that:
i)

The contractor is paid for the actual amount of work carried out, thus limiting
the risk element borne by him.

ii)

The method gives freedom to alter the work of construction and yet remains the
basis of fair payment between the client and the contractor.

iii)

Adjudication of tenders is relatively straight forward as all tenderers price on a

comparable basis.

iv)

The bill itself gives every tenderer a very clear conception of the type, scope,
extent and the details of the work to be carried out.

From the following, if this type of contract is properly handled, it promises to be the
most equitable type of agreement between the client and the contractor as it invites the most
competitive prices from the contractors and it leaves the way open to the engineer to
exercise his responsibilities properly by allowing him to alter the amount of work
undertaken so that it best suits all the revealed conditions at the site. This type of contract
also comes under the class of fixed-price contracts because the unit rates tendered by the
contractor for individual items in the bill are fixed. However, it does not give a fixed total
sum because the actual quantity of work measured in the field may be different from the
quantities of work measured from the design drawings; but if the construction follows the
design closely, the total price paid by the employer may not be far different from the total
sum tendered.
6.20 Schedule-of-Rates Contracts
This type of contract is used for execution of civil engineering operations where it is
not possible to put into bill of quantities, measurement of quantities based on the contract
drawings. A typical example of this is a contract for the sinking of a borehole for a water
supply scheme. It is frequently not possible to state well in advance to what depth a

54

contractor should go to sink the borehole to strike water of the required quantity. There are
occasions where it may be imperative to commence a construction work before design and
preparation of contract drawings; i.e before measurement of quantities can be made such
drawings. In this case a schedule of rates contract suffices. The contractor should be informed
that all the items in the schedule of rates are to be considered as provisional items.
This type of contract may take one or two forums. The client may supply a schedule
of unit rates covering each item of work and ask the contractors, when tendering, to state a
percentage above or below the given rates for which they would be prepared to execute the
work. Alternatively, and as is more usual, the contractors may be requested to insert prices
entered will enable the most favorable offer to be ascertained. This type of contract is suitable
for maintenance and similar contracts, where it is not possible to give a realistic quantity of
work to be undertaken. Another merit of this type of contract is that it can be used for
projects of long duration because the schedules can be prepared fairly quickly.
Also, during the execution of early stage of a project by a contractor selected from a
schedule of adequately detailed rates, a BOQ can be prepared for the remainder of the work.
This bill can be priced using the rates inserted in the original schedule by the contractor
already engaged on the site, or alternatively, competitive tenders can be obtained, and if
appropriate, another contractor can be engaged for subsequent phases. For instance, the
substructure of a power station can be measured and valued in accordance with schedule of
rates, while the substructure can be handled based on BOQ contract.
In as much as this type of contract is in a way similar to BOQ contract, contrasting
features between them should be appreciated. The differences are:
i)

Quantities against the individual items are either not inserted or they are entered in
estimated amounts or in round-figure provisional quantities.

55

ii)

There is no implied guarantee that all or any given proportion of the items will be
carried out; therefore, each item must carry its own overheads, and bring the
contractor adequate reward if undertaken in large or small quantity, irrespective of
the amount of work executed under other items. In a BOQ contract, the setting up
and overhead costs to the contractor will be spread over the bill items (except the
provisional items), in the knowledge that the great majority of theses items will be
carried out.

iii)

More items are schedule for temporary work than usually appear in a BOQ (e.g.
items such as for setting up plant,etc) because the amount of temporary work that
a contractor may have to carry out is uncertain.

iv)

The remainder of the scheduled items tends to describe operations by the

contractor rather than outputs, and the number of items is less than a BOQ.

This type of contract also enables the contractor and the engineer to cooperate at the
design stage in the in the development of new techniques in an effective and economical way.
The schedule of rates should ideally be an opportunity to discuss the relationship of plant
usage and site organization to the design of scheme.
6.30 Lump-sum Contracts
In this type of contract, the contractor undertakes to carry out certain specified works for a
fixed sum of money. Naturally, the nature, scope and extent of work to be carried out should
be clearly and unambiguously delineated in a well dimensioned and detailed drawing and the
specification for materials and workmanship should be well thought out to the understanding
of the contractor or his agents. BOQ is not required. This form of contract is suitable for
small scale projects thats are carried out above the ground level and clearly visible, such as a
road resurfacing contract.
Lump-sum contracts can be used advantageously provided:

56

i)

the job is not very large;

ii)

the work required is precisely described in adequate details;

iii)

there is no great risk attached to its construction;

iv)

no large or numerous alterations are called for during construction.

Small projects like low cost houses, garages, depots, factory sheds or other buildings of
modest size and traditional design can be built under this type of contract; or the contract may
be used for the supply and building-in of equipment of different kinds. Quit often a large
BOQ contract may contain within it single items which are in effect lump-sum contracts for
portions of the work within the overall contract.
Advantages
ii)

it eliminates rigorous accounting and measurement of works;

iii)

it gives the client an assurance of a fixed total price;

iv)

It gives the contractor a clear straight forward job to job to do.

Disadvantages
i)

There is always a contractual dispute immediately the client or the engineer wants
an alternation of design leading to additional works during construction, or if the
job itself runs into unforeseen troubles;

ii)

It is not an equitable system because one party to the contract may be unjustifiably
favoured to the detriment of the other.

6.40 Cost-plus percentage Contract

In this type of contract, the client agrees to pay the contractor a specified percentage
of the total cost of a project as management fee to reimburse him for profits and overheads,
over the above the actual costs of expenditure for procurement of materials, employment of
labour and hiring or acquisition of plant. The contract is relatively simple to operate and was
used extensively during the Second World War for defense installations. This type of contract

57

is vulnerable to abuse because there is no incentive for efficiency, economy and optimal
utilization of resources. For example, an unscrupulous contractor may want to take undue
advantage of apparent loopholes in the system to exploit the client because the less efficient
the contractor, the more the cost of the work and the more his profit.
The engineer in charge of the project will also not fare better because of efficiency
problem which might turn him into a sort of dictator as he has the authority to sanction the
contractor as he deems fit, thereby making him to work at cross purposes with matters are so
sanctioned, every invoice, pay sheet, plant record, materials sheet, etc, will probably have to
go before the clients auditors before it can be finally authorized for payment.
This type of contract is only used in an emergency, for a limited period, before there
has been time to draw up some other form of contract. Otherwise, it is not a worthy form of
arrangement; it does not give enough freedom, it sows seed of mistrust from the beginning, it
saddles all parties with a great deal of paper work, and it is seldom efficient.
6.50 Cost-plus Fixed-fee Contract
This type of contract requires that the contractor be paid the actual costs he incurred in the
execution of the work plus a fixed lump sum to cater for is profits and overheads, which has
previously been agreed upon and does not fluctuate with the final cost of the project. The
fixed fee may be tendered in competition with other contractors, or it may be negotiated
between the client and the contractor. Although, no real incentive exists for the contractor to
secure efficient working arrangement on the site, he has the advantage of earning the fixed
fee as quickly as possible to release his resources for other jobs. This form of contract is also
beneficial to the client.
This type of contract may be highly acceptable and useful depending on the efficiency
of the contractor. With the ever growing global competition, there is no doubt that this type of
contract would be the right way to tackle difficult civil engineering projects. It puts the

58

engineer and the contractor in harmonious working relationship, so that they can act jointly to
produce the highest quality of workmanship possible at the most economical cost. It also
gives great freedom to adopt different methods of construction or to tackle
Unusual problems or wriggle out of unforeseen troubles. However, going by the
unpredictability of human perfection, the client and the engineer must be doubly sure that the
contractor is competent, reputable and can undertake the work with the highest degree of
accuracy.
6.60 Package-deal (All-in) Contract
Under the package-deal contract, the client frequently using the services of an engineer,
normally gives his requirements in concise, detailed outlines to contractors who are asked to
submit full details of design, construction and cost, and probably including maintenance of
the work for a limited period. A situation whereby the individual contractors are required to
prepare a design that will favour him in the long run and the overall cost of the project may
not be within the clients budget.
Furthermore, the evaluation and comparison of the contractors tenders may be complicated
as each contractor is likely to interpret the clients brief in a different way, necessitating
adjustment that may be needed to reduce the tenders to a common basis for the purposes of
comparison. This type of contract has been used extensively in chemical and oil industries
and for the design and construction of nuclear power stations. It is a type of contract that
sometimes finds favor with overseas clients or contractors. This type of contract may sound
attractive, but it may be subject to operational difficulties especially in times of inflation and
when the basic technology is changing rapidly.

59

WEEK SEVEN
7.0 STUDENT EXCURSION

7.1 Student shall visit a construction site within Kaduna Metropolis.

7.2 The Lecturer/Instructor is required to make all necessary
arrangement with a construction site.

7.3 It is expected that the site will be an active one; where students

will also be expected to appreciate what the have learnt to date and
use their mind to follow what they are to be subsequently taught.

60

WEEK EIGHT
8.0 PROJECT PLANNING AND COST CONTROL
Planning can be applied in varying degrees of detail. Depending on the stage at
which it is being carried out. As an example, for construction work, project planning is
usually divided into pre-tender planning, pre-contract planning and short term planning on
site.
1) Pre-tender project planning is done to allow the estimator to arrive at an estimate of cost
based on the proposed methods of working and an estimate of the time required
carrying out the work. Programming at the pre-tender stage is usually in an outline form
to consider only the phasing of the main operations, since much information is not at
the time available.
2) Pre-contract project planning is carried out when the contract has been won and the
project is considered more fully. Project planning at this stage includes the overall
programme, labour schedules, plant schedule, and material schedules e.t.c. The overall
programme should not break the operations does exxeccives or it will become
unrealistic.
3) Short term project planning on site is done in greater detail and the programmes at this
stage are broken much further. The cost control must be carried out to make project
planning effective, as without cost control project planning loses much of its value. It
must be applied continuosly to update the plans and to enable reconsideration of list of
the work ahead in the light of what has already taken place.
The braking down of task is greater detail for short term project planning on site
could be acheaved using a programmed network techniques.
This is where our discussion shall be focused. However, the resulting overall programme
could be converted to bar chart. The bar chart method presentation also shows enough
information, e.g. float times on all activities could be shown is often argued by some
project consultants or managements that for small projects, planning by bar charts may be
drawn direct and are quite satisfactory. Also, many contractors use bar charts as they are
thought to be less involved.
The use of network techniques requires producing programme showing movement of
resources starting with drawing a network, analyzing it and the scheduling which also

61

involves resource allocation. These techniques are particularly applicable to one off
projects and hence are of considerable use for many construction projects.
8.1 PROJECT PLANNING-NTWORK TECHNIQUES
The planning and control of a large-scale project may be accomplished by utilizing an
activity network as the modeling technique. One example being the critical path method.
The CPM is classified under the deterministic procedures. Another example is the
Programme Evaluation and Review Technique. The PERT is classified under the
probalistic procedure. Acceptance of these procedures has been widespread by project
consultants/management for the following reasons:1) The concepts are easy to understand and apply.
2) They introduce objectivity in project planning and control.
3) They reduce the complexity of the project planning and control process by breaking
the project down into its individual components.
8.2 DETERMINISTIC P ROJECT PLANNING (CPM) PREPARATION
The first stage in the preparation of CPM diagrams is to make a list of the activities to
be used. The amount of detail required in the breakdown depends on many factors, such as
the size of the project or the stage of planning i.e. pre-tender, pre-contract, or short term. One
activity in a CPM network drawn at the pre-tender stage may be broken down into a number
of activities at a later stage. To avoid misunderstanding, diagrams are arranged so that time
flows from left to right. When drawing network diagrams it is important to remember that
off site activities such as delivery of plaster board can be critical and must therefore be
included on the diagram.
8.21 METHODS OF PREPARING A (CPM) NETWORK
There are three (3) basic methods of preparing a diagram.
i) the activity-on-the-arrow system-AOA
ii) the activity-on-the-node system-AON
iii) Event or mile stone system- which largely represented by the PERT method.
We shall endeavor to concentrate on AOA system.

8.30 THE ELEMENTS OF AN ACTIVITY ON- AN -ARROW NETWORK

1) The principal component of an AOA is an

. An arrow is used to

represent an activity which in itself is a time-consuming element of the programme and

also represent the consumption of certain resources such as labour, money or the use of plants
or materials or energy.
62

The length and shape of the arrow presented in a diagram is significant. The direction of
arrow as earlier mentioned indicates direction of workflow, usually left-to-right. The part of
an arrow usually represents the starting point of a particular activity. A brief description, of
what the activity represents as part of the task and the expection time (duration time) usually
written against the arrow. As each activity is considered the following questions should be
asked.
1) Which activity must be completed before this activity can start?
2) Which other activities cannot start until this activity is completed?
3) Event- These are represented by numbers. That is at either end of the arrow there must
appear an event. This event is mile stone or point, node, connector, at which an
operation, the activity is completed or another can start.

Tail
or
preceding
event
Fig1: Showing events 1&2

Head
or
succeeding
event

The cycle at the head of the arrow represents the event, or the mile stone, or the point in
time when one can say that the activity (

) is completed. The cycle at the tail of the

activity arrow is the time one can say activity can commence.
However, an event may be represented by

, or any geometric plan shape.

In brief, one can say that an event is the start and/or finish of an activity or group of
activities.
8.40 PRINCIPLE OF DEPENDENCY
All networks are constructed logically on the principle of dependency. Dependency principle
states that:i)

No event can be reached in a project before the activity which immediately

precedes it is completed.

63

ii)

No activity can be started until the event which immediately precedes it has been
reached.

This principle is one of the basic logic of a network diagram. The two exceptions to these
basic rules are the starting event and final event of the network diagram.
Events

Activities

9
8

10

Activity 9-10 cannot start until activities 7-9& 8-9 are completed. An event will not be said to
be reached until a number of activities preceding it have been completed. This event 9 cannot
be said to have been reached until activities 7-9 & 8-9 preceding it have been completed.
8.41 MERGE EVENT & BURST EVENT
Merge Event: - An event into which a number activity enter and one (or several) leave
is known as merge node. An event such as D in fig.3 below can be described as a merge
event because a number of arrows merge into it.
Burst Event: - Event that have one (or several) entering activities, but generating a number of
emerging activities is known as burst node. An event such as F in Fig 4a and 4b can be
described as a burst event.

D
Merge event

C
Fig: 3: showing merge event- D

64

One activity entering

Burst event

Several activities entering

Burst event
Fig 4b: showing burst event-F
8.42 Common Errors in Logicality of Network Diagrams
Two errors in logic may come about when drawing a network, particularly if it is a
complicated one. These are known as looping and dangling errors.
Looping error- Consider the diagram in fig 5 below.
P
8

Q
10

8.43 Dummy Activity

Fig5: Showing error due to looping.

Dummy activities are sometimes necessary in an arrow diagram. These do not take

time to perform nor consume resources. They are used either to make the sequence clear (See
fig7.0 below) or to give a unique numbering system (see fig 7.1, 7.2, 7.3). If a dummy is not
used here, two activities would have the same reference .e.g. joinery 1st fix and elect work 1st
fix (see fig 7.1) would have the same preceding and succeeding event. This is not acceptable
when using a computer for planning and analysis. It is therefore essential that a unique
numbering system be used.
(See Fig 7.2&7.3)

19

21

23

18

20

22
65

Fig.7.0 Activity 21-23 cannot start until activities 19-21 and 18-20 are completed, but activity
20-22 can start when activity 18-20 is completed and is not dependent on activity 19- 21.
Joinery

Joinery
1st fix

1st fix

Elect-work

10

10

1st fix

Elect-work
1st fix

10

Joinery
9

11
1st Fix

Fig 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 represent the same

Elect-work 1st fix Fig: 7.3

Situation

10 Q which inturn depends on activity R and R

We can see that activity R depends on activity
on Q.
If looping like this appears to arise, the logic underlying the diagram must be fault, and the
construction of the diagram must be re-examined.
Dangling error- Similarly, the situation represented, below is equally at fault.

10

11
Fig6: Showing error due to dangling
This is because activity represented by the dangling arrow (activity 9-11) is under
taken with no result.
Note:
i)

All nodes, except the first and he last must have at least one activity entering and
one activity leaving them. This we have earlier pointed out.
66

ii)

All activities must start and finish with a node, except the first set of starting
activity/activities and the last set of finishing activity/activities.

iii)

It is extremely important at the project planning network design stages that as

much of the work as possible are arranged to be carried out concurrently, if the
shortest possible programme period is required. This is possible for all mutually
exclusives activities.

There are two occasions when dummies are used:

1) Identify dummies
2) Logic dummies
Dummies can be represented thus:
(as in fig 2)
D
O
8.44 Identify Dummies
When two or more parallel independent activities have the same head and tail events, the
identify of the activities could not be lost (computer/analysis) as in fig 7.1. It is thus useful to
insert identify dummy to avoid this situation thus fig 7.2 & 7.3.
Note: It is useful to insert the dummy at the tail rather than at the head of the activities. Thus
fig 7.3 is preferable to fig 7.2
8.45 Logic Dummies
When two chains have a common event ye they are in them selves wholly or partly
independent of each other, then an error in logic could unwittingly arise.

15

15
L
B
B
Fig: 8 Logical dumming presentation use to separate activities A&K and B&L
8.50 NETWORK CONSTRUCTION

15
L

The first thing to be done is to identify the programmes objective. The objective will be
represented by the last event in the network to which all various branches of the network
must eventually coverage.

67

It is sometimes inevitable in the majority of network that the logic will demand that, in
number of instance, one activity arrow crosses another. By arranging or re-arranging the
diagram carefully, it is possible to avoid too many such situations.
When the diagram has been drawn on a piece of paper, it must be very critically examined
to ensure that it represents the required and desirable method of carrying out the work. Also
examine carefully that the logic is correctly endured and that the p4rinciple of dependency
applies logically throughout the diagram.
Having considered and reconsidered the network to ensure that the planning logic is
sound, the necessity arises to estimate the duration (time) which will be involved in carrying
out each of the activity, in order that the scheduling process may be commenced.

8.60 ACTIVITY DURATION

Activity duration (shown on the arrows) can be in days, weeks or months, depending on
how detailed the diagram is to be. The duration for a contractor activities would be arrived at
by using past records of outputs, synthetic times based on work study, e.t.c. The gang sizes
and plant type to be used would be the ones which give optimum performance at this stage
irrespective of the requirements of other activities. Sub-contractors and suppliers should be
approached in order to obtain realistic duration for their activities. Adequate time period shall
also be allowed for studying of project working drawings before starting the programme. One
basic difference in CPM and PERT occurs from the different method of arriving at the time
estimate. In CPM only one time estimate is made, and this value Yik is treated as a known
value
(deterministic approach).
Similarly, there are two chronological times TEi and TLi associated with each event or
node of the graph.
TEi= Earliest possible time of occurance of event, i, which would not be incompatible with a
given project and TLs.
From the network relationships between events and activities, it is possible to develop the
following recursive relationships for computing TEi and Tli:

TEi=

TE

68

Max (TEh+Yhi)

for all (h, i) E P- - - - - - - (i)

And

Tli=

Tls

Min (Tlk-Yik)

for all (I, k) EP- - - - - - - -- (ii)

Epselon E= included in project p.

From these equations, it is possible to compute the following information about each activity
included in the project p.
1) Earliest starting time, TEi
2) Latest starting time, TLj-Yij
3) Earliest completion time, TEi+ Yij
4) Latest completion time, Tlj-Yij
5) Maximum available time, TLj-TEi
6) Slack time, TLj-TEi-Yij
The information above becomes the basic foundation on which management decisions
about a particular activity are based. Slack represents the amount of latitude available to the
decision maker in the scheduling of that activity. If the slack=O, the activity is critical
because the sequencing decision is no longer controlled by the decision maker. In CPM it can
be shown that there is always a connected chain of critical activities from project start to
project end.
8.61 PROJECT DURATION
The project duration is the minimum time in which it can be completed with the activity
times assigned to it.
The duration of the project will be determined by the longest path through the diagram.
This is known as the critical path.
If the time required for any activity is affected, this will automatically effect the project
duration.
8.62 APPLICATION OF NWT
1) Construction of projects
2) Overhauling and maintenance programmes
3) Setting up of new organization

69

4) Organizing very big functions like national or international games, big exhibitions,
e.t.c.
5) Defence establishments.
8.63 LIMITATIONS
1) Network technique is simply a tool to help the management; hence its effectiveness
depends on how well it is used by the management.
2) Its accuracy depends on the estimation of the data used in the network.
3) It is useful only, if it is updated regularly and decisions for corrective actions are
taken timely.
ADVANTAGES
1) Detailed and thoughtful planning provides better analysis and logical thinking.
2) Identifies the critical activities and focus them to provide greater managerial attention.
3) Network technique enables management to forecast project duration more accurately.
4) If is a powerful tool for optimization of resources by using the concept of slack.
5) It provides a scientific basis for monitoring, review and control, to evaluate effect of
slippages.
6) It helps in taking decision (i) to overcome delays, (ii) on crashing programme (iii)
optimizing resources, and (iv) on other concrete actions.
7) It helps in getting better co-ordination amongst related fields.
8) It is an effective management tool through a common and simple language, providing
common understanding.
8.70 TECHNIQUE OF ESTIMATION:

What techniques of estimation are available to

improve the job planning process. Well, there are time (PERT), human and material, and
value costs. In many cases these methods are used in combination and they can contribute to
better result, if used wisely. It is always assumed, that planning and estimation are identical
twins. They go hand-in-hand when it comes to management of resources.
Time resources is best handled with PERT methods. Progress Evaluation Review
Technique (PERT), its basic concept is that the program is divided into discrete detailed
scheduled tasks which are drawn up into an integrated network.
All the significant variables of time, resources, and technical performance are allocated to
each task or activity. This system creates a systematic reporting technique which enables
70

management to compare actual performance with the original program plan, thereby
permitting a continuous check on the program status.
The operation of PERT can be divided into the following five broad categories:
1) Establishment of objectives
2) Creation of plans
3) Establishment of schedules
4) Evaluation of performance
5) Arrival at decision and action.

Drwg

The corrective feedback permits the project supervisor to implement changes in the program
or plans of action or schedules if the program objective of schedule or cost is in danger or
not.
The PERT system uses a unique language. The following are the most fundamental
terms which are used:
1) Activity: An element of work effort in a program.
2) Event: A specific point in the program usually representing the start or completion of
an activity. An event does not have any dimension in time or effort.
3) Network: A graphic representation of a program consisting of activities and events
which is known as inter-connected paths.
4) Most likely time, m: The most realistic estimate of time that it would take to
complete an activity.

71

5) Optimistic Time, a:

The shortest period of time that the completion of an activity

would consume.
6) Pessimistic Time, b: The longest period of time that the completion of an activity
would consume.
7) Expected Time, Te:

The period of time that is predicted for completing an activity.

The expected time is statistically derived from the most likely, optimistic, and
pessimistic times as expressed by the formula:
Te =

a + 4m + b
6

8) Cumulative Expected Time, TE:

The earliest date that can be anticipated for the

completion of a specified work efforts. TE is the summation of all the expected time
Te along a particular path.
9) Latest Allowable Date, TL:

The latest date on which an event can occur without

delaying the completion of the program. The latest allowable time is calculated by
subtraction the expected elapsed periods or expected times (Te) of activities from the
date of the last event. If the end date coincides with the date represented by TE, then
TL = TE.
10) Positive Slack Time: The amount of excess time predicted for the achievement of a
particular event. Negative slack indicates the amount of slippage that exist prior to
reaching a particular event. Slack time is the difference between the latest allowable
date and the expected date (TL-TE).
11) Critical Path: The path of a network that requires the longest period of time to
complete. It is the path that possesses the smallest positive slack or the greatest
negative slack.

72

Drwg

The above diagram shows a network using the PERT technique. The arrows represent tasks
to be done, while the cycle, show what are known as events. Events, in PERT language, are
simply stages in the progress of the project. The tasks, or activities, require manpower,
material, facilities and other resources, while events represent specific accomplishments that
are the result of work.
If you were building a house, for example, the first activity might be digging the
foundation. This would be an activity or task that would required the use of resources and
would be indicated on the diagram by an arrow.
The completion of this task, which would mean you were ready to go on to the next step,
would be an event and would be indicated by a circle. The longest path in terms of time
through the network is the critical path of the project. It indicates a series of jobs which must
be done in sequence and which will take longer than the other sequence of jobs that can be
going along simultaneously. It is critical because the time spent on this path determines the
total time to be spent on the entire project. There is always a need to shorten the time spent on
critical path, so that the time in total, spent on the project would be shortened.
Material Estimation: The estimates of material cost are fairly straight forward, normally
based on the current level of market prices. For short term projects (1 year or less) the current
market prices are used. However, for project spanning a long period, the material cost may be
modified to anticipate the price the company expects to pay at some future date. The
modification factor is usually based on price indices and trends.

73

WEEK NINE
9.0 MATERIAL QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES
Details of the quality of materials of materials to be used in the works will be contained in the
material and workmanship specifications and these should be read carefully and mastered.
All materials to be used must be certified by the supervising engineer and samples must be
kept permanently in the engineers site office. If the contractor cannot find the material
specified and alternative but approved equal may be certified for use by the engineer. Testing
to ensure quality may have to be done and a sample of material and record of test results kept.
Quality control procedures for common engineering materials are as follows:

9.01 Concrete
To ensure the required characteristics of concrete, concrete must be properly constituted with
good quality materials, properly mixed, properly transported, properly placed, properly
worked and properly cured. Any laxity in any of the processes described may result in poor
finished concrete. Therefore all processes must be monitored by the supervising engineer.

Quality of Constituent Materials

a) Coarse and Fine Aggregates
i)
Both Coarse and fine aggregate must be sharp, clean, free from silt, clay,
metallic, plastic, organic materials or other constituents which may ne
injurious to the finished concrete.
ii)

Coarse aggregate should be angular or rounded but not flaky.

iii)

Depending on the type of concrete, grading must be specified, where not

specified, a well graded aggregate is preferred to a gap graded or single size
aggregate.

iv)

The maximum size of the aggregate must be as specified; a rule of thumb is

that it should be about 5mm less than the minimum cover to reinforcement.

v)

Aggregate should be inert, if the chemical nature of an aggregate is not known

it should not be employed for concrete.

vi)

Sieve fine aggregate if necessary.

vii)

Coarse aggregate may be washed but only dry aggregate can be in the
concrete; washed aggregates contain unquantifiable amount of water which
has not been taken into consideration in design.

9.02 Cement

74

Depending on the project, various types of cement of cement may be specified other than
the popular Ordinary Portland Cement. However, if a contractor wishes to use one other
than specified, the properties must be investigated to ensure that it will not have adverse
effect on the short and long term properties of the concrete.
(i)

Check each batch of cement by random sampling.

(ii)

Where cement replacement materials are to be used, check that proportion used is as
specified.

(iii)

Cement must be powdery , lumps are sign of hydration, reject lumpy cement, no
sieving of cement must be allowed.

9.03 Water
This is sometimes taken for granted but this should be monitored properly. Water for
concreting should be:
i)

Clean and clear.

ii)

Potable or fit for drinking.

iii)

Not containing chemicals which may be harmful to the concrete in the short or long
term. High level of chloride or sulphate should be avoided.

9.04 Admixtures
Admixtures are chemicals that are used to modify the wet properties of concrete to either
delay solidification or assist workability. Whatever may be reason for usage or specification,
ensure that:i)

The admixture to be used has proper specifications and documentation from the
manufacturers, keep information in your record.

ii)

It does not contain injurious material to the concrete and workers.

iii)

It will not affect the strength properties of the concrete adversely , if it will ensure
provision is made to cover this. Some workability agents delay strength gain,
therefore prop removal should be delayed accordingly.

iv)

If mixing is done on site, ensure that the right dosage isused.

9.1 Mixing
i)

Mixing should be done according to mix design. The engineer should ensure
proper specification of mix. Specifying a mix as 1:2:4 is not complete until the
water/cement (w/c) is added. If a mix is been prescribed, it should be specified
whether it is by weight or by volume. Nigerians generally work to volume but this
must be specified.

NB:

75

Avoid specifying mix except you are dead sure of the quality of all materials to be
used.
ii)

Where only grade has been specified, the contractor must submit results of trial
mixes which he aims to use to Satisfy the specification before the commencement
of work or any casting is done. If no such results are available, trial mixes must be
made on site and tested at the appropriate age before any casting is allowed.

iii)

Mixing must be thorough and until a uniform consistency is obtained. This is best
achieved mechanically but it is possible with proper hand mixing (no rush job
should be allowed)

iv)

Mixing water should be controlled by volume or weight and not visually.

9.2 Transportation
Where the concrete is to be transported over a long distance or it has to wait for a long time
before placement, mechanical agitation should be ensured. Transportation should not result in
segregation.

9.3 Placement
i)

Test workability at the beginning of each casting and do so at regular interval, eye
test of flow can be misleading (for slump test, aim for 50-75mm slump). Test must
be carried out by you and according to the relevant code.

ii)

Concrete should not be poured from a great height to avoid segregation and it
should not be moved over a great distance from the point of placement by the use
f vibrator.

iii)

Concrete should be placed in small layers, each layer being worked properly
before the next layer. Interlayer working should be discouraged.

iv)

Concrete is best worked with a mechanical vibrator and this should be

encouraged. If hand vibration is to be employed, it should be done thoroughly and
through the depth of each placement, tapping at the top to produce a smooth finish
is not adequate.

v)

Form work of large depth placement should be provided with inspection windows
to ensure that the full depth is filled with compacted concrete and that there are no
large air pockets.

vi)

Joints in casting must be at specified locations.

vii)

Joints in continuous pours should be at non-critical locations (at middle third of

span for slabs or beams). Casting joints should be well cleaned and prepared
before continuation of casting.
76

9.4 Curing
A good concrete mix, properly placed and worked will still produce less than desirable
strength, if it is not properly cured. Therefore the curing regime must be properly monitored
and ideally, the curing regime of the structure must be the same as that of the test samples.
The idea of curing test specimens under water for 28 days but wetting structure for only 2
days should be discouraged totally. The engineer must approve the curing method of the
contractor and therefore he must ensure that it will produce the desirable strength of concrete.

9.5 Property Monitoring

On most concrete works, the property of concrete which is used to monitor its various
characteristics and strength is the compressive crushing strength. This is measured either on a
cube or cylinder specimen of appropriate size. The engineer must ensure that:
i)

At least, three (3) specimens are taken for each casting and for each time the test
is to be carried out. Therefore if one is interested in the 7 days, 14 days and 28
days strength of the concrete, nine (9) specimens must be taken randomly during
the casting.

ii)

He takes the specimen himself and not delegates others or ask the contractor to do
it.

iii)

The specimen is taken according to the relevant code of practice. For example the
specimen must not be compacted with a vibrator but a tamping rod as specified by
the British code.

iv)

The specimen is marked as soon as possible to identify it and the location of pour.

v)

The specimen is removed from the mould in his presence and put under the
appropriate curing regime.

vi)

The specimen are taken out from the curing place on the day of the test and taken
out for testing under his supervision.

vii)

Whenever possible, witness the testing and the recording of results.

viii)

He compares the strength obtained to the specified strength making allowance for
normal engineering tolerance and normal statistical distribution of data. Plot or
tabulate result and use any of the assessment methods for analysis.

9.6 REINFORCING BARS

The engineer should ensure that reinforcements are:
i)

Are of the types (plain or deformed) and size specified.

ii)

Are free from rust or pitting.

77

iii)

Are of the specified yield strength. Tensile strength test must be carried out on
each tone of reinforcement, on samples taken randomly from each size and type of
bars.

iv)

Are not brittle and can be bent to the required shape. Bending test on each size
and type of bar must be carried out on each batch.

v)

Free from grease or oil, this is very important for plain bars which derive their
bond strength solely from adhesion.

vi)

In rehabilitation works, existing reinforcement that has rusted if still going to be

used must be wire brushed and may be coated for protection (depending on the
reason for rusting).

9.7 STRUCTURAL STEEL

The engineer should ensure that:
i)

The dimensions and weights of sections are as specified.

ii)

The specified grade of steel is used.

iii)

The steel is weld-able.

iv)

Bolts and nuts are of the right type, size and number.

v)

Welds are of the right type, thickness and length.

vi)

Bolt holes are well formed and are at least the minimum distance form free edges.

vii)

Appropriate anti-rust and fire retardant treatment are applied.

viii)

Bracings are not omitted.

ix)

Joint constructions are as designed.

9.8 Timber
The Engineer should ensure that:
i)

The right type of timber with appropriate structural strength is used. If possible
approve ONLY timber from known and certified company.

ii)

Timbers are straight and have uniform dimension through out their length.

iii)

Timber is well seasoned.

iv)

Members do not have knots or holes in areas which may adversely affect their
strength or which may attract cracks or splitting.

v)

Jointing is by the appropriate type of joints.

vi)

Nails used are of the right size which will keep the members together and pass the
maximum force that the member will be subjected to.

vii)

Appropriate anti-termite/wood pest treatment is applied. Check the depth of

penetration of treatment by cutting through full depth of timber pieces.
78

viii)

Timbers with holes indicate pest infestation, reject immediately.

ix)

Timber is appropriately stored on site (under a roof and stacked with separators
for further seasoning).

79

WEEK TEN
10.0 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
10.1 Definition
Cement concrete is a very useful constructional material whose properties can be
modified readily at will. The desired properties of concrete can be obtained by using
ingredients in a certain proportion. Thus, determining the relative amount of materials is
known as mix design. Hence, mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable

ingredients of concrete and determining their relative quantities for producing concrete of
certain (specified) minimum properties as strength, durability and consistency etc, as
economically as possible.
10.11 Purpose of Mix design
From the definition of mix design, it can be seen that the purpose of mix design is two
fold as follows:
2. To achieve the stipulated minimum strength and durability.
2. To make the concrete in the most economical way.
Cost wise all concretes depend mainly on two factors
(a) Cost of materials and
(b) Cost of labour.
The cost of form work, batching, mixing, transporting, and curing e.t.c. is nearly the same for
good as well as bad concrete work.
Thus, to achieve economy, the main attention should be directed to the cost of materials. As
the cost of cement is many times more than other ingredients, thus the attention mainly
should be directed to the use of little amount of cement as possible consistent with the
strength and durability. Mix proportions provided by the designs are called as prescribed

mix.
10.12 Objects of Mix design
The objects of mix design are:
i To decide the proportions of materials this will produce concrete of required properties.
ii. The mix proportions should be selected in such a way that the resulting concrete is of
desired workability while fresh and it could be placed and compacted easily for the
intended purpose.

80

iii. The fresh concrete should be fluid enough to fill the form work and surround the
reinforcement fully and
iv the hardened concrete should develop required strength and durability.

10.13 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportion

According to IS - 456-1978 and IS-1345-1980.The design of concrete should be based
on the following factors:
1. Grade designation

2. Type of cement

3 Max.nominal size of aggregate

4. Grading of combined aggregate

5. Water cement ratio

6. Workability

7. Durability.

Grade designation
Grade designation specifies the characteristics compressive strength of concrete.

 The characteristics compressive strength is that value of concrete strength

below which not more than 5% of test results are expected to fall.
 It is the major factor which influences the mix design.
 Depending upon the degree of control on site, the concrete mix should be
designed for the mean compressive strength (which is a little higher than
the characteristics strength).
10.2 Types of cement
The type of cement is important as the rate of strength development depends mainly on

the cement. The choice of the type of cement depends upon the requirements of its
performance.
i.

When very high compressive strength is required, Portland cement conforming to IS 8041-1978 and

ii.

for mass concrete work, low heat Portland cement conforming to IS- 269-1979 can
be used.

10.21 Maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate.

The maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate is determined by sieve analysis and is
designated by the sieve size higher than the size on which 15% or more of the aggregate is
retained. It is governed by
i.

the size of the section and

ii.

The spacing of the reinforcement. According to IS-456-1978 and IS-1345-1980, the

max.size of the aggregate should be as follows:
81

It should not be more than 1/4th of the minimum thickness of the member
It should be less by 5 mm than the minimum clear distance between the reinforcement.
It should be less by 5 mm than the minimum cover to the reinforcement
It should be less by 5 mm than the spacing between the prestressing cables.
for normal structural concrete work, the maximum size of aggregate may be
used as 38 mm
for high strength concrete it may be 10mm to 20 mm.

10.22 Grading of combined aggregate

In a concrete mix, the relative proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate is one of the
important factors which affect the strength of the concrete.

 For dense concrete, it is essential that the fine and coarse aggregates be well
graded.
 The locally available aggregate generally do not conform to the standard grading.
In such situations the aggregate should be combined in suitable proportions, so
that the resulting grading is close to the desired grading. The aim of combining the
aggregate is to:

o obtain a grading close to the coarse grading of standard grading curves,

o obtain the most economical mix having the highest permissible
aggregate cement ratio.
The aggregates can be combined either by analytical calculations or graphical, using the
method of Road Note 4.

10.23 Water / Cement ratio

The compressive strength of concrete at a given age under normal conditions of curing
mainly depends upon water/ cement ratio.
Lower the water cement ratio within limits, grater the compressive strength and vice
versa.
A number of relationships between compressive strengths and water cement ratio are
available, which are valid for a wide range of conditions. The generalized relationship
between water cement ratio and compressive strength of concrete is shown on Figure 1.1.

10.24 Workability
For satisfactory placing and compacting of concrete the workability is controlled by many
factors as:
shape and size of the section to be concreting
82

quantity and spacing of reinforcement

method of transportation
placing and compaction of concrete
The insufficient workability will result in :
i.

incomplete compaction,

ii.

less strength and durability.

There are various methods of determining the workability of concrete, measure by different
methods. Hence, it is desirable to decide the test method before starting the concrete work.
For comparable concretes workability measured by different, methods is shown in Table 1.1.

10.25 Durability
It can be defined as the resistance to internal and external deteriorating influences. The
requirements of durability may be achieved by restricting:
the minimum cement content and
minimum water-cement ratio as given in Table 1.2.

10.26 Quality Control

The strength of concrete is never constant. It varies from batch to batch. This variation
may be due to:
i.

the variation in the quality of constituent materials,

ii.

variation in mix proportions,

iii.

variation in the quality of batching and mixing equipments available,

iv.

Quality of workmanship and supervision. e.t.c

Controlling these factors is important to minimize the difference between the minimum

strength and characteristic main strength of the mix, thus reducing the cement content. The
method of controlling these differences is called quality control.
10.30 Grades of concrete and requirements for structures and general construction
Now let us look at the grades of concrete and their requirements for structures and
general construction. This is important since a mix should be designed to produce a specific
grade of concrete for a specific use, having the required workability and characteristics
strength not less than as given in Table 1.3.

Terminologies in mix design

i.

Preliminary test:

Is defined as the test conducted in a laboratory in the trial mix concrete produced in the
laboratory for designing a concrete mix before actual concreting at site, to verify:

 the strength of concrete

83

 determine the adjustments required in the mix (if needed ).

ii Controlled concrete
The concrete for which mix is designed after carrying out preliminary test is called
controlled concrete.
iii Ordinary concrete
The concrete mixing adopted without carrying out preliminary test is called ordinary
concrete.

Note: Student should know that for all important civil engineering works controlled
concrete should be used.
iv Work test
A test conducted either in the field or in a laboratory, usually on the specimen made
on actual site of works, out of concrete being used in the works is called works test.
v Nominal mix concrete.
Where it is not practical to use controlled concrete, ordinary concrete of nominal mix is used.
Nominal mix grade for this type of concrete vary from M5, M7.5, M10, M15 and M20 as
per I.S 456 1978.The proportion these mixes are given in Table 1.4.
10.40 Methods of concrete mix design
There are various methods of mix design concrete. Some of these methods are
enumerated below:
(i)

Arbitrary method

(ii)

Minimum void method

(iii)

Maximum density method

(iv)

Water- cement ratio method

(v)

Fineness modulus method

(vi)

Standard deviation method

(vii)

American method of mix design

(viii)

Graphic or Road Note method.

(ix)

Indian Road Congress IRC-44 method

(x)

High strength concrete mix design

(xi)

Mix. design base on flexural strength

(xii)

ACI committee 211-1 method

(xiii)

Rapid method of mix design

(xiv)

Department of Environment (DOE) mix design method

(xv)

Mix design for pumpable concrete

84

(xvi)

Indian standard recommended (IS 10262-1982) method

Now a day out of the above methods, the following are commonly used:
1. ACI committee 211 method

2. DOE method
3. Indian standard method
4. Rapid method of mix design
Our lecture will now examine the DOE design method in detail (step 9).

10.50

THE

DEPARTMENT

OF

ENVIRONMENTS

DESIGN

METHOD

(DOE METHOD)
The DOE method of mix design is an improvement over Road Note No.4.This (Road
Note 4) method of concrete mix design or proportioning mainly is based on the extensive
field and laboratory experiments carried out by Road Research laboratory in U.K .The Road
Note No.4 method was published for the first time in 1950.This method of mix design was
most popular and widely used up to 1970 all world.
The DOE method was first published in 1975 and revised in 1988.The DOE method
of mix design is applicable to all types of concrete mixes including roads, while Roads Note
No.4 was applicable to roads and air fields only. This method can also be used for concrete
containing fly ash. DOE method is a standard method of mix design in NIGERIA now. This

method used the relationship between water/cement ratio and compressive strength
depending on the type of cement and aggregate used. The water contents required to give
various levels of workability, as very low, low, medium and high expressed in term of slumps
or Vee Bee time or compacting factor, are determined for the two types of aggregate as
crushed aggregate and gravel. This method is suitable for mix design of normal concrete
mixes having 28 days cube compressive strength up to 75 MPa for non air entrained concrete
.The step by step procedure of mix design is given below

10.51 Step by Step Procedure to DOE mix design

Determine the target mean strength from the specified characteristics strength.
Target mean strength = specified characteristics strength + standard deviation Risk
factor.
(Risk factor is taken on the assumption that 5% of result are allowed to fall below the
specified characteristics strength).That is, the target mean compressive strength ft at 28 days
is given by ft = fc + KS.
Where:
85

ft = the target mean strength at 28 days

fc = the characteristic strength at 28 days.
S = standard deviation. For the initial value of mix design the value of standard deviation
may be adopted from Table 1.5.
K = a statistical coefficient known as tolerance factor or risk factor. The value of K may be
adopted from Table 1.6.

Selection (fix) water/cement ratio from Fig.1.2 and Table 1.7

From Table 1.7 the approximate compressive strength of concrete made with free
water/cement ratio 0.5 is obtained,
From the same Table 1.7, find out the 28 days strength for a given type of cement
and type of coarse aggregate (C.A),
Now mark a point on the y axis of the Fig. 1.2 equal to the compressive strength,
read from Table 1.7, which is at w/c ratio is 0.5,
From this point draw a parallel dotted curve nearest to the point of intersection,
using this curve, read off the w/c ratio as against target mean strength.

The method will be clearer from the work example later presented.
Student should note that:
even when the water-cement ratio is fixed, the compressive strength of concrete is
influenced by various factors such as

 type of cement
 type of aggregate
 maximum size of aggregate
 surface texture of aggregate
Thus it is desirable to establish relation between the strength of concrete and free
water/cement ratio for the materials to be used and site conditions

Determine water content for the required workability

Water content for the required workability is next determine, taking into account the size of
aggregate and its type from Table 1.8 and 1.9.

10.6 Determination of cement content

The amount of cement can be determined from the total water content and w/c ratio.
i.e. Cement content

weight of water
w/c ratio

86

The quantity of cement obtained by the above relation should be compared with
the minimum cement content specified from durability considerations as given in

Table 1.10 and 1.11.

The higher of the two quantities should be adopted.

o If maximum cement content is specified, then the calculated cement content

should be less than the specified maximum cement content.

10.61 Determination of total aggregate content

Note 01: For determining the total aggregate content, the estimation of wet density of fully
compacted concrete is required. This can be obtained from Fig.1.3 (for approximate water
content and known specific gravity of aggregate)

Note 02: If the specific gravity of aggregate is not known its value for uncrushed aggregate
may be taken as 2.6 and 2.7

Note 03: For crushed aggregate specific gravity may be assumed as shown on curves A and
B of the Fig.1.3.The aggregate content is determined by subtracting the weights of cement
and water cement from the Fig.1.3.
10.62 Determination of fine aggregate
The proportion of fine aggregate in total aggregate is determined from Fig 1.4

Fig 1.4 (a) is for 10 mm size,

Fig 1.4 (b) is for 20 mm size, and
Fig 1.4 (c) is for 40 mm size coarse aggregate.
The parameters involved in Fig 1.4 are
i.

max.size of aggregates,

ii.

The water content,

iii.

Degree of workability and

iv.

The percentage of fine aggregate passing through 600 micron sieve.

Knowing the proportion of fine aggregate from Fig 1.4 the weight of fine aggregate may be
obtained by multiplying the total weight of aggregate by this proportion.
Knowing the fine aggregate the weight of coarse aggregate can be found.

The coarse aggregate can further be divided into different fractions depending upon the shape
of aggregate. Generally figures given in Table 1.12 may be adopted.

10.7 Worked example as class-room demonstration

QUESTION:
87

A civil engineering work requires target concrete cube strength of 45 MPa at 28 days. Design
the concrete mix for the desired work given the following information.
(1) Type of cement

= Ordinary Portland cement

(2) Max.size of uncrushed aggregate to be used

= 20 mm

(2) Low workability, slump

= 10.30 mm

(3) Specific gravity of aggregate

= 2.65

(4) The aggregate percentage passing 600 micron

= 50%

(5) Exposure to concrete is moderate

(6) The cover to the reinforcement to be provided is 25 mm.

Determine the target strength from the relation

Target strength = specified characteristics strength + standard deviation Risk factor
In this case the target strength is directly given as 45 Mpa at 28 days.

Find out the water/cement ratio for targeted strength 45 MPa

For finding out the w/c ratio, refer to Table 1.7.From this table for ordinary Portland
cement and uncrushed 20 mm aggregate the 28 days strength is 42 Mpa.
From Fig.1.2 find the point of inter section of 42 MPa at 0.5 water/cement ratio. Through
this point draw a doted line curve parallel to the neighboring curve. Now draw a
strength line from the desired strength on y-axis, where this line cuts the curve, draw
a perpendicular on x-axis which will give w/c ratio for the targeted strength i.e. 45
Mpa.
From this curve for 45 Mpa strength, the water / cement ratio comes out 0.54.
For uncrushed aggregate of 20 mm max.size aggregate approximate water content from Table
1.8. is 160 kg/m3.
For moderate exposure and 25 mm cover maximum w/c ratio from durability consideration is
permitted as 0.5.
Actually the lower value of the two should be adopted. Hence, adopt w/c ratio 0.5 water
content for 10 to 30 mm slump from Table 1.8 is 160kg/m3.

Cement content
From w/c ratio 0.5 and water content 160 kg.
Cement content = 160 = 320.4 kg
0.5
Note: From durability consideration, the quantity of cement should be used as 350 kg/m3
.Thus adopt greater cement content as 350 kg/m3
88

Determination of density of fresh concrete

From Fig.1.3, for water content of 160kg/m3 , 20 mm uncrushed , the wet density of
concrete = 2490kg/m3
Determination of total weight of aggregate
Total weight of aggregate=Total weight of concrete-Weight of water-Weight of cement
= 2490 160 - 350
= 2490- 510 = 2180kg/m3
Fine aggregate (F.A) from Fig.1.4 (b) for slump 10 -30 and aggregate passing through
600 micron as 50% for w/c ratio 0.5
F.A

= 27%

2180 27

. . Weight of fine aggregate =

100

= 588.6 = 589 kg/ m3

Weight of coarse aggregate = 2180 588.6 = 1591.4 kg/m3

Estimated quantities in kg/m3 are:

(a) Cement

= 350kg/m3

(b) F.A

= 588.6kg/m3

(c) C.A

= 1591.4kg/m3

(d) Water density

= 160kg/m3

(e) Wet density

= 2490kg/m3

Note: From these quantities

i.

the trial mix is prepared,

ii.

samples cast and

iii.

tested at 28 days to judge the suitability of concrete for the desired work.

iv.

if need arises, adjustment in quantities be made.

89

WEEK ELEVEN
11.0 Construction Machine, Plants and Labour
11.01 INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering construction (practice) requires the extensive use of construction machinery
(plant) and equipment for proper execution. Plant and equipment frequently encountered in
Civil Engineering jobs include:

 Bulldozers
 Scrapers
 Graders
 Cranes
 Loaders
 Hoists
 Logging Arches
 Trenchers
 Tractors
 Pipe Laying Equipment
 Winches
 Compactors
 Trucks
 Air Compressors
 Poker Vibrators
 Concrete Mixers etc.
With the ever increasing cost of labour and rapid growth in construction technology, it
becomes imperative to use more and more mechanical equipment in association with the
available manpower for construction works. Largely because of the temporary nature of
construction organization on site, when compared with that of a factory based production
unit, the mechanization of the industry has been a slow and indifferent process. Only with
very careful consideration, investigation and planning can be the most suitable equipment for
any particular project can be chosen.
Such planning must be backed up by a thorough experience of the use of all types of plants,
together with an understanding of the engineering fundamentals involved. Correctly chosen

90

and well operated plant will enable a construction project to be completed on time and on
budget (cost).
No contractor can possibly own outright every single item of mechanical equipments that he
will be called upon to use over a period of years. There are many (items of ) specialist
equipments that he may require frequently, thus, he cannot afford , however, in an already
short of capital situation to have it tied up in idle machinery that is seldom taken out of the
plant-yard (for use on site). On the other hand, there is no item of plant that can be said to be
universally standard, although much of the equipment currently in use falls into broad
standard classes. A contractor must buy equipments on which he estimates that he can make a
profit. His assessment whether to buy the plant outright or to hire it as required must be
premised on a very sound economic investigation.
There are some obvious circumstances in which he will have little difficulty in making up his
mind. Such situation might well be one in which a single project is large enough to bear the
cost of a specific item of plant, irrespective of its ultimate salvage value or whether its
subsequent employment is likely. (e.g. crane).
Many large, long term earthmoving contracts may well support the purchase of earthmoving
equipment for their exclusive use. Many other short term types of contracts will bear the cost
of a concrete-batching or mixing plant if concrete is to be mixed in large quantities.
11.1 CLASSES OF MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
There are numerous ways of classifying mechanical equipment according to its:

 Function
 Mobility
 Mode of Operation
 Motivation
It is convenient in the first instance, to classify all mechanical equipment into three broad
classes in accordance with its mode of operation and production since the calculation of
output is of prime consideration when making rational (productive) selection. The
classification is:
a) That where the machines have an intermittent cycle of work; - such a machine operates a
series of work cycles, each of which is a complete operation on itself. The rate at which
work cycles are carried out determines the production or output of the machine. Most
earthmoving equipment falls into this category. Mechanical Shovels are typical examples.
Concrete mixers of the batch type and Pile-Drivers are examples which are not
earthmovers.
91

b) That where the machines have a continuous flow type of production; - In this category
comes most of the equipment using pipe and/or conveyor belts for distribution purposes.
This class includes pumps of all types (including those for pumping), conveyors for
distributing concrete, concrete aggregates and execrated materials, and air compressors.
c) That where the machines have intermittent production flow consequently falls between
classes (a and (b above. The class of the equipment is of the type that often operates
continuously over a defined surface area but, on completion of its particular sweep,
ceases operation and has its position adjusted so as to resume production in another area.
An example of such an operation is the use of Grader in working on a road formation. It
grades through the length currently under construction and at the end of its sweep run, it
turned, repositions, and commence grading another sweep run. This cycle of operation is
continued until the whole area to be graded is covered.
11.2 General Factors in the Selection of Construction Equipment
Three of the most important points to be considered in selecting mechanical equipment for a
given construction project are:
a) Physical dimensions and nature of the work involved.
b) The duration of the project and
c) The specification for the work (cost).
Having arrived at what is necessarily an appropriate answer to these three points, the question
of the combination of manpower and machines, which is estimated will enable the work to be
carried out in the best possible time combined with the lowest possible cost, must be
considered. Much discussion will take place at the pre-tender planning stage, and during the
cost estimating process, about the general construction methods which will be used for a
particular contract, and particularly so for all the major operations which make up the
contract.
Having decided the method of construction, it then becomes necessary to translate this into
terms of mechanical equipment which is either available or can be made available for the
contract, and which can be obtained for a minimum cost.
11.3 Selection Process
Equipment is productivity and utilization must be given adequate consideration in the
selection process. High productivity and utilization of equipment will bring about a reduction
in cost and an increase in profit made. The most effective way of judging the degree of
utilization often (item of mechanical) equipment is to spread the direct charges, which
become payable over the output of the machine in such a way that unit costs are obtained. For
92

instance, In the use of excavation machine if the hire charges are related to each cubic meter
of material which is excavated, and the figure so obtained is then compared with that allowed
at the tender stage, some measure of the Actual Efficiency against Expected will be obtained.
It has been stated earlier no contractor may own all the plant that he may need over a period
of years. Hiring of equipment is usually adopted to balance up the contractors mechanical
equipment fleet. The overall profitability of the contracts being carried out by the contractor
is of prime importance and plant must be bought and hived with a view of maximizing this
profitability. The selection of the equipment to be bought and those to be hired should be
informed by a sound economic analysis of the project(s) involved.
Sound and thorough planning is the only basis on which plant selection can be nationally
made. Many of the construction processes which take place on a site requires for the
successful completion, the combination of a number of mechanical equipment.

93

WEEK TWELVE
12.0 EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT
12.10The Utilization of Earth-Moving Equipment
The selection of equipment for carrying out the earth-moving process is one of the most
critical of all in the field of mechanical equipment utilization. The principles which govern
the proper selection of such equipment can also be appli9ed in modified form to most other
types of plant.
It is not possible to lay down very rigid rules concerning the selection of plant to carry out a
specific earth-moving operation. Almost all operations of this type ca be carried out by a
variety of different types and sizes of machines. Many combinations give comparable results.
There are , however, a number of fundamental principles, some or all of which must be taken
into a/c for the proper careful consideration of every operation. An understanding of the
principles which are involved will lead to a sounder and more rational choice of machine
with the likelihood of a higher rate of production at a lowest cost.
The factors to be considered are as follows:
a) The physical properties of the materials to be moved.
b) The rolling resistance of the ground to be covered.
c) The gradient of haul-roads and working surfaces.
d) The capability of the machine to accelerate under given conditions.
e) The coefficient of the running surface.
f) The altitude and ambient temperature of the working site.
g) The capacity efficiency of the soil container.
h) The working efficiency of the machine.
i) The efficiency of the machine operator (human).
j) The weather conditions at the time of operation.
k) The condition and length of the haul-roads.
l) The service and downtime of the machine.
Some of these factors concern materials to be moved and some of the external conditions
which prevail at the time of the movement. Some are concerned with the characteristics of
the machines chosen to do the moving and one, at least, concerns the individual who operates
the machine.

94

Each factor must be considered on its own merits and the total effect of all the relevant
conditions must be assessed for a given situation.
12.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF EARTH-MOVING
Most Civil Engineering works/constructions involve a great deal of earth-moving operations.
That is the movement of earth materials from where it is not needed to where it is needed.
The success of individual civil engineering contractors can be tried to the degree to which the
fundamental principles of earth moving are understood and applied to equipment on any
given job.
12.3 Materials
Earth-Moving is a sequence of changing the layer or strata of the land OR the transportation
of the earths surface according to the desires and designs of men.
Earth resists being moved (generally), materials that make up the earth undergo a process of
geological changes as they are being moved from their respective geological deposit. The
changes are the results of the properties of the materials.
However, the nature of the material is less important. What is of most important is the
physical properties of the material which in effect influences its loadability by the earthmoving equipment.
Loadability is the degree of ease with which earth material can be dug and loaded from their
natural state. This is a function of the loading characteristics of the material which in turn is a
function of its physical geological properties. Earths surface is made of sizable number of
elements, compounds and mixtures.
For the purpose of earth-moving, materials are classified into 3:
1) Rock Materials: - This includes rocks formation and hardpan or boulders. Usually
their loading process involves blasting or ripping into boulder or large stone sizes
before loading. The choice of equipment for loading depends on the loading (and
unloading) characteristics of the material. Other materials are masonry and concrete
structures and pre-cast concrete, large boulders etc.
2) Soil Material: - This includes geological deposits ranging from coarse to fine grains.
It also includes quarry dust and other river weathering material subjected to
denudation. They include- gravel, sand, silt and clay.
3) Rock-Soil mixture: - These are earth materials made of combination of rock and soil
particles of different gradation.

95

Earth materials may have moisture depending on weather conditions, drainage, and retention
quality of the material. Materials being moved have three properties that are of vital concern
to the earth-mover/equipment used. These are:
i.

Weight of Material

ii.

Swell and Load Factor

iii.

Compatibility

One should note that moisture content of an earth material seriously affects its loadability.
The factors influences moisture content of an earth material varies. Some of which are
beyond human control e.g. Rain, weather condition. The moisture retention property of earth
material e.g. humidity, sun heat etc. can be controlled to some extent, but is also difficult and
very expensive. The technique of control to be adopted is a function of quantity of soil.

Weight: Weight is a measure of mass of an object as it is attracted by force of gravity. The

greater the weight of soil, the greater the effort/force required to move the earth. Thus the
weight of material is a pointer of how heavy is the material?
The power carrying capacity and the volume capacity of an equipment needs to be balanced
for a better decision on choice of equipment. This is because the volume of a material has
direct relation to its weight (Vol vs Wt). any additional volume beyond the volume carrying
capacity could decrease the efficiency of the equipment (i.e. every system has its load limit).
In addition to the problem of load limit, the weight of earth materials also:

Affects the way a scraper will load, a bulldozer will push, or a motor grader
will cast material.

Weight also affects the turning, maneuvering and hauling in high speed
ranges is directly influenced.

More effort is required to move heavier materials (measure of weight).

Weight also affects performance of the equipment
Satisfactory performance will be achieved for an equipment (load limits) if volume and
weight capacities are nor exceeded.

Swell:
This is the ability of earth material to increase in volume when it is removed from its natural
state (bank) to a loose state. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the increase in volume
when compared with the original.
i.e. Swell =

Change in vol
100
Original vol

96

Increase in vol
100
Original vol

Note: if the swell of a dry clay = 30%. This statement means that a 1.0m3 of clay in the bank
(i.e natural state) will fill a space of 1.3m3 in loosened state.

Load Factor:
This is the percentage decrease in density (kg/m3) of a material from its natural state is its
loosened state. The concept of swelling and load factor is important in earth moving. This is
because generally earth materials are measured in bank metres.
Density =

Mass
= kg / m3 .. (a)
Volume

Load Factor =

Loose Density
. (b)
BankDensity

Percentage Swell =
1 100 . (c)
Load Factor

.
Bank State

100%

Loose
VL
lL
ML
ML
VL
M
VL = L
lL
lL =

Vb
lb

Mb
lb =

Mb
Vb

. (1)

Vb =

Mb
lb

. (2)

(100+x)%

. (3)
. (4)

VL > Vb

But

M b = M L Constant
L.F =

lL
lB

lb
lL

V Vb VL
V
Also percentage swell =
= 1 100 Constant
100 = L
Vb
0
Vb

97

But from equ (2) (4)

lL

Percentage swell =
1 100 b 1 100
Mb

lL

l
b

Percentage Swell =
1 100
L.F

Percentage Swell = L.F 1 1 100

Illustration
18 cubic metre (heaped) scraper.
Material is dry clay.
Density of 2945kg/cubic metre (bank),
Swell is 40%
Load Factor = 0.72
Solution
18m3 loose clay = 18 0.72 m 3 (bank)
= 12.86m 3
If 12.96 m 3 was known
Swell = (0.4 + 12.96 ) = 5.184m 3
Check
Then loose volume to be moved = 12.96 + 5.184
= 18.144m 3 loose
= 18m 3 given

Compatibility
.

Loose

..
..
..
..
Compacted

Void Reduction
Denser
Moisture Reducer

Compaction; Compaction of earth material is necessary so as to prevent:

Sinking and
Distortion

98

It is also necessary for a better finishing. There are various methods in the construction
industry of achieving adequate degree of compaction. Some of these methods are:
i.

Rolling (rollers)

ii.

Tampering (use of tamping rods)

iii.

Pulverizing

iv.

Vibrating

v.

Addition of water

Usually for a given volume of earth material, the compacted state is such that material
particles come closer together (grain-to-grain contact) than the state of bank enhances
(usually due to overburden and addition of water) when in the bank.

..
..
..
..
Save volume heaped and
Bank State
compacted
(i)
Density Increase
(ii)
Volume Reduce
(iii)
No change in
Loose Volume
Compacted Volume
Mass

Illustration

Bank volume
1m 3

1.3m 3

100% by volume 130% by volume(30% swell)

200kg (Normal)

0.75m 3
75% by volume (25% shrinkage)

200kg (Swell)

200kg (Shrink)

We can see that when a given volume of earth is well compacted, it is expected that
its compacted volume will be lesser than the bank volume. (i.e. Shrinkage).
Compacting effort is greater than overburden pressure.
Pay Volume:
The pay volume is the basis for payment of earthmoving work. This depends on the
specification of choice adopted by the engineer preparing the tender-document. Pay volume
could be either (on the basis of):
i.

Bank Volume

ii.

Loose Volume or

iii.

Compacted Volume.

However, for most Civil Engineering work the bank volume is adopted as the basis for
payment of earth-moving works.

99

WEEK THIRTEEN
13.0 MAINTENANCE
13.1 Introduction
Every machine is thoroughly tested and inspected by the manufacturers before selling it
and by the purchaser before it is put to use. When it is used, it will be subjected to wear and
tear hence proper attention should be given to protect the machine and its components from
undue wear and thus protect them from failures. A proper attention means lubrication,
cleaning, timely inspection and systematic maintenance. Maintenance of a machine means
efforts directed towards the up-keep and the repair of that machine.
A major part of the expenditure is generally on the men, material and maintenance in an
industry. Every machine will require repairs even if it is best designed, hence the repair must
be done at such a time when it may have least disruptions, i.e. machine may be repaired when
it is not being used or its use may be postponed without affecting the production of the whole
concern. Therefore, checking of the machine is generally done when it is not in operation, so
that the defect, if any, can be immediately and easily rectified without causing extensive
damage to the plant.
In this way, we say that maintenance is responsible for the smooth and efficient working of
an industry and helps in improving the productivity. It also helps in keeping the machines in a
state of maximum efficiency with economy.
Realizing the high importance of maintenance of plants and equipments, National
Productive Council, undertook the survey of engineer industries, and found that due to failure
of the plants, equipment and machineries, non-availability is 28 percent. Looking to this high
percentage of failures, it is essential that the engineering units should improve their
maintenance system.

13.2 Maintenance Department

Success of manufacturing concern largely depends on its organization and the proper
selection of persons engaged for the design and operation work. Production in the concern
depends largely on the maintenance of plants. Hence, the organization of the maintenance
should be such that a proper maintenance and over hauls etc. , can be done economically and
effectively. Maintenance department is generally kept under the control of works manager,
who is responsible for the production. A sample organization of maintenance department in a
big concern is shown (indicating different functions) in the following line diagram:-

100

Works
Chief Maintenance Engineer

Mechanical Maintenance Engineer

Supdt. Plant
Maintenance

1.

Supdt. Repair
shop

Supdt. Power
house (Mech)

Electrical Maintenance Engineer

Phones
Supdt. Power
supervisor house (Elec.)

Civil Maintenance Engineer

Supdt
Supdt. Road
Building
maintenance
Supdt. Power
Maintenance
Maintenance

Maintenance of cranes, hoists, lifts 1. Machine Maintenance,

etc.
shop repair.
2. Maintenance in the plant including 2. Fitting Checking etc.
repair checking, servicing,
shop of maintenance.
lubrication. Etc.
3.
Weldi
3. New installation.

Each superintendent is responsible for the maintenance, overhauls, checking, repairs etc. He
should be an experienced person and should be able to decide the quantum and periodicities
for inspection and overhaul etc. Some changes in the organization may be done in the
factories depending upon the considerations.

101

Supdt.
Sanitation and
Water Supply

Maintenance
n

Types of Maintenance
Generally, maintenance can be done in the following two ways:
1. Breakdown maintenance.
2. Preventive maintenance.
In the first case of maintenance, repair can be done after the breakdown occurs while in the
second case maintenance is done on the basis of prediction or on the basis of periodical
checking.

13.3 BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE

Breakdown of a machine can occur due to the following two reasons:
(i)

due to unpredictable failure of components which cannot be prevented;

(ii)

due to gradual wear and tear of the parts, which can be eliminated to a large
extent by regular inspections, known as preventive maintenance. From
experience it can be decided that, when a part should be replaced, so that
breakdown can be avoided.

In breakdown maintenance, defects are rectified only when the machine cannot perform its
function any longer, and the production department is compelled to call on the maintenance
engineer for the repairs. After repairing the defect, the maintenance engineers do not attend to
the machine again until another failure occurs.
In this type of maintenance, repair shall have to be done on failure, thus it may disrupt the
whole production. If it is performing an important work. This method is much expensive also
due to increase of depreciation cost, payment to idle operators, overtime to the maintenance
staff for doing the emergency repairs.

13.4 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance is sometimes termed as planned maintenance or scheduled
maintenance or systematic plant maintenance etc. It is an extremely important function for
the reduction of maintenance cost and to keep the good operational condition of equipment
and hence increases the reliability. Preventive maintenance aims to locate the sources of
trouble and to remove them before breakdown occurs. Thus it is based on the idea
prevention is better than cure. Scheduled maintenance is always economical than
unscheduled maintenance, as we all know that a stitch in time saves nine.
Best safeguard against costly breakdowns is to inspect, lubricate and check up the
equipment as frequently as possible. To take full use of equipment and to maintain it reliable
condition, necessary measures should be taken to prevent overloading, dampness, negligence
and misuse of machines. Frequency of inspection should be decided on the basis of the
102

importance of the machine and its delicacy. This periodic inspection or checking helps to find
out the reasons leading to breakdown and to rectify them when they are in minor stages. Thus
the repair can be done when one wants to do it, i.e. when it has least effect on the production
schedule. Further this repair requires lesser time as compared to that of breakdown repair and
thus down time is reduced by doing preventive maintenance.

Objects
Preventive maintenance has following main objects:
1. To obtain maximum availability of the plant by avoiding breakdowns and by reducing
the shutdown periods to a minimum.
2. To keep the machine in proper condition so as to maintain the quality of the product.
3. By minimizing the wear and tear, preserve the value of the plant.
4. To ensure for the safety of the workers.
5. To keep the plant at the maximum production efficiency.
6. To achieve all the above objectives with most economical combination.

13.5 Functions or Element of Preventive Maintenance.

Following are some of the important functions of the preventive maintenance Programme:
1. Inspection or check ups.
2. Lubrication.
3. Planning and scheduling.
4. Records and analysis.
5. Training of maintenance staff.
6. Storage of spare parts.
1. Inspection or check ups. Inspection is an essential function of the preventive
maintenance Programme. Crews kept for this purpose should be well trained. These
crews carry out both the external and internal inspection. External inspection means to
watch for and detect defects from abnormal sound, vibration, heat, smoke etc, when
machine is in operation; while internal inspection means inspection of internal parts,
such as gears, bushes, bearings, tolerances in the parts etc., during the period when the
machine is under planned shutdowns.
Frequency of inspection should be decided very carefully, as too less inspection may
cause breakdown, as defects could not be traced out and rectified immediately; while
too much inspection means wastage of machine time and labour productivity. Hence,
frequency should be decided on the basis of past experiences and the scheduled
Programme for inspection is chalked out.
103

For the purpose of inspection machines can be categorized as:

(i)

Important machines: These are those machines which can disrupt whole of
the production are delicate and require much time for the repair. More stress
should be given for the inspection of these machines and schedule for
inspection, cleaning, lubrication, should be adhered to rigidly.

(ii)

Ordinary machines: Frequency of inspection can be kept as low as they do

not effect the production considerably.

2. Lubrication: Mechanical components like gears, bearings, brushes and other friction
surfaces etc., give good performance for long periods, when they are systematically
lubricated. Systematically lubricated, Systematic lubrication means the application of
right type of lubricant at the right time, at the right place and in right quantity. For
lubrication, a schedule should be prepared and should be followed strictly.
3.

Planning and scheduling: Every preventive maintenance work should be pre-planned

in detail on the basis of the analysis done on the past records. A scheduled Programme
thus prepared should be followed strictly. Thus Programme should be in detail
specifying the points requiring daily, weekly, monthly, half yearly or yearly attention.

4. Training of Maintenance Personnel: For the success of preventive maintenance a

sound training is essential for the maintenance personnel. Hence, the technicians and
supervisors are trained to carry out maintenance, inspection and repairs in a systematic
way.
5.

Storage of Spare Parts: Sometimes machine remains idle for want of spare parts for
considerable time and thus it affects considerably loss of production. But the judgment
and experience of high order is required for deciding the number of such parts, as
storage of a large number of parts must be determined by considering different factors
such as source of supply, delivery period and availability of that spare part in the market.
Standardization will help to reduce the spare parts inventory and will also help in
specialization of maintenance of particular type of machine.

13.6 Advantages of Preventive Maintenance

Following are some of the important advantages of efficiently planned and well
executed preventive maintenance Programme:
(i)

Reduction in production downtime.

(ii)

Lesser overtime pay for maintenance personnel.

(iii)

Lesser number of standby equipments is needed.

(iv)

Less expenditure on repairs.

104

(v)

Due to planned spare parts replacement, lesser spare parts are needed to store at all
times.

(vi)

Greater safety to employees because of reduced breakdowns.

13.7 Maintenance Procedure

Maintenance should be done considering all the above mentioned factors. Daily
maintenance is done by the operators themselves. Before starting the work of their shift,
cleaning, oiling and greasing should be done by the operators. For this purpose,
manufacturers used to issue maintenance instructions for their machines, which should
strictly be followed.
Preventive maintenance of the machine depends largely on the operators. Hence, as far as
possible, one operator for each machine be allotted; and when the same machine is used in
more than one shift one operator for each machine for each shift be allotted. This system has
following advantages:
(i)

An operator gets used to the sound and working of his machine and notices any
change immediately, which helps in investigation and rectification of the defect
then and there. If operators are changed frequently, immediate check up and
timely repair cannot be possible.

(ii)

It is easy to pin-point operators with bad operating habits,. To remove these habits
training can be arranged or disciplinary actions can be taken as the case may be.

(iii)

The machine will remain in good conditions.

Periodic maintenance is generally conducted by the maintenance crew, specially trained for
this purpose. The period should be decided on the basis of past experiences as explained
earlier. Apart from this, operating instructions should carefully be followed by the operators.
In case any abnormal sound or behaviour is noticed in the machine, he should immediately
bring this into the notice of maintenance crew, so that the defect can be rectified immediately.
Care must be taken that it may not be left for the later date.
Inspections and lubrication schedules should be strictly followed. Inspection schedule should
include the inspection of tools, accessories and other equipments.

13.8 Requirements for Good Preventive Maintenance

For achieving preventive maintenance of high order, following are some of the essential
requirements:
1) Good supervision and administration of maintenance department.

105

2) Proper control of work i.e. priority be fixed with care and after consultation with
production engineering department.
3) Correct, clear and detailed instructions be given to the maintenance crew and to
the operators.
4) Operators should be well trained.
5) A good lubrication Programme should be chalked out.
6) Proper maintenance record should be chalked out.
7) Adequate stock of spares should always be kept.
8) Surroundings should be dust free and clean with proper ventilation and
illumination.
9) Manufacturers of the machine should be consulted as and when required.
10) Maintenance department should remain in contact with planning and purchasing
department in deciding the type of machine tools to be purchased. A machine tool
to be purchased should be of best design, adequately safe, good lubrication
arrangements, minimum of moving parts, easy availability of spares etc.

106

WEEK FOURTEEN
14.0 EFFECTIVE METHODS OF TRANSFERRING KNOWLEDGE
AND SKILLS TO SUBORDINATES.
14.01 INTRODUCTION
a) Knowledge, as it relates to engineering practice, could be defined as, the information
obtained, by way of formal or informal education or training project. In other words,
knowledge is a power that motivates the principal actors of an engineering project in
carrying out their duties specifically and efficiently. Hence knowledge is acquired
through a training process.
b) Skill, on the other hand, could be defined, also as it relates to engineering practice, as
the ability to apply acquired knowledge in order to get desired results. Skill is the
technological know-how for certain engineering operations. Skill should improve with
experience gained on the job.
c) Knowledge and skill are, therefore, complimentary in the execution of engineering
projects as knowledge without skill could produce slow and uneconomical results,
while skill without knowledge of the fundamental could yield unsafe and uncertain
results. Knowledge and skill, hence, must be transferred from one part of the
engineering organizational structure into the other so as to be able to obtain reliable
results from the project execution. The process of transfer of knowledge and skill by a
superior to a subordinate is an art on its own, which when carefully studied and
understood by the superior becomes a skill.

14.02 PARTIES INVOLVED IN THE TRANSFER PROCESS

From the foregoing, it is evident that the transfer process of knowledge and skill is
from the superior to the subordinate.
A common distinction made in many organizations from superior to
subordinate can be seen in fig. 1.0.

Drwg

107

A supervisor is nay person who is in charge of and is responsible for the actions,
efforts and behavior of one or more other people. A supervisor exercises formal
authority as conferred by the organization and is therefore in a formal leadership role,
exercising authority and accepting responsibility for personnel in his group or
organizational unit.
By virtue of historical usage and custom,. There is a status connotation with
the terms supervisor and Manager. In many organizations a supervisor refers to a
foreman, group leader, or some low-level manager who heads a group of workers,
usually at the bottom level of the organization.
In some other organizations, supervisors are the subordinates of the managers.
In such cases, Managers have greater authority and higher responsibilities.
The Operative Workers are those personnel involved in performing the
operative tasks such as, designing, creating, researching and developing, installing,
constructing, producing, manufacturing, operating and maintaining the product,
machine, system of service.

14.20 PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL

The principles to be considered for effective transfer of knowledge and skill to
subordinates shall be from two perspectives, which should both be satisfied. These
are:
d) Transfer by engaging the principles of effective supervision
e) Transfer by engaging the principles of effective scientific, technical and technological
teaching.
The first perspective outlines principles that tend to create the necessary sociopsychological environment for the transfer process form the superior to the
subordinate while the second perspective outlines the principles that should be
adopted in technically actualizing the transfer process. As mentioned earlier, both
perspectives are complimentary in order to achieve maximum efficiency in the
knowledge and skill transfer process.

14.30

TRANSFER

BY

ENGAGING

THE

PRINCIPLES

OF

EFFECTIVE

SUPERVISON
1) Treat each of your subordinates as a distinct and valued individual. Show respect and
courtesy. Get to know and understand him his personal interests, family background,
qualifications, experiences, education and training etc.
2) Give praise and credit when due. It is far better to:108

i.

Praise

ii.

Give due recognition and encouragement for work well done,

iii.

Criticize

iv.

Belittle and

v.

Discourage subordinates.

Than to

Where possible, indicate what contribution that effort has made to the organization
and let other personnel especially superiors know about the good work.
3) Continually stress and reiterate the organizations objectives .point out to your
subordinates the target that your organizational unit is aiming for and when you expect
such to beaclieved .This would enable them develop interest in the relevant knowledge
and skill your want to impart on them.
4)

Remember the importance of self interest to all individuals. Attempt

to integrate

individual self interest and goals with the organization .

5)

Try to aim for high ideals and standards of ethical conduct, in practical and realistic
terms .Remember that there is always the tendency for subordinates to follow your own
example.

6)

Never reprimand any individual subordinates in front of others especially his peers or
subordinates. Reprimands privately, make sure of your facts and always listen to the
subordinates side of the story.

7)

Always show confidence .Never show disappointments .Do not show that you are
worried even if you are. Do not have regrets, show hope, optimism and belief in the
cause .

8) Learn to delegate and train your subordinates accordingly, give clear, simple and direct
instructions and then trust your subordinates. Encourage people to accept greater
responsibilities and to undertake a variety of tasks.
9) Always listen and head the advice and suggestions made by your subordinates. They can
sometimes see things you have overlooked. Have a flexible mind and adapt your actions
to charged situations.
10) Be loyal to your subordinates and in turn youll find they will become loyal to you. If you
make a mistake, admit it.
11) Always try to simplify the problem. Sort out the wheat from the chaff. Do not become
immersed in details. Sometimes, certain details may be important sort out the essential
details and concern yourself with important issues.
109

12) Always retain a sense of humor, especially when things look bleak. It is better to belittle
one self rather than to belittle or mock others. Integrity and honesty are important to both
your superiors and subordinates.

14.40

TRANSFER

BY

ENGAGING

THE

PRINCIPLES

OF

EFFECTIVE

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL TEACHING

1) Give detailed explanations of the required procedure involved. Try to explain a
justification of these procedures from first principles.
2) List and discuss the various alternatives available for carrying out a specific construction
procedure e.g. concrete placing, formworks, reinforcement arrangements etc. for different
structural elements. Compare the pros and cons of each alternative and mention to your
subordinates their order of priority as regards to usage.
3) Give practical demonstrations in relevant cases e.g. as in the use of the rebound hammer,
use charts, tables and other visual aids to drive home your points.
4) Explain hazards that could arise from certain production/construction methodologies and
possible means of forestalling or reducing such hazards.
5) Initialize the work by starting your subordinates off with the necessary procedures on the
job and allow for continuity from there. Mostly relevant when your direct subordinates
are completely unskilled.
6) Minimize your assumption as regard the basic understanding of your subordinates. Never
assume that they know too much (depending on their educational background and
experience).
7) All presentations made in an attempt to impact knowledge and/or skill should be
simplified as much as possible using the simplest technical terms. This does not
necessarily imply that the common lay-mans terms alone should be used without
reference to the actual technical terms, but that any relatively new or highly grammatical
term should be simplified.
8) Share your personal experiences. Experience they say, is the best teacher, share, most
especially those things youve learnt on-the-job which are not usually things you find in
the books.
9) Always allow your subordinates to ask questions and give them satisfactory answers in
every instance. Whenever a recurring question is observed from some of your
subordinates, try to collectively re-educate them about the general concept of the
problem.

110

10) Lay emphasis on certain procedures that required sound scientific background and
technical knowledge and if possible refer them to the relative fundamental principles
required.
11) Do not hide anything. Your ability to maximally transfer knowledge and skill depends
directly on your ability to explain everything you know satisfactorily.

CONCLUSION
All the principles outlined above can only become effective when the supervisor/foreman,
using his own initiatives, engages the principles on a systematic and consistent basic. They
have to become past-and-parcel of him as there could be need to engage any one, two or more
of these principles at any point in time in order to transfer knowledge and skills to his
subordinates.

14.50 DISCIPLINE AND LEADERSHIP ON SITE.

14.51 INTRODUCTION:
MEANING, PREVENTION AND REMEDIATIONS
In talking about discipline, it is important to realize the meaning of discipline, for
often it is confused with punishment. The term discipline, refers to an understanding and
acceptance of behavioral limitations which we must all accept in order to live harmoniously
in a social setting. This implies two very important dynamics an understanding of those
limitations and an acceptance of them as a reasonable limitation to place upon oneself. As a
leader, our responsibility becomes one of both interpreting the types of behaviors which hare
acceptable to us and conducive to good climate, and helping subordinates to see the
importance of accepting those limitations. On the other hand, if leaders do not have necessary
management skills, they will probably perform poorly and be relatively unsuccessful.
According to Kate (1980) management skills are classified into three primary skills namely;
Technical Skills, Human Skills and Conceptual Skills. Here, we shall be concerned with
human skills which are skills that build cooperation within the team being led. Human skills
involve working with attitudes, communication, individuals and groups, and individual
interests; in short, working with people.

111

Basically, as a leader moves from one level to the next, human skills become more
important. The supportive rationale is that as leaders advance in an organization, their task
becomes less involved with the actual production activity or technical areas and they become
more concerned with discipline and guiding the organization as a whole. Human skills,
however, are extremely important to leaders regardless of levels at which they find
themselves, because the common denominator of all management levels is people.
With this sort of understanding of discipline and leadership role in mind, there are
some concrete actions that the leaders can use in order to encourage a site climate that is both
comfortable and productive. These take place on two levels. The first, PREVENTION,
implies that there are certain actions that the leader can do which will prevent misbehavior
from happening. This generally requires a fair amount of organization and forethought on the
part of the leader to accomplish, but is the less stressful of the two types of intervention that
leaders might choose to apply. Weber (1982) describes this approach as the Instructional
Management approach. This approach is based on the premise that carefully designed and
implemented ground rules will prevent many site discipline problems. The second level is
REMEDIATION. This means an action by the leader in response to some inappropriate
workers behaviour. This is sometimes called the brush fire approach, for unless the leader
is careful, he or she may spend a good portion of the day dealing with behavioral problems
after they occur.

14.60 PREVENTION
1)

Establish clear expectations for behaviour which focus on the positive behaviors that
you wish to encourage (that is, what workers should do). We all need to know what
the acceptable parameters for behaviour are in our social interactions. Too often the
site becomes a guessing game. Will the leader get angry if I do this? Is it surprising
that workers TEST leaders by seeing how far they can push misbehavior? They are
trying to establish those limits, by being very upfront in stating what behaviors are
acceptable, the leaders no longer has hidden agenda that the workers must guess at.
This does not mean to imply that the source of these rules must come exclusively
from leaders. Workers are very effective at identifying behaviors that are conducive to
good working environment and will often be more willing to accept rules that they
have generated themselves. However if this latter approach is applied, it is important
for the leader to have thought through the kinds of rules which are acceptable to avoid
unreasonable or irrational rules from becoming site law. According to Evertson
Emmer, Clements, Sanford and Worsham (1984) one of the surest ways to
112

communicate expectations for workers behaviour is through a systematic plan of

ground rules. This system of rules must be taught to workers and this includes:
a)

Describing and demonstration of desired behaviour.

b)

Rehearsing and practicing the appropriate behaviour and

c)

Providing feedback to the workers as to whether they exhibited the desired

behaviour or not.
Through such a planned teaching of ground rules, the likelihood of clearly understood
expectations might be expressed.
2)

Think through outcomes for misbehavior which are acceptable to you and follow
through with these outcomes. It is easy to be caught up in the anger of a confrontative
situation and dole out disciplinary measures which is unacceptable. If it really
acceptable to dismiss a worker from the site for not completing a given task. Doesnt
this just reinforce the behaviour which is being subjected to disciplinary action?
According to Seifert (1983), William Classer suggests that leaders should rather try to
use the natural consequences for unacceptable behaviour. For example, if a worker
misbehaves on the site, he or she can have the site privileges removed for a period of
time. Leaders need to think through the kinds of behaviour problems that can happen
and determine ways that they are comfortable dealing with those problems.

3)

Dont use threats.

Workers quickly realize that threats are just that without

consequences. It is important to have acceptable punishments (staying after work, not

going on a no-argumentative manner, and then if the behaviour persists, follow
through with disciplinary action.

4)

Develop an understanding of group process.

Many behavioural problems are

avoided by a site atmosphere that encourages cooperation. This cooperative behaviour

does not come naturally but must be fostered through discussion of ways in which
groups do or do not work well together by monitoring the group process during
activities to determine where breakdowns in the process are occurring, and by
carefully evaluating with workers after an activity how well they worked and how
well they felt about working in their group. According to Weber (1983) the major
premise underlying the group process approach is based on at least three assumptions:

the central task of the leader is to establish and maintain effective and
productive site group.

113

The site group is a social system containing properties common to all social
systems and is characterized by certain conditions that are compatible with those
properties and

The site management task of the leader is to establish and maintain conducive
working environment.

5)

Use site organization to prevent temptations.

Much of misbehaviour in a site

can be avoided by a little foresight. Workers dont enter a working environment with
the same constraints that are common. Hence, they are

not as tolerant of

disorganization or confusion with equal vigour. Such as giving brochures that contain
the rules and regulations before expecting the workers to settle on site help greatly in
preventing the kinds of misbehaviours that cause the leaders concern.

6)

With potential problems in a positive way before misbehaviour blows up (that is

before time bombs). It is amazing how effective it can be to take a worker who has
been disruptive quietly aside and affirm your value at that workers contribution to the
workers. For example, Abdul was involved in a fight in the workshop during lunch
and resumes from lunch with fire in his eyes. The leader takes Abdul quietly to one
side of the workshop as the others are putting on their overall and tells Abdul that he
is sorry that he had been involved in a fight, but it is important to forget that it
happened. If Abdul continues to be very angry and upset, then he wont be able to
contribute to the work and both the leader and the other workers will miss Abduls
contributions.

7)

Put the responsibility on the worker.

Ask the worker, how should you be

behaving? Give the worker parameters, but allow the worker the responsibility to
make decisions. Abdul, find a place in the workshop to put your cigarette so that you
would not be tempted to smoke during working hours is more effective than Abdul,
bring that cigarette to me right now. The former affirms Abduls worth as an
individual and as a responsible person while the latter only succeeds in setting up a
confrontative situation in which neither Abdul nor the leader can win. According to
Glasser (1969). the worker has the responsibility to make the decision from his own
evaluation thus learns responsibility.

8)

Dont frame behaviour as question.

The leader is the authority in the site and

does not have to ask the workers permission to expect their compliance with the

114

leaders wishes. Asking will you please bring your time card over here? Leaves open
the possibility for worker to respond NO at which the leader has not left a way out
but a confrontation. By framing behaviour as statements, the leader can always
respond that wasnt a question, it is a statement - please bring your time card here.

14.70 Remediation
1)

Deal with the behaviour directly and specifically. Avoid statements such as I dont
like the way that you are acting. This becomes an indictment of the worker than the
particular behaviour. Be specific about the behaviour that is offensive so that the
worker understands what it is that he or she is doing inappropriately. That doesnt
mean that the worker cant be asked to identify the

behaviour that is inappropriate,

but be sure that when you are finished with your discussion, that the worker clearly
understands what behaviour was not acceptable.

2)

Use a time-out corner.

A technique used effectively by managers. This is a

place where workers can choose to go when the weight of the world is too much to
handle. Workers in this area are not to be bothered by ANYONE, including the
manager (who may also go to this are if needed). The worker may go to the time-out
corner without feeling that they will be punished. What this effectively was is to put
the responsibility on the worker to decide when he or she is able to work with a
group.

3)

Deal with behaviour quietly, and when possible, individually do not set up facesaving power struggles. Some of us likes to be embarrassed in front of others.
Disciplining a worker in front of peers often leads to a power struggle where the
leader even though that may not be the view that he or she holds. Yet it is important
to save face in front of other workmates. This is no win situation. A lot of these
guiding principles really centre on one idea if we truly care about workers and
express that care willingly and openly, we establish the kind of positive site
environment that prevents many of the inappropriate behaviours from happening.

14.80 SUMMARY

the discussion points to the conclusion that good discipline is an outcome of

proper organization and leadership, and is a by-product rather than an objective.
Preparedness has been emphasized as an attribute of a site leader or manager.

Problems in discipline can best be avoided through anticipating them and making
plans for their elimination.

115

Certain details in the routine of managing, if given close attention, will go far
toward removing the seed of disciplinary troubles, as nicely put by Evicson and
Seefeld (1960) the most important of all requirements in discipline is that the
leader or manager must at all times be in control. Therefore, you as the site
leader or manager must always be in control.

116

WEEK FIFTEEN
15.0 Introduction and definitions
This chapter is very vital to you, who is a beginner in this subject. The ability to grasp and
comprehend the following accounting term will lay a very solid foundation to give you
confidence in building a good career.

15.1 DEFINITION OF SOME ACCOUNTING TERMS

15.11 BOOK-KEEPING: Is the art of recording the financial transactions of a business or an
individual in terms of money, and in set of books in order to obtain necessary information
when needed.
It is the analysis, classification and recording of financial transactions in books of
accounts.
The work of an accountant starts where the book-keeper stops. Book-keeping is a part of
financial accounting.

15.12 FINANCIAL ACCOUNTANT The American Institute of Certified Public

Accountants (AICPA) defined financial accounting as the art of recording, classifying and
summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which
are, in part at least, of financial character and interpreting the results thereof.
From the above definition, it is important to note that recording of any financial
transaction is done in money terms, i.e. recording are not done in terms of weight, e.g. Ibs,
oz. kg. e.t.c. But it terms of money: N, $, etc.

15.13 BUSINESS: Is the conduct of legitimate commercial activities to produce and

distribute goods and services in return for profit.

15.14 TRANSACTION: When there is a business deal or piece of commercial activity

between two parties, it is called a transaction. E.g. A buys goods from B. The function of
book keeping as already noted in the definition is to record business or financial

TRANSACTIONS. There are two types of transactions: CASH and CREDIT transactions.
15.15 A CASH TRANSACTION: Is the transaction where goods or services are supplied to
a customer and the MONEY paid at precisely the same time, either by cash or cheque.

15.16 A CREDIT TRANSACTION: Is the transactions where goods or services are

supplied to a customer but the payment is delayed or postponed or deferred until a future
date. The most unusual credit period is one month. Though payments for goods or services
are not made immediately, the recording is still done in terms of moneys worth.

117

15.2 STARTING A BUSINESS

To be engaged in business, one must have property or resources to aid business
transactions.

15.21 ASSETS: Constitute property or resources of a business or an individual. E.g. cash,

goods bought to be sold (stock), bank balance, motor van, machines, building, debtors, land,
e.t.c.
There are basically two types of assets:
a) Fixed assets

b) Current or circulating assets

Another type of asset worth mentioning is fictitious assets.

15.22 FIXED ASSETS: Are resources or property of a durable nature, for long-term use
in the business and are not primarily meant for resale or for conversion into cash. E.g.
Land, building, fixtures and fittings, plants and machines, motor vehicles, e.t.c.

15.23 CURRENT ASSETS: Are resources or property which represent cash or are to be
primarily changed into cash and have short life duration as the business continues. E.g.
cash in hand, stock, debtors, cash at bank, e.t.c.

Note: Alternatively, current assets are known as circulating assets. A debtor is one who owes
money.

Converted to

used to buy

CASH
Goods sold for cash

Debtors
CHEQUE
BANK

Pay Cheque

Pay

STOCK

Cash

Debtor
s

Sold to

Diagram 1: Showing current or circulating asset as they change to cash

15.24 PURCHASES: When goods are bought for the purpose of selling to make profit, they
are termed purchases account for they are not meant for sale but intended to be
permanently used in the business. However, when a business trades in machines, i.e. buying
and selling of machines, then the purchases of machines for sale in this case, are included in
purchases account.

15.25 SALES: When goods for the purpose of selling (i.e. purchases) are sold to make profit,
they are termed sales.
118

The sale of a fixed asset intended for permanent use should not be included in sales
account.

15.26 STOCK: The current Asset- Stock: is the total goods left when sales are made out
the goods purchased. This is what appears in the balance sheet as closing stock.
Therefore, purchase of goods will add to stock while sales of goods are a reduction in
stock.
Also, when customers return goods previously sold out to them to a trader, it is addition to
the stock of the trader. This is known as RETURNS INWARDS in the traders record.
And a return of goods previously bought by a trader to his supplier is reduction into the
stock of the trader. This is known as RETURN OUTWARDS in the books of the trader.
Purchases &
Returns Inwards

Addition to
Stock +

STOCK

Subtraction

Sales & Return

Outwards

From stock

15.27 LIABILITIES: Are debts for which a business or an individual is liable or responsible
to settle arising from past transactions. There are current liabilities and long term liabilities.
Capital is a special form of liability; it is what the business owes the owner.

15.28 CURRENT LIABILITIES: Are debts of which settlements is to be made within a

short period of time, say a month or at most a year. E.g. creditors, rent due, wages due,
over draft, etc.

15.29 LONG TERM LIABILITIES: Are debts of which settlement is to be made after a
long period of time say after a year. E.g. Bank loan, Loan from individuals, Debentures
e.t.c.
15.30 CAPITAL: Is the contribution by the owner in cash or kind to the business or
accumulated by him out of profits ploughed back into the firm. Capital is thus indebtedness
or a liability of the business to the owner. It is the amount due to the owner and owed by the
business.
It is pertinent here for the reader to regard the owner or proprietor as someone separate
from the business. Thus when the owner puts money or any resource (asset) into the business,
ii is regarded as the business owing the owner. In other words it is the owners commitment
to the business financially and materially.

15.31 DRAWINGS: When the owner or the proprietor takes any property belonging to the
business (firm) for his private use, the property withdrawn is known as drawings. This may
be withdrawal from cash or from purchases or any property. Goods withdrawn by the owner
is charged to his account at cost and purchases account credited.
119

Thus, two accounts are maintained for the owner viz. capital and drawings accounts.
In recording transactions of the business, student should note that he/she is recording for the
business and not for the owner. This is vital.

15.32 ACCOUNTING EQUATION: When the business is liable to only the owner, the
accounting equation is expressed as total assets equal capital. That means all the assets were
provided by the owner.
This is represented by an equation:
A=C. . . . . . . . . . . . .(ii)
Where A=assets and C=capital
On the other hand where the business is liable to the owner and other external parties, the
accounting equation is expressed as total assets equal owners capital (equity) plus liabilities.
That means the owner and other people/ organization provided the total assets.
The equation is represented by:
All the 3 items in the equation are variables, i.e. they are not constant or fixed.
Whenever two of the items are known the other can be calculated by simple addition or
subtraction. For example, Bello started a business with building30, 000, Motor van 20,500,
Cash 6,500, Loan from E. Kind 15,000.
The capital can be calculated because assets and liability (of loans) are given. From the
equation C=L=A, we can deduce that, C=A-L. Therefore, Capitals=Assets (Motor van 20,
500, + Building 30, 000+ Cash 6, 500) - Liability (loan 15, 000) = 42,000.00.
A
i.e.

57, 000

L
-

15, 000

C
=

42, 000

NOTE: The accounting equation is the expression of the financial position statement, the
balance sheet.
Since capital is a special liability to the firm it is convenient to refer to the C+L as the
liabilities side of the equation and A as Assets side of the equation.
15.3 DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM:
There are two aspects involved in every financial transaction. For example in a single
transaction of a trader selling goods to a customer by cash, the two aspects are:
a) The GIVING of goods (by the trader)
b) The RECEIVING of payment of cash (by the trader).
There is a GIVING and a RECEIVING. This two-fold aspect involved in every
transaction gave rise to double entry system.
120

The system of double entry book-keeping which is believed to have originated in the
fifteenth (15th) century is fundamental to the recording of financial transactions. This dual or
double aspect to every transaction affects assets, capital or liabilities, revenue and expenses.
The double entry system is operated effectively by accounts.

15.4 AN ACCOUNT:
An account records changes of an asset or liability of the business. Thus there are accounts
like: Buildings account (for transactions involving building), Loan-Goodness account (for
transactions involving loan from goodness) Motor vans account (for transaction involving
motor van) and so on for every asset, liability and for capital. An account will therefore
contain the record of the life history of the increase or decrease of an asset or liability.

15.5 FEATURES OF AN ACCOUNT:

Each account has a separate 12 pages or folio in a ledger (a book containing various
accounts). The double entry system divides each account into two halves to give an account a
T shape- this ascertains or indicates that each accounts is capable of RECEIVING and

GIVING.
The left hand side of each account is called the DEBIT side (abbreviated as DR) and
represents the side of account that receives the goods, services or money. To debit (DR) an
account means entering the amount of money (N) of the value of goods or services received
into the account and are termed a debit entry.
The right hand side of an account is called the CREDIT side (abbreviated as CR) and
represents the side of the account, that GIVES goods, services or money. To credit (CR) an
account means entering the amount in money (N) of the value of goods or services given out
of the account and it is termed a credit entry.
Each transaction affects two accounts, one account to be debited and the other to be
credited with the same amount. In other words, if one account has RECEIVED another
account has GIVEN. The general rule is:

DEBIT (DR) or charge the account that RECEIVES.

CREDIT (CR) the account that gives.
Therefore, for every debit entry there must be a corresponding credit entry and vice
versa.
The title of each account is written across the top of the account at the centre.
Example of motor vans account Specimen is shown below:
Motor Vans A/c

121

Date

Details

Folio

Amount

Date

Details

Folio

Amount

Each account (abbreviated as A/c) has columns for date, particulars or details, folio and
amount for both the DR and CR side as shown above. The date columns record1 when (day)
the transaction took place, the particulars or details columns record the name of the account
for which value is received or given. The folio columns record the page of the accounts in the
details columns, where double entry is completed. The amounts columns record the value
given or received in terms of money.

15.6Steps to follow in recording by the double entry system.

Step 1 Identify the two accounts (at least) involved in every transaction.
Step 2 Identify the account receiving and the one giving.
Step 3 Debit the account receiving and credit the account giving.

NOTE: To identify accounts in a statement of transaction always look for names of assets
mentioned or liabilities mentioned in the statement of transaction, also the type of expense
(e.g. rent) or the type of revenue (e.g. sales).
Using accounts we can effect the double entry system with the aid of some transactions.
st

1 Transaction
On January 1, 19Y6, B. Joe started business and deposited N400, 000 (inherited from his
father) to the business bank account.
NOTE: Here the two accounts involved in the transaction are capital (owners A/c) and a
bank A/c. In identifying the account involved in this transaction bank and the owner of the
business (capital) are mentioned in the statement of transaction.
So, Bank A/c is RECEIVING (from capital) Capital A/c ism GIVING (to bank) Applying
the general rule:
DR Bank A/c.
CR Capital A/c.

NOTE: We have followed the 3 steps in recording by the double entry system outline above.
P.g1

122

DR

Capital A/c

Date

Details

Folio

CR

Amount

Date

Details

Folio

Amount

19Y6

Jan. 1 Bank

400, 000

Pg. 2

DR

Capital A/c

Date

Details

Folio Amount

19Y6

Jan. 1 Capital

Date

CR

Details Folio

19Y6

Amount

400, 000 Jan.1 Motor Van

250, 000

2nd Transaction
On January 5; Joe bought a Motor Van for N250, 000 by cheque. Here, the two accounts
involved in the transaction are: a) Motor Van A/c (RECEIVING from bank) -DR Van
b) Bank A/c (Giving to motor van)

-CR Bank

NOTE: We have already opened a bank account so we continue with the same account for all
further transactions involving bank account. We only need to open motor vans account.
Pg. 3

DR
Date

Motor vans A/c

Details

Folio Amount

19Y6
Jan. 5

Date

CR
Details Folio Amount

N
Bank

250, 000

3rd Transaction
123

On January 9, Joe took loan from Mrs. Goodness in cash N50, 000. The two accounts
involved in this transaction are:
a) Cash Account (RECEIVING from loan Account Mrs. Goodness): DR cash
b) Loan Account Mrs. Goodness (GIVING to cash account): CR Loan Mrs.
Goodness Account.
Pg. 4

DR
Date

Loan Mrs. Goodness A/c

Details

Folio Amount

Date

CR

Details

Folio Amount

19Y6
Jan. 9

N
cash

50, 000

Pg. 5

DR
Date

Cash A/c
Details

Folio

Amount Date

19Y6

CR
Details

Folio Amount

Jan. 9 Loan Goodness

50, 000

4th Transaction
On Jan 10, goods were bought for resale for N16, 000 from G. Garba to be paid for at a
later date.
The two accounts involved in this transaction are:
a) Purchases account (RECEIVING from G. Garba): DR

G. Garba

b) G. Garba Account Creditor (GIVING to purchases): CR

G. Garba
Pg. 6

DR

Purchases A/c

Date

Details

19Y6
Jan. 10

G. Garba

Folio

Amount Date

CR
Details

Folio

Amount

N
16,000

124

DR
Date

Pg. 7
CR

G. Garbas A/c
Details

Folio

Amount Date

Details

Folio

19Y6
Jan. 10 Purchases

Amount
N
16, 000

The folio columns have been used assuming that each account is on a separate page as
indicated on them.

Note on the 4th transaction

Where a CREDIT transaction takes place as in the 4th transaction it is necessary to open an
account in the name of the supplier or the customer. Where a cash transaction takes place it
wouldnt be necessary to have the name of the supplier.
From the transactions above, it is clear that for every DR entry there must be a
corresponding CR entry and vice- versa. This can go on and on to give a systematic recording
of all the financial transactions engaged by an individual, firm or company over a long period
of time.
It is vital to note that, the debit and credit aspects of each transaction must always be
considered alone without anything that has happened previously or that may happen
subsequently. Thus the purchase or sale of goods on credit entry in each partys books, while
the settlement by cash or cheque subsequently for such goods is a separate transaction which
also necessitates both a debit and a credit entry in each partys book.

15.7 Double Entry and Accounts

Example 1
Write up the various accounts required in the books of P. Solo to record the following
transactions for the month in March 19Y5.
19Y5
March 1 Started business with N8, 500 cash
March 4 Bought a motor van for N6, 500 cash
March 18 Bought Office Equipment on credit from Equipmech Co. for N2, 500
March 25 Took loan of N4, 00 from Mercy by cash
March 31 Paid Equipmech N2, 500 owing to them by cash.

125

The way in which the two aspects of every transaction is determined and how the general
rule is applied is tabulated below; (This is not necessary when the student is fully grounded in
the understanding of the basic knowledge of the system).
Date

Transactions

Identification of A/c

March 1

started a business with N8, 500

Cash.

March 4

Double Entry Recording

Cash receiving
Capital giving

DR
CR

cash
capital

bought motor van N6, 500 by

Cash.

Motor van receiving

Cash giving

DR
CR

Motor van
cash

March 18

bought office equip on credit from

Equipmech N2, 500

Equipment receiving
Equipmech giving

DR
CR

equipment
equipmech

March 25

Took loan of N4, 000 from mercy by

Cash.

Cash receiving
Loan mercy Giving

DR
CR

cash
Loan Mercy

March 31

Paid equipmech N2, 500 owing to

Them.

Equipmech Receiving
Cash giving

DR
CR

Equipmech
Cash

Double Entry now shown in account form;

DR

Capital

CR

19Y5
Mar. 1 Cash

DR

Cash A/c

19Y5
N
Mar. 1 Capital
8, 500
Mar. 25 Loan Mercy 4, 000

DR

19Y5
Mar. 4 Motor van
Mar. 31 Equipmech

N
8, 500

CR
N
6, 500
2, 500

Motor van A/c

CR

DR

Office equipment A/c

CR

19Y5
Mar. 1 Equipmech

N
2,500

DR

Equipmech co. A/c

19Y5
Mar. 4 Cash

19Y5

N
6, 500

19Y5

CR
N

126

Mar. 31 Cash

DR

2, 500

Mar. 18 Office equipment 2, 500

Loan Mercy A/c

19Y5
Mar. 25 Cash

CR
N
4,000

15.8 CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS:

As already mentioned, an account records the changes of an asset or liability of the
business. It is a page in the ledger which records the transactions relevant to the person, asset,
expense or profit named on the heading.
There are three kinds of accounts viz: Personal Accounts, Real accounts and Nominal
accounts. (The last two are called impersonal accounts).

15.81 PERSONAL ACCOUNTS: They are accounts dealing with persons either as an
individual, Mr. Bello, or a firm (Partnership), AB & partners or a company (Alfa ltd. Co) A
company is regarded as a legal person. These personal accounts could be either Creditors or
debtors.
Capital is a special personal account. In the example 1 above, Equipment Co is an
example of personal account.

15.82 IMPERSONAL ACCOUNTS Are those dealing with things and not persons.
Impersonal accounts are of two types: Real and Nominal accounts.

15.83 Real Accounts Are those dealing with tangible things i.e. Real things that can be
touched e.g. Building, Machinery Bank, Cash and many Fixed Asset.
Real accounts record transactions of property and material of tangible objects.

15.84 Nominal Accounts Are those dealing with intangible things i.e. they are existing in
name only but cannot be seen or touched. They are not real. E.g. Rent, Rates, wages,
discounts and many other expense or income account.
Nominal accounts record items of expenses incurred and income received, losses made and
gains obtained. Nominal account deals with expenses and revenue that have been used up and
expired within a giving accounting period.

15.9 Rules for Entering up personal Accounts:

The person who RECEIVES goods, services or money from the business is DEBITED.
The person who GIVES goods services or money to the business is CREDITED.

127

15.10 Rules for entering up Real Accounts:

When the Asset concerned has RECEIVED a portion of the resources of the business i.e.
(increase in value of asset), DEBIT the asset.
When the asset concerned has GIVEN up some of its value in service of the business
(Decrease in the value of asset or depreciation) CREDIT the asset.

15.11 Rule for Entering up Nominal Accounts

Expenses i.e. losses.
When the Expense Account named has RECEIVED money in name only from the
business. E.g. rent receiving money on behalf of the Landlord. DR the Expense A/c involved.
Gains i.e. profit (income)
When the account named has GIVEN money in name only to the business. E.g. sale A/c
giving money to the business. CR the A/c involved.
Recording in each class of accounts:

Debit

Credit

a) Personal accounts

DR Receiver

CR Giver

b) Real accounts

DR Property acquired

CR Property used

c) Nominal accounts

DR Expenses/ losses

CR Income/ gains

d) Cash accounts

DR Receipts

CR Payments

NOTE: Cash accounts is under real accounts, it is shown separately because of its
importance.

15.12 DIVISION OF THE LEDGER:

15.12:1 LEDGER: The ledger is the main book of accounts (i.e. it is a book containing all
the various accounts already considered). It has pages (folio) which are numbered.
Each page contains an account. The numbers are written at the right hand corner and are
called folio numbers.
When a firm has relatively few transactions, all entries can be entered in the ledger by one
accounts clerk. Thai is, all the accounts the personal accounts, the nominal accounts and
real accounts are kept in one ledger. As the firm grows however, the volume of transactions
consequently increases presenting a problem for one clerk to cope with all the work load
involved. Even if more clerks are engaged the problem is not solved, since they will not all be
able to use the only ledger at the only ledger at the same time.

128

SALES
LEDGER

LEDGER
Main book of accounts
(containing all .types of
accounts)

Contains customers or
debtors personal
accounts

PURCHASES
LEDGER

Contains suppliers or
Creditors Personal
Accounts.

CASH BOOK
(LEDGER)

Receipts and payments of

money bank and cash
accounts.

GENERAL
LEDGER

Containing the remaining

accounts, i.e. Revenue,
Expenses and other Assets
and liabilities Accounts
other then Cash, Bank,
Debtors, and creditors.

Diagram 4: Showing the division of the ledger.

NOTE: Private Ledger also might be kept for the accounts of the owner of the business to
contain capital account. Drawings account, and trading, profit and loss accounts.
This problem calls for the division of the ledger into different books according to their
specific function or purpose. Viz:
a) SALES LEDGER: This is the ledger for customers personal Accounts, called sales
ledger, or debtors ledger i.e. all the Debtors Accounts are removed from the main
ledger to the sales ledger.
b) PURCHASES LEDGER: This is the ledger for suppliers Personal Accounts, called
the purchases ledger or creditors ledger i.e. all the creditors accounts are removed
from the main ledger to this ledger.
129

c) CASH BOOK: The ledger for the receipt and payments of money of many both by
cash and cheque is called cash book, i.e. the bank and cash accounts are removed
from the main ledger to this ledger.
d) The remaining accounts would be contained in a ledger called a GENERAL LEDGER
or a NOMINAL LEDGER.
These ledgers contain accounts and are pan of the double entry system.

OTHER BOOKS Subsidiary books:

Before the division of the ledger, the ledger was the main book of accounts. However
transactions were not entered into the ledger directly. Transactions are first entered in the
book called the book of original entry or journal. Thus, there is the ledger (the main book of
accounts) and the journal (the subsidiary book or the book of prime / original entry used in
book keeping.)
Journal simple means diary, for daily records. In other words the journal records
chronologically in diary from all transactions as they occur. The journal records the
transactions first with explanation before they are posted to the ledger. When transferring
entry from any book of original entry (subsidiary books) to the ledger accounts it is known as
POSTING.
All cash transactions are first entered into the cash book before and posting to the accounts
concerned in their various Ledgers, thus the cash book is a book of original entry. It is also an
account because it is a pan of the double entry system and a ledger too (containing more than
one account).
With the cash book acting as a hook of original entry for all cash transactions, the journal
became free from recording cash transactions. Journals record credit transactions and other
complicated transactions apart from credit or cash transactions e.g. depreciation, bad debts
e.t.c.

15.13 DIVISION OF THE JOURNAL

As with the ledger, when the business expands and the number of credit transactions
increase the journal would be greatly loaded with entries and the clerk in charge would be
overworked. Division is thus extended to the journal according to functions. The division is
as below.
a) SALES JOURNAL The journal for the debtor customers. This records al the
CREDIT sales as they are made daily. It is also known as Sales day book or simply
sales Book.

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b) PURCHASES JOURNAL The journal for all the creditors suppliers. This
records all the CREDIT purchases as they are made daily. It is known as purchases
day book or simply Purchases Book.
c) RETURNS INWARDS JOURNAL The journal for all the returns by the
customers of the goods previously sold to them. This is also known as Returns
Inwards Book or Sales Returns Book.
d) RETURNS OUTWARD JOURNAL The journal for all returns to the supplier of
the goods previously bought from them. This is also known as Returns Outwards
Book or Purchases Returns book.
e) GENERAL JOURNAL The journal for all other transactions apart from cash
transactions and the day books already mentioned.
These journals are not accounts and do not form part of the double entry system.
They are only books of original entry before posting to the various ledgers. They are
considered later in detail.

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