Understanding Polars Without Math

OuterCover
UNDERSTANDING POLARS
WITHOUT MATH
A guide to getting the most from polar diagrams
Bill & Bunny Kuhlman
with a special section by Bill Kubiak
UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH
ii
WITHOUT MATH
Bill & Bunny Kuhlman

with a special section by Bill Kubiak
WITHOUT MATH
B2Streamlines
P.O. Box 975
Olalla WA 98359-0975

Copyright 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 by Bill & Bunny (B2) Kuhlman and B2Streamlines
All rights reserved. This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express written consent
of the publisher, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for the purposes of review. The
information contained may not be duplicated in other books, periodicals, databases, or any other
medium, printed or electronic, without the written consent of the publisher. Making copies of this book,
or any portion of it, for any purpose other than your own, is a violation of United States copyright laws.
B2Streamlines
P.O. Box 976
Olalla WA 98359-0976 USA
Limits of Liability and Disclaimer of Warranty:
The authors and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts included
the research for and development of the method of presentation and all diagrams, figures, charts and
graphs resulting therefrom. The authors and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or
implied, with regard to the information, instructions and suggestions in this book or the application
of said information, instructions and suggestions by the reader.
This book was composed entirely on an Apple Macintosh Centris 650 16/230 CD-ROM and an
Apple Macintosh PowerBook 180 14/120 using Frame Technology FrameMaker 3.0 and the
Communication Intelligence Corporation MacHandwriter system. The text was set in Bookman;
titles, headers and footers in Graphite; illustration text and marginal notes in Marydale;
charts and tables in Helvetica. All master copies were printed on a Hewlett-Packard LaserJet 4M.
Printed and bound by INPRINT, Seattle Washington
vi
About the Authors

Bill has been flying RC sailplanes since 1960,
when he began tossing a rudder-only glider from
the front porch of his parents Malibu, California,
home. Although temporarily diverted into
tropical fish and model railroading for several
years, his first love has always been aviation,
and RC sailplanes in particular.
Bunny has had an interest in aviation since
childhood, when her father would identify the
fighters flying out of McChord Air Force Base in
Tacoma, Washington. Her interest in RC soaring
began when she met Bill in 1979.
Bill and Bunny, known collectively as B2, have

been flying tailless RC sailplanes exclusively
since 1984. They continue to write a monthly
column for RC Soaring Digest magazine. On the
Wing, which first appeared in 1988, focuses
on tailless RC sailplanes. The first 52 columns,
to December of 1992, are available within
On the Wing the book, now in its second
printing. A second volume, containing columns
53 through 100, is scheduled to be published by
B2Streamlines in the latter part of 1996.
vii
viii
Acknowledgements
Understanding Polars Without Math would not
have been possible without the input of many of
our friends and fellow modeling enthusiasts.
initial draft and offered some preliminary

suggestions for improving continuity and
maintaining technical accuracy.
The initial idea came about as the result of an

RC Soaring Digest reader survey done a few years
ago. Several respondents noted their own need to
understand the contents of polar diagrams, but
confessed their inability to undertake the
mathematics involved.
Martins review of the final draft, which included

both corrections to the text and a number of
suggestions for further improvement, was a
necessary and highly valued part of the writing
process.
That initial outline was sent to Jerry and Judy

Slates, editor and publisher of RC Soaring Digest
magazine. They provided immediate positive
feedback, and thereby provided the impetus to
actually begin the formal writing process.
When we mentioned our concept for this book to

Dr. Michael Selig, his reply was rather
interesting. You mean there will be no addition,
subtraction, multiplication or division symbols in
the entire book? Trying to meet this challenge
was the most rewarding aspect of writing
Understanding Polars Without Math. Dr. Seligs
review was very positive and extremely
supportive.The latter portion of Chapter 6,
Exercise #4 in Chapter 7, Table 2, and the
comparison polar at the end of Chapter 9 are
direct results of Dr. Seligs input.
Martin Simons, on sabbatical from his teaching

position in Adelaide, South Australia, read the
Herk Stokely, the soaring columnist for Flying

Models, provided the incentive for the inclusion
Bill Kubiak, visiting from Minnesota at the time,

eagerly assisted with the initial outline for the
logical presentation of material to be included,
then went home and wrote the historical note
which appears in Appendix B.
ix

of Chart 6. When our own attempts at
constructing this chart failed, Herk was able to
lay out a very accurate nomograph in a matter of
days, and it is in fact his version which appears
here.
As further motivation to complete our task,

however, we received over 300 pieces of
correspondence from modelers all over the world
asking about the status of Understanding Polars
Without Math!
Lee Murray, Frank Zaic, and our daughter,

Tish Pylman, also reviewed the text. Their many
ideas concerning ways to improve readability,
maintain continuity, and provide examples, very
much influenced the final form of this book.
There are many parts to any long term effort.

What you see here would not have been possible
without the wonderful assistance, support and
motivation we received. We offer a sincere thank
you to each of the many people who played a role
in making this book a reality.
While writing Understanding Polars Without

Math we were also involved in the publication of
a number of other books, notably Sailplanes!
by Ferdi Gal and Aldo Calza. Completing this
book therefore took much longer than expected.
B2
Olalla Washington
July 1995
Quotations
There is no shortage of good aerodynamic data;

the problem is that most of it is presented in a way
that makes it unintelligible to most mortals.
Irv Culver
The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts

as to discover new ways of thinking about them.
Sir William Henry Bragg (1862 - 1942)
Winner of the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics
xi
xii
Table of Contents
Understanding Polars Without Math
Introduction
Chapter 1
Overview
Chapter 3
The Pitching Moment Coefficient (cm) Curve
Chapter 2
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
1
5
The Lift Coefficient (cl) Curve
13
The Drag Coefficient (cd) Curve
35
The Lift to Drag Ratio (cl/cd)

and the Optimum Lift Coefficient (cl,opt)
Application of Section Characteristics to a Wing
25
43
49
Putting It All Together

Exercises 1, 2, 3, and 4
65
Conclusion
97
Those Other Curves...

Bibliography
85
107
xiii

Appendices
Appendix A
Glossary
111
Appendix C
Units of Measurement Equivalencies Charts

inches-cm-meters
knots-mph-fps-km/h
ounces-grams-kg
ft2-in2-dm2
oz/ft2-gm/dm2
121
121
121
122
122
Appendix B
A Historical Note on the Term Drag Bucket

by Bill Kubiak
Charts
117
Chart 1
Reynolds Number vs. Chord vs. Velocity
125
Chart 3
Span vs. Average Chord vs. Area,

and
Area vs. Weight vs. Wing Loading
129
Chart 2
Chart 4
Chart 5
Chart 6
xiv
CL vs. Wing Loading vs. Velocity
127
Average Chord vs. Span vs. Aspect Ratio
131
Velocity vs. Glide Ratio vs. Sink Rate
135
Average Chord vs. Area vs. Aspect Ratio
133
Table of Contents
Tables
Table 1
Induced Drag vs. Aspect Ratio vs. CL
139
Tables 3.1 - 3.8
Equivalent Angle of Attack vs. Aspect Ratio:

Table 3.1: Aspect Ratio = 5
143
145
147
149
151
153
155
157
Table 2
Lift Coefficient vs. Drag Coefficient vs. L/D
141
xv
xvi
Introduction
Polar diagrams, sometimes referred to simply as
polars, contain vast amounts of information of
interest to modelers, especially those who fly RC
sailplanes. In fact, in no other modeling activity
are polar diagrams so intensely examined.
how to properly interpret the lines they contain.

Many of us who have endeavored to understand
polar diagrams through the reading of
aerodynamics textbooks have been frustrated by
the mathematics involved.
Still, most of us are at least a bit intimidated by

polars and either bypass them as not at all
understandable, or go away convinced we could
obtain a lot more information if only we knew
This book has been planned from the outset to

present methods of getting the most information
from a polar diagram without the use of
mathematical calculations!
0.5
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
10
S.U.
T.L.
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.

A large number of diagrams, charts and tables
will provide supplementary information, and a
Glossary (Appendix A) which covers all of the
terms used has been included as well.
Each of the polar diagram curves will be identified
and explained, and we will demonstrate methods
of deriving much more information from a polar
than is at first readily apparent. With some
confidence you should be able to not only project
your own design onto a polar, but improve your
design by using information gathered from a
polar.
In an effort to prevent confusion so far as

terminology, we have extended every effort to
maintain consistency. This will perhaps lead to
the notion that these terms are consistently used
in other works as well. Such is, unfortunately
not the case.
As an example, we will use airfoil when talking
about a surface and section when talking of the
airfoil cross-section. In modern texts these
distinctions have for the most part disappeared.
Keep this in mind while investigating other texts
and reading items in the popular model press.
Each of the polar diagram curves will be identified and explained, and
we will demonstrate methods of deriving much more information from a
polar than is at first readily apparent. With some confidence you should
be able to not only project your own design onto a polar, but improve
your design by using information gathered from the polar.
Introduction
We would highly recommend the reader follow
the material explained here by working with an
actual polar diagram.
As most of this work involves drawing multiple
lines on the polar diagram, it is best to have
disposable copies at hand. Simply find the polar
diagram for an airfoil of interest and obtain
several photocopies. If possible, set the
photocopier to enlarge mode so the copies are
of sufficient size for accurate work. Several
copies of the six included charts which begin on
page 125 should also be made at the same time.
A straightedge, a french curve, and a sharp

pencil are the only tools needed. We have found a
10 inch clear 45o triangle to be the best
straightedge.
We hope this book will assist you in realizing the
tremendous potential of polar diagrams, provide
the simple means by which you may derive
desired information from them, and serve as a
mechanism by which you may improve your own
designs.
Chapter 1: Overview
Polar diagrams are admittedly confusing to the
uninitiated, primarily because so much
information seems to be crammed into such little
space. Taken in logical sequence, however, all of
the curves make sense and a polar becomes a
vast resource of information.
a computer program, running in compiled

FORTRAN, which provides a complete design
methodology for new airfoils and can evaluate
the aerodynamic characteristics of any section
for which one has coordinates.
Since the Eppler type polars are the most
frequently seen, whether generated from a
computer program or from accumulated wind
tunnel data, and contain all relevant data within
Within the modeling literature, the most

commonly seen polars are similar to those
generated by the Eppler code. The Eppler code is
0.5
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
10
S.U.
T.L.
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.

a single diagram, we have used that format as
the basis for our explanations. It should be
initially noted that the polar diagram used
consistently in this book is of a generic type and
should not be interpreted by the reader to be an
accurate portrayal of actual section data.
Polars found in other sources, like Abbott and
VonDoenhoffs Theory of Wing Sections and
Selig, Donovan and Frasers Airfoils at Low
Speeds, although organized differently, may be
interpreted by similar means.
We will cover some other types of polars in the

final chapter.
In a graph, a point is defined by intersecting
lines whose position is directly related to the
values noted on the axes. A primitive example
can be found in the game battleship.
The square in the playing field drawn below is
defined by the value 6 on the horizontal axis and
4 on the vertical axis. Its coordinates are thus
said to be (6,4).
10
8
6
The relationship between the squares

coordinates and its position is a reversible one.
One can take the values 6 and 4 and locate
the square, or can start with the square
itself and find its coordinates, (6,4).
4
2
0
10
Chapter 1: Overview
The relationship between the squares
coordinates and its position is a reversible one.
One can take the values 6 and 4 and locate the
square, or can start with the square itself and
find its coordinates, (6,4). This is an important
concept and one on which we will heavily rely.
A simple polar consists of three distinct curves

plotted by means of a coordinate axes system.
Each curve depicts some particular aspect of the
performance of that specific section, and is
drawn against scaled lines (the axes) for easier
reading and more accurate interpretation.
Rather than squares, a polar diagram relies upon

a series of points (which are connected to form
lines), but the underlying principle remains
identical to that of the battleship game.
The three curves, in order of appearance in this

text, show (1) the lift coefficient, cl, for various
angles of attack, (2) the pitching moment as
measured at the 1/4 chord point, cm,c/4, for
various angles of attack, and (3) the drag
coefficient, cd, for various values of cl.
1
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
drag coefficient curves
0.5
lift coefficient curve

moment coefficient curve
cm
-0.05
-5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

A graphical description of the above mentioned
terms appears below. We are going to define each
term as we go along, so there is no need to worry
if you are unsure of them at this point.
We need to explain at this point that there is a

difference between a section and an airfoil or
flying surface (like a wing).
chord line, reference line

angle of attack,
lift (cl)
cm,c/4 (-)
direction of incident flow

direction
of flight
drag (cd)
pitching moment
cm,c/4 (+)
Chapter 1: Overview
A section consists of only two dimensions; height
(thickness) and length (chord). An airfoil or flying
surface is defined by three dimensions; height
(thickness), length (chord) and width (span). The
aerodynamic characteristics of a section are
equivalent to an airfoil or wing with infinite span.
Why this is so will be covered in detail later, but
for the time being remember that section
coefficients are designated by the use of lower
case subscript letters (cl or Cl, cm,c/4 or Cm,c/4, cd
or Cd, etc.), while coefficients related to airfoils,
wings, and entire aircraft are designated by the
There is a difference between a section

and an airfoil or flying surface (like a
wing). A section consists of only two
dimensions, height (thickness) and length
(chord), while an airfoil or a flying surface
is defined by three dimensions, height
(thickness), length (chord) and width
(span). Section coefficients are designated
by the use of lower case letters (cl ),
while coefficients for airfoils, wings, and
entire aircraft are designated by the use
of upper case letters (CL).
use of upper case letters (CL, CM,c/4, CD, etc.). In

the case of section data, we will consistently use
the lowercase c to denote coefficient.
As mentioned previously, although
Understanding Polars Without Math is
consistent in this regard, such consistency is
often lacking when examining other printed
materials. Always double check the
nomenclature in use. Articles in technical
journals often present a table of nomenclature
on the first page to eliminate any possible
confusion.
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
CL
9

Chord and velocity have an effect upon section or
airfoil aerodynamic characteristics and are
inherent to the evaluation process. But rather
than examining specific chord lengths at various
velocities, a less complex and equally accurate
evaluation system has been established. This
system, which relies upon the concept of the
Reynolds number, is both consistent and easy to
use.
We are used to seeing a number followed by a
unit of measurement 3 meters, 2 cubic
centimeters, 5 kilowatts, 14.7 pounds per square

inch, etc. The Reynolds number, however, is
dimensionless, and will always be seen as a
number alone; Re = 100,000, for example.
The Reynolds number, designated by the symbol
Re, Rn, or R, is dependent upon the density of
the medium (air in the case of RC sailplanes), the
viscosity of the medium (water is more viscous
than air), velocity and chord. This holds true for
both sections and airfoils.
The Reynolds number is dimensionless,

and will always be seen as a number alone;
Re = 100,000
for example
10
Chapter 1: Overview
The polar diagram below gives Re in scientific
notation. To read Re when written this way, write
the number immediately in front of x. If there
is no x, write 1. Follow with as many zeros as
the superscripted number after 10. For the
polar below, Re = 105 is Re = 100,000, while
Re = 2x105 is Re = 200,000 and Re = 3x105 is
Re = 300,000.
polar because each of the curves can be examined

both independently of the others and in relation to
the others. We will discuss pertinent examples of
this feature as we go along.
Several charts are included in the back of this
book. All are explained in detail in Chapter 6, but
for now, look at Chart 1. Chart 1 relates chord,
velocity, and Reynolds number for atmospheric
conditions at sea level. Take some time to
examine Chart 1 now in order to acquaint
yourself with Reynolds numbers for various
aerodynamic conditions.
Because a section is normally examined for

several Reynolds numbers, a polar has many
curves, some superimposed over others. A large
body of information is available from this sort of
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
10
S.U.
T.U.
T.L.
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.
11

A simple rule to remember is Reynolds number
doubles as chord doubles, and doubles as
velocity doubles.
With a bit of practice a lot of information is
directly and indirectly readable from a polar
diagram.
The ability to objectively compare the
aerodynamic characteristics of one section with
those of another is an important benefit of being

able to evaluate polar diagrams.
As your confidence grows, so will your ability to
extract information from a polar. The best part is
that these sorts of investigations can all be
accomplished without resorting to any
mathematical calculations at all.
Lets get started!
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
250
200
200
125
100
90
80
70
150
120
60
100
50
75
40
60
30
50
35
20
30
25
20
14
18 16
1
12
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD in inches
10
14
20
30
10
REYNOLDS NUMBER IN THOUSANDS
150
MPH
A simple rule to remember is:

Reynolds number doubles as chord doubles,
and doubles as velocity doubles.
Chapter 2: The Coefficient of Lift (cl) Curve

Before showing how to interpret the lift
coefficient curve, it is necessary to define what
the term itself represents.
To explain the meaning of lift coefficient,
imagine an RC sailplane in level gliding flight. If
this sailplane weighs 5 pounds, then the wing
must be developing 5 pounds of lift in order to
support it.
There is a difference between a section

and an airfoil or flying surface (like a
wing). A section consists of only two
dimensions, height (thickness) and length
(chord), while an airfoil or a flying surface
is defined by three dimensions, height
(thickness), length (chord) and width
(span). Section coefficients are designated
by the use of lower case letters (cl ),
while coefficients for airfoils, wings, and
entire aircraft are designated by the use
of upper case letters (CL).
Lift, then, can be measured in pounds, or in

some other unit of force.
Interestingly, lift can also be measured in a more
universal way, independent of velocity, wing
area, and the density of the air. Lift coefficient is
this universal unit of measurement; cl is simply
a shorthand way of saying section lift
coefficient or section coefficient of lift.
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
cl
CL
13

As with the Reynolds number, the lift coefficient
is a dimensionless value.
lift coefficient of an airfoil, a wing, or an entire

aircraft.)
At first it may seem as though a dimensionless

unit of measurement would be of rather limited
use, but in fact it is of more use without
dimension than with.
The actual amount of lift, in kilograms, pounds,

or other unit of measurement, produced by an
airfoil is dependent upon
the area of the airfoil (more area = more lift),
the velocity of the airfoil through the air
(faster = more lift),
the density of the air (more dense = more lift),
and
the lift coefficient (higher CL = more lift).
Chart 2, located at the back of this book, relates

CL (denoting the wing, remember) to velocity and
wing loading. (Remember, as we stated
previously, the symbol cl represents the lift
coefficient for a section, while CL represents the
30
1.4
1.2
1.0
26
24
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
FAI max.
22
.025
.05
.1
.01
20
18
Chart 2 relates CL to velocity and wing loading.
16
WING LOADING in oz./ft.2
14
12
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
VELOCITY in MPH
14
80
100
150
200
Chapter 2: Lift Coefficient (cl) Curve

It is possible to determine the exact amount of
lift (in kilograms, pounds, or whatever) a wing is
capable of producing, under any defined
conditions. To begin our examination of polar
diagrams, however, we will limit our discussion
to section characteristics. We will show you how
to translate this information to a wing later on,
in Chapter 6.
Note the cl (section) curve in the diagram below.
There are several characteristics of the cl curve
which will help you identify it:
1
cl
0.5
the cl curve goes from lower left to upper right,

the cl curve is actually a relatively straight line
for most of its length,
the angle of the cl line to the two axes will
almost always be close to what is shown here.
cl is made larger through increases in angle of
attack (), and so the cl axis and the axis define
the coordinates for each point on the cl curve.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
this is the cl axis
this is the cl curve

this is the second cl axis
10
cm
-0.05
-5
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
this is the axis

5 10
0.5
15
1
15

The cl axis is vertical, the axis horizontal. There
is an identical cl axis at the far left of the polar
for use with the drag coefficient curves.
In general, and until close to the stalling point, cl
increases by about 0.1 for each one degree
increase in angle of attack.
In constructing the cl curve, the Eppler program
or wind tunnel investigation determined the cl for
a specific . A point was then placed on the polar
at the appropriate spot. This process was
repeated a number of times, and the cl line was
then constructed by joining those points.
1
cl
Reading values of cl versus is just a reversal of

the plotting process.
Several cl lines usually appear on one polar.
Each will be dotted or dashed in some way, or
have a small symbol, like a square or diamond,
repeated along its length. These symbols identify
section performance at various Reynolds
numbers. As cl varies very little with Re, these
lines will no doubt be nearly superimposed.
(For clarity, the polar diagram used as an
example in this book has only one cl curve.)
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
16
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
these two axes are identical
5 10
0.5
15
1

Thus the efficiency of a section can be examined
by looking at its cl under specific conditions of
and Re, and one section can be easily compared
with another. The ability to objectively compare
the aerodynamic characteristics of one section
with those of another is an important benefit of
being able to fully evaluate polar diagrams.
One of the first things you will want to know
about a section is its maximum lift coefficient,
denoted by the symbol cl,max. Some polars,
specifically those which are computer generated,
do not clearly identify this value, as the curve
1
cl
simply stops at its upper end. The newer

computer generated polars, and those produced
through wind tunnel testing, do clearly show the
cl,max point.
Take a ruler or straightedge and draw a line
across the very top of the cl curve (or its end if
there is no hump), making sure you carry the
line all the way across to the vertical cl axis. The
cl,max value can then be read directly from that
axis. The cl,max value shown in the polar diagram
below is 0.96 (cl,max = 0.96).
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
cl,max
cl
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
17

A vertical line drawn from the cl,max point on the
cl curve through the horizontal angle of attack ()
axis will mark the angle of attack at which cl,max
occurs. This procedure is shown in the drawing
below. The value in this example is 6.0o.
Now look at section stall characteristics. There is
little point in having a wing capable of very high
1
cl
lift if it stalls easily, as small disturbances in the

air flow may be able to trigger a stall at an
unexpected and inopportune time. Dropping out
of a thermal turn or falling to the ground during
a landing approach can be exasperating, to say
the least.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
18
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
angle of attack, ,
at which cl,max occurs
5 10
0.5
15
1

Look at the maximum lift point you have just
marked. Does the cl line change directions
abruptly, as in the drawing below left, or does it
bend over gently, as in the drawing on the
right? A blunt peak in the cl curve indicates a

soft stall. Such gentle characteristics are
usually seen in the thicker sections, while the
thinner sections have a more abrupt stall.
cl
cl
abrupt stall
cl
smooth stall
soft stall
19

Another important consideration is the angle of
attack at which zero lift occurs. This is often
called the aerodynamic zero of a wing section. To
determine this value, find the point on the
horizontal axis where the cl curve crosses, then
read the angle of attack () directly from that
scale. The zero lift angle for the section polar
below is -3.45o, marked by the labeled arrow.
As a general rule of thumb, the zero lift line

passes through the trailing edge of the section
and the mean camber line at 50% chord.
In the diagram below, the chord line (or reference
line) goes through the leading edge (0,0) and the
trailing edge (100,0). When the reference line is
parallel to the direction of flight, the angle of
attack is zero degrees ( = 0). The airfoil will be
at zero lift when the zero lift line is parallel to the
direction of flight. The angular difference
between the reference line and the zero lift line
defines the zero lift angle.
zero lift line
chord line or
reference line
20
angle of attack, ,
for cl = 0
50% chord
camber line
As a rough approximation, the zero lift line passes

through the trailing edge and the mean camber
line at 50% chord.

You should also take a look at the angle of attack
range between zero lift and stall. As a general
rule, this range will be larger for sections with
1
cl
0.5
greater camber, and more narrow for sections

with little or no camber. Other effects of camber
will be discussed in Chapter 3.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
Symmetrical
angle of attack range
cambered
heavily cambered
5
cm
-0.05
-5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
21

You may also be interested to know how much
lift the section can produce when its geometric
angle of attack is zero.
To determine the lift coefficient when the angle of
attack is zero, simply find where the cl curve
crosses the vertical axis, then read the cl directly
from that scale. An arrow marks this value, 0.38,
in the polar segment below.
Note the difference between a geometric zero
angle of attack and the aerodynamic zero. The
aerodynamic zero is the angle of attack at which
1
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
the wing section gives no lift (-3.45 in the polar

segment below). At the geometric zero the angle
of attack at which the airfoil section chord line
(reference line) is at a zero angle to the airflow.
A cambered section will give lift at this position.
In the polar diagram segment below, note the cl
curve for the symmetrical section traverses
Origin O, is nearly identical in slope to the
cambered section cl curve, and has a lower cl,max
than that of the cambered section. These
characteristics are typical of symmetrical
sections in general.
cl
cl at = 0, 0.38
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
for cl = 0, -3.45
22
0.05
0.1
cl curve for a
symmetrical
section
5 10
0.5
15

As you examine various polars you will find
several trends:
the cl curve of the symmetrical sections will
always travel directly through Origin O, the
meeting point of the horizontal () and vertical
(cl) axes,
There is a point on the cl curve where the lift to

drag ratio (cl/cd) is at its maximum, seen as the
symbol cl,opt. We will show you how to find this
point, and the cl and at which it occurs, in
Chapter 5.
the cl curve will be shifted upwards as camber

is increased, and
thicker sections tend to have a softer stall.
23
24
Chapter 3: The Pitching Moment Coefficient (cm) Curve

As mentioned previously, the section maximum
lift coefficient, cl,max, can be increased by
increasing the section camber. This is
accomplished either by changing the arc of the
camber line or by flap deflection. We have
sketched these alternatives below.
An airfoil traveling through the air will tend to

follow a path similar in shape to its own camber
line. That is, if the camber line is entirely positive
(that is, above the chord line) the airfoil will try to
lift its trailing edge and drop its leading edge,
eventually tumbling through the air
uncontrollably.
force derived
from
pitching moment
Symmetrical
cambered
heavily cambered
increased camber
via flap deflection
resultant
flight path
25

A symmetrical section, on the other hand, will
not pitch either nose up or nose down of its own
accord because it has neither a negative nor
positive pitching moment. But neither will it
settle down in any position if it is upset by a gust
in the air.
A reflexed, or self-righting, airfoil, which has

the rear portion of its camber line below the level
of the chord line, will try to lift its nose and drop
its tail as it moves through the air. This type of
airfoil section is stable and tends to fly at a
constant angle of attack.
resultant
flight path
resultant
flight path
reflex
force derived
from positive
pitching moment
26
Chapter 3: The Pitching Moment (cm) Curve

In each of the above examples it is possible to
measure the force which is trying to change the
airfoil angle of attack. The force itself is termed
the pitching moment because it identifies the
tendency of the section to pitch forwards or
backwards. The pitching moment coefficient, or
moment coefficient, is denoted by the symbol cm.
It is measured, by convention, at the quarter
chord point (the approximate aerodynamic
center). The symbol cm,c/4 indicates this specific
condition. Recent polars, although using the
symbol cm, are frequently providing cm,c/4 data.
cm and cm,c/4 are dimensionless numbers, just

as Re and cl. The wing pitching moment, as
measured in pounds, kilograms, or other unit, at
a particular distance from its mean quarter
chord point (c/4), will increase with greater
velocity, higher air density, larger surface area,
or increased CM,c/4.
Determining CM,c/4 is an important
consideration in determining trim (angular
difference between wing and stabilizer) and
balance (CG location).
The pitching moment coefficient, or moment coefficient, by

convention, is measured at the quarter chord point (the approximate
aerodynamic center), and its symbol, cm,c/4, indicates this.
27

There are several ways of determining the
pitching moment:
The Eppler program computes the air flow
around the section and downstream from the
section, then finds the cm,c/4 by evaluating the
downstream displacement from free stream
flow.
Two other methods involve evaluating the

section geometry the shape of the entire
camber line or the angle of the camber line at
the leading and trailing edge. These methods
involve relatively complex formulae, and do not
account for air flow separation at various
angles of attack. They provide only a single
approximation of the cm value.
In the wind tunnel, the pitching force generated

by the wing is measured by means of highly
accurate scales and the cm,c/4 is then
calculated from that information.
The cm,c/4 curve will be found in a polar diagram

directly below the cl curve. It is usually seen as a
short, relatively horizontal line. The cm,c/4 curve
is marked in the polar below.
1
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
the cm,c/4 axis
0.5
28
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
the cm,c/4 curve

The cm,c/4 axis is vertical and is shared with cl.
Note that it is greatly expanded compared with
the cl scale. This is because the range of cm,c/4
values is very small, measured in thousandths.
Such an expanded scale allows small differences
or changes in cm,c/4 to be easily evaluated.
Note that the cm,c/4 value usually changes
somewhat as the angle of attack is varied. This is
because a laminar separation bubble forms and
then expands along the chord as the angle of
attack increases. The stall is reached when the
turbulent separation extends over the upper
1
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
cm,c/4 values are read off the vertical axis, the

same axis where cl was previously found. The
values for cm,c/4, however, are not read from the
cl scale; the cm,c/4 values are noted separately.
The angle of attack axis remains as described
before.
If the section tends to rotate trailing edge up and
leading edge down the moment coefficient is
defined as negative.
cl
the cm,c/4 axis

(negative values)
0.5
surface. The resulting changes in the pressure

distribution directly affect the cm,c/4.
cm,c/4 range
cm
-0.05
-5
10
15
103cd
20
the cm,c/4 axis

(positive values)
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
29

In general, the higher the camber the more
negative the pitching moment coefficient.
Reflexed sections, which were described
previously, have neutral or positive pitching
moments, depending upon the extent and
magnitude of the reflex.
In the case of a negative pitching moment, the
cm,c/4 curve will be above the horizontal axis on
the polar diagram. Remember, as the moment
coefficient becomes more negative the cm,c/4 curve
will move higher on the polar.
1
cl
The aft-loaded airfoils, in which the high point of

the camber line is behind the 50% chord point,
have very high negative pitching moments. The
speed range of the aft loaded airfoils due to the
effect of flap deflection on the camber line is a
distinct advantage, however, and as the flap is
reflexed (aft camber reduced) the pitching
moment is reduced and may in fact reach a
positive value.
If the airfoil tends to rotate trailing edge down
and leading edge up, the cm,c/4 will be below the
horizontal () axis. Look at the polars for the
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
Remember, as the moment coefficient

becomes more negative the cm,c/4
curve will move higher on the polar.
0
30
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
Eppler 214
5 10
0.5
15
1
Eppler 184
Eppler 186

Eppler 184 (cm,c/4 = +0.03), and Eppler 186
(cm,c/4 = +0.05) for examples of this feature.
Self-righting airfoils suitable for plank type flying
wings will, as a general rule, have cm,c/4 values
between +0.02 and +0.05.
The maximum cm,c/4 value (cm,c/4max) can be
found by drawing a horizontal line across the
very top part of the curve, then reading the value
from the vertical axis.
1
cl
Drawing a line from the cm,c/4max point to the

horizontal axis will show the angle of attack at
which cm,c/4max occurs.
It should be noted that some older polars show
cm plotted on a separate set of axes. Early wind
tunnel testing measured the basic pitching
moment forces with scales, but instead of
showing the moment coefficient, a mathematical
process was applied to produce a center of
pressure curve. This center of pressure curve
required further mathematical work to decipher.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
cm,c/4max
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
angle of attack at which

cm,c/4max occurs
31

Again, and as with the cl curve, reading cm,c/4
values from the polar is simply the reverse of the
plotting process.
center. This is because by definition the

aerodynamic center is the point on the chord
where the moment coefficient is constant.)
Some final notes on cm and cm,c/4:
The moment coefficient curves slope because the

quarter chord point, used for measuring and
computing them, is not the aerodynamic center.
If the true aerodynamic center was used to
compute the cm, the pitching moment curve
would be a horizontal line and the cm would
have a single value. The two mathematical
means of finding the cm do produce such a
single value.
For practical purposes, c/4 is assumed to be the

approximate aerodynamic center. In reality, the
aerodynamic center may be at a different
location on the chord.
(As a point of interest, the moment coefficient
defines the exact location of the aerodynamic
For practical purposes, c/4 is assumed to be the

approximate aerodynamic center. In reality, the aerodynamic
center may be at a different location on the chord.
The moment coefficient curves slope because the quarter
chord point, used for measuring and computing them, is not
the aerodynamic center.
32

Another reason for the slope of the cm,c/4 curve
is airflow separation. Near the stall, for
example, where large laminar separation
bubbles are in evidence, the cm,c/4 will depart
markedly from its otherwise relatively constant
value. We will examine laminar separation
bubbles in some detail in Chapter 8.
In practice, variations in moment coefficient are

very small over the range of usable angles of
attack. As usable angles of attack is closely
related to the coefficient of drag, we will explore
this topic in the next chapter.
Another reason for the slope of the cm,c/4 curve is airflow separation.
33
34
Chapter 4: The Coefficient of Drag (cd) Curve

The more streamlined an airfoil, the more easily
it will move through the air.
cd is a symbol meaning section drag coefficient
or section coefficient of drag. cd is the
dimensionless number which describes the
slipperiness of a section. The cd as portrayed on
a polar diagram normally consists of profile drag
only, that is, it does not include induced drag.
CD, on the other hand, denotes the drag

coefficient for an airfoil, wing, or complete
aircraft and includes induced drag.
Drag force, as lift and pitching moment described
previously, increases with area, velocity, and the
density of the medium. cd is always a small
number, measured in thousandths, and the cd
scale reflects this.
The cd as portrayed on a polar diagram normally consists

of skin friction drag and pressure drag only; that is, it
does not include induced drag.
induced drag
profile drag
parasite drag
Induced drag, or more exactly vortex induced drag, is

created by the rotating airflow that occurs around the
tips of any lifting surface such as a wing or stabilizer.
drag force
Skin friction drag is created by the viscosity

(stickiness) of the air and by surface roughness.
Pressure drag is created by the object pushing the air
away from its free stream flow.
total drag
low speed, high CL
high speed, low CL
35

Skin friction drag is dependent upon the
roughness of the airfoil surface and the viscosity
of the air. This is easily measured in the wind
tunnel, along with pressure drag. The Eppler
code predicts pressure drag and can modify the
skin friction drag values based upon an input
roughness factor.
Induced drag, or more exactly vortex induced
drag, is created by the rotating airflow that
occurs around the tips of any lifting surface such
as a wing or stabilizer. Induced drag is created
any time a such a surface generates lift, and its
1
cl
value is directly related to the lift coefficient at

the time, the aspect ratio, the general shape of
the surface in plan view, and the tip shape.
Induced drag is created by the generation of lift,
and is related to aspect ratio, but it is not taken
into account in the Eppler code, nor is it
measured in the wind tunnel when the airfoil
traverses the width of the tunnel. We will talk
more about the effects of induced drag later on.
As induced drag is not considered, surfaces with
different airfoil sections can be compared
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
the cd curves
second cl axis
0.5
36
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
the cd axis
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

directly. Be sure to note any roughness
parameter, however, as comparing two sections
of different roughness will not give a true
indication of performance differences.
The polar diagrams produced by the Eppler code
will usually have the cd curves to the left of
Origin O. The cd curves themselves are C-shaped
and will be found to range over the vertical axis
to the same extent as the cl curve(s).
Each cd curve depicts section performance at
one specific Reynolds number. A vertical axis at
1
cl
cd = 0 intersects the cd axis itself, and marks a

second origin, O'. All of these labels are identified
in the drawing below.
cd is very much more dependent upon and
related to Reynolds number than it is to cl.
Of particular importance to those designing and
flying RC sailplanes is the minimum drag of a
given airfoil, cd,min. This value can be found by
placing the straightedge vertically and to the left
of the cd curve. Maintaining the vertical
orientation, move the straightedge to the right
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
O'
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
37

until it just touches the cd curve being examined.
A vertical line drawn through the horizontal axis
provides the cd,min value which is read directly
from the cd scale. While cl values range to 1.0
and more, cd values are normally very small.
Reading values from the cd scale is easy. Write a
decimal point and mark three spaces. Single
digit numbers from the scale, like 5 and 9, are
placed in the space furthest to the right, while
two digit numbers, like 10, 20, and 27, are
placed in the right two spaces with one digit in
each space. If you interpolate a value between
1
cl
those values marked on the scale, that digit will

go to the right of those already in place.
Remember, cd values, like cm values, are in
thousandths.
As a comprehensive example, in the polar below,
the cd,min point for Re = 105 (Re = 100,000) is at
0.0089, a very low value.
Drawing a horizontal line through the cd,min
point and extending it through the vertical axis
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
38
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
minimum drag values
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

and cl curve, as shown below, will provide two
more pieces of information:
First, it will give the cl at which cd,min occurs.
This is at the point at which the horizontal line
crosses the vertical axis Point A in the polar
below.
Second, drawing another line, vertical this time,
from the cl curve through the horizontal axis,
gives the angle of attack at which cd,min occurs
(Point B, -2.0). This is a somewhat complex
procedure, but one which deserves mastery.
1
cl
A number of profiles have been specifically

deigned to have a low drag bucket. See Bill
Kubiaks An Historical Note on the Term Drag
Bucket, Appendix B, for the origins of this term.
The shape of the drag curve for these sections
indicates their drag increases very little from
cd,min through minor changes in angle of attack.
The cd does, however, tend to increase
dramatically outside of this range.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
cd = 0.005
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
cd = 0.0089
103cd
20
cd = 0.015
0.05
0.1
A
5 10
0.5
15
1
39

To begin exploring the low drag bucket, choose a
cd,min value acceptable to the application, then
draw a single vertical line through the horizontal
axis at that value, transecting both the upper
and lower portions of the cd curve. This will give
you an idea of the range of the low drag bucket.
This last procedure may also provide a new

cm,c/4 range, depending on the shape of that
curve. See the polar below for a generic example
of this feature.
Drag curves may not always be so smooth, nor
do they always have only a single low drag value.
Analysis of the drag curve may be difficult, but is
a necessary part of evaluating performance and
choosing an appropriate airfoil for a specific
task.
Continuing, draw horizontal lines from the two

intersection points on the cd curve through the cl
axis and the cl curve. Dropping vertical lines
from the intersection points on the cl curve will
clearly show the angle of attack range
permissible within the low drag bucket.
cl
cl
cd,min
slightly reduced
cm,c/4 range
acceptable cd range
low drag bucket
103cd
40

for low drag bucket

When designing airfoil sections, some
compromise must be made between cd,min and
the width of the low drag bucket:
A wider low drag bucket is usually more

desirable than one which is more narrow. This is
because the wing will nearly always be expected
to be able to operate efficiently over a relatively
wide angle of attack range.
To get very low minimum drag, the bucket must

necessarily be rather narrow. This limits the
angle of attack range for which drag values will
be low. If, however, a wide angle of attack range
is needed, the drag bucket will necessarily also
need to be wide. cd,min will be larger in this case
than if the bucket were more narrow. Notice the
shape and cd,min values of the drag curves in the
polar below
(It should also be noted that the CD of the

complete aircraft includes total parasitic drag of
the non-lifting portions of the sailplane
fuselage, vertical tail, and anything else the air
passes over.)
cl
cl
cd,min cd,min
acceptable cd range
low drag bucket
103cd

for low drag bucket
41

In the case of a competition sailplane which
should be able to both thermal well and dash at
high speed between thermals, the ideal airfoil
must be able to provide great amounts of lift
during low speed thermal turns, and must be
able to fly at high velocity between thermals.
An F3B ship, for example, flies at a CL of about
0.6 during the distance task (best L/D), while a
four lap speed run of 21 seconds (65 mph)
requires a CL of only about 0.1, not including the

high g turns.
Rather than designing an airfoil with two drag
buckets, one for high CL and another for low CL,
airfoil designers have simply added flaps at the
trailing edge. This moveable portion of the airfoil
can be deflected downward for high lift
conditions, and placed in a neutral or even
reflexed position when high speed is required.
flap deflected
high lift bucket
flap neutral
low lift bucket
two separate angle of attack ranges
42
Chapter 5: The Lift to Drag Ratio (cl/cd)

and the Optimum Lift Coefficient (cl,opt)
CL/CD, or simply L/D, is the ratio of lift to drag
for the aircraft. Because it is identical to the glide
angle, this ratio should be as high as possible,
especially for sailplanes.
Because of various factors, such as vortex
induced drag and parasitic drag, the CL/CD of a
complete sailplane will be far less than the cl/cd
of the wing section alone, but the general trends
discernible by examination of a polar diagram

are useful nonetheless.
In looking over a number of polars, you have by
now noticed the curves for cd at various Reynolds
numbers may be quite far apart. The cl curves, in
contrast, are very close together, often
overlapping extensively. This is because cd is
much more dependent upon Reynolds number
than cl. Add to this the fact that cd can vary
distance flown (through the air)
height lost
true distance flown
Glide ratio is a measure of distance flown compared to

height lost. If the glider moves forward 30 feet for each
foot of height lost, then the glide ratio is 30:1. A sailplane
with a glide ratio of 25:1 would have a steeper glide.
Height lost is normally made equivalent to 1; distance flown
is based upon the same unit of measurement as height lost.
43

greatly with changes in , and you can easily see
that cl/cd may also have a very wide range.
Concern for the largest possible L/D is both
intense and far reaching. It is important to know
the best cl/cd a particular section is capable of
generating, the cl for that specific cl/cd value (the
optimum cl, or cl,opt), and the angle of attack at
which this occurs.
Imagine a couple of extreme examples

A vertical line through Origin O' would indicate
cd = 0 there would be no drag at all in this
case.
A horizontal line drawn through Origin O', on
the other hand, would indicate cl = 0.
Since cd is plotted against a cl axis, it is fairly

easy to find the best cl/cd point on the cd curve.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
1
cl
0.5
cl = 0
44
cm
-0.05
-5
O'
cd = 0
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
Chapter 5: The Lift to Drag Ratio (cl/cd) and the Optimum Lift Coefficient (cl,opt)
In the polar below, three lines denote specific
cl/cd values.
As expected, the more vertical the cl/cd line, the

larger the cl/cd value. This fact provides a
method of finding the cl/cd,max point on any cd
curve.
Pay attention to the fact that for a specific cl

value there will be only one cd value which will
produce a given cl/cd. By the same token, for a
specific cd value there will be only one cl value
which will produce a given cl/cd. On the other
hand, each cl/cd line is composed of an infinite
number of cl-cd combinations.
What is needed is to mark a point on the cd curve

with a line which goes through Origin O', just
touches the curve in question, and is as vertical
as possible.
cl/cd = 200:1
1
cl
cl/cd = 100:1
cl
cl/cd = 50:1
0.5
0.5
cl/cd = 25:1
O'
2.5
10
15
103cd
20
45

To find the cl/cd,max point on the cd curve, align
your straightedge with the far left cl axis. Now,
keep your straightedge on Origin O' and begin
rotating the straightedge clockwise. Do this until
1
cl
you can draw a line from Origin O' which barely

touches the appropriate cd curve. The point
where the drawn line touches the cd curve (Point
A in the polar below) will be the reference point.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
O'
46
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
Chapter 5: The Lift to Drag Ratio (cl/cd) and the Optimum Lift Coefficient (cl,opt)
The cd can be read by drawing a vertical line to
the horizontal axis (Point B), while a horizontal
line drawn from the best cl/cd point through the
vertical axis will give cl,opt (Point C). Extending
this last horizontal line through the cl curve and
placing a vertical line from the intersection point
to the axis provides the angle of attack for
maximum cl/cd, and this can be read from that
scale (Point D).
cl
The actual cl/cd can be found by using Table 2.

For polars with identical cl and cd scales, the
section with the better cl/cd will have a more
vertical line to the reference Point A.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
O'
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
47
48
Chapter 6: Application of Section Characteristics to a Wing

Thus far we have talked primarily about section
characteristics; that is, aerodynamic data for a
two dimensional model. Such data is the result
of computer calculations via the Eppler code, or
may be acquired in a wind tunnel. In the latter
case, the airfoil is of constant chord and
traverses the entire width of the test section. The
section polar produced reflects an ideal world in
which the wing span is infinite. In the real world
three dimensional airfoils are used to construct
wings of finite span, and three dimensional

aircraft are built and flown. The air flowing
around these aircraft is disrupted in peculiar
ways, as shown in the diagram below.
There are several factors which grossly affect the
information which is read directly from a polar
diagram. As a comprehensive example, a polar
diagram readily shows us cl,max, but it does not
directly show us the CL,max of a wing,
vortex induced drag

from wing tip
wing - fuselage junction
interference drag
flow disruption caused
by canopy seam
vortex induced drag
from wing tip
parasitic drag from

fuselage skin
air leaks around control surfaces
drag from surface

discontinuities
interference drag
from stabilizer - fin junction
vortex induced drag
from stabilizer tips
49

particularly if the wing has a very low aspect
ratio. Small structural protuberances and
textured covering materials may grossly affect
overall drag, yet this may not be reflected at all
on the cd curves of the section polar. CL/CD,
therefore, will always differ from and be much
lower than the polar diagram cl/cd value.
Polar diagrams which provide section data
essentially give information as if the wing had
infinite span.
airfoil
A sailplane with an infinite wing span is an

impossible construction, so there is a need to
interpret and/or manipulate the information
such that it applies to the specific case at hand.
The section, or an ideal wing with an infinite wing
span, is seen as not having a complex flow about
it. Rather, the air streamlines are considered to go
around the wing in the vertical plane only.
A wing of finite span, however, will always
produce an airflow which includes vortices of
tunnel wall
tunnel wall
In a wind tunnel, the section being tested
traverses the tunnel test section.
There are no wing tips to generate vortices.
50
free stream
air flow
The purpose of this chapter is to show methods

of approximating real world performance. That
is, to in some way account for the effects of air

flow in three dimensions.
Ordinarily, an aerodynamicist would use various
mathematical formulae to obtain relevant data.
In the back of this book, however, are a number
of charts and tables which are the result of the
application of those formulae to a wide range of
model aircraft parameters. You can go to the
appropriate chart or table and easily find the
information you need, completely eliminating the
need to use mathematical calculations.
induced drag
total drag
profile drag
parasite drag
drag force
various types, the major being that which comes

off of the wing tip any time lift is being generated.
It is this wing tip vortex which is the major
component of induced drag. A wing of infinite
span, or a section, has no tips. Remember, the
wind tunnel model extends across the entire
wind tunnel test section, and the computer
model essentially consists of a cross section with
no width at all. Neither, then, can shed a tip
vortex, and neither have any induced drag.
low speed, high CL
high speed, low CL
51

Let us briefly explain each of the charts and
tables we have included.
Chart 1: This chart relates three variables to
each other chord, velocity, and Reynolds
number. This is just a bit more complicated than
a standard graph, so we will provide an example
of how to use this chart.
If you are designing a sailplane which has a root
chord of 10 inches, you would trace the vertical
line from the 10 inch mark on the scale. Now use
your straightedge to draw a line horizontally from
any intersection point on a diagonal (velocity)

line through the Reynolds number scale. You
should find the Reynolds number for 10 m.p.h.
to be just under 80,000 for example. Doubling
the speed to 20 m.p.h. doubles the Reynolds
number of a 10 inch chord, making it over
150,000. If this 10 inch chord were on a slope
racer traveling at 75 m.p.h., the Reynolds
number would be around 550,000!
It is important to know the Reynolds number at
which the section is operating, and you will find
yourself using this chart frequently.
1000
900
800
700
600
1000
900
800
700
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
250
250
200
150
120
60
100
50
75
40
60
30
50
35
20
30
25
20
14
18 16
1
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD in inches
10
14
20
30
10
150
200
125
100
90
80
70
150
120
60
100
50
75
40
60
50
30
35
20
30
25
20
14
18 16
1
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD in inches
10
14
20
30
10
125
100
90
80
70
MPH
200
52
200
150
MPH

Chart 2: This chart looks a lot different than
Chart 1, but they are actually quite similar.
Chart 2 relates wing loading, velocity, and CL. As
an example, assume an unlimited class sailplane
is operating with a wing loading of 8 ounces per
square foot and is flying at 20 m.p.h.
Draw a horizontal line from the 8 on the wing

loading scale, then a vertical line from 20 m.p.h.
on the velocity scale. The intersection point lies
slightly to the right of the CL = 0.5 line. This
sailplane is therefore flying at a CL just a bit
below 0.5.
Remember, Chart 2 is for CL, not cl!
30
1.4
1.2
1.0
26
24
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
FAI max.
.025
.05
24
.01
20
18
18
16
16
14
14
12
12
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
VELOCITY in MPH
1.2
1.0
80
100
150
200
FAI max.
22
20
10
1.4
26
.1
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
22
30
.025
.05
.1
.01
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
VELOCITY in MPH
80
100
150
200
53

Chart 3: This chart is in two connected parts,
and so may seem a bit intimidating at first.
The right side of the graph provides the wing

loading based upon aircraft weight, and uses the
wing area scale from the left portion of the graph.
The left side of the chart deals with wing area. If

you know the span and the chord of a
rectangular wing planform you can easily find
the area of that wing in square inches. Just
follow the skills you have acquired in reading the
other graphs in this book.
Simply move horizontally from a point on the

area scale to either a wing loading line (diagonal)
if you need to find a goal weight for an airframe,
or a weight line (vertical) if you need to find the
wing loading of a particular design.
(This graph loses its usefulness if the wing has a

complex planform, but holds up fairly well if you
know and use the average chord.)
2400
2200
2200
2000
2000
1800
1800
1600
1600
1400
1400
1200
AVERAGE CHORD in inches
24
1000
22
20
18
800
16
14
400
400
200
200
72
84
96
108
SPAN in inches
120
132
144
156
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
800
60
1000
600
1200
600
12
10
48
54
AREA in square inches
2400
CHART 3
16
32
48
64
80
96
112
WEIGHT in ounces
128
144
160
176

Charts 4 and 5: These graphs provide the aspect
ratio of just about any flying surface. This
information is particularly important when
determining actual performance, as polar
diagrams are based on flying surfaces of infinite
span, not finite span, and the CL curve can have
quite a different slope angle than the cl curve.
We will demonstrate the usefulness of both of

these charts later on.
At this point, just notice that Chart 4 shows
aspect ratio based upon average chord and wing
span, while Chart 5 shows aspect ratio based
upon average chord and wing area.
20
18
18
12
AR=5
AR=7
15
10
AR=20
AR=25
AR=30
6
4
2
40
60
80
100
120
WING SPAN in inches
CHART 4
140
160
8
6
4
2
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
20
25
30
10
AR=15
20
12
AR=10
AR=12
AR
12
14
14
10
16
16
20
WING AREA in square inches
CHART 5
55

Chart 6: This chart provides a means of relating
sink rate to L/D and velocity. Some idea of
velocity can be derived from other specific charts,
while sink rate can be measured fairly accurately
from actual performance in still air. A measured
length of towline, a stopwatch, and calm
0
40
5
20
15
10
15
20
morning air are all the tools needed to obtain a

relatively precise L/D value. Alternately, with
velocity and L/D known, a good approximation of
sink rate can be derived. Note sink rate and
velocity must be measured in the same units
feet per second for example.
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
GLIDE RATIO (L/D)

10
2.5
2.0
SINK RATE
1.5
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.25
VELOCITY
90
85
80
0.1
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
CHART 6
56
35
30
25
20
15
10

Table 1: The usefulness of this table is rather
subtle, as we promised there would be no math
in this book.
The total drag of a wing is always the sum of the
surface drag, form drag, and induced drag:
surface drag is caused by the air trying to move
across the surface of the object;
form drag is caused by the displacement of the

air due to changes in pressure;
induced drag is caused by the vortices which
always form when the wing is producing lift.
An airfoil has surface drag and form drag at all
times, but does not produce induced drag unless
it is generating lift.
The total drag of a wing is always the sum of the surface drag, form drag, and induced drag.
Induced drag is caused by the creation of lift.
57

The actual amount of induced drag created is
dependent upon the amount of lift being
generated, CL, and the aspect ratio and general
planform of the lifting surface and to a smaller
extent the shape of the extreme tips.
If you know the aspect ratio of the lifting surface

and the CL at which it is operating, you can
determine the approximate induced drag. It is
interesting to compare the drag value from a
polar (surface and form drag only) with the
induced drag value you find for a specific aspect
ratio and lift coefficient.
If you know the aspect ratio of the lifting surface and the CL at
which it is operating, you can determine the approximate induced drag.
58

Table 2: This table relates lift and drag
coefficients to the lift to drag ratio, L/D. By
determining the lift and drag coefficient from a
polar, the L/D can be directly read from the body
of the matrix.
By determining flight time from a known height,

for example, the sink rate can be determined.
With this value known, it is a relatively simple
matter to determine the actual L/D of a model
once flight velocity has been found from Chart 2.
This becomes a very useful table when used in

conjunction with Chart 6.
Table 2 can be very useful when used in conjunction with Chart 6.
59

Tables 3.1 through 3.8: One of the interesting
characteristics of very low aspect ratio wings is
their seeming inability to achieve a stalled state.
On the other hand, the stalling point of a section
is easily seen on its polar. This is because the
effective angle of attack of a wing varies with
aspect ratio.
As an example, look at Table 3.1, which applies

to an aspect ratio of five. If the polar shows a cl of
0.7 for an angle of attack of six degrees, the wing
will actually have to be at an angle of 8.55
degrees for a CL of 0.7. A wing with an aspect
ratio of 20, however, will need to be at 6.64
degrees, while a wing with an aspect ratio of 30
will need to be at just 6.43 degrees. (You should
take a look at Tables 3.1, 3.6 and 3.8 to confirm
those values for yourself.)
The effective angle of attack of a wing varies with aspect ratio, and so the
stalling behavior of the wing will change as aspect ratio varies.
As aspect ratio decreases, the angle of attack at which the stall occurs will
be larger. As aspect ratio increases the angle of attack at which the stall
occurs will be closer to that found on the section polar diagram.
Also, as the aspect ratio gets smaller, the stall will become more gentle.
Under conditions of very low aspect ratio (below three), the CL,max will be
significantly less than the cl,max.
60

As aspect ratio decreases, the CL curve flattens
out, slightly smoothing the peak. This indicates
the stall will be less abrupt than shown on the
section polar. The overall effect of reducing the
aspect ratio to very low values (less than 3) is a
substantially lower CL,max than cl,max. This is
because the two wing tip vortices created by the
very low aspect surface come so close together
that they create an entirely different flow pattern
over the entire wing.
How to use these charts and tables? Well, say

you know the aspect ratio of the wing you are
using You can easily draw a CL curve which
shows the performance of an entire wing:
If you do not know the aspect ratio, simply use
Chart 4 or Chart 5, as appropriate.
Using the section polar, find the cl for a
particular angle of attack.
Based on the aspect ratio, go to the appropriate
table from Tables 3.1 - 3.8.
1
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
AR =
cl
note flattened peak

AR = 5
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
61

Now, based on the section angle of attack and
associated cl, find the equivalent angle of attack
on the table.
Plot the appropriate point on the polar, using
the cl axis and the related angle of attack value.
Do this for several cl values, and you will have a
series of points which can then be connected
with the assistance of a french curve.
This is the CL curve for the wing with the aspect
ratio you chose.
1
cl
Note two things about your new lift line: (1) the
zero lift angle is the same regardless of aspect
ratio because both cl and CL will be equal to zero
for that condition; (2) the lift curve will have
spread out over a wider angle of attack range.
As mentioned previously, the CL,max will not be
significantly less than cl,max unless the aspect
ratio is three or below.
As we said before, the effect of a lower aspect
ratio is an increase in angle of attack for the
same lift coefficient, particularly when compared
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
AR =
cl
AR = 30
AR = 10
AR = 5
0.5
62
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

to that found by means of the polar, but an
increased resistance to stalling.
It should also be noted how induced drag, which
is directly related to aspect ratio, affects overall
drag. Table 1 provides induced drag values for
various cl and aspect ratio combinations. This
information allows construction of a CD curve.
Using AR = 10 as an example, read the induced
drag values for CL = 0.1 to CL = 0.9 and write
them down for future reference.
On the polar, draw horizontal lines beginning at

each of the appropriate cl values on the vertical
axis and going through the cd curves. (In the
polar below we have drawn just a single line.)
For the case illustrated below, using the Re = 105
cd curve: From Table 1, the induced drag value
for cl = 0.3 is found to be 0.0029. Measure this
distance on the cd axis, then, from the
intersection of the drawn horizontal line and the
appropriate cd curve, mark off that distance. The
new CD curve (for Re = 105 in this case) will
traverse this point.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
1
cl
0.5
cl = 0.3
0
AR = 10
new CD curve segment

based on AR = 10
0.0029
0.0029
5
10
15
103cd
20
cm
-0.05
-5
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
63

Performing this operation for each of the relevant
cl values will form a series of points which can
then be joined with a smooth curve.
you will be surprised at the wide range of

information obtainable from a polar diagram.
We encourage experimentation!
With the included graphs and tables you can

easily determine the effects of a change in airfoil,
flying weight, aspect ratio, or wing area, or any
combination of these. You can get an idea of the
contribution induced drag makes to total drag.
In the next chapter we present some exercises

which have been designed to provide some
challenges and increase your familiarity with
polar diagrams, the charts and tables we have
included, and the various relationships we have
discussed.
With a bit of investigation, movement from one

graph or table to another, and a few drawn lines,
1
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
AR = 10
0.5
64
new CD curve
based on AR = 10
5
10
15
103cd
20
cm
-0.05
-5
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
Chapter 7: Putting It All Together

This chapter includes four exercises which
provide comprehensive examples of methods for
deriving information from a polar diagram. Direct
readings of data from a polar diagram, and the
coordinated use of the various charts, graphs
and tables provided at the end of this book are
included within these exercises.
To add relevance to this material, it is highly

recommended that the reader choose a sailplane
to serve as a reference for the first three of these
exercises. The reader should also have access to
copies of the section polar for the sailplane wing
airfoil before commencing this chapter.
65

EXERCISE #1
First, find the stalling speed of the sailplane, and
the angle of attack and Reynolds number at which
it occurs. Then find the cd and actual angle of
attack of the sailplane wing section at a CL of 0.5.
Write down the wing loading of the chosen
sailplane. If you do not already know this value,
use Chart 3 to determine it.
Now find the wing loading value on the vertical

axis of Chart 2 and draw a horizontal line across
the chart from that point. We will get back to this
chart in a while.
If you do not know the wing aspect ratio, use
Chart 4 to find it.
30
1.4
1.2
1.0
26
24
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
FAI max.
22
.025
.05
.1
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
VELOCITY in MPH
66
80
100
150
200
.01

Using the appropriate table from Tables 2.1 2.8, find the new CL curve based on the wing
aspect ratio. Make sure you plot several points so
the curve can be smoothed. At the stall, CL,max,
this new lift line will be a bit more flat at the
peak.
1
cl
We will use this new lift line during the second

portion of this exercise. The polar below includes
the CL curve for AR = 10.
Again using the appropriate table, find the
angle of attack at which CL,max occurs.
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
AR =
cl
AR = 10
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
67

Go back to Chart #2 and find the curve which
matches the wing section CL,max. Starting at the
point of intersection with the horizontal line you
drew previously, draw a vertical line down
through the velocity (V) axis. This is the stalling
speed of your sailplane.
30
1.4
1.2
1.0
26
FAI max.
22
1000
900
800
700
600
500
.025
.05
.1
400
.01
300
250
20
200
18
16
200
14
125
100
90
80
70
150
120
12
60
100
10
50
75
40
60
50
6
FAI min.
30
35
20
30
25
20
14
18 16
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
VELOCITY in MPH
68
150
MPH
80
100
150
200
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD in inches
10
14
20
30
10
24
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
Using the chord (if a rectangular wing) or

average chord (if a tapered wing) of your
sailplane and Chart #1, draw a vertical line
through the chord axis at the appropriate
location and note where this line intersects the
stall speed (V) line. From that point of
intersection, draw a horizontal line through the
Reynolds number (Re) axis. You now know the
Reynolds number at stall.

Now go back to the polar a final time for the
second part of the exercise. Draw a horizontal
line through the cl = 0.5 point and all of the cd
curves.
curve to the horizontal axis, then read the cd

value from that axis. (You may have to
interpolate a curve segment to do this accurately.
See the polar below for an example of this.)
In similar fashion to the method of finding the

Reynolds number at stall, find the Reynolds
number for the section at CL = 0.5. Drop a line
from the intersection with the appropriate cd
A vertical line from this point will cross the cd

axis and provide the drag value (not including
induced drag) for the wing at CL = 0.5.
1
cl
Find angle of attack for CL = 0.5 just as you did

for CL,max.
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
AR =
cl
AR = 10
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
69

EXERCISE #2
Find the moment coefficient (cm,c/4) of the wing
section at best cl/cd for a specific Reynolds
number of your choosing. Determine the velocity
for that Reynolds number, then find the wing
loading needed to achieve this performance.
Choose a Reynolds number for which there is a
cd curve. Find the cd curve for that Re. Draw a
straight line from second origin tangent to that
cd curve.
1
cl
Draw a straight horizontal line across polar

and through cl curve. Read the cl value from the
vertical axis.
Now draw a vertical line from the intersection
point on the cl curve through cm,c/4 curve.
A horizontal line from intersection of vertical
line and cm,c/4 curve through the vertical axis
will provide the cm,c/4 value. Read it from the
vertical axis.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
O'
70
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

Go to Chart 1, find the velocity based on the
Reynolds number chosen and the average wing
chord.
From Chart 2, with velocity and CL now

known, find the wing loading required for this
velocity.
(As an added challenge, can you find the actual
angle of attack required for this situation?)
30
1000
900
800
700
600
24
400
250
60
100
50
75
40
60
50
30
35
20
30
25
20
14
18 16
1
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD in inches
10
14
20
30
10
14
120
.01
16
125
100
90
80
70
.025
.05
.1
18
150
150
FAI max.
20
200
200
1.2
1.0
22
300
MPH
1.4
26
500
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
12
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
80
100
150
200
VELOCITY in MPH
71

EXERCISE #3
First, find the velocity of your sailplane for each of
the polar cd curves. Then construct a polar
diagram for your model which relates the section
cd to the sailplane CL at each of these velocities.
Finally, construct another polar diagram which
simply relates cd to cl,opt.
Look at the polar and determine the Reynolds
number values for each of the cd curves given.
Determine the sailplane velocity for each of

these Reynolds numbers by using Chart 1. This
completes the first part of this exercise.
Now, if necessary, find the sailplane wing
loading using Chart 3.
From Chart 2, and knowing the sailplane wing
loading, find the CL of your sailplane for each of
the velocities determined above.
30
1000
900
800
700
600
24
400
250
60
100
50
75
40
60
50
30
35
20
30
25
20
14
18 16
1
72
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD IN INCHES
10
14
20
30
10
14
120
16
125
100
90
80
70
.025
.05
.1
18
150
150
FAI max.
20
200
200
1.2
1.0
22
300
MPH
1.4
26
500
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
12
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
VELOCITY (m.p.h.)
80
100
150
200
.01

Draw in an appropriate CL curve based on the
aspect ratio of your glider.
Take each CL value in turn and draw a
horizontal line through the vertical axis at that
value through the appropriate cd curve.
1
cl
Do this for all of the Reynolds number-CL

combinations, then take your french curve and
connect each of the intersection points into a
smooth curve.
Dropping a vertical line from each intersection
point on the CL curve will give the angle of attack
for each of the Reynolds numbers shown by the
cd curve set.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
73

Begin the last portion of this exercise by
drawing a straight line from O' tangent to each of
the cd curves.
A horizontal line to the cl curve will give the
cl,opt value for that particular Reynolds number.
1
cl
Using your french curve, connect the tangent

points into a smooth curve. This provides a new
curve which directly relates cd to all cl,opt values.
Remember, this curve is for the wing only, and
does not include fuselage or tail drag, nor does it
provide for parasitic drag or interference drag.
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.5
O'
74
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

The aspect ratio (10) is found by using Chart 4.
20
18
16
14
12
Exercise #4: Assume a tailless sailplane using the

EH 2,0/10,0 airfoil across the span. (The section
polar is reproduced on later pages.) The span is
100" and the chord is a constant 10". The fuselage
has a constant cd of 0.005. The glider weighs 75
ounces. Determine the aircraft maximum L/D.
AR=5
10
AR=7
AR=10
AR=12
AR=15
AR=20
AR=25
AR=30
4
2
20
40
60
80
100
SPAN in inches
120
140
160
75

The wing area (1000 in2) is found by using the
left side of Chart 3.
2400
2200
2200
2000
2000
1800
1800
1600
1600
1400
1400
1000
22
20
18
800
16
14
400
400
200
200
72
84
96
108
SPAN in inches
120
132
144
156
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
800
60
1000
600
11 oz/ft2
1200
600
12
10
48
76
2400
1200
24
The wing loading (11 oz/ft2) can then be

determined by using the right side of Chart 3.
CHART 3
16
32
48
64
80
96
112
WEIGHT in ounces
128
144
160
176

Using Chart 1, find the related velocity for each
of the cd curves. Since the wing has a chord of
ten inches, the related velocities are:
Re = 100,000
200,000
400,000
From Chart 2, and using 11 ounces per square

foot as the wing loading, determine the CL for
each of the velocities found above.
V = 13.0 mph
26.0 mph
52.0 mph
30
1000
900
800
700
600
24
400
200
60
100
50
75
40
60
30
50
35
20
30
25
20
14
18 16
1
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD in inches
10
14
20
30
10
14
120
.01
16
150
.025
.05
.1
18
150
125
100
90
80
70
FAI max.
20
250
200
1.2
1.0
22
300
MPH
1.4
26
500
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
1.6
28
12
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
80
100
150
200
VELOCITY in MPH
77

This is the EH 2,0/10,0 section polar diagram.
Examine it thoroughly, identifying the cl, cd, and
cm curves.
The cm curve is superimposed over the angle of

attack axis, indicating the section has a near
zero cm value over its entire range.
Note how this polar differs from the generic polar

which has been used thus far:
There are a number of previously unidentified

curves to the right of the cl axis. (These are
labeled T.U., T.L., and S.U. Curves of this type
will be described in detail in Chapter 8.)
The cd curves are not really curves, but rather

are a series of straight line segments.
No definitive stall point is provided by the cl
curve.
105
Re =
2x105
4x105
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
10
15
78
S.U.
0.5
cl
EH 2,0/10,0
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
T.L.
15
1

On the EH 2,0/10,0 polar, draw a horizontal
line from each of the cl values determined above
through the associated cd curve.
Note the cd curve for Re = 100,000 does not go
much above cl = 0.7, yet the CL required to
support the 11 ounces per square foot wing
loading is over 1.4; there is therefore no
intersection with the Re = 100,000 cd curve.
1
cl
EH 2,0/10,0
Using an appropriate curve, connect the three

intersection points.
105
Re =
2x105
4x105
interpolated cd
for Re = 1.5x105
0.5
An approximate cd curve for Re = 150,000 can

be constructed, however. (This new cd curve is
labeled within the polar below.) The aircraft
velocity at Re = 150,000 is 19.5 mph, and the
required cl is 0.7, so this information gives a
third intersection point on the polar.
cm
-0.05
-5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
79

From Table 1, using aspect ratio = 10, find the
induced drag value for each of the relevant CL
values.
1
cl
EH 2,0/10,0
Add the induced drag values to the newly

constructed cd curve, as demonstrated in the
polar below. This results in a CD curve, as the
effects of aspect ratio have been incorporated.
105
Re =
2x105
4x105
0.5
80
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

To account for fuselage drag, graphically add a
constant cd = 0.005 to this last curve.
1
cl
EH 2,0/10,0
The resulting curve represents total aircraft drag,

including wing profile drag (cd,w), induced drag
(cd,i), and fuselage drag (cd,f).
105
Re =
2x105
4x105
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
81

Draw a straight line from Origin O' tangent to
this last curve. Read the associated drag value
from the cd axis and the lift value from the cl
axis.
1
cl
EH 2,0/10,0
From the polar below, best L/D occurs at

CL = 0.53, CD = 0.026.
From Table 2, determine the L/D represented
by that point.
105
Re =
2x105
4x105
0.5
O'
82
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1

Best L/D for this sailplane is approximately
20.4. (For comparison, the section best l/d at
Re = 200,000 is 57.25, as shown in the polar
below.) The sink rate can be easily determined
through use of Chart 6.
1
cl
EH 2,0/10,0
The EH 2,0/10,0, by the way, is one of a series of

excellent sections for swept wing tailless
planforms. All of the EH sections have pitching
moments near zero.
105
Re =
2x105
4x105
0.5
S.U.
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
T.L.
15
1
83

If you have successfully followed the exercises in
this chapter, congratulations!
Would performance be improved by building a

lighter sailplane, say 60 ounces total weight?
Before moving on to Chapter 8, take the time to

manipulate some of the parameters given in this
last exercise. For example:
Would elimination of the fuselage, cd = 0.005,

significantly improve the L/D, and if so by how
many points?
What performance improvement could be

obtained by extending the wing span to 120",
thus increasing the aspect ratio?
The polar for the EH 1,0/9,0, which is thinner

and has less camber, is provided below.
Compute the best L/D using this airfoil.
105
Re =
2x105
4x105
T.L
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
10
84
S.U.
cl
EH 1,0/9,0
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
T.U.
5 10
0.5
15
1
Chapter 8: Those Other Curves

Dr. Richard Eppler has made many
improvements to his airfoil design computer
program over the decades since its initial release.
Polars generated with the most recent versions of
Dr. Epplers program provide bubble warnings
which appear as triangles on the cd curves. Also
included are curves denoting the location on the
chord where transition and turbulent separation

occur.
This chapter will examine the importance of the
bubble warning, explore the polar curves
denoting boundary layer transition and
separation, and provide some information about
the location of artificial turbulators.
Polars generated with the most recent versions of Dr. Epplers program provide bubble
warnings which appear as triangles on the cd curves. Also included are curves
denoting the location on the chord where transition and turbulent separation occur.
85

As a wing moves through the air, and unless
there is some disturbing influence upstream of
the leading edge, the boundary layer (the thin
layer of air close to the surface) will usually at
first be laminar.
Laminar flow can be described as smooth, in that
there is very little mixing of air particles in either
the vertical dimension or across the wing. Very
little drag is generated just that caused by the
viscosity (stickiness) of the air.
free stream
air flow
As the airflow along the surface of the wing

begins to slow, adjacent layers of air further from
the surface slow as well. Because of the
interaction of these sliding layers of air, the
boundary layer at some point becomes
turbulent. Air particles begin moving up, down
and sideways while moving toward the trailing
edge. A turbulent boundary layer becomes
thicker very rapidly because of the interaction of
the air particles. The main stream flow becomes
disturbed, and both pressure drag and surface
drag increase dramatically.
transition region
laminar boundary layer
laminar sub-layer
velocity
86
turbulent boundary layer
laminar flow
transition
turbulent flow
Chapter 8: Those Other Curves...

Transition is the term used to describe the
change from laminar to turbulent flow. Where
transition occurs along the wing chord is to a
large extent dependent upon the Reynolds
number at that point on the wing.
The T.U. (Transition Upper) and T.L. (Transition
Lower) curves on the Eppler polars indicate the
computed transition point along the wing chord,
plotted against both the cl and axes. The
Reynolds number must also be considered,
however, and so the cd curves, which are directly
free stream
flow
laminar flow
related to Reynolds number, are used in

evaluating the T.U. and T.L. curves, as will
explained later.
In general, the higher the Reynolds number, the
more accurate the computed locations. This is
due to the tendency for transition to be delayed
under condition of low Reynolds number. An
unfortunate side effect of delayed transition is
laminar separation, where the boundary layer
leaves the wing entirely.
transition
turbulent flow
Note vertical displacement of flow from free stream

87

To explain laminar separation, consider the
boundary layer nearest to the surface of the
wing. As the air moves over the leading edge of
the wing it accelerates, and it tends to continue
to accelerate as it moves over the front of the
wing. The flow will remain laminar as long as it
continues to accelerate.
free stream
flow
88
laminar flow
As said above, this is a beneficial condition

because the drag is very low. To maintain the
laminar boundary layer as far as possible along
the surface of the wing, the wing must be built
accurately with no bumps or waves and the
surface must be smooth with no rough points
whatsoever.

The air moving along the wing surface slows as it
travels toward the trailing edge, and at some
point it may come to a complete stop.
(Under adverse conditions the air may in fact
flow backwards for short distances very near the
surface because it is sucked back into an area of
very low pressure. This concept is diagrammed
below.)
free stream
flow
laminar flow
This thin layer of stagnant air forms what is

called a laminar separation bubble, and the air a
bit further away from the surface must get over
this bubble. The bubble, really acting just as a
bump on the wing, forces transition to turbulent
flow as the moving layers pass over it. This
substantially increases drag.
separation & transition
turbulent flow
reverse flow due to adverse pressure gradient

Note vertical displacement of flow from free stream
89

The drawing below is based on one given in
Dr. Epplers book Airfoil Design and Data. This
drawing serves to pictorially define the flow
around a laminar separation bubble.
If the laminar separation bubble is very large, the

airflow cannot reattach. The airstream separates
from the surface in a way which is equivalent to
stalling. This points to one of the reasons model
wings are less efficient than those of full sized
aircraft laminar separation brings about a
stall at a lower angle of attack.
After the boundary layer has been forced into

turbulence by the separation bubble, it thickens
and moving air again contacts the surface. The
movement of the reattached air produces more
drag than if the laminar flow could have
continued to the trailing edge.
Transition distance is related to Reynolds number

in that the transition distance doubles when
Reynolds number is halved.
laminar separation bubble
turbulent flow
laminar flow
free stream
air flow
separation
90
transition
reattachment

If transition can be forced to occur a little earlier
than normal through the use of a turbulator, and
the formation of the laminar separation bubble
can thus be prevented. Usual practice is to place
a narrow strip of tape along the wing at the
critical point, thus tripping the boundary layer
into turbulence. The laminar separation bubble
will not form, and drag will be reduced.
Artificial turbulation can be used to excellent
effect in low Reynolds number conditions but at
higher Reynolds numbers, where no turbulator
is needed, the trip strip will create unwanted
drag. Additionally, to place the trip strip

properly requires knowledge of where and when
the laminar separation bubble is likely to form.
This is where the T.U. and T.L. curves can be of
assistance.
While the flow within the laminar boundary layer
can be determined with relative ease, it should
be noted that there are presently no reliable
mathematical computations for accurately
determining the characteristics of a turbulent
boundary layer, only an ability to approximate
where the separation begins.
trip strip
91

It is in this situation (low Reynolds numbers)
that artificial turbulation can be used to
excellent effect.
some of the triangles are oriented apex up, while

others are apex down. Upward pointing triangles
denote a bubble warning for the upper surface,
while downward pointing triangles denote a
bubble warning for the lower surface.
The bubble warning given by the Eppler program

indicates the possibility of a laminar separation
bubble and gives the approximate percent chord
at which the bubble occurs; it does not, however,
give an indication of either bubble height or
bubble length.
A triangular warning symbol indicates a region

along the drag curve where the drag value is
determined to be too low. There is no indication
of just how much additional drag can be
expected because of the bubble. Just remember
that the bubble warning lets you know the drag
indicated on the polar is too low.
Begin by looking at the triangular bubble

warning symbols along the drag curve. Note that
0.5
10
lower surface
bubble warning
92
15
103cd
20
S.U.
T.L.
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
upper surface
bubble warning
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.

The lower the Reynolds number, the more bubble
warnings should be expected.
As to the location of a turbulator, it should be
placed so the laminar separation bubble is
prevented from forming. This means placing the
turbulator ahead of the point where the polar
indicates transition. For this information, the
curves marked T.U., T.L., S.U., and S.L. need to
be evaluated.
leading edge
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
5 10
trailing edge
0.1
0.5
15
1
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
Note that the horizontal axis which gives the

angle of attack values also has a scale which is
marked in units up to 1 at the far right. The
origin, 0, of this axis signifies the leading edge of
the section, while 1 signifies the trailing edge; the
mark labelled 0.5 is the 50% chord point, etc.
percent chord indicators

93

The cl at which the bubble warning appears can
be found by simply drawing a horizontal line
from the appropriate triangle to the cl axis.
Remember, however, the bubble warning denotes
a range on the cd curve, not an individual point.
Continuing this horizontal line through the cl

curve and dropping a vertical line from the
intersection to the horizontal axis provides the
angle of attack.
The bubble warning denotes a range on the cd curve, not an individual point.
0.5
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
10
94
S.U.
T.L.
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.

Continue the horizontal line from the bubble
warning triangle to the far side of the polar.
Identify the line marked T.U., the Transition
point for the Upper surface. Draw a vertical line
from the intersection of the horizontal line and
the T.U. curve to the percent chord axis. Read
the value from the horizontal axis. In the case
drawn below, transition occurs at about 13%
chord.
with the observation that transition from laminar

to turbulent flow occurs before separation of the
turbulent boundary layer.
By drawing sets of curves, you will find that
transition on the upper surface occurs at high
lift values, while transition on the lower surface
occurs at low or negative lift values. By looking at
the polars for a number of sections, you will also
find T.U. moves toward the leading edge as the
angle of attack increases and T.L. moves forward
along the chord as the angle of attack decreases.
The T.U. and T.L. curves will always be found to

the left of the S.U. (Separation Upper) and S.L.
(Separation Lower) curves. This is in keeping
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
10
S.U.
T.U.
T.L.
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.
95

This makes placement of a turbulator
problematic, as the location will be ideal for only
one specific angle of attack and lift coefficient.
You may also find some sections demonstrating
bubble warnings for both upper and lower
surfaces at all angles of attack. This indicates
the critical Reynolds number is above the
Reynolds number assigned to the cd curve in
question.
It is only through experimentation that the

effectiveness of a turbulator can be evaluated,
but examination of the section polar diagram can
be extremely helpful in determining an initial
location, or if possible performance benefits
make trying a turbulator worthwhile.
It may be beneficial to eliminate a laminar separation bubble which appears on the

upper surface of a wing at low Reynolds numbers and high angles of attack. But at
high speed, when no turbulation is needed, the trip strip will cause unwanted drag.
96
Chapter 9: Conclusion
By this time you should be feeling confident in
your ability to read a polar diagram of the Eppler
type and derive valuable information from it. Our
desire while writing this book has been to
provide basic skills which could then be easily
expanded upon.
As we mentioned at the beginning, we picked the
Eppler type polar because it provides all of its
information on one set of axes.
1
cl
Eppler 205
In this chapter you will find several examples of

polar diagrams which use other formats for
presenting section or aircraft data.
Regardless of the method used for depicting
aerodynamic performance, the basic skills you
have acquired should make interpretation of any
type of polar diagram a relatively easy process.
cl
Re = 10
2x105
4x105
0.5
cm
-0.05
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
1
97

3.6
.036
3.2
.032
2.8
.028
2.0
.020
1.6
.016
.8
.4
0
-.1
-.4
-.2
-.8
-.3
-1.2
-.4
-1.6
-.5
-2.0
-32
Moment coefficient, cm,c/4
.008
.004
0
-.1
-.2
R
3.1x106
5.7
8.9
-.3
-24
-16
-8
16
24
Section angle of attack, 0, deg
D
98
.012
Moment coefficient, cm,a.c.
1.2
Section drag coefficient, cd
.024
Section lift coefficient, cl
2.4
32
-.4
-.5
-1.6
NACA 2412 Wing Section
-1.2
-.8
-.4
.4
.8
1.2
1.6
This polar on the opposite page is typical of those
found in Theory of Wing Sections by Ira H.
Abbott and Albert E. von Doenhoff.
The polar is presented in two parts. The left
portion includes the cl curve and the pitching
moment as measured at the quarter chord point
(cm,c/4), while the right portion gives the cd
curves and the moment coefficient as measured
at the aerodynamic center (cm,a.c.).
On the right diagram we have marked one of the
cd curves for the best lift to drag ratio (cl/cd,max)
(Point A) and dropped a reference line down to

the cl axis, so the cl,opt is marked (Point B). On
the left diagram we have drawn a line through
the cl curve at cl,opt (Point C), then dropped a
vertical line to find the angle of attack for cl,opt
(Point D). We have also marked the pitching
moment value for cl,opt (Point E).
As you can see, interpretation of a polar diagram
of this type is somewhat complicated. This is
because cl values must often be transferred from
one part of the polar to another. Such a
procedure is prone to errors.
As you can see, interpretation of a polar diagram of this type is somewhat

complicated. This is because cl values must often be transferred from one
part of the polar to another. Such a procedure is prone to errors.
99
1.5
0.00
100
0.0
0.01
0.02
Cd
0.03
0.04
0.05
-0.5
-0.5
0.0
Cl
0.5
0.5
Cl
1.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
E387
Rn = 60,000
Rn = 150,000
Rn = 200,000
-10
10
20
The polar on the opposite page is typical of those
found in Airfoils at Low Speeds by Michael S.
Selig, John F. Donovan, and David B. Fraser.
This polar is also presented in two parts. The left
portion provides the cd curves, while the right
portion gives the cl curves. (The polars in Airfoils
at Low Speeds do not include a pitching
moment curve, as moment coefficients for
selected airfoils are included in a separate table.)
On the left diagram we have marked one of the cd

curves for the best lift to drag ratio (cl/cd,max)
(Point A) and drawn a reference line across to the
cl axis, so the cl,opt is obtained (Point B). The
angle of attack can be read directly from the
axis (Point C).
As you can see, interpretation of a polar diagram
of this type is relatively easy.
Interpretation of a polar diagram of this type is relatively easy.
101

And now for something completely different!
Below is a polar for a full size sailplane. Such
polars are derived from data collected during a
number of flights. Repetitive measurements are
taken in calm weather when absolutely minimal
lift is present, but it is extremely difficult to
obtain truly reliable information. Manufacturers
and testing groups produce such polars for use
by competition pilots.
minimum sink =
125fpm @ 42 knots
0
20
40
60
Polar 1 is marked for the rate of minimum sink

(1.25 knots = 125 fpm). The velocity for
minimum sink, 42 knots in this case, is found on
the horizontal axis at the top of the polar. This
would be the speed to fly within a thermal.
Polar 2 is marked for the best L/D. The method
for finding this point is similar to the procedure
used on a section polar. In this example the
velocity for best L/D is 52 knots.
distance flown
time
80
100 knots
1
sinking
speed
knots
sinking
speed
knots
40
60
2
3
1kt = 100 ft/min.
1kt = 100 ft/min.
height lost
time
height lost
time
102
20
2
4
best L/D @ 52 knots
POLAR 1
POLAR 2
distance flown
time
80
100 knots
The optimum speed between thermals can be
found by drawing a tangent to the polar curve
from the anticipated rate of climb in the next
thermal. If, as in Polar 3, the next thermal can be
thought to provide a rate of climb of 200 feet per
minute, then the speed to fly is 68 knots, giving
an average speed of 33 knots.
Polar 4, on the other hand, shows the speed to fly
should be 74 knots if the anticipated rate of
climb for the next thermal is 400 feet per minute.
The average speed in this case is 46 knots.
Such a difference in the rate of climb within a

thermal (200 fpm vs. 400 fpm) means an
increase in average speed of 13 knots (33 knots
vs. 46 knots).
As can then be logically derived from a
performance polar, the greatest cross-country
speed is obtained by choosing to climb in only
the strongest thermals.
speed to fly for 200 fpm

climb in next thermal, 68 knots
2
average speed, 33 knots
0
20
40
60
80
average speed, 46 knots

100 knots
sinking
speed
knots
40
60
80
100 knots
2
3
1kt = 100 ft/min.
1kt = 100 ft/min.
height lost
time
height lost
time
20
1
sinking
speed
knots
speed to fly for 400 fpm

climb in next thermal, 74 knots
POLAR 3
POLAR 4
103

Polar 5, however, demonstrates there is little
difference in average speed, whether flying
between thermals at the speed for best L/D or at
optimum speed based on an anticipated rate of
climb in the next thermal of 200 feet per minute.
Not obvious from the polar is the special case of

dolphin flying. If a glider flies slowly through lift
and does not circle, yet travels rapidly through
sinking air, average speed can be considerably
improved. By choosing air such that the glider is
in lift more than in sink, long high speed flights
are possible.
best L/D, 52 knots
difference in average speed, 3 knots
optimum speed, 68 knots
2
0
20
40
60
1
sinking
speed
knots
2
3
1kt = 100 ft/min.

height lost
time
104
POLAR 5
80
100 knots
Acquisition of flying skills is based on both
information and experience. A polar may provide
the information needed to derive the greatest
possible performance from a model. This can be
a challenging exercise in and of itself, as well as
offering the keen pilot a distinct advantage in a
contest environment. It may be worthwhile to
take a good performing model and construct a
polar diagram for it.
in the construction of such a polar. An example

of a polar of this type, based on the EH 2,0/10,0
and the Eppler 205, for Re = 200,000, is
provided below. Such comparison polars can be
constructed for complete aircraft as well.
Performance polars for sections can be used for

comparison purposes. Table 2 will be very useful
As someone famous once said, The skys the

limit!
This is a comparison polar for the EH 2,0/10,0

and Eppler 205 sections at Re = 200,000.
cl and cd values were read from the appropriate
section polar, then Table 2 was used to
determine the cl/cd values. Such polars can be
constructed for complete aircraft as well.
A section polar, the charts and tables provided

here, a straightedge, french curve and pencil can
be very potent design and learning tools.
80
cl
cd
Re = 200,000
EH 2,0/10,0
Eppler 205
60
40
20
0.00
0.25
0.50
cl
0.75
1.00
1.25
105
106
Bibliography
Abbott, Ira H. and Albert E. von Doenhoff. Theory
of Wing Sections. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1959.
Gal, Ferdinando. Aerodynamic Design of

Radioguided Sailplanes. Baveno Italy:
Ferdinando Gal, April 1987.
Anderson, John D., Jr. Introduction to Flight. New

York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978.
Hurt, Hugh H., Jr. Aerodynamics for Naval

Aviators. The Office of the Chief of Naval
Operations, Aviation Training Division,
January 1965.
Ashley, Holt and Marten Landahl. Aerodynamics

of Wings and Bodies. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1985.
Corning, Gerald. Airplane Design. College Park
Maryland: Gerald Corning, 1953.
Eppler, Richard. Airfoil Design and Data. New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1990.
Forrey, Bill. R/C Soaring, Model Builder
December 1983, pp. 27-29, 73-74.
Manhattan Beach California: RCMB Inc.,
December 1983.
Kermode, A. C. Mechanics of Flight. London:

Pitman Education Limited, 1980.
Lennon, A. G. R/C Model Airplane Design.
Osceola Wisconsin: Motorbooks
International, 1986.
Milne-Thompson, L. M. Theoretical
Aerodynamics. New York: Dover Publications,
Inc., 1973.
Mises, Richard von. Theory of Flight. New York:
Dover Publications, Inc., 1959.
107

Quabeck, Helmut. HQ-Profile, MTB 7.
Baden-Baden Germany: Verlag fr Technik
und Handwerk GmbH, 1986.
Thies, Werner. Eppler-Profile fr Grosegler,

MTB 2. Baden-Baden Germany: Verlag fr
Technik und Handwerk GmbH, 1982.
Selig, Michael S., John F. Donovan, and David B.

Fraser. Airfoils at Low Speeds, Soartech 8.
Virginia Beach Virginia: H. A. Stokely, 1989.
Wegener, Peter P. What Makes Airplanes Fly?

New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991.
Selig, Michael S., James J. Guglielmo, Andy P.

Broeren and Philippe Gigure. Summary of
Low-Speed Airfoil Data, Volume 1. Virginia
Beach Virginia: H. A. Stokely, 1995.
Simons, Martin. Model Aircraft Aerodynamics.
Watford Herts. England: Argus Books
Limited, 1978.
Thies, Werner. Eppler-Profile, MTB 1.
Baden-Baden Germany: Verlag fr Technik
und Handwerk GmbH, 1983.
108
Whitford, Ray. Design for Air Combat. Alexandria

Virginia: Janes Information Group Inc.,
1989.
Wood, Karl D. Technical Aerodynamics. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1935.
Zaic, Frank. Model Glider Design. New York:
Model Aeronautic Publications, 1944.
Zaic, Frank. Circular Airflow and Model Aircraft.
Northridge California: Model Aeronautic
Publications, 1964.
Appendices
110
Appendix A: Glossary
: angle of attack; angle between the section
chord line and a line parallel to the free stream
flow
span and 10 chord has an aspect ratio of 12

because its span is equivalent to 12 chord
lengths.
airfoil: a portion of a wing, considered to be

three dimensional
axis (singular), axes (plural): reference line(s)

from which the location of a point is defined
aspect ratio (AR): the span of a rectangular wing

using the wing chord as the unit of
measurement. As an example, a wing of 120
c: chord
c: mean (average) chord
airfoil
chord
111

cl: coefficient of lift for the section
CL: coefficient of lift for the airfoil, wing, or total
aircraft
cl,max: maximum coefficient of lift for the wing
section
CL,max: maximum coefficient of lift for the airfoil,
wing, or total aircraft
cl,opt: optimum coefficient of lift for the wing
section; cl for maximum l/d
CL,opt: optimum coefficient of lift for the airfoil,

wing, or entire aircraft; CL for maximum L/D
cm: moment coefficient, or pitching moment, for
the section
cm,c/4: moment coefficient, or pitching moment,
for the section as measured at the quarter chord
point
CM: moment coefficient or pitching moment for
the airfoil, wing, or entire aircraft
lift (cl)
cm,c/4 (-)
direction
of flight
drag (cd)
pitching Moment
cm,c/4 (+)
112
CM,c/4: moment coefficient or pitching moment
for the airfoil, wing, or entire aircraft as
measured at the mean (average) quarter chord
point
camber line: a line plotted equidistant from the

section upper and lower surfaces
cd: coefficient of drag for the section
chord: length of airfoil as measured from the

leading edge to the trailing edge, parallel to the
centerline of the aircraft
CD: coefficient of drag for the airfoil, wing, or

entire aircraft
local chord: chord, as defined above, at a

specific station along the wing semi-span
camber: maximum height of the camber line

above the chord line, expressed as a percentage
of the chord
mean chord: average chord, c; may be

specifically defined as arithmetic mean,
aerodynamic mean, geometric mean, etc.
Symmetrical
camber
camber line
cambered
heavily cambered
chord line or
reference line
increased camber
via flap deflection
113

coordinates: points on a plane which have been
defined relative to perpendicular axes
nearly stagnant low energy air trapped against

the surface tends to flow backwards, forming a
bubble which is highly drag producing
drag: horizontal force component acting opposite

to direction of motion; see also cd and CD
lift: the vertical plane force component; see also

cl and CL
glide ratio: units of horizontal distance traveled

through the air per unit of height lost; see also
sink rate
moment: the product of a quantity and its

perpendicular distance from a reference point
laminar separation (bubble): as smooth flowing

(laminar) air becomes unable to follow a surface,
it tends to lift or separate from that surface; the
origin: point of intersection of two related axes
laminar separation bubble

free stream
air flow
separation
114
transition
reattachment
Origin O: within a polar diagram, the point of
intersection of the cl-cm,c/4 axis and the axis
that trends and interrelationships can be easily

visualized and evaluated
Origin O': within a polar diagram, the point of

intersection of the cd = 0 line and cd axis
Reynolds number (Re, Rn, or R):

a dimensionless number related to object length,
the velocity of the object, and the density and
viscosity of the medium through which the object
is traveling
pitching moment (cm or cm,c/4): force acting on a

section through the quarter chord point which
tends to pitch the leading edge either up or down
section: cross section of a wing, considered to be

two dimensional and equivalent to a wing of
infinite span
polar or polar diagram: a graphical

representation of various aerodynamic data such
0.5
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
10
O'
S.U.
T.L.
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.
115

sink rate: vertical velocity, usually expressed in
units per second; see also glide ratio
stall: point at which lift is at its maximum; lift
begins to decline as the angle of attack is
increased past this point; point at which
separation of streamlined flow extends from near
the leading edge to beyond the trailing edge of
the section
thickness: the maximum height of the section as
measured perpendicular to the mean camber
line, expressed as a percentage of the chord
wing loading: technically, the mass of the

aircraft divided by the wing area; that portion of
aircraft total weight carried by a unit of wing
area; in modeling, usually expressed in ounces
per square foot (oz./ft2) in the U.S., grams per
square decimeter (gm/dm2) in Europe.
zero lift angle (l=0 or L=0): the angle at which
the section, or airfoil or wing, is not producing
any lift at all. For positively cambered sections
the zero lift angle will be substantially negative,
for symmetrical sections the zero lift angle will
always be 0o.
zero lift line
reference line
50% chord
mean camber line
As a rough approximation, the zero lift line passes through

the trailing edge and the mean camber line at 50% chord.
116
Appendix B: A Historical Note
Back in the good old days (1940 or so) NACA

presented its curves of lift-drag data turned 90
degrees to the present usage. Thus cl was on the
horizontal scale and cd was on the vertical scale.
Pitching moment was shown across the bottom.
2.0
1.6
cl
0
-.1
-.2
-.3
-.4
-.5
1.2
.8
.4
0
cm,c/4
-.4
-.8
-1.2
-1.6
-2.0
-24
-16
-8
16
24
When the first laminar flow was observed (see

the NACA 23012 for instance) the data points
showed a discontinuity at low values of cl, but
the faired curve drawn through the data points
was a smooth curve that looked like the old
curves.
Bucket? Wheres a bucket? I dont see any

buckets.
.020
.018
.012
cd
cm,a.c.
.008
.004
0
-.1
-.2
-.3
-.4
-.5
-1.6
Section angle of attack, 0, deg
NACA 23012 Wing Section
-1.2
-.8
-.4
.4
.8
1.2
1.6
117

As the airfoil section was given camber the
bucket widened and shifted so that it was
centered on cl for symmetrical sections and was
centered on progressively higher values of cl as
the camber increased.
Lo and behold, a hollow in the lift/drag curve

was observed! Since the term drag ditch didnt
have the necessary ring to it, there was soon a
clamor Lets call it a drag bucket!
As the camber and the thickness increase the

bucket softens and becomes less well defined,
but the low drag portion of the curve is still
referred to as the bucket.
1.6
0
-.1
-.2
1.2
-.3
-.4
-.5
.8
cl
.4
0
cm,c/4
-.4
-.8
-1.2
-1.6
-2.0
-24
-16
-8
16
24
2.0
Finally, when the laminar flow airfoils were

developed, the discontinuity in the lift/drag data
was recognized for what it was and the faired
curve followed the data points. The NACA 63-009
airfoil is a good example of this.
.018
.012
cd
cm,a.c.
.008
.004
0
-.1
-.2
-.3
-.4
-.5
-1.6
Section angle of attack, a0, deg
118
the bucket
.020
NACA 63-009 Wing Section
-1.2
-.8
-.4
.4
.8
1.2
1.6
Appendix B: A Historical Note

Nowadays we have turned the lift/drag curve
over on its side so that the lift data are on the
vertical scale and the drag data are on the
horizontal scale.
Please note also that the curve of lift versus angle
of attack is now presented to the right of the l/d
1
cl
Eppler 205
curve, and that the cl scale for the two sections of

data is the same. This allows us to project lines
back and forth between the two sections of data
and we can determine cd, , and cm,c/4 for any
value of cl of interest.
cl
Re = 10
2x105
4x105
0.5
-0.1
cm
-5
5
10
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
10 15
0.5
119
120
Appendix C: Units of Measurement Equivalencies Charts

0
10
20
30
40
0
0
50
60
10
10
20
20
80
100
1
30
30
40
40
50
50
50
10
20
30
60
60
70
70
80
120
100
40
1000
1
90
100
110
200
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
70
50
80
90
100
100
110
110
120
160
70
2000
2
80
120
130
180
150
60
130
140
inches
150
300
3
90
140
120
140
200
130
100
110
3000
3
140
150
160
220
200
90
400 cm
4 meters
240
150
170
180
130
140
4000
4
170
190
260
250
120
160
280
160
mph
200
300
300
150
knots
fps
km/h
170
ounces
5000 grams
5
kg
121
0
0
10
500
10
20
30
0
0
122
1000
40
50
60
5
10
70
15
1500
80
90
100
2000
120
20
30
2500
140
160
15
10
40
ft2
20
3000
180
3500
200
220
60
dm2
25 oz/ft2
20
50
in2
70
gm/dm2
Charts
124
Chart 1: Reynolds Number vs. Chord vs. Velocity

1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
250
150
MPH
200
125
100
90
80
70
150
120
60
100
50
75
40
60
50
30
35
20
30
25
20
18 16
14
1
12
10
15
7.5
5
2
CHORD in inches
10
14
20
30
200
10
125
126
Chart 2: CL vs. Wing Loading vs. Velocity

30
.7
1.2
.6
1.0
26
CL
.8
1.4
28
24
.9
1.6
.5
.4
.3
FAI max.
.2
.05
.1
.025
.01
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
FAI min.
4
2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
VELOCITY in MPH
80
100
150
200
MPH
127
128
Chart 3: Span vs. Average Chord vs. Area; and Area vs. Weight vs. Wing Loading
4
2400
WING LOADING in oz/ft2
10
2200
12
2000
1800
14
1600
16
1400
18
20
24
22
24
1000
22
20
18
1200
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
48
60
72
84
96
108
SPAN in inches
120
132
144
156
16
32
48
64
80
96
112
WEIGHT in ounces
128
144
160
176
129
130
Chart 4: Average Chord vs. Span vs. Aspect Ratio

20
18
16
14
12
AR=5
AR=7
AR=10
10
AR=12
AR=15
AR=20
AR=25
AR=30
20
40
60
80
SPAN in inches
100
120
140
160
131
132
Chart 5: Average Chord vs. Area vs. Aspect Ratio

5
20
AR
10
18
12
16
15
14
20
12
25
30
10
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
133
134
Chart 6: Velocity vs. Glide Ratio vs. Sink Rate

0
40
5
20
15
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
GLIDE RATIO (L/D)

10
2.5
2.0
SINK RATE
1.5
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.25
VELOCITY
90
85
80
0.1
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
135
136
Tables
138
Table 1: Induced Drag Coefficient
LIFT COEFFICIENT
.1
A
S
P
E
C
T
R
A
T
I
O
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
5 .0006 .0025 .0057 .0102 .0159 .0229 .0312 .0407 .0516 .0637 .0770 .0917 .1076 .1248 .1432 .1630 .1840 .2063
7 .0005 .0018 .0041 .0073 .0114 .0164 .0223 .0291 .0368 .0455 .0550 .0655 .0768 .0891 .1023 .1164 .1314 .1473
10 .0003 .0013 .0029 .0051 .0080 .0115 .0156 .0204 .0258 .0318 .0385 .0458 .0538 .0624 .0716 .0815 .0920 .1031
12 .0003 .0011 .0024 .0042 .0066 .0095 .0130 .0170 .0215 .0265 .0321 .0382 .0448 .0520 .0597 .0679 .0767 .0859
15 .0002 .0008 .0019 .0034 .0053 .0076 .0104 .0136 .0172 .0212 .0257 .0306 .0359 .0416 .0477 .0543 .0613 .0688
20 .0002 .0006 .0014 .0025 .0040 .0057 .0078 .0102 .0129 .0159 .0193 .0229 .0269 .0312 .0358 .0407 .0460 .0516
25 .0001 .0005 .0011 .0020 .0032 .0046 .0062 .0081 .0103 .0127 .0154 .0183 .0215 .0250 .0286 .0326 .0368 .0413
30 .0001 .0004 .0010 .0017 .0027 .0038 .0052 .0068 .0086 .0106 .0128 .0153 .0179 .0208 .0239 .0272 .0307 .0344
INDUCED DRAG COEFFICIENT AS RELATED TO ASPECT RATIO AND LIFT COEFFICIENT
139
140
Table 2: Lift to Drag Ratio

LIFT COEFFICIENT
D
R
A
G
C
O
E
F
F
I
C
I
E
N
T
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.018
0.019
0.020
0.021
0.022
0.023
0.024
0.025
0.026
0.027
0.028
0.029
0.030
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
100.0
50.0
33.3
25.0
20.0
16.7
14.3
12.5
11.1
10.0
9.1
8.3
7.7
7.1
6.7
6.2
5.9
5.6
5.3
5.0
4.8
4.5
200.0
100.0
66.7
50.0
40.0
33.3
28.6
25.0
22.2
20.0
18.2
16.7
15.4
14.3
13.3
12.5
11.8
11.1
10.5
10.0
9.5
9.1
300.0
150.0
100.0
75.0
60.0
50.0
42.9
37.5
33.3
30.0
27.3
25.0
23.1
21.4
20.0
18.8
17.6
16.7
15.8
15.0
14.3
13.6
400.0
200.0
133.3
100.0
80.0
66.7
57.1
50.0
44.4
40.0
36.4
33.3
30.8
28.6
26.7
25.0
23.5
22.2
21.1
20.0
19.0
18.2
500.0
250.0
166.7
125.0
100.0
83.3
71.4
62.5
55.6
50.0
45.5
41.7
38.5
35.7
33.3
31.3
29.4
27.8
26.3
25.0
23.8
22.7
600.0
300.0
200.0
150.0
120.0
100.0
85.7
75.0
66.7
60.0
54.5
50.0
46.2
42.9
40.0
37.5
35.3
33.3
31.6
30.0
28.6
27.3
700.0
350.0
233.3
175.0
140.0
116.7
100.0
87.5
77.8
70.0
63.6
58.3
53.8
50.0
46.7
43.8
41.2
38.9
36.8
35.0
33.3
31.8
800.0
400.0
266.7
200.0
160.0
133.3
114.3
100.0
88.9
80.0
72.7
66.7
61.5
57.1
53.3
50.0
47.1
44.4
42.1
40.0
38.1
36.4
900.0
450.0
300.0
225.0
180.0
150.0
128.6
112.5
100.0
90.0
81.8
75.0
69.2
64.3
60.0
56.3
52.9
50.0
47.4
45.0
42.9
40.9
1000
500.0
333.3
250.0
200.0
166.7
142.9
125.0
111.1
100.0
90.9
83.3
76.9
71.4
66.7
62.5
58.8
55.6
52.6
50.0
47.6
45.5
1100
550.0
366.7
275.0
220.0
183.3
157.1
137.5
122.2
110.0
100.0
91.7
84.6
78.6
73.3
68.8
64.7
61.1
57.9
55.0
52.4
50.0
1200
600.0
400.0
300.0
240.0
200.0
171.4
150.0
133.3
120.0
109.1
100.0
92.3
85.7
80.0
75.0
70.6
66.7
63.2
60.0
57.1
54.5
1300
650.0
433.3
325.0
260.0
216.7
185.7
162.5
144.4
130.0
118.2
108.3
100.0
92.9
86.7
81.3
76.5
72.2
68.4
65.0
61.9
59.1
1400
700.0
466.7
350.0
280.0
233.3
200.0
175.0
155.6
140.0
127.3
116.7
107.7
100.0
93.3
87.5
82.4
77.8
73.7
70.0
66.7
63.6
1500
750.0
500.0
375.0
300.0
250.0
214.3
187.5
166.7
150.0
136.4
125.0
115.4
107.1
100.0
93.8
88.2
83.3
78.9
75.0
71.4
68.2
1600
800.0
533.3
400.0
320.0
266.7
228.6
200.0
177.8
160.0
145.5
133.3
123.1
114.3
106.7
100.0
94.1
88.9
84.2
80.0
76.2
72.7
1700
850.0
566.7
425.0
340.0
283.3
242.9
212.5
188.9
170.0
154.5
141.7
130.8
121.4
113.3
106.3
100.0
94.4
89.5
85.0
81.0
77.3
1800
900.0
600.0
450.0
360.0
300.0
257.1
225.0
200.0
180.0
163.6
150.0
138.5
128.6
120.0
112.5
105.9
100.0
94.7
90.0
85.7
81.8
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
8.7
8.3
8.0
7.7
7.4
7.1
6.9
6.7
13.0
12.5
12.0
11.5
11.1
10.7
10.3
10.0
17.4
16.7
16.0
15.4
14.8
14.3
13.8
13.3
21.7
20.8
19.2
18.5
18.5
17.2
16.7
16.1
26.1
25.0
24.0
23.1
22.2
21.4
20.7
20.0
30.4
29.2
28.0
26.9
25.9
25.0
24.1
23.3
34.8
33.3
32.0
30.8
29.6
28.6
27.6
26.7
39.1
37.5
36.0
34.6
33.3
32.1
31.0
30.0
43.5
41.7
40.0
38.5
37.0
35.7
34.5
33.3
LIFT TO DRAG RATIO
47.8
45.8
44.0
42.3
40.7
39.3
37.9
36.7
52.2
50.0
48.0
46.2
44.4
42.9
41.4
40.0
56.5
54.2
52.0
50.0
48.1
46.4
44.8
43.3
60.9
58.3
56.0
53.8
51.8
50.0
48.3
46.7
65.2
62.5
60.0
57.7
55.5
53.6
51.7
50.0
69.6
66.7
64.0
61.5
59.3
57.1
55.2
53.3
73.9
70.8
68.0
65.4
63.0
60.7
58.6
56.7
78.3
75.0
72.0
69.2
66.7
64.3
62.1
60.0
141
142
Table 3.1: Equivalent Angle of Attack; Aspect Ratio 5

LIFT COEFFICIENT
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
.0
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.5
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
15.36
14.86
14.36
13.86
13.36
12.86
12.36
11.86
11.36
10.86
10.36
09.86
09.36
08.86
08.36
07.86
07.36
06.86
06.36
05.86
05.36
04.86
04.36
03.86
03.36
02.86
02.36
01.86
01.36
00.86
00.36
-0.14
-0.64
-1.14
-1.64
-2.14
-2.64
-3.14
-3.64
-4.14
-4.64
15.73
15.23
14.73
14.23
13.73
13.23
12.73
12.23
11.73
11.23
10.73
10.23
09.73
09.23
08.73
08.23
07.73
07.23
06.73
06.23
05.73
05.23
04.73
04.23
03.73
03.23
02.73
02.23
01.73
01.23
00.73
00.23
-0.27
-0.77
-1.27
-1.77
-2.27
-2.77
-3.27
-3.77
-4.27
16.09
15.59
15.09
14.59
14.09
13.59
13.09
12.59
12.09
11.59
11.09
10.59
10.09
09.59
09.09
08.59
08.09
07.59
07.09
06.59
06.09
05.59
05.09
04.59
04.09
03.59
03.09
02.59
02.09
01.59
01.09
00.59
00.09
-0.41
-0.91
-1.41
-1.91
-2.41
-2.91
-3.41
-3.91
16.46
15.96
15.46
14.96
14.46
13.96
13.46
12.96
12.46
11.96
11.46
10.96
10.46
09.96
09.46
08.96
08.46
07.96
07.46
06.96
06.46
05.96
05.46
04.96
04.46
03.96
03.46
02.96
02.46
01.96
01.46
00.96
00.46
-0.04
-0.54
-1.04
-1.54
-2.04
-2.54
-3.04
-3.54
16.82
16.32
15.82
15.32
14.82
14.32
13.82
13.32
12.82
12.32
11.82
11.32
10.82
10.32
09.82
09.32
08.82
08.32
07.82
07.32
06.82
06.32
05.82
05.32
04.82
04.32
03.82
03.32
02.82
02.32
01.82
01.32
00.82
00.32
-0.18
-0.68
-1.18
-1.68
-2.18
-2.68
-3.18
17.19
16.69
16.19
15.69
15.19
14.69
14.19
13.69
13.19
12.69
12.19
11.69
11.19
10.69
10.19
09.69
09.19
08.69
08.19
07.69
07.19
06.69
06.19
05.69
05.19
04.69
04.19
03.69
03.19
02.69
02.19
01.69
01.19
00.69
00.19
-0.31
-0.81
-1.31
-1.81
-2.31
-2.81
17.55
17.05
16.55
16.05
15.55
15.05
14.55
14.05
13.55
13.05
12.55
12.05
11.55
11.05
10.55
10.05
09.55
09.05
08.55
08.05
07.55
07.05
06.55
06.05
05.55
05.05
04.55
04.05
03.55
03.05
02.55
02.05
01.55
01.05
00.55
00.05
-0.45
-0.95
-1.45
-1.95
-2.45
17.92
17.42
16.92
16.42
15.92
15.42
14.92
14.42
13.92
13.42
12.92
12.42
11.92
11.42
10.92
10.42
09.92
09.42
08.92
08.42
07.92
07.42
06.92
06.42
05.92
05.42
04.92
04.42
03.92
03.42
02.92
02.42
01.92
01.42
00.92
00.42
-0.08
-0.58
-1.08
-1.58
-2.08
18.28
17.78
17.28
16.78
16.28
15.78
15.28
14.78
14.28
13.78
13.28
12.78
12.28
11.78
11.28
10.78
10.28
09.78
09.28
08.78
08.28
07.78
07.28
06.78
06.28
05.78
05.28
04.78
04.28
03.78
03.28
02.78
02.28
01.78
01.28
00.78
00.28
-0.22
-0.72
-1.22
-1.72
18.65
18.15
17.65
17.15
16.65
16.15
15.65
15.15
14.65
14.15
13.65
13.15
12.65
12.15
11.65
11.15
10.65
10.15
09.65
09.15
08.65
08.15
07.65
07.15
06.65
06.15
05.65
05.15
04.65
04.15
03.65
03.15
02.65
02.15
01.65
01.15
00.65
00.15
-0.35
-0.85
-1.35
19.01
18.51
18.01
17.51
17.01
16.51
16.01
15.51
15.01
14.51
14.01
13.51
13.01
12.51
12.01
11.51
11.01
10.51
10.01
09.51
09.01
08.51
08.01
07.51
07.01
06.51
06.01
05.51
05.01
04.51
04.01
03.51
03.01
02.51
02.01
01.51
01.01
00.51
00.01
-0.49
-0.99
19.38
18.88
18.38
17.88
17.38
16.88
16.38
15.88
15.38
14.88
14.38
13.88
13.38
12.88
12.38
11.88
11.38
10.88
10.38
09.88
09.38
08.88
08.38
07.88
07.38
06.88
06.38
05.88
05.38
04.88
04.38
03.88
03.38
02.88
02.38
01.88
01.38
00.88
00.38
-0.12
-0.62
19.74
19.24
18.74
18.24
17.74
17.24
16.74
16.24
15.74
15.24
14.74
14.24
13.74
13.24
12.74
12.24
11.74
11.24
10.74
10.24
09.74
09.24
08.74
08.24
07.74
07.24
06.74
06.24
05.74
05.24
04.74
04.24
03.74
03.24
02.74
02.24
01.74
01.24
00.74
00.24
-0.26
20.11
19.61
19.11
18.61
18.11
17.61
17.11
16.61
16.11
15.61
15.11
14.61
14.11
13.61
13.11
12.61
12.11
11.61
11.11
10.61
10.11
09.61
09.11
08.61
08.11
07.61
07.11
06.61
06.11
05.61
05.11
04.61
04.11
03.61
03.11
02.61
02.11
01.61
01.11
00.61
00.11
20.47
19.97
19.47
18.97
18.47
17.97
17.47
16.97
16.47
15.97
15.47
14.97
14.47
13.97
13.47
12.97
12.47
11.97
11.47
10.97
10.47
09.97
09.47
08.97
08.47
07.97
07.47
06.97
06.47
05.97
05.47
04.97
04.47
03.97
03.47
02.97
02.47
01.97
01.47
00.97
00.47
EQUIVALENT ANGLE OF ATTACK; ASPECT RATIO = 5
143
144

LIFT COEFFICIENT
0
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.26
14.76
14.26
13.76
13.26
12.76
12.26
11.76
11.26
10.76
10.26
09.76
09.26
08.76
08.26
07.76
07.26
06.76
06.26
05.76
05.26
04.76
04.26
03.76
03.26
02.76
02.26
01.76
01.26
00.76
00.26
-0.24
-0.74
-1.24
-1.74
-2.24
-2.74
-3.24
-3.74
-4.24
-4.74
15.52
15.02
14.52
14.02
13.52
13.02
12.52
12.02
11.52
11.02
10.52
10.02
09.52
09.02
08.52
08.02
07.52
07.02
06.52
06.02
05.52
05.02
04.52
04.02
03.52
03.02
02.52
02.02
01.52
01.02
00.52
00.02
-0.48
-0.98
-1.48
-1.98
-2.48
-2.98
-3.48
-3.98
-4.48
15.78
15.28
14.78
14.28
13.78
13.28
12.78
12.28
11.78
11.28
10.78
10.28
09.78
09.28
08.78
08.28
07.78
07.28
06.78
06.28
05.78
05.28
04.78
04.28
03.78
03.28
02.78
02.28
01.78
01.28
00.78
00.28
-0.22
-0.72
-1.22
-1.72
-2.22
-2.72
-3.22
-3.72
-4.22
16.04
15.54
15.04
14.54
14.04
13.54
13.04
12.54
12.04
11.54
11.04
10.54
10.04
09.54
09.04
08.54
08.04
07.54
07.04
06.54
06.04
05.54
05.04
04.54
04.04
03.54
03.04
02.54
02.04
01.54
01.04
00.54
00.04
-0.46
-0.96
-1.46
-1.96
-2.46
-2.96
-3.46
-3.96
16.30
15.80
15.30
14.80
14.30
13.80
13.30
12.80
12.30
11.80
11.30
10.80
10.30
09.80
09.30
08.80
08.30
07.80
07.30
06.80
06.30
05.80
05.30
04.80
04.30
03.80
03.30
02.80
02.30
01.80
01.30
00.80
00.30
-0.20
-0.70
-1.20
-1.70
-2.20
-2.70
-3.20
-3.70
16.56
16.06
15.56
15.06
14.56
14.06
13.56
13.06
12.56
12.06
11.56
11.06
10.56
10.06
09.56
09.06
08.56
08.06
07.56
07.06
06.56
06.06
05.56
05.06
04.56
04.06
03.56
03.06
02.56
02.06
01.56
01.06
00.56
00.06
-0.44
-0.94
-1.44
-1.94
-2.44
-2.94
-3.44
16.82
16.32
15.82
15.32
14.82
14.32
13.82
13.32
12.82
12.32
11.82
11.32
10.82
10.32
09.82
09.32
08.82
08.32
07.82
07.32
06.82
06.32
05.82
05.32
04.82
04.32
03.82
03.32
02.82
02.32
01.82
01.32
00.82
00.32
-0.18
-0.68
-1.18
-1.68
-2.18
-2.68
-3.18
17.08
16.58
16.08
15.58
15.08
14.58
14.08
13.58
13.08
12.58
12.08
11.58
11.08
10.58
10.08
09.58
09.08
08.58
08.08
07.58
07.08
06.58
06.08
05.58
05.08
04.58
04.08
03.58
03.08
02.58
02.08
01.58
01.08
00.58
00.08
-0.42
-0.92
-1.42
-1.92
-2.42
-2.92
17.34
16.84
16.34
15.84
15.34
14.84
14.34
13.84
13.34
12.84
12.34
11.84
11.34
10.84
10.34
09.84
09.34
08.84
08.34
07.84
07.34
06.84
06.34
05.84
05.34
04.84
04.34
03.84
03.34
02.84
02.34
01.84
01.34
00.84
00.34
-0.16
-0.66
-1.16
-1.66
-2.16
-2.66
17.61
17.11
16.61
16.11
15.61
15.11
14.61
14.11
13.61
13.11
12.61
12.11
11.61
11.11
10.61
10.11
09.61
09.11
08.61
08.11
07.61
07.11
06.61
06.11
05.61
05.11
04.61
04.11
03.61
03.11
02.61
02.11
01.61
01.11
00.61
00.11
-0.39
-0.89
-1.39
-1.89
-2.39
17.87
17.37
16.87
16.37
15.87
15.37
14.87
14.37
13.87
13.37
12.87
12.37
11.87
11.37
10.87
10.37
09.87
09.37
08.87
08.37
07.87
07.37
06.87
06.37
05.87
05.37
04.87
04.37
03.87
03.37
02.87
02.37
01.87
01.37
00.87
00.37
-0.13
-0.63
-1.13
-1.63
-2.13
18.13
17.63
17.13
16.63
16.13
15.63
15.13
14.63
14.13
13.63
13.13
12.63
12.13
11.63
11.13
10.63
10.13
09.63
09.13
08.63
08.13
07.63
07.13
06.63
06.13
05.63
05.13
04.63
04.13
03.63
03.13
02.63
02.13
01.63
01.13
00.63
00.13
-0.37
-0.87
-1.37
-1.87
18.39
17.89
17.39
16.89
16.39
15.89
15.39
14.89
14.39
13.89
13.39
12.89
12.39
11.89
11.39
10.89
10.39
09.89
09.39
08.89
08.39
07.89
07.39
06.89
06.39
05.89
05.39
04.89
04.39
03.89
03.39
02.89
02.39
01.89
01.39
00.89
00.39
-0.11
-0.61
-1.11
-1.61
18.65
18.15
17.65
17.15
16.65
16.15
15.65
15.15
14.65
14.15
13.65
13.15
12.65
12.15
11.65
11.15
10.65
10.15
09.65
09.15
08.65
08.15
07.65
07.15
06.65
06.15
05.65
05.15
04.65
04.15
03.65
03.15
02.65
02.15
01.65
01.15
00.65
00.15
-0.35
-0.85
-1.35
18.91
18.41
17.91
17.41
16.91
16.41
15.91
15.41
14.91
14.41
13.91
13.41
12.91
12.41
11.91
11.41
10.91
10.41
09.91
09.41
08.91
08.41
07.91
07.41
06.91
06.41
05.91
05.41
04.91
04.41
03.91
03.41
02.91
02.41
01.91
01.41
00.91
00.41
-0 .09
-0.59
-1.09
145
146

LIFT COEFFICIENT
0
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.18
14.68
14.18
13.68
13.18
12.68
12.18
11.68
11.18
10.68
10.18
09.68
09.18
08.68
08.18
07.68
07.18
06.68
06.18
05.68
05.18
04.68
04.18
03.68
03.18
02.68
02.18
01.68
01.18
00.68
00.18
-0.32
-0.82
-1.32
-1.82
-2.32
-2.82
-3.32
-3.82
-4.32
-4.82
15.36
14.86
14.36
13.86
13.36
12.86
12.36
11.86
11.36
10.86
10.36
09.86
09.36
08.86
08.36
07.86
07.36
06.86
06.36
05.86
05.36
04.86
04.36
03.86
03.36
02.86
02.36
01.86
01.36
00.86
00.36
-0.14
-0.64
-1.14
-1.64
-2.14
-2.64
-3.14
-3.64
-4.14
-4.64
15.55
15.05
14.55
14.05
13.55
13.05
12.55
12.05
11.55
11.05
10.55
10.05
09.55
09.05
08.55
08.05
07.55
07.05
06.55
06.05
05.55
05.05
04.55
04.05
03.55
03.05
02.55
02.05
01.55
01.05
00.55
00.05
-0.45
-0.95
-1.45
-1.95
-2.45
-2.95
-3.45
-3.95
-4.45
15.73
15.23
14.73
14.23
13.73
13.23
12.73
12.23
11.73
11.23
10.73
10.23
09.73
09.23
08.73
08.23
07.73
07.23
06.73
06.23
05.73
05.23
04.73
04.23
03.73
03.23
02.73
02.23
01.73
01.23
00.73
00.23
-0.27
-0.77
-1.27
-1.77
-2.27
-2.77
-3.27
-3.77
-4.27
15.91
15.41
14.91
14.41
13.91
13.41
12.91
12.41
11.91
11.41
10.91
10.41
09.91
09.41
08.91
08.41
07.91
07.41
06.91
06.41
05.91
05.41
04.91
04.41
03.91
03.41
02.91
02.41
01.91
01.41
00.91
00.41
-0.09
-0.59
-1.09
-1.59
-2.09
-2.59
-3.09
-3.59
-4.09
16.09
15 59
15 09
14 59
14 09
13 59
13 09
12 59
12.09
11.59
11.09
10.59
10.09
09.59
09.09
08.59
08.09
07.59
07.09
06.59
06.09
05.59
05.09
04.59
04.09
03.59
03.09
02.59
02.09
01.59
01.09
00.59
00.09
-0.41
-0.91
-1.41
-1.91
-2.41
-2.91
-3.41
-3.91
16.28
15.78
15.28
14.78
14.28
13.78
13.28
12.78
12.28
11.78
11.28
10.78
10.28
09.78
09.28
08.78
08.28
07.78
07.28
06.78
06.28
05.78
05.28
04.78
04.28
03.78
03.28
02.78
02.28
01.78
01.28
00.78
00.28
-0.22
-0.72
-1.22
-1.72
-2.22
-2.72
-3.22
-3.72
16.46
15.96
15.46
14.96
14.46
13.96
13.46
12.96
12.46
11.96
11.46
10.96
10.46
09.96
09.46
08.96
08.46
07.96
07.46
06.96
06.46
05.96
05.46
04.96
04.46
03.96
03.46
02.96
02.46
01.96
01.46
00.96
00.46
-0.04
-0.54
-1.04
-1.54
-2.04
-2.54
-3.04
-3.54
16.64
16.14
15.64
15.14
14.64
14.14
13.64
13.14
12.64
12.14
11.64
11.14
10.64
10.14
09.64
09.14
08.64
08.14
07.64
07.14
06.64
06.14
05.64
05.14
04.64
04.14
03.64
03.14
02.64
02.14
01.64
01.14
00.64
00.14
-0.36
-0.86
-1.36
-1.86
-2.36
-2.86
-3.36
16.82
16.32
15.82
15.32
14.82
14.32
13.82
13.32
12.82
12.32
11.82
11.32
10.82
10.32
09.82
09.32
08.82
08.32
07.82
07.32
06.82
06.32
05.82
05.32
04.82
04.32
03.82
03.32
02.82
02.32
01.82
01.32
00.82
00.32
-0.18
-0.68
-1.18
-1.68
-2.18
-2.68
-3.18
17.01
16.51
16.01
15.51
15.01
14.51
14.01
13.51
13.01
12.51
12.01
11.51
11.01
10.51
10.01
09.51
09.01
08.51
08.01
07.51
07.01
06.51
06.01
05.51
05.01
04.51
04.01
03.51
03.01
02.51
02.01
01.51
01.01
00.51
00.01
-0.49
-0.99
-1.49
-1.99
-2.49
-2.99
17.19
16.69
16.19
15.69
15.19
14.69
14.19
13.69
13.19
12.69
12.19
11.69
11.19
10.69
10.19
09.69
09.19
08.69
08.19
07.69
07.19
06.69
06.19
05.69
05.19
04.69
04.19
03.69
03.19
02.69
02.19
01.69
01.19
00.69
00.19
-0.31
-0.81
-1.31
-1.81
-2.31
-2.81
17.37
16.87
16.37
15.87
15.37
14.87
14.37
13.87
13.37
12.87
12.37
11.87
11.37
10.87
10.37
09.87
09.37
08.87
08.37
07.87
07.37
06.87
06 37
05 87
05 37
04 87
04 37
03 87
03 37
02.87
02.37
01.87
01.37
00.87
00.37
-0.13
-0.63
-1.13
-1.63
-2.13
-2.63
17.55
17.05
16.55
16.05
15.55
15.05
14.55
14.05
13.55
13.05
12.55
12.05
11.55
11.05
10.55
10.05
09.55
09.05
08.55
08.05
07.55
07.05
06.55
06.05
05.55
05.05
04.55
04.05
03.55
03.05
02.55
02.05
01.55
01.05
00.55
00.05
-0.45
-0.95
-1.45
-1.95
-2.45
17.74
17 24
16 74
16 24
15 74
15.24
14.74
14.24
13.74
13.24
12.74
12 24
11.74
11 24
10.74
10.24
09.74
09.24
08.74
08.24
07.74
07.24
06.74
06.24
05.74
05.24
04.74
04.24
03.74
03.24
02.74
02.24
01.74
01.24
00.74
00.24
-0.26
-0.76
-1.26
-1.76
-2.26
147
148

LIFT COEFFICIENT
0
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.15
14.65
14.15
13.65
13.15
12.65
12.15
11.65
11.15
10.65
10.15
09.65
09.15
08.65
08.15
07.65
07.15
06.65
06.15
05.65
05.15
04.65
04.15
03.65
03.15
02.65
02.15
01.65
01.15
00.65
00.15
-0.35
-0.85
-1.35
-1.85
-2.35
-2.85
-3.35
-3.85
-4.35
-4.85
15.30
14.80
14.30
13.80
13.30
12.80
12.30
11.80
11.30
10.80
10.30
09.80
09.30
08.80
08.30
07.80
07.30
06.80
06.30
05.80
05.30
04.80
04.30
03.80
03.30
02.80
02.30
01.80
01.30
00.80
00.30
-0.20
-0.70
-1.20
-1.70
-2.20
-2.70
-3.20
-3.70
-4.20
-4.70
15.46
14.96
14.46
13.96
13.46
12.96
12.46
11.96
11.46
10.96
10.46
09.96
09.46
08.96
08.46
07.96
07.46
06.96
06.46
05.96
05.46
04.96
04.46
03.96
03.46
02.96
02.46
01.96
01.46
00.96
00.46
-0.04
-0.54
-1.04
-1.54
-2.04
-2.54
-3.04
-3.54
-4.04
-4.54
15.61
15.11
14.61
14.11
13.61
13.11
12.61
12.11
11.61
11.11
10.61
10.11
09.61
09.11
08.61
08.11
07.61
07.11
06.61
06.11
05.61
05.11
04.61
04.11
03.61
03.11
02.61
02.11
01.61
01.11
00.61
00.11
-0.39
-0 89
-1 39
-1 89
-2 39
-2 89
-3 39
-3.89
-4.39
15.76
15.26
14.76
14.26
13.76
13.26
12.76
12.26
11.76
11 26
10 76
10 26
09.76
09.26
08.76
08.26
07.76
07.26
06.76
06.26
05.76
05.26
04.76
04.26
03.76
03.26
02.76
02.26
01.76
01.26
00.76
00.26
-0.24
-0.74
-1.24
-1.74
-2.24
-2.74
-3.24
-3.74
-4.24
15.91
15.41
14.91
14.41
13.91
13.41
12.91
12.41
11.91
11.41
10.91
10.41
09.91
09.41
08.91
08.41
07.91
07.41
06.91
06.41
05.91
05.41
04.91
04.41
03.91
03.41
02.91
02.41
01.91
01.41
00.91
00.41
-0.09
-0.59
-1.09
-1.59
-2.09
-2.59
-3.09
-3.59
-4.09
16.06
15.56
15.06
14.56
14.06
13.56
13.06
12.56
12.06
11.56
11.06
10.56
10.06
09.56
09.06
08.56
08.06
07.56
07.06
06.56
06.06
05.56
05.06
04.56
04.06
03.56
03.06
02.56
02.06
01.56
01.06
00.56
00.06
-0.44
-0.94
-1.44
-1.94
-2.44
-2.94
-3.44
-3.94
16.22
15.72
15.22
14.72
14.22
13.72
13.22
12.72
12.22
11.72
11.22
10.72
10.22
09.72
09.22
08.72
08.22
07.72
07.22
06.72
06.22
05.72
05.22
04.72
04.22
03.72
03.22
02.72
02.22
01.72
01.22
00.72
00.22
-0.28
-0.78
-1.28
-1.78
-2.28
-2.78
-3.28
-3.78
16.37
15.87
15.37
14.87
14.37
13.87
13.37
12.87
12.37
11.87
11.37
10.87
10.37
09.87
09.37
08.87
08.37
07.87
07.37
06.87
06.37
05.87
05.37
04.87
04.37
03.87
03.37
02.87
02 37
01.87
01.37
00 87
00.37
-0 13
-0 63
-1 13
-1 63
-2.13
-2.63
-3.13
-3.63
16.52
16 02
15 52
15.02
14.52
14.02
13.52
13.02
12.52
12.02
11.52
11.02
10.52
10.02
09.52
09.02
08.52
08.02
07.52
07.02
06.52
06.02
05.52
05.02
04.52
04.02
03.52
03.02
02.52
02.02
01.52
01.02
00.52
00.02
-0.48
-0.98
-1.48
-1.98
-2.48
-2.98
-3.48
16.67
16.17
15.67
15.17
14.67
14.17
13.67
13.17
12.67
12.17
11.67
11.17
10.67
10.17
09.67
09.17
08.67
08.17
07.67
07.17
06.67
06.17
05.67
05.17
04.67
04.17
03.67
03.17
02.67
02.17
01.67
01.17
00.67
00.17
-0.33
-0.83
-1.33
-1.83
-2.33
-2.83
-3.33
16.82
16.32
15.82
15.32
14.82
14.32
13.82
13.32
12.82
12.32
11.82
11.32
10.82
10.32
09.82
09.32
08.82
08.32
07.82
07.32
06.82
06.32
05.82
05.32
04.82
04.32
03.82
03.32
02.82
02.32
01.82
01.32
00.82
00.32
-0.18
-0.68
-1.18
-1.68
-2.18
-2.68
-3.18
16.98
16.48
15.98
15.48
14.98
14.48
13.98
13.48
12.98
12.48
11.98
11.48
10.98
10.48
09.98
09.48
08.98
08.48
07.98
07.48
06.98
06.48
05.98
05.48
04.98
04.48
03.98
03.48
02.98
02.48
01.98
01.48
00.98
00.48
-0.02
-0.52
-1.02
-1.52
-2.02
-2.52
-3.02
17.13
16.63
16.13
15.63
15.13
14.63
14.13
13.63
13.13
12.63
12.13
11.63
11.13
10.63
10.13
09.63
09.13
08.63
08.13
07.63
07.13
06.63
06.13
05.63
05.13
04.63
04.13
03.63
03.13
02.63
02.13
01.63
01.13
00.63
00.13
-0.37
-0.87
-1.37
-1.87
-2.37
-2.87
17.28
16.78
16.28
15.78
15.28
14.78
14.28
13.78
13.28
12.78
12.28
11.78
11.28
10.78
10.28
09.78
09.28
08.78
08.28
07.78
07.28
06.78
06.28
05.78
05.28
04.78
04.28
03.78
03.28
02.78
02.28
01.78
01.28
00.78
00.28
-0.22
-0.72
-1.22
-1.72
-2.22
-2.72
149
150

LIFT COEFFICIENT
0
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.12
14.62
14.12
13.62
13.12
12.62
12.12
11.62
11.12
10.62
10.12
09.62
09.12
08.62
08.12
07.62
07.12
06.62
06.12
05.62
05.12
04.62
04.12
03.62
03.12
02.62
02.12
01.62
01.12
00.62
00.12
-0.38
-0.88
-1.38
-1.88
-2.38
-2.88
-3.38
-3.88
-4.38
-4.88
15.24
14.74
14.24
13.74
13.24
12.74
12.24
11.74
11.24
10.74
10.24
09.74
09.24
08.74
08.24
07.74
07.24
06.74
06.24
05.74
05.24
04.74
04.24
03.74
03.24
02.74
02.24
01.74
01.24
00.74
00.24
-0.26
-0.76
-1.26
-1.76
-2.26
-2.76
-3.26
-3.76
-4.26
-4.76
15.36
14.86
14.36
13.86
13.36
12.86
12.36
11.86
11.36
10.86
10.36
09.86
09.36
08.86
08.36
07.86
07.36
06.86
06.36
05.86
05.36
04.86
04.36
03.86
03.36
02.86
02.36
01.86
01.36
00.86
00.36
-0.14
-0.64
-1.14
-1.64
-2.14
-2.64
-3.14
-3.64
-4.14
-4.64
15.49
14.99
14.49
13.99
13.49
12.99
12.49
11.99
11.49
10.99
10.49
09.99
09.49
08.99
08.49
07.99
07.49
06.99
06.49
05.99
05.49
04.99
04.49
03.99
03.49
02.99
02.49
01.99
01.49
00.99
00.49
-0.01
-0.51
-1.01
-1.51
-2.01
-2.51
-3.01
-3.51
-4.01
-4.51
15.61
15.11
14.61
14.11
13.61
13.11
12.61
12.11
11.61
11.11
10.61
10.11
09.61
09.11
08.61
08.11
07.61
07.11
06.61
06.11
05.61
05.11
04.61
04.11
03.61
03.11
02.61
02.11
01.61
01.11
00.61
00.11
-0.39
-0.89
-1.39
-1.89
-2.39
-2.89
-3.39
-3.89
-4.39
15.73
15.23
14.73
14.23
13.73
13.23
12.73
12.23
11.73
11.23
10.73
10.23
09.73
09.23
08.73
08.23
07.73
07.23
06.73
06.23
05.73
05.23
04.73
04.23
03.73
03.23
02.73
02.23
01.73
01.23
00.73
00.23
-0.27
-0.77
-1.27
-1.77
-2.27
-2.77
-3.27
-3.77
-4.27
15.85
15.35
14.85
14.35
13.85
13.35
12.85
12.35
11.85
11.35
10.85
10.35
09.85
09.35
08.85
08.35
07.85
07.35
06.85
06.35
05.85
05.35
04.85
04.35
03.85
03.35
02.85
02.35
01.85
01.35
00.85
00.35
-0.15
-0.65
-1.15
-1.65
-2.15
-2.65
-3.15
-3.65
-4.15
15.97
15.47
14.97
14.47
13.97
13.47
12.97
12.47
11.97
11.47
10.97
10.47
09.97
09.47
08.97
08.47
07.97
07.47
06.97
06.47
05.97
05.47
04.97
04.47
03.97
03.47
02.97
02.47
01.97
01.47
00.97
00.47
-0.03
-0.53
-1.03
-1.53
-2.03
-2.53
-3.03
-3.53
-4.03
16.09
15.59
15.09
14.59
14.09
13.59
13.09
12.59
12.09
11.59
11.09
10.59
10.09
09.59
09.09
08.59
08.09
07.59
07.09
06.59
06.09
05.59
05.09
04.59
04.09
03.59
03.09
02.59
02.09
01.59
01.09
00.59
00.09
-0.41
-0.91
-1.41
-1.91
-2.41
-2.91
-3.41
-3.91
16.22
15.72
15.22
14.72
14.22
13.72
13.22
12.72
12.22
11.72
11.22
10.72
10.22
09.72
09.22
08.72
08.22
07.72
07.22
06.72
06.22
05.72
05.22
04.72
04.22
03.72
03.22
02.72
02.22
01.72
01.22
00.72
00.22
-0.28
-0.78
-1.28
-1.78
-2.28
-2.78
-3.28
-3.78
16.34
15.84
15.34
14.84
14.34
13.84
13.34
12.84
12.34
11.84
11.34
10.84
10.34
09.84
09.34
08.84
08.34
07.84
07.34
06.84
06.34
05.84
05.34
04.84
04.34
03.84
03.34
02.84
02.34
01.84
01.34
00.84
00.34
-0.16
-0.66
-1.16
-1.66
-2.16
-2.66
-3.16
-3.66
16.46
15.96
15.46
14.96
14.46
13.96
13.46
12.96
12.46
11.96
11.46
10.96
10.46
09.96
09.46
08.96
08.46
07.96
07.46
06.96
06.46
05.96
05.46
04.96
04.46
03.96
03.46
02.96
02.46
01.96
01.46
00.96
00.46
-0.04
-0.54
-1.04
-1.54
-2.04
-2.54
-3.04
-3.54
16.58
16.08
15.58
15.08
14.58
14.08
13.58
13.08
12.58
12.08
11.58
11.08
10.58
10.08
09.58
09.08
08.58
08.08
07.58
07.08
06.58
06.08
05.58
05.08
04.58
04.08
03.58
03.08
02.58
02.08
01.58
01.08
00.58
00.08
-0.42
-0.92
-1.42
-1.92
-2.42
-2.92
-3.42
16 70
16.20
15.70
15.20
14.70
14.20
13.70
13.20
12.70
12.20
11.70
11.20
10.70
10.20
09.70
09.20
08.70
08.20
07.70
07.20
06.70
06.20
05.70
05.20
04.70
04.20
03.70
03.20
02.70
02.20
01.70
01.20
00.70
00.20
-0.30
-0.80
-1.30
-1.80
-2.30
-2.80
-3.30
16.82
16.32
15.82
15.32
14.82
14.32
13.82
13.32
12.82
12.32
11.82
11.32
10.82
10.32
09.82
09.32
08.82
08.32
07.82
07.32
06.82
06.32
05.82
05.32
04.82
04.32
03.82
03.32
02.82
02.32
01.82
01.32
00.82
00.32
-0.18
-0.68
-1.18
-1.68
-2.18
-2.68
-3.18
151
152

LIFT COEFFICIENT
0
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.09
14.59
14.09
13.59
13.09
12.59
12.09
11.59
11.09
10.59
10.09
09.59
09.09
08.59
08.09
07.59
07.09
06.59
06.09
05.59
05.09
04.59
04.09
03.59
03.09
02.59
02.09
01.59
01.09
00.59
00.09
-0.41
-0.91
-1.41
-1.91
-2.41
-2.91
-3.41
-3.91
-4.41
-4.91
15.18
14.68
14.18
13.68
13.18
12.68
12.18
11.68
11.18
10.68
10.18
09.68
09.18
08.68
08.18
07.68
07.18
06.68
06.18
05.68
05.18
04.68
04.18
03.68
03.18
02.68
02.18
01.68
01.18
00.68
00.18
-0.32
-0.82
-1.32
-1.82
-2.32
-2.82
-3.32
-3.82
-4.32
-4.82
15.27
14.77
14.27
13.77
13.27
12.77
12.27
11.77
11.27
10.77
10.27
09.77
09.27
08.77
08.27
07.77
07.27
06.77
06.27
05.77
05.27
04.77
04.27
03.77
03.27
02.77
02.27
01.77
01.27
00.77
00.27
-0.23
-0.73
-1.23
-1.73
-2.23
-2.73
-3.23
-3.73
-4.23
-4.73
15.36
14.86
14.36
13.86
13.36
12.86
12.36
11.86
11.36
10.86
10.36
09.86
09.36
08.86
08.36
07.86
07.36
06.86
06.36
05.86
05.36
04.86
04.36
03.86
03.36
02.86
02.36
01.86
01.36
00.86
00.36
-0.14
-0.64
-1.14
-1.64
-2.14
-2.64
-3.14
-3.64
-4.14
-4.64
15.46
14.96
14.46
13.96
13.46
12.96
12.46
11.96
11.46
10.96
10.46
09.96
09.46
08.96
08.46
07.96
07.46
06.96
06.46
05.96
05.46
04.96
04.46
03.96
03.46
02.96
02.46
01.96
01.46
00.96
00.46
-0.04
-0.54
-1.04
-1.54
-2.04
-2.54
-3.04
-3.54
-4.04
-4.54
15.55
15.05
14.55
14.05
13.55
13.05
12.55
12.05
11.55
11.05
10.55
10.05
09.55
09.05
08.55
08.05
07.55
07.05
06.55
06.05
05.55
05.05
04.55
04.05
03.55
03.05
02.55
02.05
01.55
01.05
00.55
00.05
-0.45
-0.95
-1.45
-1.95
-2.45
-2.95
-3.45
-3.95
-4.45
15.64
15.14
14.64
14.14
13.64
13.14
12.64
12.14
11.64
11.14
10.64
10.14
09.64
09.14
08.64
08.14
07.64
07.14
06.64
06.14
05.64
05.14
04.64
04.14
03.64
03.14
02.64
02.14
01.64
01.14
00.64
00.14
-0.36
-0.86
-1.36
-1.86
-2.36
-2.86
-3.36
-3.86
-4.36
15.73
15.23
14.73
14.23
13.73
13.23
12.73
12.23
11.73
11.23
10.73
10.23
09.73
09.23
08.73
08.23
07.73
07.23
06.73
06.23
05.73
05.23
04.73
04.23
03.73
03.23
02.73
02.23
01.73
01.23
00.73
00.23
-0.27
-0.77
-1.27
-1.77
-2.27
-2.77
-3.27
-3.77
-4.27
15.82
15.32
14.82
14.32
13.82
13.32
12.82
12.32
11.82
11.32
10.82
10.32
09.82
09.32
08.82
08.32
07.82
07.32
06.82
06.32
05.82
05.32
04.82
04.32
03.82
03.32
02.82
02.32
01.82
01.32
00.82
00.32
-0.18
-0.68
-1.18
-1.68
-2.18
-2.68
-3.18
-3.68
-4.18
15.91
15.41
14.91
14.41
13.91
13.41
12.91
12.41
11.91
11.41
10.91
10.41
09.91
09.41
08.91
08.41
07.91
07.41
06.91
06.41
05.91
05.41
04.91
04.41
03.91
03.41
02.91
02.41
01.91
01.41
00.91
00.41
-0.09
-0.59
-1.09
-1.59
-2.09
-2.59
-3.09
-3.59
-4.09
16.00
15.50
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
16.09
15.59
15.09
14.59
14.09
13.59
13.09
12.59
12.09
11.59
11.09
10.59
10.09
09.59
09.09
08.59
08.09
07.59
07.09
06.59
06.09
05.59
05.09
04.59
04.09
03.59
03.09
02.59
02.09
01.59
01.09
00.59
00.09
-0.41
-0.91
-1.41
-1.91
-2.41
-2.91
-3.41
-3.91
16.19
15.69
15.19
14.69
14.19
13.69
13.19
12.69
12.19
11.69
11.19
10.69
10.19
09.69
09.19
08.69
08.19
07.69
07.19
06.69
06.19
05.69
05.19
04.69
04.19
03.69
03.19
02.69
02.19
01.69
01.19
00.69
00.19
-0.31
-0.81
-1.31
-1.81
-2.31
-2.81
-3.31
-3.81
16.28
15.78
15.28
14.78
14.28
13.78
13.28
12.78
12.28
11.78
11.28
10.78
10.28
09.78
09.28
08.78
08.28
07.78
07.28
06.78
06.28
05.78
05.28
04.78
04.28
03.78
03.28
02.78
02.28
01.78
01.28
00.78
00.28
-0.22
-0.72
-1.22
-1.72
-2.22
-2.72
-3.22
-3.72
16.37
15.87
15.37
14.87
14.37
13.87
13.37
12.87
12.37
11.87
11.37
10.87
10.37
09.87
09.37
08.87
08.37
07.87
07.37
06.87
06.37
05.87
05.37
04.87
04.37
03.87
03.37
02.87
02.37
01.87
01.37
00.87
00.37
-0.13
-0.63
-1.13
-1.63
-2.13
-2.63
-3.13
-3.63
153
154

LIFT COEFFICIENT
0
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
95
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.07
14.57
14.07
13.57
13.07
12.57
12.07
11.57
11.07
10.57
10.07
09.57
09.07
08.57
08.07
07.57
07.07
06.57
06.07
05.57
05.07
04.57
04.07
03.57
03.07
02.57
02.07
01.57
01.07
00.57
00.07
-0.43
-0.93
-1.43
-1.93
-2.43
-2.93
-3.43
-3.93
-4.43
-4.93
15.15
14.65
14.15
13.65
13.15
12.65
12.15
11.65
11.15
10.65
10.15
09.65
09.15
08.65
08.15
07.65
07.15
06.65
06.15
05.65
05.15
04.65
04.15
03.65
03.15
02.65
02.15
01.65
01.15
00.65
00.15
-0.35
-0.85
-1.35
-1.85
-2.35
-2.85
-3.35
-3.85
-4.35
-4.85
15.22
14.72
14.22
13.72
13.22
12.72
12.22
11.72
11.22
10.72
10.22
09.72
09.22
08.72
08.22
07.72
07.22
06.72
06.22
05.72
05.22
04.72
04.22
03.72
03.22
02.72
02.22
01.72
01.22
00.72
00.22
-0.28
-0.78
-1.28
-1.78
-2.28
-2.78
-3.28
-3.78
-4.28
-4.78
15.29
14.79
14.29
13.79
13.29
12.79
12.29
11.79
11.29
10.79
10.29
09.79
09.29
08.79
08.29
07.79
07.29
06.79
06.29
05.79
05.29
04.79
04.29
03.79
03.29
02.79
02.29
01.79
01.29
00.79
00.29
-0.21
-0.71
-1.21
-1.71
-2.21
-2.71
-3.21
-3.71
-4.21
-4.71
15.36
14.86
14.36
13.86
13.36
12.86
12.36
11.86
11.36
10.86
10.36
09.86
09.36
08.86
08.36
07.86
07.36
06.86
06.36
05.86
05.36
04.86
04.36
03.86
03.36
02.86
02.36
01.86
01.36
00.86
00.36
-0.14
-0.64
-1.14
-1.64
-2.14
-2.64
-3.14
-3.64
-4.14
-4.64
15.44
14.94
14.44
13.94
13.44
12.94
12.44
11.94
11.44
10.94
10.44
09.94
09.44
08.94
08.44
07.94
07.44
06.94
06.44
05.94
05.44
04.94
04.44
03.94
03.44
02.94
02.44
01.94
01.44
00.94
00.44
-0.06
-0.56
-1.06
-1.56
-2.06
-2.56
-3.06
-3.56
-4.06
-4.56
15.51
15.01
14.51
14 01
13 51
13 01
12 51
12 01
11 51
11 01
10 51
10 01
09.51
09.01
08.51
08.01
07.51
07.01
06.51
06.01
05.51
05.01
04.51
04.01
03.51
03.01
02.51
02.01
01.51
01.01
00.51
00.01
-0.49
-0.99
-1.49
-1.99
-2.49
-2.99
-3.49
-3.99
-4.49
15.58
15.08
14.58
14.08
13.58
13.08
12.58
12.08
11.58
11.08
10.58
10.08
09.58
09.08
08.58
08.08
07.58
07.08
06.58
06.08
05.58
05.08
04.58
04.08
03.58
03.08
02.58
02.08
01.58
01.08
00.58
00.08
-0.42
-0.92
-1.42
-1.92
-2.42
-2.92
-3.42
-3.92
-4.42
15.66
15.16
14.66
14.16
13.66
13.16
12.66
12.16
11.66
11.16
10.66
10.16
09.66
09.16
08.66
08.16
07.66
07.16
06.66
06.16
05.66
05.16
04.66
04.16
03.66
03.16
02.66
02.16
01.66
01.16
00.66
00.16
-0.34
-0.84
-1.34
-1.84
-2.34
-2.84
-3.34
-3.84
-4.34
15 73
15 23
14 73
14 23
13 73
13 23
12 73
12 23
11 73
11 23
10.73
10.23
09.73
09.23
08.73
08.23
07.73
07.23
06.73
06.23
05.73
05.23
04.73
04.23
03.73
03.23
02.73
02.23
01.73
01.23
00.73
00.23
-0.27
-0.77
-1.27
-1.77
-2.27
-2.77
-3.27
-3.77
-4.27
15.80
15.30
14.80
14.30
13.80
13.30
12.80
12.30
11.80
11.30
10.80
10.30
09.80
09.30
08.80
08.30
07.80
07.30
06.80
06.30
05.80
05.30
04.08
04.30
03.80
03.30
02.80
02.30
01.80
01.30
00.80
00.30
-0.20
-0.70
-1.20
-1.70
-2.20
-2.70
-3.20
-3.70
-4.20
15.88
15.38
14.88
14.38
13.88
13.38
12.88
12.38
11.88
11.38
10.88
10.38
09.88
09.38
08.88
08.38
07.88
07.38
06.88
06.38
05.88
05.38
04.88
04.38
03.88
03.38
02.88
02.38
01.88
01.38
00.88
00.38
-0.12
-0.62
-1.12
-1.62
-2.12
-2.62
-3.12
-3.62
-4.12
15.95
15.45
14.95
14.45
13.95
13.45
12.95
12.45
11.95
11.45
10.95
10.45
09.95
09.45
08.95
08.45
07.95
07.45
06.95
06.45
05.95
05.45
04.95
04.45
03.95
03.45
02.95
02.45
01.95
01.45
00.95
00.45
-0.05
-0.55
-1.05
-1.55
-2.05
-2.55
-3.05
-3.55
-4.05
16.02
15.52
15.02
14.52
14.02
13.52
13.02
12.52
12.02
11.52
11.02
10.52
10.02
09.52
09.02
08.52
08.02
07.52
07.02
06.52
06.02
05.52
05.02
04.52
04.02
03.52
03.02
02.52
02.02
01.52
01.02
00.52
00.02
-0.48
-0.98
-1.48
-1.98
-2.48
-2.98
-3.48
-3.98
16.09
15.59
15.09
14.59
14.09
13.59
13.09
12.59
12.09
11.59
11.09
10.59
10.09
09.59
09.09
08.59
08.09
07.59
07.09
06.59
06.09
05.59
05.09
04.59
04.09
03.59
03.09
02.59
02.09
01.59
01.09
00.59
00.09
-0.41
-0.91
-1.41
-1.91
-2.41
-2.91
-3.41
-3.91
155
156

LIFT COEFFICIENT
0
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
A
T
T
A
C
K
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
1.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
15.00
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
11.00
10.50
10.00
09.50
09.00
08.50
08.00
07.50
07.00
06.50
06.00
05.50
05.00
04.50
04.00
03.50
03.00
02.50
02.00
01.50
01.00
00.50
00.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.50
-5.00
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
15.06
14.56
14.06
13.56
13.06
12.56
12.06
11.56
11.06
10.56
10.06
09.56
09.06
08.56
08.06
07.56
07.06
06.56
06.06
05.56
05.06
04.56
04.06
03.56
03.06
02.56
02.06
01.56
01.06
00.56
00.06
-0.44
-0.94
-1.44
-1.94
-2.44
-2.94
-3.44
-3.94
-4.44
-4.94
15.12
14.62
14.12
13.62
13.12
12.62
12.12
11.62
11.12
10.62
10.12
09.62
09.12
08.62
08.12
07.62
07.12
06.62
06.12
05.62
05.12
04.62
04.12
03.62
03.12
02.62
02.12
01.62
01.12
00.62
00.12
-0.38
-0.88
-1.38
-1.88
-2.38
-2.88
-3.38
-3.88
-4.38
-4.88
15.18
14.68
14.18
13.68
13.18
12.68
12.18
11.68
11.18
10.68
10.18
09.68
09.18
08.68
08.18
07.68
07.18
06.68
06.18
05.68
05.18
04.68
04.18
03.68
03.18
02.68
02.18
01.68
01.18
00.68
00.18
-0.32
-0.82
-1.32
-1.82
-2.32
-2.82
-3.32
-3.82
-4.32
-4.82
15.24
14.74
14.24
13.74
13.24
12.74
12.24
11.74
11.24
10.74
10.24
09.74
09.24
08.74
08.24
07.74
07.24
06.74
06.24
05.74
05.24
04.74
04.24
03.74
03.24
02.74
02.24
01.74
01.24
00.74
00.24
-0.26
-0.76
-1.26
-1.76
-2.26
-2.76
-3.26
-3.76
-4.26
-4.76
15.30
14.80
14.30
13.80
13.30
12.80
12.30
11.80
11.30
10.80
10.30
09.80
09.30
08.80
08.30
07.80
07.30
06.80
06.30
05.80
05.30
04.80
04.30
03.80
03 30
02 80
02 30
01 80
01 30
00 80
00 30
-0.20
-0.70
-1.20
-1.70
-2.20
-2.70
-3.20
-3.70
-4.20
-4.70
15.36
14.86
14.36
13.86
13.36
12.86
12.36
11.86
11.36
10.86
10.36
09.86
09.36
08.86
08.36
07.86
07.36
06.86
06.36
05.86
05.36
04.86
04.36
03.86
03.36
02.86
02.36
01.86
01.36
00.86
00.36
-0.14
-0.64
-1.14
-1.64
-2.14
-2.64
-3.14
-3.64
-4.14
-4.64
15.43
14.93
14.43
13.93
13.43
12.93
12.43
11.93
11.43
10.93
10.43
09.93
09.43
08.93
08.43
07.93
07.43
06.93
06.43
05.93
05.43
04.93
04.43
03.93
03.43
02.93
02.43
01.93
01.43
00.93
00.43
-0.07
-0.57
-1.07
-1.57
-2.07
-2.57
-3.07
-3.57
-4.07
-4.57
15.49
14.99
14.49
13.99
13.49
12.99
12.49
11.99
11.49
10.99
10.49
09.99
09.49
08.99
08.49
07.99
07.49
06.99
06.49
05.99
05.49
04.99
04.49
03.99
03.49
02.99
02.49
01.99
01.49
00.99
00.49
-0.01
-0.51
-1.01
-1.51
-2.01
-2.51
-3.01
-3.51
-4.01
-4.51
15.55
15.05
14.55
14.05
13.55
13.05
12.55
12.05
11.55
11.05
10.55
10.05
09.55
09.05
08.55
08.05
07.55
07.05
06.55
06.05
05.55
05.05
04.55
04.05
03.55
03.05
02.55
02.05
01.55
01.05
00.55
00.05
-0.45
-0.95
-1.45
-1.95
-2.45
-2.95
-3.45
-3.95
-4.45
15.61
15.11
14.61
14.11
13.61
13.11
12.61
12.11
11.61
11.11
10.61
10.11
09.61
09.11
08.61
08.11
07 61
07 11
06 61
06 11
05 61
05.11
04.61
04.11
03.61
03.11
02.61
02.11
01.61
01.11
00.61
00.11
-0.39
-0.89
-1.39
-1.89
-2.39
-2.89
-3.39
-3.89
-4.39
15.67
15.17
14.67
14.17
13.67
13.17
12.67
12.17
11.67
11.17
10.67
10.17
09.67
09.17
08.67
08.17
07.67
07.17
06.67
06.17
05.67
05.17
04.67
04.17
03.67
03.17
02.67
02.17
01.67
01.17
00.67
00.17
-0.33
-0.83
-1.33
-1.83
-2.33
-2.83
-3.33
-3.83
-4.33
15.73
15.23
14.73
14.23
13.73
13.23
12.73
12.23
11.73
11.23
10.73
10.23
09.73
09.23
08.73
08.23
07.73
07.23
06.73
06.23
05.73
05.23
04.73
04.23
03.73
03.23
02.73
02.23
01.73
01.23
00.73
00.23
-0.27
-0.77
-1.27
-1.77
-2.27
-2.77
-3.27
-3.77
-4.27
15.79
15.29
14.79
14.29
13.79
13.29
12.79
12.29
11.79
11.29
10.79
10.29
09.79
09.29
08.79
08.29
07.79
07.29
06.79
06.29
05.79
05.29
04.79
04.29
03.79
03.29
02.79
02.29
01.79
01.29
00.79
00.29
-0 21
-0.71
-1.21
-1.71
-2.21
-2.71
-3.21
-3.71
-4.21
15.85
15.35
14.85
14.35
13.85
13.35
12.85
12.35
11.85
11.35
10.85
10.35
09.85
09.35
08.85
08.35
07.85
07.35
06.85
06.35
05.85
05.35
04.85
04.35
03.85
03.35
02.85
02.35
01.85
01.35
00.85
00.35
-0.15
-0.65
-1.15
-1.65
-2.15
-2.65
-3.15
-3.65
-4.15
15.91
15.41
14.91
14.41
13.91
13.41
12.91
12.41
11.91
11.41
10.91
10.41
09.91
09.41
08.91
08.41
07.91
07.41
06.91
06.41
05.91
05.41
04.91
04.41
03.91
03.41
02.91
02.41
01.91
01.41
00.91
00.41
-0.09
-0.59
-1.09
-1.59
-2.09
-2.59
-3.09
-3.59
-4.09
157
158
Other books available from B2Streamlines

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A collection of the first 52 On the Wing columns from

RC Soaring Digest. Includes all of the computer programs,
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plus additional information.
US$28.00
This is the first book devoted exclusively to tailless aircraft

and aimed at the needs of aeromodelers. Includes the
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US$58.00
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This book is intended for the absolute beginner in the

building and flying of radio controlled gliders; no previous
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building, flying, and landing.
US$18.00
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Structural Dimensioning of Radioguided Aeromodels

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<bsquared@halcyon.com>
2
0.5
T.U.
cm
-0.05
-5
10
S.U.
T.L.
cl
cl
Re = 105
2x105
3x105
15
103cd
20
0.05
0.1
5 10
0.5
15
S.L.

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OuterCover

Bill & Bunny Kuhlman

with a special section by Bill Kubiak

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

Bill & Bunny Kuhlman

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

About the Authors

Bill and Bunny, known collectively as B2, have

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

initial draft and offered some preliminary

The initial idea came about as the result of an

Martins review of the final draft, which included

That initial outline was sent to Jerry and Judy

When we mentioned our concept for this book to

Martin Simons, on sabbatical from his teaching

Herk Stokely, the soaring columnist for Flying

Bill Kubiak, visiting from Minnesota at the time,

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

As further motivation to complete our task,

Lee Murray, Frank Zaic, and our daughter,

There are many parts to any long term effort.

While writing Understanding Polars Without

There is no shortage of good aerodynamic data;

The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

The Pitching Moment Coefficient (cm) Curve

The Lift Coefficient (cl) Curve

The Drag Coefficient (cd) Curve

The Lift to Drag Ratio (cl/cd)

Application of Section Characteristics to a Wing

Putting It All Together

Those Other Curves...

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

Units of Measurement Equivalencies Charts

A Historical Note on the Term Drag Bucket

Reynolds Number vs. Chord vs. Velocity

Span vs. Average Chord vs. Area,

CL vs. Wing Loading vs. Velocity

Average Chord vs. Span vs. Aspect Ratio

Velocity vs. Glide Ratio vs. Sink Rate

Average Chord vs. Area vs. Aspect Ratio

Induced Drag vs. Aspect Ratio vs. CL

Tables 3.1 - 3.8

Equivalent Angle of Attack vs. Aspect Ratio:

Lift Coefficient vs. Drag Coefficient vs. L/D

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

how to properly interpret the lines they contain.

Still, most of us are at least a bit intimidated by

This book has been planned from the outset to

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

In an effort to prevent confusion so far as

A straightedge, a french curve, and a sharp

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

a computer program, running in compiled

Within the modeling literature, the most

UNDERSTANDING POLARS WITHOUT MATH

We will cover some other types of polars in the

The relationship between the squares

A simple polar consists of three distinct curves

Rather than squares, a polar diagram relies upon

The three curves, in order of appearance in this

drag coefficient curves

lift coefficient curve