Chapter1Philosophyandfundamentalconcepts

ChapterSummary

ThischapterfocusesonconceptualandphilosophicalfoundationsofEnvironmentalGeology.It
openswithadiscussionoftheplaceofEarthinthecosmosandoftheimportanceofevolutionin
shapinglifeonEarth.Descriptionsofthenatureofgeologyandenvironmentalgeologyfollow.
Subsequently,thetextpursuesanassessmentofhumanpopulationgrowthanditscriticalinfluenceon
resourcesandwastegeneration.Discussionsfollowonthetopicsofsustainability,thenatureof
systemsandsystemsscience,theimpactsofnaturalhazards,andtheprocessofscienceandthe
potentialthatscientificsolutionsholdfortheenvironmentalcrisis.Thechaptercloseswithsections
thataddresstheinfluenceofcultureonenvironmentalawareness,thedifficultyofsolving
environmentalproblems,andthenatureofenvironmentalvalues.

ChapterOutline

I.IntroductiontoEnvironmentalGeology
A.OriginofEarthandtheimportanceofevolutionandextinctioninshapinglifeonEarth
B.Geology
1.Definition
a.thestudyofprocessesrelatedtothecomposition,structure,andhistoryofEarthandits
life
2.Geologyisinterdisciplinaryinnature
a.reliesonchemistry,physics,andbiology
C.EnvironmentalGeology
1.Definition
a.appliedgeology
b.useofgeologicinformationtohelpsolveconflictsinlanduse,tominimizeenvironmental
degradation,andtomaximizebeneficialusesofresources
2.Applications
a.earthmaterials
b.naturalhazards
c.landresources
d.hydrologicprocesses
e.geologicprocesses
3.Environmentalgeologyfocusesontheentirespectrumofhumaninteractionswiththe
physicalenvironment.
II.FundamentalconceptsofEnvironmentalGeology
A.Humanpopulationgrowth
1.Theforemostenvironmentalproblem
a.populationgrowthincreasestheimpactsonlimitedresources
2.Exponentialgrowth
a.aconstantpercentageofpeopleareaddedtothepopulationeachyear,notaconstant
numberofpeople
b.growthrate(apercentage)
c.doublingtime:thetimeittakesforpopulationtodouble,generallyequalto70dividedby
thegrowthrate
3.Humanpopulationthroughhistory
a.humanpopulationgrowthhascoincidedwithchangesintechnologiesandlifestyles
4.Populationgrowthandthefuture
a.aspopulationgrowthcontinues,itmaybedifficulttosupplysufficientresourcesanda
highqualityenvironment
b.Earthastheonlysuitablehumanhabitat

c.therateofchangeinhumanpopulationgrowthisdecreasingforthefirsttimesincethe
mid1900s
B.Sustainability
1.Definition
a.sustainabledevelopmentensuresthatfuturegenerationswillhaveequalaccesstothe
resourcesthatourplanetoffers
b.sustainabledevelopmentiseconomicallyviable,environmentallybenign,andsociallyjust
2.Limitationofresources
a.recyclingistheonlysolutionforprovidingampleresources
b.limitationsoflanduseresources
3.Theenvironmentalcrisis
a.demandsonresourcesandproductionofwastesbygrowinghumanpopulationhave
producedanenvironmentalcrisis
C.Systems
1.Conceptofsystems
a.anypartoftheuniversethatweselectforstudy,consistingofseveralcomponentsthat
mutuallyadjusttochangesinoneanother
2.Inputoutputanalysis
a.ifinputandoutputarenotbalanced,changeswilloccurinanopensystem
b.averageresidencetime=totalsizeofstockorsupplydividedbytheaveragerateof
transferthroughthesystem
3.PredictingchangesintheEarthsystem
a.uniformitarianism
1)thepresentisthekeytothepast(andfuture)
2)processesweobservetodayalsooperatedinthepastandatsimilarrates
3)processesweobservetodaywillalsooperateinthefutureandatsimilarrates
b.presenthumanactivityispartofthekeytounderstandingthefuture
4.Environmentalunity
a.oneactionleadstoachainofsubsequentactionsinlinkedsystems
5.Earthsystemsscience
a.thestudyoftheentireplanetasasystemintermsofcomponentsubsystems,suchas
atmosphere,biosphere,lithosphere,etc.
D.HazardousEarthprocesses,riskassessment,andperception
1.concentrationofpopulationandresourcesincreasestheimpactofnaturalhazards
2.predictabilityofnaturalhazards
a.riskassessment
E.Scientificknowledgeandvalues
1.Scientificmethod:
a.observation
b.hypotheses:possibleexplanationsforobservedphenomena
c.testingofhypotheses
d.theory:ahypothesisthathaswithstoodtestingthroughasufficientnumberofexperiments
2.Importanceofgeologictime
a.distinguishesgeologyfrommostotherscientificdisciplines
b.ratesofprocessesarevariable,andimportanttoenvironmentalgeology
c.EnvironmentalGeologyismostoftenconcernedwithrecentgeologictime(e.g.,thelast
18,000years,orespeciallythelastfewthousandorhundredyears)
d.intelligentdesignandthescientificprocess
3.Cultureandenvironmentalawareness
a.environmentalawarenessisanentirewayoflifethatwehavetransmittedfromone
generationtoanother
b.theethicalapproachtotheenvironmentisarecentdevelopment

c.alandethicassumesweareresponsibletotheentireenvironmentaswellasfellow
humans
4.Whyissolvingenvironmentalproblemssodifficult?
a.exponentialgrowthisoftenencountered
b.lagtimesoftenoccurbetweenoccurrenceofchangeandrecognitionofaproblem
c.anenvironmentalchangemaybeirreversible
5.Precautionaryprinciple
a.whenapotentiallyseriousenvironmentalproblemexists,scientificcertaintyisnot
requiredtotakeaprecautionaryapproach
b.scientificproofisnotrequiredinmostinstances
c.theprecautionaryprinciplemaybedifficulttoapplyforavarietyofreasons
6.Scienceandvalues
a.ourscientificvaluesarerootedinourancestry
b.chosensolutionsdependuponhowwevaluepeopleandtheenvironment
c.thenext50yearswillrequirecrucialdecisionsconcerningimpactsofincreasedpopulation
onnaturalresources

Chapter2IntroductiontoNaturalHazards
ChapterSummary

Thischapterfocusesonthegeneraltopicofnaturalhazardsanddiscussesthereasonsthatnatural
processesadverselyaffecthumans,themainmethodsofhazardreduction,andthenatureofhuman
responses.Thefirstsectionofthechapterfocusesonthecharacteristicsofpotentiallyhazardous
naturalprocesses,includingmagnitudeandfrequency,andthebenefitsandadverseeffectsofnatural
hazards.Subsequentsectionsdiscusstheevaluationandpredictionofhazards,andthehuman
responsestohazards.Thechaptercloseswithsectionsonthepotentialimpactsofclimatechange,
populationincrease,andlandusechangesonnaturalhazards.

ChapterOutline

I.Hazards,disasters,andnaturalprocesses
A.Naturaldisasters:lossoflifeandpropertydamages
1.Severalmillionpeoplekilledsince1970s
2.Financiallossesexceed$50billionperyear
3.Naturaldisasterscausedbynaturalhazardsthathavealwaysexisted
a.extentofdisastersaffectedbyhumanpopulationdensityandlandusepatterns
B.Whynaturalprocessesaresometimeshazards
1.Naturalhazardsarebasicallynaturalprocesses
2.Naturalprocessesbecomehazardouswhenpeopleliveorworkinareaswheretheprocesses
occur
C.Magnitudeandfrequency
1.Impactofeventisafunctionofitsmagnitudeandfrequency
a.magnitude:amountofenergyreleased
b.frequency:recurrenceinterval
2.Impactofaneventisalsoafunctionofotherfactors
a.climate
b.geology
c.vegetation
d.population
e.landuse
3.Frequencyofeventisgenerallyinverselyproportionaltoitsmagnitude
D.Benefitsofnaturalhazards

1.Dangerousnaturaleventsalsoprovidebenefitsornaturalservicefunctions
a.floodingcauseserosioninmountainsbutdeliverssedimenttobeachesandflushes
pollutantsfromestuaries
b.landslidescancreatemountainlakes
c.volcaniceruptionsprovidenumerousbenefits
d.earthquakescancreatefaultgouge,whichcaninfluencewaterresources
E.Deathanddamagecausedbynaturalhazards
1.Greatestlossofhumanlifeisnotnecessarilycorrelatedtoextensivepropertydamage
2.Potentialtoproducecatastropheisanimportantaspectofallnaturalhazards
a.hazardsmostlikelytoproducecatastrophe
1.floods
2.hurricanes
3.tornadoes
4.earthquakes
5.volcaniceruptions
6.largewildfires
3.Effectsofnaturalhazardschangewithtime
a.changesinlandusepatternscausedevelopmentonmarginallands
b.urbanizationchangesphysicalpropertiesofEarthmaterials
c.increasingpopulationputsmorepeopleatrisk
II.Evaluatinghazards:history,linkages,disasterprediction,andriskassessment
A.Fundamentalprinciplesconcerningnaturalhazards
1.Hazardsarepredictablefromscientificevaluation
2.Riskanalysisisanimportantcomponentinunderstandingimpactsresultingfromhazardous
processes
3.Hazardsarelinked
4.Hazardouseventsthatpreviouslyproduceddisastersareoftennowproducingcatastrophes
5.Consequencesofhazardscanbeminimized
B.Roleofhistoryinunderstandinghazards
1.Hazardsarerepetitiveevents
a.studyingtheirhistoryprovidesinformationforhazardsreduction
2.Example:flooding
a.historicinformation
b.prehistoricinformationfromgeologicenvironment
c.tounderstandnatureandextentoffloodhazards,mustunderstandoccurrence,location
andeffectsofpastfloods
d.presentconditionsandrecentlandusechangemustbeintegratedwithhistorical
information
C.Linkagesbetweenhazardousevents
1.Manyhazardsarelinked
a.examples:hurricanesassociatedwithflooding,coastalerosion,landslides
2.NaturalhazardsandcharacteristicsofEarthmaterialsarelinked
a.example:shaleispronetolandslides
D.Disasterpredictionandwarning
1.Location
a.typicallyweknowwhereaparticularkindofeventwilloccur
b.regionalscale:generaldistributionofhazards
c.localscale:needtostudydetails
2.Probabilityofoccurrence
a.determiningprobabilityofeventwithinparticulartimespanisanessentialgoalofhazard
evaluation
b.example:floodhazards

3.Precursorevents
a.helppredictwhenandwhereaneventislikelytohappen
b.examples:creepofgroundpriortolandslide,swellingofavolcano
4.Forecast
a.determinegeneraltimewhencertainnaturaleventsarelikelytooccur
5.Prediction
a.determinemorespecifictimingofhazards
b.examples:floodstageforecasting,hurricaneforecasting,tsunamiforecasting
6.Warning
a.alertingpubliconceahazardouseventhasbeenforecastorpredicted
b.concernsincludeunreliablepredictionsandpoorcommunicationbetweenscientistsand
themedia
c.falsewarningsmayultimatelyhelpdisasterpreparedness
E.Riskassessment
1.Riskdetermination
a.riskistheprobabilityofaneventmultipliedbytheconsequencesshoulditoccur
2.Acceptablerisk
a.theriskthatsocietyorindividualsarewillingtoendure
b.determinationiscomplexanddependentuponthesituation
3.Problemsandopportunitiesforriskassessment
a.lackofreliabledataisoftenamajorproblem
b.improvementofmethodsofpredictionhasoccurredinsomeareas,ashasimprovementof
abilitytoestimateconsequences
III.Thehumanresponsetohazards
A.Reactiveresponse:impactofandrecoveryfromdisasters
1.Responseafteradisaster
a.searchandrescue
b.firefighting
c.providingemergencyfood,water,shelter
2.Directeffectsofdisaster
a.peoplekilled,injured,displaced,orotherwisedamaged
b.feltonlybyindividualsimmediatelyaffected
3.Indirecteffectsofdisaster:responses
a.emotionaldistress,donationofmoneyorgoods,payingtaxestofinancerecovery
b.feltbythegeneralpopulace
4.Stagesofrecovery
a.emergencywork
b.restorationofservicesandcommunicationlines
c.reconstruction
B.Anticipatoryresponse:perceiving,avoiding,andadjustingtohazards
1.Hazardperception
a.government
b.public
2.Landuseplanning
a.avoidingconstructiononfloodplains,areasofactivelandslides,placeswherecoastal
erosionislikelytooccur,etc.
3.Insurance
4.Evacuation
a.concernsincludetimelypublicresponsetowarningsandpotentialforpanicatlastminute
5.Disasterpreparedness
C.Artificialcontrolofnaturalprocesses
1.Attemptshavemetwithmixedsuccess

IV.Globalclimateandhazards
A.Globalandregionalclimatechangemaysignificantlyaffectincidenceofstorms,landslides,
drought,fires
1.Howclimatechangemayaffectmagnitudeandfrequencyofnaturalevents
a.sealevelrisemayincreasecoastalerosion
b.shiftinfoodproductionareas
c.expansionofdesertsandsemideserts
2.Warmingofoceanswillchannelmoreenergyfromoceanwaterintoatmosphere
a.likelywillincreasehazardousweatherrelatedprocesses
V.Populationincrease,landusechange,andnaturalhazards
A.Populationincreaseandhazardousevents
1.Aspopulationincreases,needforplanningtominimizelossesfromnaturaldisastersalso
increases
a.morepeopleatriskofanevent
b.forcesmorepeopleintohazardousareas
B.Landusechangeandhazardousevents
1.Pasthalfcenturyhasseendramaticincreaseingreatcatastrophes
2.Vastmajorityofnaturaldisasterdeathsbetween19851995wereindevelopingworld
a.HurricaneMitch:hillsidesstrippedbecauseofheavyrainsonclearedandburnedland
b.YangtzeRiver:timberharvestandconversiontoagriculturehasincreasedfloodhazard

Chapter3RiversandFlooding
ChapterSummary

Thischapterfocusesonriverprocessesandflooding.Thefirstportionofthechapterfocusesonthe
purposeriversserveinthehydrologicandrockcycles,onthephysicalprocessesofdrainagebasins
andriverchannels,ofsedimenttransport,andoferosionanddeposition.Asubsequentsection
addressestheeffectsoflandusechangesonrivers.Theremainderofthechapterfocusesonaspects
offloodingincludingchannelpatternsandfloodplainformation,causesandconsequencesof
flooding,theimpactsofurbanizationonflooding,andhumanadjustmentstoandperceptionsof
flooding.

ChapterOutline

I.Rivers:Historicaluse
A.Americanshavelivedandworkedonfloodplainsformorethan200years.
1.enticedbyrichalluvialsoil,watersupply,easeofwastedisposal,proximitytoriver
commerce
B.Floodplain
1.theflatsurfaceadjacenttotheriverchannelthatisperiodicallyinundated
2.producedbyprocessesofflooding
C.Twoparalleltrendsinfloodplainsettlement
1.acceleratingprogramtocontrolfloods
2.evengreatergrowthofflooddamages
II.Streamsandrivers
A.Hydrology:studyofwatertransportinnaturalsystems
1.runoff
2.drainagebasin
B.Riverslopeorgradient
1.dropofchanneloverhorizontaldistance
C.Baselevel
1.theoreticallowestleveltowhicharivermayerode

2.usuallysealevel
3.baselevelmaybetemporary,aswithalake
III.Sedimentinrivers
A.Sedimentload
1.totalload
2.bedload
3.suspendedload
4.dissolvedload
IV.Rivervelocity,discharge,erosionandsedimentdeposition
A.Riversareatransportationsysteminvolvingerosionanddepositionofsediments
1.velocityvariesalongcourse,affectingerosionanddepositionofsediment
B.Discharge
1.volumeofwatermovingpastaparticularlocationinariver(inaunitoftime)
2.continuityequation:Q=WxDxV
C.Fasterflowingrivertransportshasgreatererosionalcapacitythandoesslowermovingriver
1.alluvialfans
2.delta
3.distributarychannels
D.Reasonsforerosionordepositioncorrelatedtophysicalpropertiesoftheriver
1.changeinchannelgeometry
2.compositionofchannelbedandbanks
3.vegetation
4.landuse
E.Sedimenttransportmeasures
1.competency
2.capacity
V.Effectsoflandusechanges
A.Dynamicequilibrium
1.steadystatebetweensedimenttransportedandsedimentdeliveredtostream
2.changesinamountofwaterorsedimentbringschangesinchannelslopeorcrosssection
B.Landusechangefromforesttoagriculture
1.increasedsoilerosion
2.increaseinsedimentload
3.increasingchannelslope
4.newdynamicequilibriummaybereached
C.Damconstruction
1.waterslowsatheadofreservoir,causingdeposition
2.belowdam,waterreleasedhasminimalsediment
3.channelerosionwillpredominatebelowdam
VI.Channelpatternsandfloodplainformation
A.Configurationofchannelasseeninaerialview
1.braided
2.meandering
B.Meanderingstreamfeatures
1.riverineenvironment:channelandfloodplain
2.pools
3.riffles
VII.Flooding
A.Definitions
1.floodingisthenaturalprocessofoverbankflow
2.flooddischarge
3.stage

4.floodstage
B.Upstreamanddownstreamfloods
1.upstreamfloods:causedbyintenserainfallofshortdurationoverrelativelysmallarea
2.downstreamfloods:causedbystormsoflongdurationoverlargearea
VIII.Urbanizationandflooding
A.Humanuseofurbanenvironments
1.hasincreasedmagnitudeandfrequencyoffloodsinsmalldrainagebasins
2.percentimperviouscoverandpercentofareaservedbystormsewersareameasureofthe
degreeofurbanization
B.Urbanizationcausesmanychangesinrainfallrunoffrelations
1.increasedrunoff
2.floodingfromblockedstormdrains
3.influenceslimitedtosmallerfloodsofgreaterfrequency;larger,lessfrequentfloodsarenot
significantlyaffected
IX.Thenatureandextentoffloodhazards
A.Floodingisoneofmostuniversallyexperiencednaturalhazards
1.numberonetypeofdisasterinUnitedStatesin20thcentury
B.Factorsthatcauseflooddamage
1.landuseonfloodplain
2.magnitudeofflood
3.rateofriseanddurationofflooding
4.season
5.sedimentloaddeposited
6.effectivenessofforecasting,warning,andemergencysystems
C.Effectsofflooding
1.primary:causeddirectlybytheflood
2.secondary:causedbydisruptionandmalfunctionofservicesandsystems
X.Adjustmentstofloodhazards
A.Historically,humanshaveattemptedtopreventflooding
1.creatingphysicalbarriers
2.straighteningstream
3.wideningstream
4.deepeningstream
B.Recentyears,alternativeadjustments
1.floodinsurance
2.controllinglanduseonfloodplains
C.Thestructuralapproach
1.physicalbarriers,suchasleveesandfloodwalls
2.reservoirs
3.onsiteretentionbasins
4.someengineeredstructuresactuallyincreasethefloodhazard
D.Channelization
1.straightening,deepening,widening,clearing,orliningexistingstreamchannels
2.adverseeffectsofchannelization
E.Channelrestoration:alternativetochannelization
1.cleaningurbanwastefromchannel
2.allowingstreamtoflowfreely
3.protectingexistingbanks
4.KissimmeeRiver,Floridarestoration
F.Floodinsurance
1.UnitedStatesNationalFloodInsuranceProgram
2.SpecialFloodHazardAreas

3.NationalFloodInsuranceReformActof1994
G.Floodproofing
1.raisingbuildingfoundation
2.constructingfloodwallsorearthbermsaroundbuildings
3.waterproofeddoors,walls,windows
4.improveddrainswithpumps
H.Floodplainregulation
1.objective:obtainmostbeneficialuseoffloodplainswhileminimizingflooddamageandcosts
ofprotection
2.needtorecognizethatthefloodplainbelongstotheriversystem
I.Floodhazardmapping
1.floodplainzoning
J.Relocatingpeoplefromfloodplains
1.RockyMount,NC,afterHurricaneFloyd
2.ChurchsFerry,ND,riseofDevilsLake
K.Personaladjustment:Whattodoandwhatnottodo
1.seeTable8.2
XI.Perceptionofflooding
A.Peoplearetremendouslyvariableintheirknowledgeofflooding,anticipationoffuture
flooding,andwillingnesstoacceptadjustments.
B.Atinstitutionallevel,progressincludesfloodhazardmapping

Chapter4CoastalProcessesandHazards
ChapterSummary

Thischapterfocusesoncoastlineprocessesandtheirhazardstolifeandproperty.Thechapteropens
withadiscussionofoceanicandcoastalprocesses,includingwavegenerationandbehavior,beach
processes,andnearshorecurrentprocesses.Thesubsequentsectionsdiscusscoastalerosionprocesses
andtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofengineeringsolutionsthereto,aswellasexamplesfromthe
UnitedStatesAtlanticCoast,GulfCoast,andGreatLakes.Thechaptercloseswithadiscussionof
tropicalcyclonesandofadjustmentstocoastalhazards.

ChapterOutline

I.Introductiontocoastalhazards
A.Coastalareasaredynamicenvironments
1.continentalandoceanicprocessesconvergealongcoasts
2.coastallandscapesarecapableofrapidchange
3.impactofcoastalprocessesisconsiderable
B.MostUnitedStatespopulationwilleventuallybeconcentratedalongthecoastlines
1.todayapproximately75%ofpopulationlivesincoastalstates
2.coastalproblemshaveandwillincreaseaspopulationgrowsincoastalareas
C.Globalwarmingandsealevelrise
1.coastalerosionproblemsincrease
D.Mostseriouscoastalhazards
1.ripcurrents
2.coastalerosion
3.tsunami
4.tropicalcyclones
II.Coastalprocesses
A.Waves

1.sizeofwavesdependsonwindvelocity,duration,andfetch
2.wavessortthemselvesoutastheymoveawayfromstormcenters
3.wavecharacteristics:waveheight,wavelength,waveperiod
4.swell
5.wavesexpendmostoftheirenergyatthecoastline
6.whenwavesentershallowwater,velocitydecreasesandheightincreases
7.waverefraction:waveconvergenceatheadland,wavedivergenceinembayments
8.waveerosiontendstostraightencoastline
9.typesofbreakers:plunging,spilling
B.Beachformandbeachprocesses
1.beachcompositiondependsonenvironment
2.beachlandformterminology
a.berms
b.beachface
c.swashzone
d.surfzone
e.breakerzone
f.longshoretroughandbar
C.Transportofsand
1.longshoresedimenttransport
a.sandtransportedalongcoastwithcurrentintheswashzone
b.sandmovesalongbeachinzigzagpath
D.Ripcurrents
1.waterreturningseawardinnarrowzones
2.seriouscoastalhazard
III.Coastalerosion
A.Beachbudget
1.inputbyprocessesmovingsandalongcoastlineandbycoastalerosion
2.outputbyprocessesmovingsandalongcoastline
3.shortterm(e.g.,seasonal)vs.longtermchanges
B.Erosionfactors
1.sandsupply,affectedbydammingofrivers
2.severestorms
3.riseinsealevel
C.Seaclifferosion
1.seacliffexposedtowaveactionandlanderosionprocesses
2.mantleofsandcoversbeachduringsummer
3.mantleofsanderodedduringwinter,andseacliffsareeroded
4.humanactivitiescaninduceseaclifferosion
5.seaclifferosionisanaturalprocessthatcannotbecompletelycontrolled
IV.Coastalhazardsandengineeringstructures
A.Hardstabilization
1.improvenavigationorretarderosion
2.oftencauseundesirabledepositionanderosion
3.Seawalls
a.constructedparallelcoastlinetoretarderosion
b.reflectionofwavesenhancesbeacherosion
4.Groins
a.placedperpendiculartoshoretotrapsandmovinginlittoralsystem
b.erosiontendstooccurindowndriftdirection
c.beachnourishmentcanreducenegativeeffectsofgroins
5.Breakwaters

a.designedtointerceptwavesandprovideprotectedarea
b.breakwaterblockslittoraltransportandclogsharborentrances
c.breakwatertrapssandthatmayblockentrancetotheharbor
6.jetties
a.aredesignedtostabilizethemouthofariver
b.interfereswithlongshoretransport
B.Softstabilization
1.Beachnourishment:analternativetoengineeringstructures
a.artificiallyaddingsandtobeach
b.aestheticallypreferabletoengineeringstructures
c.MiamiBeach,Florida:dramaticchangeinbeachwidth
d.beachnourishmentattemptedalongmorethan600kilometersofUnitedStatescoastline
V.Humanactivityandcoastalerosion:someexamples
A.Humaninterferencewithshoreprocesseshascausedconsiderableerosion
B.TheAtlanticCoast
1.characterizedbybarrierislands
2.Maryland:duneremovalhasresultedinseriouserosiononFenwickIslandandleftitproneto
futurehurricanedamage
a.jettyconstructionhasalsorobbedAssateagueIslandofsand
C.TheGulfCoast
1.coastalerosionaseriousproblem
2.humanmodificationhasacceleratederosionby3040%
3.causes:coastalengineeringstructures,groundwater/petroleumwithdrawalsubsidence,
dammingofrivers
D.TheGreatLakes
1.coastalerosionaperiodicproblem,especiallyonLakeMichiganshoreline
2.mostsevereduringprolongedperiodsofhighlakelevel
3.duringperiodsofbelowaveragelakelevel,widebeachesdevelop
4.risinglakelevelnarrowsbeachesanddamagesstructures
5.severityoferosionatasitedependsonmanyfactors
6.beachnourishmenthasbeenattempted
VI.Tropicalcyclones
A.TyphoonsinmostofPacific,hurricanesintheAtlantic
1.generatedastropicaldisturbances
2.hurricanesthatthreatentheUnitedStatesstartasthunderstormsthatmovetoseafromWest
Africaandstrengthenoverwarmwaters
3.hurricanesareveryhighenergystormswithbandsofspinningstormsaroundeye
4.hurricaneweakenswhenitmakeslandfall
5.categorizeduponsizeandintensity,categories15
6.stormsurge:oftenthecauseofmostfloodingandlossoflife
7.threelikelystormtracks
B.Hazards
1.highwinds
2.floodingfromrainandwaves
3.stormsurges
C.Propertydamagecanbestaggering
1.HurricaneAndrew,1992:$25billiondamage
D.Hurricanesrankedfromcategory15onSaffirSimpsonscale
VII.Perceptionofandadjustmenttocoastalhazards
A.Perceptionofcoastalerosion
1.anindividualspastexperience
2.proximitytothecoastline

3.probabilityofsufferingpropertydamage
B.Adjustmenttocoastalhazards
1.tropicalcyclones:peopleeitherdonothingandbearthelossortakeactiontomodify
potentialloss
2.coastalerosion:adjustmentsincludebeachnourishment,shorelinestabilization,andlanduse
change
3.preliminaryprocessinmanagingcoastalerosionisestimatingratesoferosion
C.Weareatacrossroadswithrespecttocoastalerosion,withtwopossibilities
1.everincreasingcoastaldefensestocontrolerosion
2.learningtolivewithcoastalerosionthroughflexibleenvironmentalplanningandlanduse
D.Fiveprinciplesofcoastalzonedevelopment
1.coastalerosionisanaturalprocess
2.anyshorelineconstructioncauseschange
3.structuralstabilizationofthecoastalzoneprotectsthepropertyofrelativelyfewpeopleata
largeexpensetothegeneralpublic
4.engineeringstructuresdesignedtoprotectabeachmayeventuallydestroyit
5.shorelineengineeringstructuresproduceatrendincoastaldevelopmentthatisdifficultto
reverse

Chapter5UnstableLand
ChapterSummary

Thischapterconsistsofathoroughreviewoflandslideoccurrence,processes,andmitigation.The
chapterbeginswithanintroductiontomasswastingandthetypesoflandslides.Thesubsequent
sectionsfocusondrivingandresistingforces,andspecificfactorsrelatedtoslopestability,including
Earthmaterialtype,topography,climate,vegetation,water,andtime.Thechapterthenaddressesthe
influenceofhumanactivities,especiallytimberharvestingandurbanization,onlandslides,andon
methodsofreducinglandslidehazards.Thechaptercloseswithsectionsconcerningsnowavalanches,
subsidence,andperceptionoflandslidehazards.

ChapterOutline

I.Introductiontolandslides
A.Landslidescausesubstantialdamageandlossoflife
1.approximately2550peopleperyearkilledintheUnitedStates
2.totaldamageisabout$3.5billionperyearintheUnitedStates
B.Masswasting
1.comprehensivetermfordownslopemovementofEarthmaterials
2.landslidesusedforallmassmovementsforsakeofconvenience
3.subsidence:verticalmotion
II.Slopeprocessesandtypesoflandslides
A.Slopeprocesses
1.slopesaredynamicevolvingsystems
2.strongrock:freefacesandtalusslopes
3.weakerrocks:convexupperslope,straightslope,lowerconcaveslope
B.Typesoflandslides
1.slumping
2.sliding
3.falling
4.flowage
5.subsidence
C.Landslidesarecommonlycomplexcombinationsofslidingandflowage
D.Importantvariablesinclassifyingslopemovements

1.typeofmovement
2.slopematerialtype
3.amountofwaterpresent
4.rateofmovement
III.Slopestability
A.Forcesonslopes
1.drivingversusresistingforces
2.slipplanes:geologicsurfacesofweakness
3.safetyfactor:ratioofresistingforcestodrivingforces
4.stabilitydeterminedbyseveralvariables
a.typeofEarthmaterials
b.slopeangleandtopography
c.climate
d.vegetation
e.water
f.time
B.TheroleofEarthmaterialtype
1.rotationalslides:soilorweakrock
2.translationalslides:fractures,beddingplanes,weakclaylayers,foliationplanes
3.soilslips:soiloverrock
4.creep:soilorrocknearsurface
5.earthflows:saturatedmaterials
C.Theroleofslopeandtopography
1.slopegreatlyaffectsmagnitudeofdrivingforcesonslopes
2.debrisavalanches:veryrapiddownslopemovementofsoil,rock,andorganicdebrisonsteep
slopes
3.debrisflows:downslopeflowofrelativelycoarsematerials
D.Theroleofclimate
1.influencestheamountandtimingofwater
2.influencesabundanceandtypeofvegetation
E.Theroleofvegetation
1.providescoverthatslowsraindrops,promotinginfiltrationandinhibitinggrainbygrain
erosion
2.rootsystemsaddcohesion
3.addsweight
4.inspecialcases,vegetationcanincreaselandslideprobability
F.Theroleofwater
1.landslidescandevelopduringstormswhenslopesbecomesaturated
2.slumpsortranslationalslidescandevelopmonthsoryearsafterwaterinfiltratesdeeply
3.watercanerodebaseortoeofslope
4.quickclay:spontaneousliquefactionofclayrichsediment
G.Theroleoftime
1.forceschangeseasonallyasthemoisturecontentorwatertablepositionalters
2.chemicalweatheringactsinpresenceofwater
IV.Minimizingthelandslidehazard
A.Preventinglandslides
1.drainagecontrol
2.grading
3.slopesupports
4.landslidepreventioncanbeexpensive,butbenefittocostratiois102000:1.
B.Correctinglandslides
1.attackprocessthatstartedtheslide

2.drainageprogramtoreducewaterpressure,increasingresistingforces
V.Subsidence
A.Withdrawaloffluids
1.fluidsinEarthmaterialshavefluidpressurethatsupportsoverlyingmaterial
2.ifwaterisremoved,supportisreduced
3.CentralValley,California:thousandsofsquarekilometershavesubsidedasresultof
overpumpingofgroundwater
B.Sinkholes
1.removalofsubterraneanEarthmaterialsbynaturalprocesses
2.karstprocesses
3.naturalorartificialwatertablefluctuations
4.WinterPark,Florida
C.Saltdeposits
1.solutionminingleavescavitiesinrock
D.Coalmining
1.producesserioussubsidenceproblemsinwesternandeasternUnitedStates
2.mostcommonwhereundergroundminingisclosetosurface
VI.Perceptionofthelandslidehazard
A.Commonreactionistoassumelandslideswillnothappenatoneslocation
1.landslidehazardmapswillnotpreventallpeoplefrommovingintohazardousareas
2.infrequencyoflargeslidestendstoreduceawareness
B.Whatyoucandotominimizelandslidehazards?