1.

Modular design, or "modularity in design", is adesign approach that subdivides a

system into smaller parts called modules or skids, that can be independently created
and then used in different systems.
The advantages of modular design are numerous. Some examples are listed below:

Minimising cost, by reducing the diversity of parts in a product range

Savings in design time, as assemblies/modules are simply selected like bought out parts, as
their reliability, cost and quality are documented and easily available.

Modular products enable faster, easier and more efficient customisation of standard products
to unique user needs.

Related to the above point, a popular version of a product can be increased to meet increased
demand in a short period of time.

Modules can be modified or replaced without changing anything else on the product.

Modular design simplifies the information processing in a design project.

Modular design enables quick and easy upgrades (driven by either technology or user
improvement), thus enabling products to evolve.

Modular design resists obsolescence and shortens the redesign cycle. A new generation
product can reuse most of the old modules and change is provided by a few improved
modules.

Replacement of worn parts (which can then be recycling).

Flexibility in use, as the way customers use products can change over time.

Easy and quick installation of products

Easy and quick servicing and maintenance of products

Modular design delivers shorter learning curves when new employees have to become familiar
with products and the way they work.

Modular design gives businesses the possibility to outsource the assembly of some modules,
therefore freeing-up manufacturing capacity and increasing the number of products delivered
on time.

3.

4. The expansion card (also expansion board, adapter cardor accessory card) in
computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an electrical connector,
or expansionslot on a computer motherboard, backplane or riser card to add
functionality to a computer system via the expansionbus.
5. The two most common types of expansion slots are Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP).
6. Control BusThe control bus is used by the CPU to direct andmonitor the actions of the
other functional areas of thecomputer. It is used to transmit a variety of individualsignals
(read, write, interrupt, acknowledge, and soforth)
necessary
to
control
and
coordinate theoperations of the computer. The individual signalstransmitted over the control
bus and their functions arecovered in the appropriate functional area description.
Address BusThe address bus consists of all the signals necessaryto define any of the possible
memory address locationswithin the computer, or for modular memories any ofthe possible
memory address locations within a module.An address is defined as a label, symbol, or other
set ofcharacters used to designate a location or register whereinformation is stored. Before
data or instructions canbe written into or read from memory by the CPU or I/Osections, an
address must be transmitted to memoryover the address bus.
Data BusThe bidirectional data bus, sometimes called thememory bus, handles the transfer of
all data andinstructions between functional areas of the computer.The bidirectional
data bus can only transmit in onedirection at a time. The data bus is used to
transferinstructions from memory to the CPU for execution. Itcarries data (operands) to and
from the CPU andmemory as required by instruction translation. The databus is also used
to transfer data between memory andthe I/O section during input/output operations.
Theinformation on the data bus is either written into

7. A power supply unit (PSU) converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC power for the internal
components of a computer. Modern personal computers universally use switched-mode power
supplies. Some power supplies have a manual switch for selecting input voltage, while others
automatically adapt to the mains voltage.
Most modern desktop personal computer power supplies conform to the ATX specification, which
includes form factor and voltage tolerances. While an ATX power supply is connected to the mains
supply, it always provides a 5 V standby (5VSB) voltage so that the standby functions on the
computer and certain peripherals are powered. ATX power supplies are turned on and off by a signal
from the motherboard. They also provide a signal to the motherboard to indicate when the DC
voltages are in spec, so that the computer is able to safely power up and boot. The most recent ATX
PSU standard is version 2.31 of mid-2008.

1.

a mathematical factor which compensates for irregularity in the shape of an

object, usually the ratio between its volume and that of a regular object of the same
breadth and height.
2.
.
the physical size and shape of a piece of computer hardware.

Backups
The most important precaution against any risk of data loss is a full, up-to-date backup.
Tape backup drives are the wisest form of insurance for your computer, and good tape
drives are very inexpensive ($150.00 or less). This will protect you against lightning,
fire, theft, accidental data loss, virus damage, hardware crashes,etc. The two most
important things to remember about backups are 1) Backup regularly - full backups
weekly and partial backups daily is best and 2) Keep a full backup in another location,
such as at home or in a safety deposit box. This way you will not lose your data in a fire
or if the computer is stolen.
Telephone line danger
One potential threat to your computer which most often goes unnoticed is your modem
connection. Surges and power fluctuations can hit your system through your phone line
and cause serious damage. Make sure your power strip or battery backup has telephone
line protection. During a heavy electrical storm, your safest phone line protection is to
disconnect the phone jack from your modem.
Battery backups
A single power outage is not as damaging to your computer as the extreme surges and
drops in power that occur during a blackout, brownout, or just your ordinary lightning
storm. Your computer is very sensitive to power fluctuations - protect yourself against
this. Uninterrrupted Power Supplies (UPS) are available at most any computer store or
Office supply store. The Blackout Buster is a very good battery backup which also
provides surperior protection through your modem/fax/telephone line. The Blackout
Buster retails for $129.00 and is available at Comp USA.
Turn off your computer
Many of our clients are on networks and have made it a habit to keep the computers on
all the time. Monsoon season is the exception to the rule. Whenever a storm or
brownout is expected, your safest strategy is to turn off all computers and monitors.
These precautions can save you a great deal of frustration and loss.
10 Occupational Health and Safety Procedure (OHS) this is about Safety and
Anti-Static Rules
1. When possible, try to avoid working in carpeted areas. Carpeting greatly increases
static buildup within your body.
2. Personal protective equipment are correctly used.

3. Hazard/risks in the workplace and their corresponding indicators are identified to

minimize or eliminate risk to co-workers, workplace and environment.
4. Always handle electronic components by a non-conducting (non-metallic) edge. Don't
touch the pins or other connectors.
5. Read and follow instructions on the manual carefully.
6. Do not eat, drink or smoke while assembling the computer
7. When working on a computer avoid places that are damp, subject to temperature
extremes, dirty, or dusty.
8. The table should be clean and non-metallic to avoid short circuits
9. Always disconnect a computer from the AC power and from any powered peripherals
while you are working on it.
10. Never plug an ATX power supply into AC power while adding and connecting cards
of motherboard.

A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent

actual processing units (called "cores"), which are the units that read and execute program
instructions.[1] The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions (such as add, move data, and branch),
but the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, increasing overall speed for
programs amenable to parallel computing.[2]Manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a
single integrated circuit die (known as a chip multiprocessor or CMP), or onto multiple dies in a
single chip package.
Engineers developed the first processors (CPUs) with only one core. In the mid 1980s Rockwell
International manufactured versions of the6502 with two 6502 cores on one chip as the R65C00,
R65C21, and R65C29,[3][4] sharing the chip's pins on alternate clock-phases. Intel, AMDand others
developed other multi-core processors in the early 2000s.
Multi-core processors may have:
3. two cores (dual-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X2 and Intel Core Duo)
4. three cores (tri-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X3)
5. four cores (quad-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X4, Intel's i5 and i7 processors)
6. six cores (hexa-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X6 and Intel Core i7 Extreme
Edition 980X)
7. eight cores (octa-core CPUs, for example, Intel Core i7 5960X Extreme Edition and AMD FX8350)

8. ten cores (deca-core CPUs, for example, Intel Xeon E7-2850)

4.
5. To format your hard disk during Windows Vista installation, you'll need to start, or
boot, your computer using the Windows Vista installation disc or USB flash drive. Turn
on your computer so that Windows starts normally, insert the Windows Vista installation
disc, and then shut down your computer.

6.

Advantages of NTFS

It is recommended that you format all Windows 2000 partitions with NTFS except multipleboot configurations where non-Windows 2000 and non-Windows NT startups are necessary.
Formatting your Windows 2000 partitions with NTFS instead of FAT allows you to use
features that are available only on NTFS. These include:
Recoverability The recoverability designed into NTFS is such that a user should seldom
have to run a disk repair program on an NTFS volume. NTFS guarantees the consistency of
the volume by using standard transaction logging and recovery techniques. In the event of a
system failure, NTFS uses its log file and checkpoint information to automatically restore the
consistency of the file system. For more information about recovering your system, restoring
data, and creating an emergency repair disk (ERD) see "Repair, Recovery, and Restore" in
this book.
Compression Windows 2000 supports compression on an individual file basis for NTFS
volumes. Files that are compressed on an NTFS volume can be read and written by any
Windows-based application without first being decompressed by another program.
Decompression happens automatically during the read of the file. The file is compressed
again when it is closed or saved.
In addition, formatting your volumes with NTFS instead of FAT16 or FAT32 provides the
following advantages:
There are some Windows 2000 operating system features that require NTFS.
Faster access speed. NTFS minimizes the number of disk accesses required to find a
file.
File and folder security. On NTFS volumes, you can set file permissions on files and
folders that specify which groups and users have access to them, and what level of
access is permitted. NTFS file and folder permissions apply both to users working at
the computer where the file is stored and to users accessing the file over the network
when the file is in a shared folder. With NTFS you can also set share permissions that
operate on shared folders in combination with file and folder permissions.

7.

A hardware compatibility list (HCL) is a list of computer hardware (typically including

many types of peripheral devices) that is compatible with a particular operating system
or device management software. In today's world, there is a vast amount of
computer hardware in circulation, and many operating systems too

A power-on self-test (POST) is a process performed by firmware or software routines

immediately after a computer or other digital electronic device is powered on.
This article mainly deals with personal computers, but many other embedded systems such as those
in major appliances, avionics, communications, or medical equipment also have self-test routines
which are automatically invoked at power-on.
The results of tests run by the POST may be displayed on a panel that is part of the device, output to
an external device, or stored for future retrieval by a diagnostic tool. Since a self-test might detect
that the system's usual human-readable display is non-functional, an indicator lamp or a speaker
may be provided to show error codes as a sequence of flashes or beeps. In addition to running tests,
the POST process may also set the initial state of the device from firmware.

4
1. A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to
your computer. There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, diskette
drives, and so on. When you buy an operating system, many device driversare built into
the product.

2. Device Manager is a Control Panel applet in Microsoft Windows operating systems. It

allows users to view and control the hardware attached to the computer. When a piece of
hardware is not working, the offending hardware is highlighted for the user to deal with.

3. Device Manager is a Control Panel applet in Microsoft Windows operating systems. It

allows users to view and control the hardware attached to the computer. When a piece of
hardware is not working, the offending hardware is highlighted for the user to deal with. The
list of hardware can be sorted by various criteria.

4. In computing, a plug and play device or computer bus, is one with a specification that
facilitates the discovery of a hardware component in a system without the need for physical
device configuration or user intervention in resolving resource conflicts.

5. This is basis for the restart, its only when booting that Windows can guarantee not one
program was using the drivers files.
6. In a computer, an interrupt request (or IRQ) is a hardware signal sent to the processor that
temporarily stops a running program and allows a special program, an interrupt handler, to
run instead.

To access Disk Management in Windows Vista and Windows 7 please follow the
instructions below:

From the Start Menu or from the Desktop, right-click on the Computer icon and
choose Manage from the menu. ...
Click on Disk Management, which appears in the left-hand side under the
heading Storage.

5
1. A user account is a collection of information that tells Windows which files and folders you
can access, what changes you can make to the computer, and your personal preferences,
such as your desktop background or screen saver.

2. User Account Control (UAC) is a technology and security infrastructure introduced

with Microsoft's Windows Vista[1] andWindows Server 2008 operating systems, with a more
relaxed[2] version also present in Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 8, Windows
Server 2012 and Windows 10. It aims to improve the security of Microsoft Windows by
limitingapplication software to standard user privileges until an administrator authorizes an
increase or elevation. In this way, only applications trusted by the user may receive
administrative privileges, and malware should be kept from compromising the operating system.
In other words, a user account may have administrator privileges assigned to it, but applications
that the user runs do not inherit those privileges unless they are approved beforehand or the
user explicitly authorizes it.

1. Your browser has too many add-ons

Not all browser extensions are created for good. People often assume a slow computer is
because of a virus, but a lot of time it'll be a browser add-on or plugin bundled with a free software
download, Silverman says. These add-ons may proclaim themselves popup blockers or search
protectors, but they're actually browser adware that can slow your computer down by downloading
ads and popping up ads every time you open your browser.

Fix it
Disable or remove browser extensions and toolbars you don't really need:
Firefox: Hit the menu button on the far right, select Add-ons / Extensions, then select disable or
remove for each item on the list.
Chrome: Right-click on any extension button / Manage Extensions, then uncheck the box to disable
a particular item, or click the trash can to wave it goodbye.
Safari: Hit Safari (top left) / Preferences / Security / Extensions, then select an item to uninstall. You
can also turn off all Extensions here.

Internet Explorer: Tools / Manage add-ons / Show All add-ons, then select the offender(s), and click
disable or remove.

2. Your hard drive is failing

Hard drives have moving parts, so they all fail eventually, Silverman says. There's no way to guard
against it except backing up your files. As for solid state drives (SSDs), which don't have moving
parts and are theoretically less likely to break down, that's kind of a myth, Silverman says. While
they may not suffer mechanical breakdown, their data can still be corrupted. When they do fail, it's
much more difficult to recover the data, Silverman says.

Fix it
Run a hard drive check, says Silverman. He recommends installing a program called HDTune that
runs a health check on your hard drive to diagnose it healthy or ailing. Avoid dropping, throwing or
otherwise causing impact to the hard drive to extend its lifespan.

3. You're running too many programs at once

Doing a trillion things at once is exactly why we have computers but, at some point, your little bundle
of artificial intelligence is going to falter. Your computer's ability to run multiple programs at the same
time hinges in part on its RAM (random access memory), which allows it to switch from processing
one program to another with seeming fluidity, but if the demands of the open programs are
outstripping your computer's memory and processing power, you'll notice a slowdown.
Lots of folk have to keep in mind not to have too many windows open, Silverman says. That
includes minimized windows, which continue to run in the background, sucking up processing power.

Fix it
Shut 'em down. For Macs, Windows 10, Windows 7 and eariler versions of Windows, you can close
the programs from the file menu. In Windows 8, programs are built so that they run in the
background for a while, then automatically shut down. But if you want to manually shut one down
and ensure all associated files shut down with it, drag from the top of the screen to the bottom, and
hold there until the icon flips over.

4. Too many browser tabs are open

If you're in the dozens of open tabs camp (All the better to never lose a link, you claim), your
browser is likely hogging far more than its fair share of RAM.

Having multiple browsers open can slow down the works, just like if you had 20-plus tabs open,
Silverman says. Extra slow points if any tabs are also auto-refreshing (say, a live blog).
What's more, having a glut of browser tabs full of supposedly crucial information doesn't exactly help
our efficiency or mindfuless

Fix it
Bookmark those necessary links (for organization's sake, in a Bookmarks folder titled To Read)
and shut those tabs down. Even better, One-Tab for Chrome and Firefox does the work for you,
compiling all your open tabs into a simple list on a single tab, which can then be accessed as
needed.

5. Rogue programs are hogging all the processing power

It's not always a heavy-duty video or music app that's eating up your computer's processing power.
Some programs or system processes may be stuck in a loop or have encountered an error.

Fix it
Check how much processing power programs and processes are using by heading into Task
Manager (Windows; Ctrl+Alt+Delete) or Activity Monitor (Mac; in Applications / Utilities). For both,
click the CPU tab to order the programs by how much processing power they're taking up. If a
program that you're not actively using is still up there in the top few programs, you can select to quit
the process.
And, when it comes to browsers, Internet Explorer is especially heavy on your computer, Silverman
says. You don't have to run it but don't remove it [if you got it bundled with your Windows PC] it
could cause problems as it's very tied to the operating system, he says. Instead, he suggests the
lighter, more secure Chrome.

6. You have an overzealous antivirus program

Having an active anti-malware program is a vital part of computer hygiene but yours may be
running regular background scans at the worst possible times. Virus scans slow down the works
because they're running in the background, Silverman says. Some antivirus programs may be set to
weekly full scans, which can take a few hours and suck up a lot of processing power.

Fix it
Head into your antivirus settings and configure it to scan late at night when you aren't using the
computer, says Silverman. (However, that feature may not be available on some free antivirus
programs which makes a good case for upgrading.)

7. You have a virus

If it's not the antivirus, it could be the virus. Viruses, spyware and other malware can slow down your
computer as they mess around with everything from hijacking your browser to pushing advertising or
phishing sites, to crashing your computer.

Fix it
Run a malware scan. The best free one we like is Avast, Silverman says. For more free and paid
options, check out our Techlicious top picks for security software programs for Windows PCs
and Macs.

8. You have too many startup programs

Newly downloaded programs often try to weasel their way into your Startup menu (Windows) or
Login Items (Mac). If you didn't uncheck the box for that permission, you could have dozens of
unnecessary programs vying to be ready and running as soon as your computer boots up (as if
that's happening any time soon).
Having too many icons on the desktop can also slow down a Mac's startup, Silverman says.
While some programs such as antivirus and firewall software - should be allowed to run from
startup, others such as iTunes or Microsoft Office could quite easily stay closed until you actually
need to access a file from their digital depths.

Fix it
Mac: Applications / Systems Preferences / User Groups / Login Items, then uncheck unneeded
programs. Delete desktop icons you don't use by trashing them or, in the case of files you've saved
to desktop for convenience, reorganizing to the appropriate folder.
Windows 8 and 10: Windows key + X / Task Manager / Startup tab, then right-click on the programs
you want to remove and select Disable.
Windows 7 and older: Start button, then search for System Configuration. Go to Startup tab, then
uncheck each of the programs if you don't want starting when the system boots up.

9. Your hard drive is 90% full

When your hard drive gets to 90-95 percent full, that's when you see things moving at a crawl,
Silverman says. A full hard drive can also prevent a computer from starting up. It's best to optimize
your space as much as possible move stuff to the cloud, or delete the stuff you're not using, he
says.
Hard drive space is taken up by programs, updates to programs, and downloads, as well as
temporary files and associated files of deleted programs, so you may be able to clear a good amount
of space just by emptying your trash. Check your hard drive situation by (Mac) clicking the apple and
selecting About this Mac, or (Windows) hitting Start / Computer and right clicking the primary hard
drive (usually C:), then go to Properties.

Fix it
Deep clean your computer of unnecessary files from unused programs to defunct downloads and
temporary files.
It's good to remove bloatware Toshiba, Lenovo and other PC manufacturers put their own
software on computers that are supposed to run utilities or cleanup, Silverman says. And in terms of
that ancient computer cleaning ritual defragging, that really only works on Windows XP computers
and older, says Silverman. System backups and restore points also can take up a huge amount of
space, so dont keep more backup versions than you really need.

10. Your OS is way too slick

It's the age old battle of appearance over performance: Having visual effects enabled aka eye
candy like those snazzy transitions for minimizing windows can impact the speed of your PC (and
to a lesser extent, Mac), if its hardware only just skates within the minimum requirements for your
OS of choice.
If you have a good video card that's 1GB of RAM on the video card or better you're OK, says
Silverman. But less than that, [having visual effects enabled] can slow your computer down.

Fix it
Windows 7 and older: Start / Control Panel / Performance Information and Tools / Adjust Visual
effects, then click adjust for best performance or manually choose which effects you'd like to keep.
Windows 8 and 10: Windows key + X / System / Advanced System Settings / Performance Settings
/ then select as above.

Mac: System Preferences / Dock, then for minimizing applications, change that super-swish Genie
effect to a utilitarian Scale effect (basically just disappearing). Uncheck Animate Opening
Applications.

11. Your room is too dusty

Sometimes the problem is not internal but external is the back of your CPU casing matted over
with dust? This can prevent ventilation which cools the processors as they whir away in an attempt
to run Photoshop, Spotify, Outlook and Skype. And nobody wants a hot computer heat increases
the likelihood of malfunctions and crashes.
As for laptops, any time you notice your laptop heating up, you should check that its vents, usually
on the sides, aren't blocked. For example, don't put your laptop on something soft like a pillow where
it can sink in.

Fix it
Dust off the ol', um, dust. If it's really severe, you can use a vacuum cleaner (carefully) or a canister
of compressed air.

12. You don't have enough memory

If you've deep-cleaned your computer and modified your browser tab habit, but your computer is still
slow (and you own a PC), you might want to consider a minor upgrade in the form of additional
RAM.
Some programs take a lot of your computer's RAM to run for example, programs that work with
huge files such as photo or video editing software. A lot of people try to run Photoshop or some
graphics-heavy program on a entry- or mid-level computer that can't handle it, Silverman says.

Fix it
Silverman recommends a minimum of 2GB of RAM, or 4GB if you do graphics-heavy work on your
computer. Fortunately, upgrading the RAM on your PC is inexpensive and a task most people can
handle themselves. To learn what RAM upgrade options are available for your computer,
try Kinston's memory options tool.

13. You need to restart your computer

The reason restarting seems to solve so many tech issues is that programs can get hung for a
myriad of reasons. A lot of stuff gets gummed up in the background. For example, if you turn off

Outlook, background processes are still running, Silverman says. You could 'end task', but a lot of
folks are not that savvy about which one to end.
Instead of manually digging into Task Manager (Windows) or Activity Monitor (Mac) to divine the
root(s) of the sluggishness, restarting flushes out the system, a panacea for those rogue, resourcehogging programs and a clean slate free of files and fragments.

Fix it
Bite the bullet and shut things down. You even get the added benefit of having critical system
updates applied that can only happen during a reboot.

3.Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or

maintain a computer.[1]

Utility software, along with operating system software, is a type of system software used to
support the computer infrastructure, distinguishing it from application software which is
aimed at directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.
Disk Defragmenter is a tool that rearranges the data on your volume and
reunites fragmented data so your computer can run more efficiently. In this
version of Windows, Disk Defragmenter runs on a schedule so you don't have
to remember to run it, although you can still run it manually or change the
schedule it uses

Antivirus software was originally developed to detect and remove computer viruses,
hence the name. However, with the proliferation of other kinds of malware, antivirus
software started to provide protection from other computer threats. In particular,
modern antivirus software can protect from: malicious browser helper
objects (BHOs), browser
hijackers,ransomware, keyloggers, backdoors, rootkits, trojan horses, worms,
malicious LSPs, dialers, fraudtools, adware andspyware.

Operating system. An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer
hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
The operating system is a component of the system software in a computer system.
Application programs usually require an operating system tofunction.

BitLocker To Go
Microsoft added BitLocker internal hard drive encryption in Vista to protect data on stolen
laptops. In Windows 7, the feature has been extended to protect external hard drives and USB
thumb drives. Called "BitLocker To Go", the feature, available only in Windows 7 Enterprise and
Ultimate editions, allows external storage devices to be restricted with a passphrase set by IT
before users have permission to copy data to them.
This should give enterprises the same confidence in USB external drives that they have in
regular hard drive encryption. And with the growing amount of USB devices being used by
enterprises, encrypting them has become a necessity.
Internet Explorer 8 for safer browsing
Although you can use Internet Explorer 8 with Windows XP or Vista, the latest version of IE
comes loaded on Windows 7 machines. Despite its recent browser market share dips, IE8 does
offer improved security features for both consumers and enteprises.
For consumers, the two standouts are: InPrivate Browsing, where data about your browsing
session is not stored and temporary Internet files, web address history, cookies and passwords
are all disabled and Protected Mode, which protects you from drive-by downloads that can
happen just from visiting a website.
Related

Microsoft Windows 7 OS

How to use Windows 7 Backup and Restore

SPONSORED
Strategies for successfully adopting Hadoop
Advertisement

Some security features in IE8 that IT pros can utilise are: SmartScreen Filter, which
uses a red warning screen to prevent you from visiting unsafe sites and ClickJack
Prevention, which allows IT pros to insert a tag that blocks clickjacking, a type of
cross-site scripting that uses embedded code to trick users into clicking on a link
that appears normal (aka dummy button) but is concealing a hidden malicious link.
Microsoft Security Essentials
Microsoft Security Essentials, released last September, is a free program that
provides basic defense against viruses, spyware, rootkits and trojans. Though it
doesn't offer the comprehensive protection that paid security suites from Symantec,
McAfee and Kaspersky do, MSE has been hailed for its realtime virus protection,
organised interface and low resource usage. And its price is very attractive.
MSE may not qualify as a full replacement for Norton and McAfee products, but
along with Windows Defender for anti-spyware protection and Windows Firewall,
both of which have been enhanced in Windows 7, MSE facilitates non-intrusive virus
protection that will not bog down your computer.
AppLocker
Like BitLocker, AppLocker is an enterprise-only Windows 7 feature and its purpose is
to protect users from running unauthorised software that could lead to malware
infections. For safety, Microsoft recommends that enterprises run in standard user,
meaning there are no administrative rights to users at all.
But if IT managers do give administrative rights to users, AppLocker can safeguard
against users running suspicious types of software. It allows IT to specify which
applications can run on employees' desktops, blocking potentially harmful software
and allowing the applications and programs that users need.
More control of UAC
Vista users complained mightily about the security feature UAC (user account
control,) because of its frequent popup prompts seeking confirmation before
allowing programs to open. The resulting problem: many users just turned UAC off,
making them more vulnerable to security threats.
In Windows 7, UAC has more flexibility. The number of applications and tasks that
trigger UAC prompts has been reduced (no more prompts when you try to change
the date and time). Also, Microsoft has dropped the "on or off only" approach of
Vista. You are free to adjust UAC levels using a slider with four settings: Never
notify, only notify me when programs try to make changes to my computer, always
notify me, always notify me and wait for my response.
Even when the slider is set to "Never Notify" some UAC protections will still be in
effect, including Protected Mode in Internet Explorer.

Backing up data
In the Backup and Restore Center - accessed by opening Control Panel and clicking
"Back Up Your Computer" from the System and Security category - you can let
Windows 7 choose what to back up or you can select the individual folders, libraries
and drives yourself. Backups are created on a regular schedule, but you can change
the schedule and you can manually create a backup at any time.
Once you set up a backup, Windows 7 keeps track of the files and folders that are
new or modified and adds them to your backup. You can back up files to an external
hard drive, your network, or a DVD. The Backup and Restore feature comes with all
editions of Windows 7, but if you want to back up to a outside network location like
your company's server, you'll need Windows 7 Professional, Enterprise or Ultimate.

1. Data Mapping and Access: - DBMS defines the way to map any two related tables by
means of primary key foreign key relationship. Primary key is the column in the table
which responsible for uniquely identifying each record in the table. Foreign key is the
column in the table which is a primary key in other table and with which the entries in the
current table are related to other table.
For example, in the new database system, we can Student and Student_Report table as
follows.

STUDENT_ID is the unique using which we can identify each student and hence it forms a
primary key in STUDENT table. Similarly, REPORT_ID is the primary key in the
STUDENT_REPORT table. STUDENT_ID in the STUDENT_REPORT table is the foreign
key. It links STUDENT and STUDENT_REPORT tables.
Because of such mapping, it becomes each for the programmer to search for related
tables, join them, and fire the query as per the requirement. This reduces the time
consumed while searching and mapping these tables. Even when there is large amount of

data, the time consumed to retrieve, insert, update or delete is very less. Hence there is
no data isolation in the system.
Note: Mapping of tables is usually done when they are created.
2. Data Redundancy: - By the introduction of primary key in the table, data redundancy
problem is reduced to great extent. As we saw, primary key is the unique column for each
record, when there is a re-entry of same record, it does not allow saving such records.
DBMS has strong designing techniques like normalization which makes sure the same
copy of data is not stored in same table or in multiple tables. It makes sure all the
informations are stored only once in the database tables.
We can see the difference in the way data is being stored in the file and database system.
Primary key, foreign keys are defined; unnecessary columns are removed from the
STUDENT_REPORT table in the database system. These are missing in the file
processing system.

3. Data Independence and Consistency: - DBMS defines a standard to represent the data
in the form of rows and columns. It also stores the information about the tables, columns,
keys, storage space, used space, available space etc separately from the logical data.
Hence they totally independent of the way they are stored and the data being stored. Any
changes to the physical storage (like disks, tapes etc) or structure, does not harm the data
being stored. Since DBMS defines each columns and rows at the beginning itself and
controls the way data being entered, there is no affect on the programs or any other tables
or data. Hence the consistency of the data also maintained.

If there is a change in the address of any student, we just have to update it in the Student
table. There is no other place his information is being stored. Hence it maintains the
consistent data in the database.
Suppose there is a new column addition to STUDENT table, say DOB. This will change
the metadata to reflect additional column in the table structure. It will hardly affect the
application unless until there is a new requirement to have transaction with DOB. Hence
data independence is also assured in the database.
4. Security: - DBMS allows different levels of access to different users based on their roles.
In the school database, individual students will have access to their data alone, while their
teachers will have access to all the students whom they are teaching and for the subjects
that they are teaching. Class teacher will be able to see the reports of all the students in
that class, but not other classes.
Similarly, in a banking system, individual account holder will have Read-Only access to
their account. While accountant can update, individual account details for each of their
transaction.
All these levels of security and access are not allowed in file system.
5. Integrity: - DBMS allows having restrictions on individual columns. It would be defined
while designing the table itself. If we want to enter salary of an employee within the range
10000 to 40000, we can impose this while designing the table by using CHECK constraint.
When salary is entered, it will automatically check for the range specified.
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE .. CONSTRAINT chk_salary CHECK (salary>10000
AND salary <40000)
6. Atomicity: - DBMS makes sure either the transaction is fully complete or it is rolled back
to the previous committed state. It does not allow the system to be in a partially committed
state. In our example above, DBMS commits marks change transaction before calculating
the total. If there is any crash or shutdown of the system, before committing the marks,

then updated marks will be rolled back to the original marks. Hence it makes sure
atomicity of the transaction is achieved.
7. Concurrent Access: - DBMS provide access to multiple users to access the database at
the same time. It has its own mechanism to have concurrency accesses and hence avoid
any incorrect data in the system.

6. 1. Hackers are looking for easy targets.

Avoid advertising the presence of your wireless LAN: The easier it is to find,
the more likely it will be a target. Be sure to change the Service Set Identifier
(SSID) so that it's not the factory default, and turn off SSID broadcasting. If
possible, adjust access point (AP) antennas and power levels to avoid signal
leakage to areas where coverage is neither required nor desirable.
2. It is easy to "convert" a device so that it looks like another device.

3. Lost or stolen devices are also a severe threat. Media Access Control addresses
are, therefore, a poor method of network authentication. Instead, rely on deviceindependent authentication, such as user names and passwords, with integration
with existing network directories or authentication schemes. Wireless LANs are a
natural extension to RSA SecurID token deployments.
4. 3. Wireless data requires data encryption.
5. Built-in wireless LAN encryption (such as Wired Equivalent Privacy) is weak.
Instead, use virtual private network technologies such as IPsec with triple DES to
protect data. Avoid proprietary schemes in order to assure maximum
interoperability.
6. 4. Limit or control where wireless LAN traffic can go.
7. If the wireless LAN is to be used for a selected purpose, such as to access an
enterprise resource planning system, then place specific packet filters on the
wireless LAN to allow only that access.
8. 5. Don't place APs on desks or other places that can be easily accessed.
9. Unscrupulous visitors or careless employees can easily move, replace or reset
the APs. Security can't be assured in such insecure locations. Instead, move
management and security to the wiring closet.
10. 6. Actively monitor AP configurations.

11. It's not sufficient to configure an AP correctly; once configured, the AP

muststay properly configured. Consider that it is easy for someone to perform a
hardware reset on an AP that sits on a desk or ceiling. By actively monitoring the
AP configuration, you can ensure that the AP is automatically reconfigured
should such an event occur.
12. 7. Be aware that APs are easily installed by employees and intruders and
may easily bypass the enterprise's wireless security policies.
13. Active sniffing for these rogue devices is a critical operational requirement. New
tools to ease this task are readily available.
14. 8. Over a wireless LAN, an intruder can attack the wireless clients
themselves in a peer-to-peer fashion.
15. This attack can give the intruder network access by simply using a legitimate
client as an accepted entry point. To address this issue, desktop firewalls should
be deployed, along with network management tools that actively audit and
manage the client before permitting access via the wireless LAN.
16. 9. Prevent denial-of-service attacks by ensuring adequate bandwidth
management on the wireless LAN.
17. The wireless LAN bandwidth is relatively limited and shared by multiple users.
Particularly in environments in which different users need to perform different
mission-critical tasks, this bandwidth must be policed to provide fair access.
18. 10. Deploy real-time policy management.
19. As they are deployed, wireless LANs will span entire campuses and incorporate
multiple global sites. Security policies (e.g., valid user lists or access rights) will
naturally change. These changes must be reflected in real time throughout the
wireless LAN to reduce the window of opportunity for intrusion and, more
important, provide immediate lockdown of detected security holes.
2. Eavesdropping is the unauthorized real-time interception of a private communication,
such as a phone call, instant message, videoconference or fax transmission. The term
eavesdrop derives from the practice of actually standing under the eaves of a house,
listening to conversations inside

3. Link Encryption vs. End-to-End Encryption

Link Encryption vs. End-to-End Encryption

Encryption can be performed at different communication levels, each with different

types

of

protection

implementation

are

and
link

implications.
encryption

Two
and

general

modes

end-to-end

of

encryption

encryption. Link

encryption encrypts all the data along a specific communication path, as in a

satellite link, T3 line, or telephone circuit. Not only is the user information encrypted,
but the header, trailers, addresses, and routing data that are part of the packets are
also encrypted. The only traffic not encrypted in this technology is the data link
control messaging information, which includes instructions and parameters that the
different link devices use to synchronize communication methods. Link encryption
provides protection against packet sniffers and eavesdroppers. In end-to-end
encryption, the headers, addresses, routing, and trailer information are not
encrypted, enabling attackers to learn more about a captured packet and where it is
headed.

6. Port scanner is an application designed to probe a server or host for open ports. This is often
used by administrators to verify security policies of their networks and by attackersto identify
services running on a host and exploit vulnerabilities.
A virtual private network also known as a VPN is a private network that
extends across a public network or internet. It enables users to send and receive
data across shared or public networks as if their computing devices were directly
connected to the private network.

1. The art of protecting information by transforming it (encrypting it) into an unreadable

format, called cipher text. Only those who possess a secret key can decipher (or decrypt)
the message into plain text. Encrypted messages can sometimes be broken by
cryptanalysis, also called codebreaking, although modern cryptography techniques are
virtually unbreakable.

2. Symmetric-key algorithms are algorithms for cryptography that use the

same cryptographic keys for both encryption of plaintext and
decryption of ciphertext. The keys may be identical or there may be a
simple transformation to go between the two keys

.
3. Why is Information Security important?
Data held on IT systems is valuable and critical to the business of the
University. We all rely on IT to store and process information, so it is essential
that we maintain Information Security.
The purpose of information security policies is to preserve:
Confidentiality
Data is only accessed by those with the right to view the data.

Integrity
Data can be relied upon to be accurate and processed correctly.

Availability
Data can be accessed when needed.
Failure to comply with the requirements of these Information Security
Guidelines may lead to disciplinary action.
2.
1. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security. To read
anencrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that enables you to
decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plain text ; encrypted data is referred to as cipher
text.
2.

3. Caesar cipher (shift cipher) is a simple substitution cipher based on a replacement of

every single character of the open text with a character, which is fixed number of positions
further down the alphabet.

In the times of Julius Caesar was used only the shift of 3 characters, but nowadays the
term Caesar cipher refers to all variants (shifts) of this cryptosystem.

a message authentication code (MAC) is a short piece of information used to

authenticate a messagein other words, to confirm that the message came
from the stated sender (its authenticity) and has not been changed in transit
(its integrity)

5.1 An intrusion detection system (IDS) is a device or software application

that monitors a network or systems for malicious activity or policy violations.

2. Private networks are formed by computers connected to each other but not
to external networks or the Internet. Each computer in a private network occupies a
private IP address space, meaning that no computer outside the network can find
that address or communicate with that computer. Although the configuration is
unusual in small businesses, it is used by some operations handling confidential or
highly sensitive information, with a series of advantages and disadvantages for the
small business.
Advantage: Security
The Internet is full of great content, but it also contains its fair share of
malicious applications and users -- everything from Trojans and viruses to worms
and hackers. The obvious advantage of a private network is that, by not being
connected to external networks or the Internet at large, a private network is simply
not exposed to these threats. With the average data breach costing an organization
$6.6 million in lost business and repair costs, according to a study by the Ponemon
Institute, the security of a private network can be a valuable advantage to a small
business dealing with sensitive content.

6.1

Access control is a security technique that can be used to regulate who or

what can view or use resources in a computing environment.
There are two main types of access control: physical and logical. Physical
access control limits access to campuses, buildings, rooms and physical IT

assets. Logical access limits connections to computer networks, system files

and data.
Access controls are security features that control how users and systems communicate and interact
with other systems and resources.
Access is the flow of information between a subject and an object.
A subject is an active entity that requests access to an object or the data within an object. E.g.: user,
program, process etc.
An object is a passive entity that contains the information. E.g.: Computer, Database, File, Program
etc.
Access controls give organization the ability to control, restrict, monitor, and protect resource
availability, integrity and confidentiality
6.2

6.3

A specialised operating system for a network device such as a router, switch or firewall.

An operating system oriented to computer networking, to allow shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a network, to enable the sharing of data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions.[1] Typically over a local area
network (LAN), or private network. This sense is now largely historical, as common operating
systems generally now have such features included.

8.1
Malicious software, commonly known as malware, is any software that brings
harm to a computer system. Malware can be in the form of worms, viruses, trojans,
spyware, adware and rootkits, etc., which steal protected data, delete documents or
add software not approved by a user.
8.2

Database security concerns the use of a broad range of information securitycontrols to

protect databases (potentially including the data, the databaseapplications or stored functions,
the database systems, the database servers and the associated network links) against
compromises of their confidentiality, integrity
Database security concerns the use of a broad range of information security
controls to protect databases (potentially including the data, the database
applications or stored functions, the database systems, the database servers and
the associated network links) against compromises of their confidentiality, integrity
and availability. It involves various types or categories of controls, such as technical,
procedural/administrative and physical. Database security is a specialist topic within
the broader realms of computer security, information security and risk
management.

Security risks to database systems include, for example:

Unauthorized or unintended activity or misuse by authorized database users,

database administrators, or network/systems managers, or by unauthorized users
or hackers (e.g. inappropriate access to sensitive data, metadata or functions within
databases, or inappropriate changes to the database programs, structures or
security configurations);
Malware infections causing incidents such as unauthorized access, leakage or
disclosure of personal or proprietary data, deletion of or damage to the data or

programs, interruption or denial of authorized access to the database, attacks on

other systems and the unanticipated failure of database services;
Overloads, performance constraints and capacity issues resulting in the
inability of authorized users to use databases as intended;
Physical damage to database servers caused by computer room fires or
floods, overheating, lightning, accidental liquid spills, static discharge, electronic
breakdowns/equipment failures and obsolescence;
Design flaws and programming bugs in databases and the associated
programs and systems, creating various security vulnerabilities (e.g. unauthorized
privilege escalation), data loss/corruption, performance degradation etc.;
Data corruption and/or loss caused by the entry of invalid data or commands,
mistakes in database or system administration processes, sabotage/criminal
damage etc.

8.3Network security has become synonymous with complex network

architecture, administrative nightmares, and increased threat exposure. Myriad
security point deployments, diverse management consoles, and complex and
outdated security policies spread across multiple rule bases make effective network
management and good visibility into network traffic nearly impossible.

Network security management empowers you with easy-to-implement,

consolidated policy creation and management. Set up and control firewalls centrally
with industry-leading functionality and an efficient rule base, and gain insight into
network-wide threats while correlating information across your entire network.

8.4
Trusted Operating System (TOS) generally refers to an operating system that provides
sufficient support for multilevel security and evidence of correctness to meet a particular set of
government requirements

3.1A hash function is any function that can be used to map data of arbitrary
size to data of fixed size. The values returned by a hash function are called hash

values, hash codes, hash sums, or simply hashes. One use is a data structure called
a hash table, widely used in computer software for rapid data lookup.

2
A digital signature is a mathematical scheme for demonstrating the authenticity of a digital
message or documents. A valid digital signature gives a recipient reason to believe that the message
was created by a known sender, that the sender cannot deny having sent the message
(authentication and non-repudiation), and that the message was not altered in transit (integrity).
Digital signatures are a standard element of most cryptographic protocol suites, and are commonly
used for software distribution, financial transactions, contract management software, and in other
cases where it is important to detect forgery or tampering.

3. Asymmetric cryptography or public-key cryptography is cryptography

in which a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt a message so
that it arrives securely. Initially, a network user receives a public and
private key pair from a certificate authority.
For an example of how problems arise in symmetric-key settings, consider
how we might perform some of our shared-key operations in a context with,
say, three principals, A, B, and C. Principal A wants to send a message to B
and C in such a way that both know that it came from A. If A and B share key
kAB and A and C share key kAC, then it's not obvious how to send a bit string
that guarantees this property (though such schemes exist); the naive solution
of computing a pair (MAC(m, kAB), MAC(m, kAC)) and sending it as an
authenticator doesn't work if B and C don't trust each other or don't trust A,
since one element of the pair might pass the check for one principal and the
other not pass the check for the other principal. If A, B, and C all share a
single key, then B or C could create a MAC that appears to come from A.