Copyright 2012, Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM)

Giant Oil and Gas Fields, Volume 1 & Volume 2 (CW12), 1988

n F , ,D E P O S I T I W L f
~
V AND ~W F R V~ O U S
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KUPARUK RIVER ~
~
~
T CRETAI
KUPARUIC FIELD. NORTH SLOP-

Gerard C, Gaynor and Mark H, Scheihing

Reservoir Geology, Research & Technical Services, ARC0 Oil and Gas Coo,
2300 West Plano Parkway, Pfano, Texas 75075
ABSTRACT

Sandstones of the Lower Cretaceous Kuparuk River Formation comprise major

reservoirs on the North Slope of Alaska. Original oil-in-place for the Kuparuk
field is estimated at approximately 5 billion barrels. The Kuparuk field provides
an excellent example of large scale reservoir heterogeneity created by multiple
sandstone bodies, It also illustrates the contra1 o f depositional facies and
diagenesis on reservoir quality.
Stratigraphically, the Kuparuk River Formation is comprised of four distinct units;
A, 8, C, and 0. Reservoir-quality sandstones are found primarily in units A and C.
The A sandstone intervals, occurring within the lowermost unit, were deposited in a
regressive shelf setting. In contrast, the C sandstones, present above an
erosional unconformity, were deposited in a transgressive shelf setting.
The reservoir in unit A is characterized by lenticular, shingled, sheet-like
sandstone bodies, Average dimensions o f these bodies are about 24 krn (15 mi) long,
13 km (8 mi) wide, and 15 km (50 ft) thick, The best reservoir-quality sandstones
in unit A are dominated by facies types indicative o f episodic storm deposition.
These types include hummocky cross-stratified and wave-rippled, flaser-bedded
facies, Sandstone beds in these facies range from 0.1 to 1 m (0.5 to 3 ft) in
thickness, Also present are facies types characterized by high mudstone to
sandstone ratios. These include wavy-bedded and lenticular-bedded facies, and
shale with fenticular sandstone streaks. These facies are not reservoir-quality
because o f high clay content and small scale, discontinuous sedimentary structures.

The reservoir in unit C is characterized by a blanket-like geometry. Sandstone

geometries within unit C are poorly defined because o f syndepositional faulting and
erosional truncations within the unit. The C sandstones are massive due to
bioturbation and are highly glauconitic. The best reservoir-quality sandstones
occur in the basal and uppermost intervals. Both intervals have unconformities at
their base. In the case of the basal interval, this is a major erosional
unconformity within the Kuparuk River Formation, These subunits are characterized
by intense siderite cementation and subsequent partial dissolution, The
distribution o f reservoir properties i s directly related to diagenesis and
indirectly related to depositional facies.
In summary, reservoir quality and heterogeneity in sandstone bodies within unit A
are controlled by depositional processes. Lithofacies characterization is the key
t o understanding the lateral continuity and distribution o f permeability and
porosity within thls reservoir unit. In contrast, post-depositional, diagenetic
controls on reservoir quality are exhibited by sandstone bodies comprising the C
unit. In this case, the distribution of permeability and porosity are controlled
by siderite cementation and dissolution, In both the A and C units, a
sedimentological approach to reservoir characterization is essential for a thorough
understanding o f reservoir quality and distribution of producible sandstones.
333

INTRODUCTION

Sandstones of the Kuparuk River Formation comprise major reservoirs on the North
Slope of Alaska. Discovered in 1969, the Kuparuk field (Figure 1) has an estimated
5 billion barrels of original oil-in-place. Potential recoverable reserves are
estimated to be about 1.6 billion barrels (Masterson and Paris, 1987). As such,
the Kuparuk River field is one of the largest oil fields in North America,
The Kuparuk field is located on the southern flank of the Barrow Arch between the
Colville and Prudhoe Highs. The trapping mechanism is a combination of
stratigraphic pinchout, erosional truncation, and anticlinal rollover (Carman and
Hardwick, 1983) The reservoir consists of sandstones within the Kuparuk River
Formation of Valanginian to Hauterivian age (Lower Cretaceous). Two members,
separated by a major unconformity, are recognized. The lower member contains the
informally named A and B units. Reservoir-quality sandstones are present primarily
in the A unit. The upper member contains the C and D units. Reservoir-quality
sandstones are present only in the C unit.

Although the reservoir has been the subject o f numerous in-house petroleum company
geological, engineering, and equity studies, relatively little has been published
in the open literature about this field. Published studies include those of Carman
and Hardwick (1983) and Masterson and Paris (1987).
Aside from its size, the Kuparuk field offers several points of interest to the
reservoir geologist, The sandstone bodies comprising the field are complex both in
terms of their external geometries and internal architectures and present a
formidable challenge to geologists and engineers in production methodologies and
reservoir characterization. Moreover, they represent outstanding examples of two
major classes of shelf sandstones. Recently, geologists have come to appreciate
the importance of shelf siliciclastics in the rock record and as reservoirs ( e . g , ,
papers in Tillman and Siemers, 1984; Tillman, Swift, and Walker, 1985; Moslow and
Rhodes, 1986). It is becoming increasingly clear that shelf sandstones comprise
unique and important types of reservoirs significantly different from continental,
strandline, or deep water sandstone bodies in terms o f their reservoir
characteristics and performance.
334

"3

.--

L- J

BEAUFORT SEA

AREA OF FIELD
KUPARUK RIVER FIELD

I
F i g u r e 1:

50 MILES
100 KM

'

WI

L o c a l i t y map o f t h e Kuparuk f i e l d on t h e North Slope o f Alaska, showing

u n i t o u t l i n e s , f i e l d o u t l i n e , and western t r u n c a t i o n o f lower member.
M o d i f i e d from Masterson and P a r i s (1987).

335

This paper deals with the depositional environments of the main sandstone
reservoirs of the Kuparuk River Formation and the influence of depositional
environment on reservoir quality. We illustrate two major aspects of the Kuparuk
field: (1) the depositional environments and facies architectures of reservoirquality sandstones; and (2) the influence of depositional environment on reservoir
quality. The basis for environmental interpretation and its impact on reservoir
quality is an integrated sedimentological core description, wireline log, and core
plug permeability and porosity study.
REGIONAL

STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS

General

The present paper follows the proposed stratigraphic nomenclature presented by

Carman and Hardwick (1983). The interpretation of the depositional history of the
Kuparuk River Formation links lithofacies sequences and the relationship of these
sequences to their upper and lower bounding surfaces. A key concept in the
stratigraphic zonation and interpretation of Kuparuk River Formation rocks is the
recognition of bounding surfaces in core and their correlation on wireline logs.
The Kuparuk River Formation is comprised of two distinct cyclic sequences separated
by a major unconformity (Figure 2).
Lower Cretaceous Unconformity

Numerous cores through the Kuparuk River Formation in the Kuparuk field clearly
demonstrate a regional unconformable surface known as the Lower Cretaceous
unconformity (LCU). This unconformity separates the lower member, containing the A
and B lithostratigraphic units, and the upper member, containing the C and D
lithostratigraphic units. Sub-regional correlation sections tracing this surface
on wireline logs demonstrate that the LCU truncates the lower member (Figure 3 ) .
A t least 300 ft o f relief on this unconformity is present in the area o f the
Kuparuk field based on the amount of section removed.
Textural evidence suggests that the lower Kuparuk member was at least partially
lithified prior to deposition of the upper member. At the LCU contact in core,
trace fossil morphologies are usually subvertical in profile and demonstrate a

STAGE

Ma

122

124

126

128

BARREMIAN
(PART)

'OR MATIOh

UNIT

GENERAL

EXPLANATION

SANDSTONE

KALUBIK
(PART)

E]

SILTSTONE

D
HAUTERIVIAh

KUPARUK
(UPPER
MEMBER)

----.-

c4

c:

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
&
. .

4
ml
......

HIATUS

-.-

.
e

130

EROSIONAL
UN CON FORMITY

LCU

132

134

VALANG I N IAP

KUPARUK

---

-.-

---

-.-

.....................
.....................
..
......................
......................

-.*.-.

136

138

140

Figure 2:

.....................
-.*.-.
... m. .m
.....................
i

.....................

MI LUVEACH

BERRlAS1AN
(PART)

Generalized rock and time stratigraphy of the Kuparuk River Formation

in the Kuparuk field.

337

SOUTHWEST

WEST SAK 15
GR RES

mrl

KUPARUK RIVER UNIT

NORTHEAST

KRU 2A-2
GR RES

IV

KRU 2V- 6
GR

KRU 2X-2

WEST SAK 9

KRU 1Y-14

KRU 1G-4

Figure 3:

Subregional wireline log correlation section across the KuDaruk field

showing the western truncation o f the lower member by' the Lower
Cretaceous unconformi ty (LCU)

TEXACO
PRUDHOE BAY 1

distinct cross-cutting relationship with the underlying lower member (Figure 4A).
These trace fossils are tentatively identified as pholadid borings and are
characteristic of the Trypanites or Glossifungites ichnofacies (Ekdale et al. , 1984;
Pemberton and Frey, 1985). The basal C unit directly above the contact consists of
highly glauconitic, poorly sorted, pebbly, fine- to coarse-grained sandstone.
Borings into the lower member are filled by this glauconitic sandstone.
The amount of erosion and presence of borings suggest that this unconformity was
cut during a major relative sea-level fall. Erosion in the area of the Kuparuk
field may have been submarine rather than subaerial. No substantive evidence of
subaerial exposure such as root mottles or soil formation has been observed in any
cores intersecting the LCU in the Kuparuk field (Masterson and Paris, 1987).
However, it is also possible that evidence of subaerial exposure is absent due to
marine erosion during the transgressive event following the sea level fall.
Stratigraphic relationships in the lower member
Regionally, the Kuparuk A unit downlaps the Miluveach Shale. This downlap geometry
suggests that the stratigraphic contact is paraconformable (sensu Dunbar and
Rodgers, 1957). In core, the contact is characterized by a relatively abrupt
upward transition from moderately to well-laminated dark gray/black mudstone to
dark gray mudstone with common lenticular siltstone streaks.
Above this contact, the A unit is comprised of several upward-coarsening clastic
units, each about 15 to 25 m (50 to 80 ft) thick. These upward-coarsening
sequences are characterized by transition from lenticular-bedded, silty mudstone
upward into flaser-bedded and hummocky cross-stratified, very fine-grained
sandstone (HCS) These upward-coarsening sequences are a1 so characterized by a
Cruziana ichnofacies, indicative of sublittoral, shallow marine conditions (Ekdale
et al., 1984; Pemberton and Frey, 1985). Conversely, the uppermost Miluveach Shale
is characterized by suspension deposition, the lack o f wave-generated sedimentary
structures, and a sparse trace fossil assemblage referrable to the Nereites
ichnofacies, indicative of deep water conditions (Ekdale et al. , 1984)

Overlying the regressive Kuparuk A unit is the B unit, characterized by

lenticular-, wavy-, and graded-bedded sandy mudstones and siltstones. Regionally,
the basal 0.3 to 1.5 m (1 to 5 ft) of the unit is characterized by a laminated o r
339

Figure 4:

(A)

Lower Cretaceous unconformity. Laminated siltstone o f the B unit

i s present below the contact. Pebbly glauconitic sandstone o f
the C-1 interval is above the contact and infills borings into
the substrate (arrow). Note that parallel laminae in siltstone
at the contact may be traced across the core indicating that
lithification occurred prior to the borings. (Well: KRU 33-09,
6369 ft, scale i s 1 cm)

(B)

Granule and pebble lag at the contact between the C-4 and C-3
intervals (arrow) This contact is erosional throughout most of
the field area. (Well: KRU 3F-10, 6254 ft, scale i s 1 cm).

340

highly bioturbated, silty mudstone containing very fine- to coarse-grained sand,

In a number of cores, a sharp contact between underlying lenticular- or wavy-bedded
facies of the A unit and overlying bioturbated mudstone o f the lowermost B unit i s
evident.
Stratigraphic relations in the upper member

The upper Kuparuk member can be subdivided into two unconformity-bounded packages.
The lower package is comprised of the C-1, C-2, and C-3 intervals (Figure 2). The
upper package is comprised of the C-4 interval and D unit, The C unit represents
the initial transgressive event over the LCU surface, Variations in thickness of
the C unit (Figure 3) are both a function of syndepositional faulting and possible
depositional re1 ief (Masterson and Paris, 1987)

The C - 1 interval is characterized by

glauconitic, fine- to coarse-grained
and C-3 intervals appear conformable
characterized by muddy to silty very
sandstone,

an upward-fining sequence from pebbly,

sandstone to fine-grained sandstone, The C-2
with the underlying C - 1 interval and are
fine- to fi ne-grained, poorly gl auconi ti c

In nearly all cored wells examined to date, the C-4 interval i s interpreted to
unconformably overlie the C - 1 through C-3 intervals. Locally, a sharp basal
contact, similar to that marking the LCU, is characterized by pebbly horizons as
much as 5 t o 8 cm ( 2 to 3 in) thick (Figure 4B). The overlying C-4 interval is
characterized by very glauconitic, poorly sorted, fine- to coarse-grained
sandstone. The C-4 interval is generally overlain conformably by the D unit which
is characterized by glauconitic, bioturbated siltstone and mudstone. The D unit is
overlain by laminated mudstone of the Kalubik Shale,
KUPARUK

A UNIT

Lithofacies description and interpretation

The classification of lithofacies of the Kuparuk A unit is based on the schemes of
Reineck and Wunderlick (1968), Ginsburg (1975), Reineck and Singh (1978), and
Johnson (1978) These schemes are especially well suited to the sedimentological
341

characterization of tidal and shallow marine heterolithic facies. The Kuparuk unit
A is subdivided into a number of lithofacies types on the basis of sedimentary
structures, lithology, bed thickness, bounding surfaces, grain size, and burrow
intensity and type. The characteristics and designations of lithofacies in the
Kuparuk A unit are summarized in Table 1.
Lithofacies H - Amalqamated hummocky cross-stratified and parallel-laminated
sandstone
Description: - This lithofacies is characterized by very fine- to fine-grained,
moderately to well sorted, quartzose sandstone usuaqly exhibiting low angle
parallel and slightly curved cross-lamination (Figure 5) Although high angle
lamination is generally rare, high angle truncation surfaces may be present.
Individual laminae may be on the order o f 0.5 to 3mm in thickness. In some
examples, silt and clay occurs as discrete laminae within sandstone beds on upper
surfaces as upward-fining clay drapes on the order of a few millimeters to about 1
cm thick.

Beds composed of this lithofacies typically show erosional surfaces cut into
underlying lithologies and may have basal lags composed of coarser-grained
sandstone or shell debris and clay clasts. Reactivation surfaces, recognizable as
truncations of underlying sandstone laminae or mud drapes, typically occur within
these beds and indicate amalgamation of separate depositional events. Beds
composed of amalgamated storm units may be up to 1 to 1.5 m (3-5 ft) thick.
Burrowing is largely limited to the overlying clay drapes.
Interpretation: - The low angle parallel and slightly curved lamination and
nature of bounding surfaces with under- and overlying lithologies is consistent
with observations pertaining to hummocky cross-stratification observed in outcrop
(Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Harms et al., 1982; Duke, 1985). Hummocky crossstratification (HCS) is defined by Harms et al. (1982) as a type of medium to large
scale cross-stratified sedimentary structure, with gently dipping internal laminae
and erosional set boundaries. Hydrodynamic conditions necessary for formation of
this distinctive sedimentary structure have been debated (see Duke, 1985) but it
appears that HCS requires combined wave (oscillatory) and unidirectional flow
(Swift et al., 1983; Allen, 1985). These conditions are typical on a storm-

Table 1: Sedimentological and reservoir properties of major lithofacies types in

the Kuparuk A Unit. Reservoir properties are based on unstressed
conventional core plug measurements made in K R U 1E-14 and K R U
1E-30.

Sedimentary
Structures

Lit hofacies

Low angle
lamination
amalgamated,
MCS, massive
bedding
Wave-ripples
and small scale

iummocky
ross-stratified
andstone
laser-bedded
andstone

Sand
Content
(%)

Horizontal Air Vertical Air

Permeability Permeability
(md)
(md)

.en t icu 1arbedded

,andstone /
nudstone
dudstone with
enticular
iltstone /
andstone
treaks
3ioturbated
enticular- or
vavy -bedded

w
I,

Wave-ripples
with
interbedded
mudstone
Wave and
current ripples
isolated by mud
drapes
Lamination,
isolated,
lenticular
current-ripples
Bioturbat ion,
mottled,
floating grain
Cext u res

(YO)

90- 100

average: 129
range: 16-407

average: 24.0
average: 22
range: 0.2-352 range: 19.3-29.7

75-90

average: 28
range: 5.0-230

average: 3.6
average: 19.1
range: 0.2-63 range: 14.7-23.4

50-75

average: 3.2
range: 0.3-43

average: 13.3
average: 0.2
range: 0.1-4.4 range: 12.3-22.1

25-50

average: 1.4
range: 0.02-27

average: 0.1
range: 0.2-2.4

HCS
Vavy-bedded
#andstone/
nudstone

Porosity

average: 13.2
range: 6.4-20.2

average: 1.3
average: 0.04 average: 12.3
range: 0.3-9.7 range: 0.01-0.41 range: 5.1-16.8

< 25

average: 15.2
average: 0.2
average: 4.5
range: 2.5-9.2 range: 0.06-0.8 range: 14.1-17.3

25-75

343

Figure 5:

Kuparuk River Formation - A Unit:

(A)

Lithofacies H.

Parallel-laminated sandstone with minor soft sediment

deformation. Laminae vary from 0.25 - 3 mm in thickness. (Well:
KRU 1H-06, 6655 ft)

(B)

Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone with erosional base (arrow).

Note concentration of clay clasts near base of unit and curvature
of laminae. (Well: KRU 1L-07, 6472.7 ft).

(C)

Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone with convex-up, curved

laminae.
Laminae near the base exhibit both truncating and
conformable relationships. (Well: KRU 1D-08, 6710 ft)

(D)

Small-scale hummocky cross-stratified sandstone with silty

mudstone drapes.
Note multiple truncation surfaces and
relatively low angle curving laminae. (Well: KRU 1F-05, 7179
ft)

Figure 6:

Kuparuk River Formation - A Unit:

Lithofacies F

(A)

Wave-rippled sandstone with common clay flasers and mud drapes

interbedded with hummocky cross-stratif ied sandstone (We1 1 : KRU
1F-05, 7221.5 ft).

(B)

Small-scale hummocky cross-stratified sandstone with thick

mudstone drape.
Note section through escape burrow (arrow)
(Well: KRU 1D-08, 6711.5 ft).

(C)

Small-scale hummocky cross-stratif ied and wave-rippled sandstone

with relatively thick, burrowed mudstone drapes. (Well: KRU 1D08, 6708.6 ft).

(D)

Bidirectional climbing ripple lamination.

Note surface which
truncates the Helminthoida burrowed si 1 ty sandstone (arrow).
(Well: KRU 1F-05, 7242.4 ft).

344

dominated shelf. On the basis of theoretical studies of Harms et al. (1982) and
Allen (1985), water depths on the order of 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) are indicated.
Lithofacies F

Flaser-bedded, wave-rippled and small-scale hummocky cross

stratified sandstone lithofacies

Description: - This lithofacies is characterized by interbedded, individual,
small-scale, hummocky cross-stratif ied sandstone beds (with mudstone drapes) and
wave-rippled, f laser-bedded sandstone beds (Figure 6) Grain size is dominantly
very fine with moderate to good sorting; however, the upper parts of individual
beds may grade into coarse silt. Silt and clay are present in some beds either in
discrete laminae within the sandstone or as upward-fining clay drapes between a few
millimeters to 3 cm thick.

The most common sedimentary structure is wave-ripple lamination characterized by

bundled upbuilding, off-shooting and draping laminae sets, multiple discordant
internal truncation surfaces, and irregular to curved bounding surfaces.
Individual laminae are generally less than 0.5 to lmm thick. Individual beds may
also exhibit uni-directional or bi-directional climbing ripples.
Individual bed thickness of the sandstone ranges from 4 to 20 cm (2-8 in).
Lithofacies F is gradational with Lithofacies H but is distinguished from the
latter by its smaller scale o f sedimentary structure, somewhat smaller average
grain size and poorer sorting, and abundance of mud drapes. Burrow types
characteristic of the Cruziana ichnofacies are present, although beds composed o f
this lithofacies are rarely heavily burrowed or bioturbated.
Interpretation: - The smaller scale sedimentary structures in this lithofacies,
compared with Lithofacies H, indicate a generally lower energy depositional regime.
Within a single upward-coarsening sequence, this lithofacies commonly underlies
Lithofacies H, suggesting deposition in deeper water where wave orbital currents
would be expected to be less. This is because the wave orbital diameter decreases
exponentially with water depth (Allen, 1970). With a smaller oscillatory diameter,
wave orbital velocities decrease significantly; therefore, the scale o f bedform
produced by these flows is much less.
347

Lithofacies W - Wavy-bedded, wave- and current-rippled sandstone lithofacies

Description: - This facies is characterized by interbedded sandstone and graded,
silty mudstone couplets (Figure 7). Grain size ranges from coarse silt to very
fine-grained sand with moderate sorting. Both wave and current ripple-bedding
structures are present in this lithofacies, although wave-rippled forms are more
common. Individual laminae within the ripples range from less than 0.5 to 2mm.
Individual clay and silt laminae commonly occur within ripples. Grading both in
the wave ripple sets and overlying silty mudstone drapes is common.
The sandstone beds in this lithofacies vary from 1 to 5 cm (0.4 to 2 in) thick.
Burrowing is more common in this lithofacies than in Lithofacies H or F. Common
burrow types include Helminthoida, Terebellina, Planolites, and Chondrites. With the
exception of Helminthoida, a1 1 types are characteristic of the Cruziana
ichnofacies. In core, wavy-bedded sandstones generally under1 ie flaser-bedded
sandstones within a given upward-coarsening sequence. Lithofacies W is laterally
and vertically gradational with Lithofacies F. It is distinguished from
Lithofacies F by its lower sandstone to mudstone ratio, thinner sandstone beds,
more intense interbedding of mudstone and sandstone, and greater degree of
burrowing

Interpretation: - This lithofacies is interpreted as being deposited dominantly

by oscillatory and combined flow, and settling from suspension. In this
lithofacies, the greater component of graded mudstone interbeds implies a higher
proportion of deposition from suspension rather than deposition from oscillatory
flow.
Lithofacies L - Lenticular-bedded, current-rippled siltstone/sandstone lithofacies
Description: - This lithofacies is characterized by isolated, lenticular ripples
and ripple trains of coarse silt to lower very fine-grained sand within a mudstone
matrix. Sorting is moderate.
The predominant sedimentary structure is current ripple cross-lamination with less
common wave ripple lamination (Figure 8). Thickness of individual ripples ranges
from 1 to 3 cm (0.4 to 1.5 in). Subtle grading of these rippled beds is commonly

Figure 7:

Kuparuk River Formation - A Unit:

Lithofacies W

Wave-rippled, mud-draped, silty sandstone beds showing very low

angle internal lamination. (Well: KRU 1F-05, 7072.5 ft)
Highly interbedded wave- and current-rippled sandstone with minor
soft sediment deformation. (Well: West Sak 12, 6255.7 ft).
Wave-rippled, silty, very fine-grained sandstones with burrowed
mud drapes. Note discordant internal scours and opposed crosslamination (Well: KRU 2A-02, 6482.5 ft).
Wave-rippled silty sandstone with relatively common Terebellina
and Helrninthoida burrows (arrows) (We1 1 : KRU 10-08, 6681.5 ft).
Figure 8:

Kuparuk River Formation - A Unit:

Lithofacies L

Interbedded, wave-rippled, very silty sandstone and siltstone.

Note common Helrnhthoida burrows at top. (Well: West Sak 9,
5936.5 ft).
Lenticular-bedded, silty sandstone and mudstone couplets. Sharp,
discordant bases and fining upward trends within laminated units
are evident. (Well: KRU 10-08, 6635.8 ft).
Lenticular-bedded wave- and current-rippled sandstone.
This
example shows the gradational nature of these heterolithic units.
(Well: West Sak 9, 5935 ft).
Thinly interbedded, very silty sandstone and burrowed mudstone.
(Well: KRU 1E-30 6987 ft).

349

observed with an increase in silt toward the top of a given ripple. Burrowing is
more common in this lithofacies than in Lithofacies W. H e h n t h o i d a and
Chondrites are both common burrow types.
This lithofacies is gradational with Lithofacies W. It is distinguished from
Lithofacies W by the lower sandstone to mudstone ratio, thinner ripples, more
common current ripples, and more intense interbedding.
Interpretation: - This lithofacies i s interpreted to be a deeper water and lower
energy equivalent o f Lithofacies W. Lithofacies L generally underlies Lithofacies
W. Ripple structures are mainly indicative of unidirectional flow with subordinate
oscillatory flow.
Lithofacies S

- Mudstone with lenticular siltstone/sandstone streaks

Description: - This lithofacies is characterized by a laminated silty mudstone

with relatively rare, isolated, lenticular streaks of rippled siltstone or very
silty sandstone (Figure 9A,B) . These ripples are usually current ripples although
siltier interbeds may show some evidence of up-building typically associated with
wave-formed ripples. Helrninthoida is the only recognizable trace fossil.
Interpretation: - This lithofacies is interpreted as a dominantly suspension
deposit with relatively minor modification by wave and current action. It
underlies and grades laterally into Lithofacies L. It is usually present in the
basal parts of individual Kuparuk A sandstone intervals. This lithofacies is
interpreted to represent the deepest water depositional environment (mid- to outer
shelf).
Lithofacies B

- Bioturbated lenticular- and wav-y-bedded sandstone lithofacies

Description: - This lithofacies is characterized by heavy burrowing to almost

complete bioturbation o f mudstone and si ltstone/sandstone ripples (Figure 9C,D).
Generally, burrowing has not entirely obliterated primary sedimentary structures.
Burrow types i nclude Chondrites, Helminthoida, and Terebellina Rare medi um to
coarse-grained, subangular quartz and chert grains are present in this lithofacies.

352

It is volumetrically small within the A unit, notably occurring at the tops of

upward-coarsening unit A intervals and especially at the contact between the A and
B units.
Interpretation: - The occurrence of bioturbated Lithofacies L overlying an
upward-coarsening sequence is interpreted to represent a minor deepening event
following regression. When sediment supply is substantially reduced as sea-level
rises, burrowing infauna extensively rework the sediment. In addition, winnowing
of fines occurs, resulting in a relatively coarse lag.
Lithofacies associations and sand body geometry

Lithofacies composing Kuparuk unit A intervals occur in predictable vertical

sequences (Figure 10). These vertical sequences vary laterally as a function of
their position within an individual sandstone body. Within a typical upwardcoarsening and upward-cleaning sequence in the central part of a sandstone body,
the following sequence from the base upward is observed: Lithofacies +Lithofacies
L+Lithofacies W+Lithofacies F+Lithofacies H. On the southeast margin of a
sandstone body, Lithofacies H is poorly developed. The upward-coarsening character
of the sequence is less well developed and the overall sequence is more
i nterbedded.
These lateral variations in vertical sequence are evident on gamma ray logs
throughout the field (Figure 11A). They define separate sandstone bodies that have
a lenticular outline and trend in a general northeast to southwest direction
(Figure 11 B) Gamma-ray correlation sections demonstrate that intervals within
the A unit exhibit shingling over one another in a southeasterly direction,
defining the overall direction of progradation. The strongly progradational nature
of these sandstone bodies has been previously noted by Paris (1981) and Masterson
and Pari s (1986)

Depositional model f o r the Kuparuk A unit sandstone bodies

The geometries, stratigraphic relationships, and lithofacies associations suggest

that Kuparuk A sandstone bodies were deposited during a regressive phase with
intermittent minor transgressions. Each of the sandstone intervals exhibits a
shallowing upward motif in core based on textural trends (coarsens and cleans
353

Figure 9:

Kuparuk River Formation - A Unit:

Lithofacies S
(A)

Laminated mudstone discordantly overlain by mudstone with silty

sandstone streaks (arrow at contact), (Well: KRU 1E-14, 6877.2
ft)

(6)

Current-rippled sandy siltstone in mudstone with discontinuous,

lenticular streaks of very fine-grained sandstone (Well: KRU 3F10, 6466.5 ft),

Lithofacies B

(C)

Bioturbated, lenticular-bedded sandstone, A vague bedded pattern

is the only remnant of the original stratification, (Well: West
Sak 9, 5927 ft) ,

(D)

Bioturbated, lenticular-bedded, slightly sandy siltstone and

mudstone, Dominant burrow type i s Helminthoida. (We1 1 : KRU 3F10, 6370.5 ft).

354

KRU 3F-10
KUPARUK RIVER FORMATION "A" UNIT

PERMEABILITY IN MD

GAMMA RAY
API UNITS

0.1
1 10 100
RE
PTH 40 30 20 10
0
POROSITY IN '10

G
1 I

UNIT

R ESISTIVITY
OHMM
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0

.........................

A5
A4

A3

,6400

...........................

A2

A1

1
....................................................................

6500

A ILUVEAC H

....................................................................

LITHOFACIES EXPLANATION

LITHOF FACIES H
LITHOF FACIES F

0LITHOFACIES L
LITHOFACIES

Figure 10: Columnar section through the Kuparuk A unit in KRU 3F-10 showing the
vertical sequences o f lithofacies, grain size distribution,
permeability and porosity trends, gamma-ray and resistivity response.
356

A
N0RTHW EST
2W-9

SOUTHEAST

2W-7

WS-9

1Y-10

22-04

22-06

22-07

1F-02

1F-03

1F-08

1L-06

15M
(50 FEE

>75 PERCENT SANDSTONE

CPF-1 AREA

1 MILE

CPF-2 AREA

Figure 11:

(A)

(B)

Isopach map o f >75% sandstone o f Kuparuk A intervals showing

southeast sandstone displacement o f progressively younger
sandstone bodies. Position o f the correlation section in (A) is
shown on this figure. Shading corresponds to that in I'AI' above.
357

upward) , thickness trends (thickens upward) , and the vertical succession of

sedimentary structures.
At the base of each sandstone body current rippling is the dominant sedimentary
structure. Wave-formed structures increase upward both in terms of relative
occurrence and scale of bedding. The upward-coarsening sandstone body is capped by
a coarse lag or bioturbated mudstone interval. This pattern is repeated until
cessation of Kuparuk A unit progradation, marked by a regionally extensive
bioturbated, silty mudstone and associated lag.
The large scale stratigraphic relationships within the A unit indicate sediment bypassing from relatively shallow water to deeper water shelf settings. On the basis
o f the direction of shingling, the basin deepened to the southeast. Storms appear
to be responsible for the internal architectures and external geometries of
sandstone bodies making up the A unit. This is supported by physical and
biological structures within the core, the vertical succession of lithofacies, and
sand body geometry. Although the Kuparuk A unit comprises a major regressive
package, shoreface, channel fill, and deltaic units are entirely absent from the
Kuparuk field area. Thus, Kuparuk A sandstone bodies appear to be detached from
the shoreface. Similar sequences are observed in the Cardium and Viking Formation
of western Canada (Wright and Walker, 1981; Reinson, 1984).
Evidence o f tectonic influence in the form of growth faults cannot be invoked as a
control for the development of these shoreface-detached sandstone bodies. The
model proposed for the localization o f Kuparuk A unit regressive sandstone bodies
comprises storm-driven, along-shelf sediment transport over an inherited
topography. The importance of inherited topography in localizing shelf sandstone
deposits is discussed by Slatt (1984).
It has long been recognized that in storm-dominated shelf settings, the predominant
sediment transport direction is alongshore to obliquely offshore (Swift, 1985).
Where strong alongshore currents exist, shelf sandstone units may not be in
physical continuity with their coeval deltaic sources. Sediment will be advected
along shelf, bypassing much of it, until a zone of flow expansion or deceleration
is reached. Typically, this area is where the shelf either widens or deepens in a
down-current direction.
358

As the shelf configuration at the time of Kuparuk A unit deposition is unknown, the
hypothesis o f inherited topography controlling the site of sand deposition remains

tentative. However, the clinoform topography inferred from correlation sections in

the Kuparuk A unit indicates that the thickest sand deposition in succeeding cycles
occurred just basinward of the preceding unit where isopach thickness is greatest.
I t is inferred that this area would have had the maximum slope on the clinoform
surface and, therefore, would have been the zone of maximum flow deceleration.
Hence, sand would have preferentially accumulated in these areas, giving rise to a
sheet-like sandstone body with an elliptical outline and subparallel orientation to
shoreline (Figure 12).
Reservoir properties o f Kuparuk A sandstone bodies

Permeabi 1 i ty and porosity di stribut ions

Statistical analysis of conventional core plug data demonstrates the profound
influence of lithofacies on permeability and porosity distribution within the
Kuparuk A unit. The crossplot of log of permeability and porosity coded by
lithofacies for a representative well, KRU 3F-10, (Figure 13A) shows the
improvement of permeabi 1 ity and porosity with increasing energy o f deposition that
is reflected by the different lithofacies. Clearly, Lithofacies H and F comprise
the best quality reservoir rocks in terms of permeability and porosity. Similar
results are obtained from analyses of whole core. Figure 138 shows a crossplot o f
log of permeability and porosity from whole core coded by lithofacies for KRU lQ-9
and 2U-16. Lithofacies H and F are the best quality reservoir rocks in terms of
permeability and porosity.
For all lithofacies the fundamental control on horizontal permeability (and
porosity) is grain size and sorting. Lithofacies H contains the best sorted and
largest grain sizes and so has the highest percentage of large pore throats and
greatest permeability. Lithofacies F is generally more poorly sorted and is
characterized by slightly smaller grain sizes. Heterolithic facies W and L contain
substantial clay and fine silt both within rippled sandstone beds and surrounding
them. Consequently, pore throat diameters in these lithofacies are substantially
reduced.
359

MUD
kc^

Figure 12:

PARACONFORMITY

Depositional model o f Kuparuk A unit, showing the sheet-like,

lenticular nature o f individual sandstone bodies, progradational
character, inferred sediment transport d i r e c t i o n , and
paraconformable relationship with the Miluveach Shale below.

360

15

10

20

25

30

35

POR 0 SITY (%)

1000

KRU lQ-9,2U-16

100:

10:

0
FACIES H

A FACIES F

1:

0FACIES W
0FACIES L

0.1:

0.01

FACIES S
FACIES B

Figure 13:

(B)

Cross-plot of unstressed, horizontal air permeabi 1 ity and

porosity data from whole core from the Kuparuk A unit in KRU
lQ-9 and 2U-16.
361

Vertical and horizontal permeability obtained on whole core for KRU lQ-9 and 2U-16
shows anisotropy which is lithofacies dependent (Figure 14). In the case of
Lithofacies H, lower vertical permeabilities at the whole core scale are due to
grain size differences in laminae and cross-laminae which impede vertical
permeability, In the case of Lithofacies F, vertical permeability is greatly
impeded by thin mudstone drapes separating individual ripples, The more
heterolithic lithofacies W and L have even lower vertical permeabilities as a
function of the greater intercalation of sandstone/siltstone and mudstone
components. At the whole core scale, the vertical to horizontal permeability ratio
is a function both of grain size distribution and sedimentary structures,
Lateral continuity o f reservoir sandstone units

Based on correlation studies in the Kuparuk field itself, and outcrop studies of
Cretaceous shelf deposits analagous to the Kuparuk, it appears that lateral
continuity of sandstone beds is a function of bed thickness. A hierarchy of
sandstone bed thickness and estimated lateral extent for sandstone units in each
lithofacies is presented in Table 2. Detailed log correlations of Kuparuk unit A
sandstone intervals indicate that amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified sandstone
packages greater than about 60 cm (2 ft) thick are stratigraphically continuous
over distances of 3000 to 6000 m (10,000 to 20,000 ft). However, individual
sandstone beds within the amalgamated packages may exhibit significant
discontinuities, Units of this thickness probably represent the lower confidence
limit of mapping at the reservoir scale from wireline logs.
Although the depositional processes, namely storms, are shelf-wide, their
depositional products are of relatively limited extent. In the Kuparuk
depositional setting, only amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified sandstone packages
maintain good reservoir quality for significant lateral distances.
Lateral continuity o f vertical permeability barriers

Within Kuparuk unit A sandstone bodies, there are two types of vertical
permeabi 1i ty barriers: (1) ankeri te-cemented sandstone beds and (2) mudstone-rich
lithofacies layers and beds. Ankerite-cemented zones may vary in thickness from
over 3 m to less than 0.3 m (10 to less than 1 ft) thick, On wireline log
362

Table 2: Thickness ranges and lateral extent estimates of Kuparuk

A Unit lithofacies. Estimates on lateral extents are

based upon wireline log, correlations, and outcrop studies

of analogous shelf deposits.

I
~

Amalgamated packages of large scale

IHCS
F

Thickness of
Estimated Lateral
Sandstone Beds
Extent
centimeters (inches)
meters (feet)

Sand ston e
Characteristics

Lithofacies

3,000

15-127

300-3,000
(1,000-10,000)

5-20

Stacked, wave-rippled
beds with drapes,
small scale HCS

(2-8)

30-300
( 100- 1,000)

beds of wave ripples,

with mud drapes

Isolated, wave and

current ripples,
intercalated with
mudstone

Isolated lenticular
streaks and starved
current ripples
Bioturbated and
homogenized
lithofacies L and W

I
I

[7 FACIES H
100:

(10,000 + )

(6-50)

3-30
(1 0-100)

0.3-3
(1-10)
~~~

no primary structure

variable

KRU 1Q-9,2U-16
0

A FACIES F
0FACIES W
0FACIES L

10:

FACIES S
FACIES B

* l *0.01
O

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

HORIZ. PERM (MD)

Figure 14:

Cross-plot of unstressed vertical air permeabi 1 ity and horizontal

air permeability data from whole core from the Kuparuk A unit in KRU
1Q-9 and 2U-16.

363

correlation sections, they appear to occur at the same stratigraphic horizon within
a given interval and so are generally considered to be laterally continuous over
their extent of occurrence. Physical extents of ankerite-cemented zones are
generally greater than 300 meters (1000 feet) in any given direction.
Mudstone-rich lithofacies layers and beds probably exert the most influence on
vertical permeability at the interwell scale and are, perhaps, the most difficult
to evaluate in terms of their lateral continuity from core and wireline logs.
Shale breaks in the Kuparuk A unit fall into four major classes based on thickness
and predicted lateral extent:
(1)

First-order shale barriers (Figure 15A): These barriers are packages of

lenticular-bedded siltstone/mudstone (Lithofacies L) , shale with lenticular
streaks (Lithofacies S ) , and/or bioturbated mudstone (Lithofacies 8) about
1.5 to 15 m (5 to 50 ft) thick, which separate entire sandstone bodies.
These mudstones far exceed the lateral continuities of the sandstone bodies
they separate. They are readily mappable in the subsurface and, thus,
constitute deterministic shale beds in the sense of Haldorsen and Lake
(1984)

(2)

Second-order shale barriers (Figure 158): These are packages of lenticularbedded siltstone/mudstone (Lithofacies L) , shale with lenticular streaks
(Lithofacies S ) , and/or bioturbated mudstone (Lithofacies B) about 5 cm to
1.5 m ( 2 in to 5 ft) thick that separate packages of flaser-bedded or
hummocky cross-stratified sandstone beds. These units have lateral
continuities on the order of 300 to 3000 meters (1000 to 10,000 ft) and may
exceed the lateral continuities of the sandstone beds themselves. In terms
of mappability, they fall within a gray area. The lower limit of mapping is
approximately 60 cm ( 2 ft) using well logs. Given their great lateral
continuity, it is probably better to treat this class of vertical
permeability barrier as deterministic.

(3)

Third-order shale barriers (Figure 15C): These are individual mudstone drapes
and thin beds of Lithofacies S or Lithofacies L that are about 0.5 cm to 5 cm
(0.5 to about 2 in) thick associated with isolated ripple cross-laminated or
thin hummocky cross-stratified beds. In this case, storm beds are stacked
upon one another rather than scoured down into one another.
364

Ti=

ZL

--

3000MO
O
,IO
(,F
T
)

M(

M (1000FT)1

..... SAND
Figure 15:

EMUD DRAPE

MUDSTONE / SILTSTONE

R e l a t i v e thicknesses and l a t e r a l extents o f shale breaks separating

sandstone beds and bodies i n the Kuparuk A u n i t .

365

These barriers may be expected to have lateral continuities on the order o f

30 to 300 m (100 to 1000 ft). In some cases, they may exceed the lateral
continuity of the sandstone bed itself. Given their thickness, they cannot
be correlated on wireline logs, Therefore, they must be modelled as
stochastic rather than deterministic shales (Haldorsen and Chang, 1986).
(4)

Fourth-order shale barriers (Figure 15D): These barriers are individual

mudstone drapes that are about a few millimeters to 5 cm (fraction of an inch
to 2 in) thick associated with amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified
(Lithofacies H) beds. These mudstone drapes have probable lateral
continuities up to about 30 m (100 ft) in any given direction. Their lateral
continuity is generally much less than that of the amalgamated hummocky
cross-stratifed sandstone beds in which they occur. However, wherever these
mudstone drapes are present, they are barriers to vertical permeability,
Given the lack of data on lateral extent of these beds in outcrop and
subsurface, a deterministic model of fourth-order shale barriers is not
possible and a stochastic approach to modelling their influence on fluid flow
is considered necessary,

Thus, within the Kuparuk A unit, there exists an inverse relationship between the
thickness of sandstone beds and thickness o f shale and their respective lateral
continuities, Relatively thick, amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified beds far
exceed the lateral continuity of thin mud drapes associated with them, Conversely,
relatively thick shale breaks far exceed the lateral continuity of sandstone beds
or packages of beds associated with them.
KUPARUK

UNIT

Lithofacies description and interpretation

The upper member of the Kuparuk River Formation in the Kuparuk field area is
comprised of bioturbated, glauconitic sandstones and si 1 tstones unconformably
overlying the lower member, In most cored wells, all primary sedimentary
structures have been obliterated by burrowing, Therefore, grain size trends,
glauconite content, and internal contacts are the only data from which a reliable
interpretation can be based. The lithofacies scheme used in this part of the paper
is co-incident with the current in-house stratigraphic subdivisions (i ,e.
366

intervals) of the C unit. These interval designations are used with the
lithofacies subdivisions,
Pebbly qlauconitic sandstone lithofacies - Interval C - 1
Description: - This interval is an upward-fining, very glauconitic sandstone
which appears structureless in core. The basal contact with the underlying lower
member of the Kuparuk ( X U ) is unconformable. Biogenic structures, which are
usually vertical to subvertical, extend into the lower member at the contact and
are filled with glauconitic sandstone (Figure 16). The basal 1 5 to 30 cm (0.5 to 1
ft) usually contain a lag o f pebble- to cobble-sized, sub-rounded to rounded
sedimentary rock fragments. The dominant composition o f these coarse-grained
particles is non-porous chert with subordinate micro-porous chert and carbonate,
The sand-size part of this lithofacies is primarily sub-rounded to angular quartz
and chert, with glauconite content up to approximately 30% (by visual estimate),
and with minor feldspar and lithic fragments. This unit fines upward from rnediurnto coarse-grained sandstone to silty, very fine-grained sandstone. A decrease in
glauconite content accompanies this decrease in grain size.
Interpretation: - The presence of glauconite, pebble lags of eroded sedimentary
rocks, medium- to coarse-grained nature, and unconformable basal contact are
consistent with the basal part of a marine transgressive deposit. Clastic input
during this transgression was slight because source areas were gradually drowned
with contemporaneous entrapment of detrital material close to these source regions.
The composition o f the pebbles suggests that erosional truncation of Paleozoic and
younger units in the source terrains had occurred earlier than, or coeval with,
deposition of the basal C-1 sandstone interval. The Colville High, t o the west,
and the Prudhoe High, to the east, were probable source areas (Eggert, 1987;
Masterson and Paris, 1987), in addition to probable local source areas within the
lower Kuparuk member.
The environmentally sensitive
marine shelf setting for this
lithofacies indicates gradual
depositional energy. Because

mineral glauconite (Odin and Matter, 1981) suggests a

lithofacies. The upward-fining motif of this
deepening with a corresponding decrease in
of the absence o f primary sedimentary structures due
367

Figure 17: Kuparuk River Formation - C Unit

Figure 16:

(A)

C-2 interval:
Bioturbated, silty, fine-grained sandstones
overlying bioturbated siltstone. The dominant trace fossil i s
Chondrites (arrow). (We1 1: KRU 1H-06, 6470 ft) .

(B)

C-3 interval : Bi oturbated, very f ine- to fi ne-grai ned sandstone

with remnant clay drapes. (Well: KRU 1H-06, 6391 ft).

Kuparuk River Formation

(A)

C Unit ( C - 1 interval)

Coarse-grained, glauconitic sandstone with chert pebbles at

base where core plug has been taken. Note coarse sand-filled
burrows (arrow) (We1 1 : KRU 2A-02, 6333 ft)

(B)

Glauconitic, pebbly sandstone overlying a lenticular-bedded

sandstone.
Note boring into lenticular-bedded sandstone
(arrow). (Well: KRU 22-04, 6545 ft).

(C)

Glauconitic sandstone overlying a laminated siltstone. Note

abundant borings and parallel laminae in the siltstone
(arrow).
These laminae can be traced across t h e core
indicating that these features are part o f the substrate and
are not reworked clasts. (Well: West Sak 23, 6004 ft).

(0)

Coarse-grained, glauconitic sandstone clasts.

appearance is typical o f this interval. (Well:
6266.8 ft),

A massive
KRU 2E-10,

to extensive bioturbation, a primary transport and depositional mechanism is not

clear. There is, at present, insufficient evidence to favor a tidal, storm, or
mixed depositional regime.
Bioturbated, sandy siltstone lithofacies - Interval C-2
Description: - This lithofacies is characterized by massive, bioturbated
sandstone that grades upward into a muddy siltstone. Trace fossil forms are
dominated by Chondrites (Figure 17 A) . Detrital grains are dominantly very finegrained quartz and fine- to medium-grained glauconite (up to about 10% by visual
estimate).
This lithofacies, where present, overlies interval C-1 conformably, although in
some wells a local disconformity may be present. Up-section, this lithofacies is
interbedded with, and overlain by, a glauconitic fine-grained sandstone, although a
disconformable contact between these two units is recorded in at least one well.
Interpretation: - The fine-grained character of this lithofacies suggests, within
the context of the C-1 sandstone and the interbedded, overlying C-3 interval, that
water depths were significantly increased during deposition of this lithofacies.
Only very fine-grained sand, silt, and clay were deposited during this period of
time. It is hypothesized that the C-2 interval represents a time of maximum
sediment starvation which resulted in local disconformable relationships with the
underlying glauconitic lag sandstone. An increasing sand content up-section
represents a relative shallowing. The C-2 appears to be comprised of fines
winnowed from shallower water.
Bioturbated qlauconitic sandstone lithofacies - Interval C-3
Description: - T h i s lithofacies is characterized by very fine- to fine-grained
(rarely medium) glauconitic sandstone that has been thoroughly bioturbated (Figure
17B).
Recognizable trace fossi 1s include Chondrites and Teichichnus. Carbonized
wood fragments are also present in this interval.

370

This lithofacies is composed of subangular quartz with rare feldspar. Glauconite

may be present in amounts up to 20% by visual estimate. Glauconite content
increases with increasing grain size.
The lower contact of this lithofacies with the C-2 interval is usually gradational.
However, the upper contact with the overlying siderite-cemented lithofacies of the
C - 4 interval (see below) is marked by an abrupt grain size increase and a pebble
lag in some cores.
Interpretation: - The C-3 bioturbated, glauconitic, sandstone lithofacies is
interpreted as the shallow water equivalent of the upper part of the C-2 interval.
Well log and core data indicate that the C-2/C-3 sequence i s upward-coarsening and
has a superficially regressive appearance. However, the presence of significiant
amounts of glauconite argues for a relatively slow sediment input.
Subsequent to C - 3 deposition, a sea-level fall occurred, resulting in an
unconformity that truncates all or part of the C-2/C-3 interval in the Kuparuk
field. This unconformity at the top of C-3 is subtle on well logs. However, in
most cores it is readily recognizable. In deeper water deposits t o the northeast
of the Kuparuk field, a conformable contact may be present.
Massive qlauconitic sandstone lithofacies - Interval C-4
Description: - This lithofacies i s characterized by medium- to very coarsegrained, massive, partly or completely siderite-cemented, glauconitic sandstone
(Figure 18). With the exception of rare high angle cross-stratification, all
primary sedimentary structures have been obliterated by bioturbation.
Angular to sub-rounded, medium- to very coarse-grained quartz and medium- to
coarse-grained glauconite form subequal detrital constituents by visual estimate.
Lithic fragments form a minor constituent. In most cases, siderite cement has
resulted in the occlusion of much primary porosity. However, local dissolution has
produced secondary porosity that renders this sandstone quite friable (Eggert,
1987). In addition to the porosity-occluding siderite cement, an earlier phase o f
siderite nodule formation has occurred locally. Subvertical fractures, most of
371

Figure 19: Kuparuk River Formation - D Unit

(A)

Layer of chert granules (arrow) in bioturbated, sandy siltstone.

(Well: KRU 1F-05, 7026.3 ft).

(6)

Pebbly, sandy siltstone which is highly burrowed.

1A-02, 6288 ft) .

(Well:

KRU

Figure 18: Kuparuk River Formation (C-4 interval)

Siderite-cemented, glauconitic sandstone exhibiting fracturing.
The large fracture is natural, whereas the small fracture passing
through the core p lug location is coring-induced. (Well: KRU
1H-06, 6375 ft).
Massive, coarse-grained, glauconitic sandstone with vertical
Skolithos burrows (arrows) Well: KRU 1H-06, 6376 ft)

Siderite-cemented, glauconitic sandstone with traces o f high

angle, clay-draped cross-bedding (arrow) . (We1 1:
KRU 1E-14,
6675 ft).
Massive, glauconitic sandstone, pattly siderite-cemented.
KRU 1H-06, 6376.5 ft).

(Well:

which are uncemented, are relatively common in this interval, especially in beds
less than 1.5 m (5 ft).
The basal contact with the underlying units is marked by an abrupt grain size
increase often accompanied by a pebble lag. In one cored well, a 3 cm (1 in) thick
layer of chert pebbles marks an unconformable contact between the C-4 unit and the
underlying C-1 unit. The intermediate C-2/C-3 intervals are absent in this well.
Interpretation: - The C-4 interval was deposited during the transgression
following the sea-level fall which cut the basal unconformity. The generally
coarse-grained texture and the relatively high glauconite content suggest reworking
from the underlying upper member units with minor local sourcing. The absence of
significant amounts of silt suggest extreme winnowing on a relatively shallow
shelf. The rare high angle cross-stratification is an indication o f the dominance
of strong unidirectional currents in this setting. However, it is uncertain if
such flows were due to tides, storms, o r intruding oceanic currents.
Pebbly siltstone lithofacies - Unit D
Description: - This lithofacies is characterized by mottled, glauconitic
siltstone containing discrete layers of chert pebbles (Figure 19 A, B). The
mottling is probably due to intense bioturbation. Chert pebbles are most common at
the base of the D unit. Siderite nodules having a septarian character are also
present

Interpretation: - The pebbly siltstone lithofacies is interpreted to have been

deposited during continued transgression. This lithofacies may be the deeper water
equivalent of the C-4 interval and possibly the C-3 interval to the northeast of
the Kuparuk field. In the east-central Kuparuk field, a local disconformable
contact with the underlying C-4 interval is evident. The abundance of rounded
chert pebbles and glauconite at the base of the siltstone lithofacies suggests that
this was a time of maximum sediment starvation.
Depositional model for the Kuparuk C u n i t

previously mentioned, the Kuparuk C unit was deposited during a major

transgressive event following a major erosional episode. The vertical sequence of

As

374

lithofacies and stratigraphic intervals is shown in Figure 20 and a cross section

of stratigraphic intervals i s shown in Figure 21. Faulting contemporaneous with
deposition of the C interval is indicated by significant thickening of the interval
across many faults (predominantly striking NW-SE) in the field area, However, the
thinning of the C-1 interval in a southwesterly direction is probably related to
gradual transgressive onlap with progressive reduction in sediment supply.
With continued transgression and increasing water depths, the amount of reworking
o f the basal C - 1 transgressive sandstone decreased, resulting in an upward-fining
sequence, At maximum water depth, perhaps as deep as outer shelf, suspension
rather than traction deposition became dominant (C-2 interval). The southwestern
extent of this deposition is unknown as later erosion has removed the sedimentary
record, A post-transgressive shallowing resulted in a gradual increase in coarser
clastic deposition (C-3 interval). An increase in glauconite content with
increasing grain size suggests that there was no significant increase in clastic
input during this shallowing phase. The C-2/C-3 interval i s absent in the westcentral Kuparuk field. The absence over most of this area is probably due to a
combination of non-deposition and erosion.
The continued shallowing and later transgression had the effect of cutting a
submarine unconformity in much of the field area. This unconformity occurs at the
base of the C-4 interval. The contact between the C-4 interval and underlying
units may be conformable to the northeast of the Kuparuk field where deeper water
deposition prevailed.
Rising sea-level then resulted in reworking and some continued erosion of the
underlying C intervals. In the western part of the Kuparuk field, the C-4 interval
rests unconformably on the lower Kuparuk member. The time gap represented by the
unconformity at the base of the C-4 unit increases in a westerly and southwesterly
direction.
The C-4 interval shows a significant increase in average grain size and glauconite

content (up to 50%) compared with either C-3 or C-1, The increase in glauconite in

375

KRU 1H-06
KUPARUK RIVER FORMATION Cn UNIT
PERMEABILITY IN MD

GAMMA RAY
API UNITS

GRAlN LITHO- CORE

SIZE FACIES DEPTH

30

0.1
40

30

10

20

UNIT

100

10

POROSITY IN

0.1

o/

R ESlSTlVlTY
OHMM
1.0
10

6400
-

6380

..................

6400

.............................

c4

...........................

6420

6440

3r

3>

6460

2r
c

6480

d
..................

Ic1

6500

LITHOFACIES EXPLANATION
MASSIVE GLAUCONITIC SANDSTONE

~BIOTURBATEDFINE SANDSTONE

mBlOTURBATED PEBBLY GLAUCONITIC SANDSTONE

SIDERITE CEMENT

BIOTURBATED SILTSTONE

Figure 20: Columnar section through the Kuparuk C unit in KRU 1H-06 showing the
vertical sequence o f intervals, lithofacies, grain size distribution,
permeability and porosity trends, and gamma-ray and resistivity
response. The C-1 through C-4 designations are intervals within the C
unit.

SOUTHWEST
IL-06

N0RTHEAST
IE-04

IE-24

IE-21

I E-20

ID-01

IC-02

DATUM

- 6500

-D
-c 4
-c 3
-c 2
.6500

- 6500

U
U

-c1

-LCU

'----I,
-

+II

I'

L-J

F i g u r e 21:

Southwest t o northeast w i r e l i n e l o g c o r r e l a t i o n s e c t i o n through t h e

Kuparuk C u n i t showing eastward t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e C-4 saGdstone
interval

this unit is consistent with deposition during transgression when sediment supply
to the shelf was limited.
An accurate assessment o f the depositional environment is difficult due to the near
absence of sedimentary structures. Mid-shelf water depths can be estimated by
analogy with similar types of sandstone bodies comprising the Shannon Sandstone of
Wyoming (Ti1 lman and Martinsen, 1984).
The C-4 unit is overlain by a siltstone lithofacies, the D unit. Chert pebble
horizons near the base o f the D unit may indicate surfaces of sediment starvation.
The succession of fine-grained deposition argues for continued transgression.
Reservoir properties o f Kuparuk C sandstone bodies

Permeability and porosity distribution

Because of bioturbation and especially the degree of diagenetic alteration o f
sandstones comprising the IC' unit, permeability and porosity do not show the
strong correlation to sedimentological lithofacies that they do in the A unit.
Rather, in the C unit there are two major controls on permeability and porosity:
(1) grain size distribution; and (2) siderite cementation and subsequent
dissolution.
By far, diagenetic effects appear to be the more important o f the two. For
example, a crossplot of conventional core plug air permeability and porosity coded
by lithofacies for KRU 1E-14 shows a poor correlation between lithofacies and
permeability and porosity (Figure 22A). The C-4 interval, for instance, has very
good porosities and permeabilities where only partially sideritized and poor
porosities and permeabilities where completely sideritized. This is further
illustrated by another crossplot of permeability and porosity from KRU 3F-10 in
which conventional core plugs are coded by whether they are completely sideritized,
partially sideritized, or un-sideritized (Figure 22 B ) . In general, there exists a
very good correlation between permeability and porosity and degree of
sideritization.
378

0
0.
-

O O O

10

15

20

25

30

00

0.0

0c-1
0c-3
0c-4

35

POROSITY (%)

1000

KRU 3F-10

100:

10:

0.1-

PARTIALLY SID ERlTlZED

0SIDERlTlZED

0
0.0

UNSIDERlTlZED

V I \

E3
Figure 22:

(A)

Cross-plot o f unstressed horizontal air permeability and porosity

data from conventional core plug from the Kuparuk C unit in KRU
1E-14.

Cross-plot o f horizontal air permeabi 1 i ty and porosity data from

conventional core plugs from the Kuparuk C unit in KRU 3F-10.
Symbols show various states o f cementation evident in core plugs.

In contrast to sandstone beds in the Kuparuk A unit where a strongly preferred

horizontal permeability is evident, the relationship between vertical and

horizontal permeability in the C unit appears to be isotropic. For example,
conventional core plug vertical and horizontal permeabilities from KRU 1E-14 show a
major trend which is strongly isotropic (Figure 23A). Whole core vertical and
horizontal permeabilities from KRU 19-9 show a major trend that suggests a weakly
preferred horizontal permeability (Figure 238) .
Bioturbation is largely responsible for the near isotropic nature o f permeability
at the core scale in the C unit. The homogenizing of sediment by burrowing
organisms obliterates sedimentary structures or local permeability barriers which
impart a directional component to matrix permeability.
Lateral continuity o f reservoir sandstone units

Well log correlations combined with core descriptions have shown that the major
controls o f lateral continuity of sandstones with reservoir potential are
topography on the Lower Cretaceous unconformity and the erosional truncation at the
base o f the C-4 interval. Syndepositional faulting created topographic lows in
which the thickest pebbly sandstones of the C - 1 interval are present (Masterson and
Paris, 1987) These grabens trend northwest--southeast i n the east-central Kuparuk
area. Similar thick deposits o f C - 1 sandstone are expected in topographic lows in
the northern Kuparuk area.
Erosion prior to deposition o f the C-4 sandstone occurred in the central, western
and southwestern Kuparuk areas. Some, or all, o f the earlier deposited C-1, C-2,
and C-3 intervals were removed, On this truncation suface, the C-4 glauconitic
sandstone interval was deposited. This unit is widespread throughout the field
area. Thickness is, in part, controlled by syndepositional faulting. However,
depositional relief, that is, a ridge morphology, on this transgressive unit may
also be responsible for variability in C-4 sandstone thickness.
Lateral continuity o f vertical permeability barriers

in the A sandstone, cemented zones and shale breaks are vertical permeability
barriers. However, unlike A sandstone bodies, shales breaks are much less abundant
As

380

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

HORIZ. PERM (MD)

KRU 1Q-9

0c-4

&io

l o1/

O*l1

HORIZ. PERM (MD)

Figure 23:

Cross-plot o f unstressed, vertical air permeability and

horizontal air permeability data from conventional core plugs
from the Kuparuk C unit in KRU 1E-14.
Cross-plot of unstressed, vertical air permeability and
horizontal air permeability data from whole core from the Kuparuk
C unit in KRU lQ-09.

and of less significance in affecting reservoir performance in the C unit, This is

due to two reasons. First, the winnowed and reworked origin of sandstone deposits
characteristic of much of the C unit is not conducive to the formation of laterally
continuous shale breaks. Second, one of the effects of bioturbation is the
vertical homogenization of sediment, which generally obliterates discrete shale
intercalations or laminae.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT OF SHELF SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS

Although both the Kuparuk A and C sandstones were deposited on a physiographic

marine shelf, they represent very different types of sandstone bodies as a function
of their position within the regressive/transgressive sedimentary sequence. As has
been demonstrated, these differences control the reservoir properties of each type
of sandstone body and exert an impact on how they may be expected to perform under
production.
Kuparuk A-type regressive sandstone reservoirs

A number of sedimentary and stratigraphic features distinguish Kuparuk A-type

regressive sandstone bodies from transgressive shelf sandstone and from other
reservoirs (Table 3 ) . Kuparuk A-type reservoirs are characterized by grain sizes
ranging from coarse silt to fine-grained sand and moderate to good sorting. The
highest permeability and porosity occur at the uppermost portions of these
sandstone bodies within amalgamated beds of hummocky cross-stratified sandstone.
The presence and abundance of shale breaks imparts, along with sedimentary
structure and carbonate-cemented zones, a strong permeability anisotropy with
minimal vertical permeability and maximum horizontal permeability,
Maximum primary productivity may be expected from amalgamated hummocky crossstratified and flaser-bedded packages with much lower productivity from wavy-bedded
packages. However, waterflooding and enhanced oil recovery techniques are probably
confined to the amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified packages at economically
viable well spacings. Given the less permeable, less laterally continuous, and
more interbedded nature of flaser- and wavy-bedded packages, it is highly unlikely
that these facies will be swept in a waterflood.

Table 3:

Summary of geological properties of the Kuparuk A and

C reservoir sandstone units.

Characteristic
Deposition a 1 setting

Kuparuk A

IProgradational shelf

Kuparuk C
Transgressive shelf

Geometry

Shingled, sheet-like with

elliptical outline

Irregular,blanket-like

Vertical Sequence

Upward-coarsening

Upward-coarsening and
upward-fining

Bounding surfaces

Disconformable base
biologically reworked top

Erosional base gradational /

erosional top

Bedding structures

Dominance by wavegenerated structures; wave

ripples and HCS

Completely bioturbated,
possible cross-bedding

Grain size and sorting

Coarse silt to fine-grained

sand; moderately to wellsorted

very fine-grained sand to

pebbles; poorly to moderately
sorted

~~

~~~~~

Mineralogy of sandstone
Reservoir facies

IQuartzose

Quartzose glauconitic

HCS and flaser-bedded

sandstone

383

B iot urbated sandstone

The highly interbedded and thin-bedded nature of these sandstone bodies renders
them highly susceptible to isolation by faulting, Even faults with throws of about
3 m (10 ft) can seriously disrupt the lateral continuity of otherwise floodable
intervals. Faulting is always a concern in any area under waterflood or other
enhanced oil recovery techniques. However, in the case of Kuparuk A-type
regressive sandstone bodies, faulting i s a critical issue in determining the choice
of flood pattern, well spacing, and location of patterns w thin the field,
The stratigraphic distribution of individual sandstone bod es also influences the
vertical distribution of reservoir properties in a single well bore or pad, The
shingled arrangement of sandstone bodies is a characteristic feature of this type
of sandstone unit. This shingled pattern ensures that in any given well bore, no
two sandstone bodies will be intersected at their maximum development of reservoirquality sandstone. Thus, heterogeneities exist not only within sandstone bodies
but also among sandstone bodies. In regressive sandstone bodies showing a strongly
progradational character, stacking o f uniformly highly porous and permeable
sandstone packages is not common.
Given the tendency of core service companies to selectively take core plugs in
better quality reservoir sandstones, tables of permeability and porosity data by
depth should never be used without reference to the geology of the core, This is
true for all reservoirs, but especially in interbedded, vertically heterogeneous
reservoirs like that of the Kuparuk A unit, In this case, core plugs taken at one
foot may not be, without additional geological input, representative of the range
of permeabilities and porosities visually estimated in the core.
Kuparuk C-type transgressive sandstone reservoirs
In marked contrast t o regressive shelf sandstone reservoirs, transgressive shelf
sandstone reservoirs of the Kuparuk C-type are characterized by pebbly- t o finegrained sandstone, poorly sorted textures, bioturbation, presence of glauconite,
upward-fining sequences, and deposition over major erosional unconformities. There
i s a large diagenetic overprint on the Kuparuk C unit, so that a direct comparison
between depositionally-caused reservoir properties between the Kuparuk A and C
units i s difficult. However, lateral continuities differ greatly as a function of
depositional process, Within the Kuparuk C unit, the key to determining lateral
384

continuity of porous zones is the recognition of major unconformable surfaces in

core and on logs.
Shale breaks and sedimentary structures are less important in controlling reservoir
performance in Kuparuk C-type transgressive sandstone bodies. Permeability
anisotropy, at least at the core scale, is not as critical as in regressive
sandstones. Rather, diagenetic effects such as siderite-cementation and subsequent
dissolution are more important in controlling vertical permeability.
CONCLUSIONS

The upper and lower members of the Kuparuk River Formation in the Kuparuk
field area are elements of unrelated shelf depositional systems. They are
separated by a major erosional unconformity. The lower part of the lower
member (A unit) comprises cyclic upward-shallowing units composed of
sandstones deposited on a storm-dominated shelf. The upper part of the lower
member (B unit) comprises siltstones and mudstones deposited during relative
sea-level high stand. In contrast, the upper glauconitic member (C unit) has
a transgressive character and consists dominantly o f bioturbated sandstone
which was most likely deposited in a marine shelf setting.
Reservoir-quality sandstones are found in both the A and C units. In the A
unit, reservoir properties are lithofacies controlled. The best reservoir
properties occur in amalgamated hummocky cross-stratified beds. This
lithofacies comprises the most laterally extensive sandstone beds o r
packages. Lateral continuity of these amalgamated units, is expected to be
greater than 3000 m (10,000) ft.
3)

Reservoir properties in the C interval are controlled mostly by siderite

diagenesis. Siderite cementation and dissolution control primary porosity
occlusion and secondary porosity formation, respectively. Grain size
distribution is also important since the highest permeabilities and
porosities occur in the coarsest-grained sandstones not cemented by siderite.
Primary sedimentary structures are not present due to bioturbation and, thus,
exert no influence in directional permeability. Fracturing observed in cores
provides enhanced permeability.
385

4)

The recognition o f depositional and diagenetic controls on permeability and

porosity is an important factor in appropriate reservoir management and
prediction of reservoir performance.

5)

The recognition o f geologically significant surfaces in cores and their

correlation on logs is an important step in correctly delineating the
stratigraphic sequences and the reservoir-quality sandstones which occur
within them.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the management o f ARCO Alaska, Inc., BP Alaska Exploration, Inc., Standard
Alaska Production Co., and Unocal for permission to publish this paper. In
particular, we wish to thank 3 . D. Fortier and D, M. Gerwin o f ARCO Alaska, Inc.,
for their efforts in securing release o f the data included in this paper. C. D.
Atkinson, 3 . D. Fortier, and R. M. Slatt reviewed a draft of the manuscript.
K. A. Vaughan typed the manuscript and M. S , Steiner and S . Miyazaki drafted the
figures.

386

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389