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THE
ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT
BY
V.
KARAPETOFF
SECOND
rewritten,
EDITION
enlarged
and
Second
McGRAW-TIILL
WEST
239
6
BOUVERIE
rksbt
Iupression
BOOK
39TH
entirely
STREET,
STREET,
1912
COMPANY
NEW
LONDON.
YORK
E.G.
TK
153
1312
COPTBIQHT,
1912,
McGRAW-HILL
Copyright,
BOOK
1910,
by
V.
BY
THE
COMPANY
KARAPETOFF
X2M508-
Stanbope
F.
H.GILKON
BOSTON,
ipress
COMPANY
U.S.A.
The
the
treat
and
"
theory
intended
to
as
theoretical
fundamental
"
machine
elements
base
its
kind
each
culation
caland
machinery
be
must
than
of
in
for
necessary
taught
of
performance
rather
titled
en-
student
particular combination
to
for
give
student
relations
established
pamphlet
dynamo-electric
circuits, and
magnetic
is
advanced
The
lines.
electric
every
companion
of
performance
transmission
the
theoretical
the
engineering
of
^snth
Circuit,
Magnetic
electrical
of
together
pamphlet,
This
EDITION
FIRST
THE
TO
PREFACE
electric
the
upon
upon
machinery,
as
to
separate
often
is
done.
The
first
circuit, the
four
next
circuits, and
current
methods
are
over
for
the
of
properties
and
is devoted
chapter
chapters
the
in
for
but
beginner,
student
direct-current
alternating-
sine-wave
the
give
All
the
who
engineering
had
and
results
of which
there
intended
is not
pamphlet
has
fundamental
important
problems
The
text.
the
of
chapters
numerical
by
electrical
in
course
of
circuit.
the
review
treat
two
electrostatic
hundred
one
last
illustrated
are
to
scriptive
de-
elementary
an
tory
labora-
simple
some
experiments.
The
student
the
alternating-current
in
the
academic
has
machinery,
the
bearing
not
in
possible uniform,
in
the
An
the
of
upon
works
circuit
theory
student
mentioned
of
or
electric
will
at
in
and
purel}' historical
the
ambitious
the
circuit,
electrostatic
matter
that
so
direct-current
the
in
directly
left out.
treatment
as
All
circuit.
been
exhaustive
more
far
circuit,
magnetic
interest,
as
relations
analogous
sees
finally
find
the
end
of
pamphlet.
The
modem
electrostatic
distance,
ampere-ohm
has
use
or
of
system
is
circuit
of
conception
No
at
is made
treatment
elastic
been
the
treated
accordance
displacement
made
of
electrostatic
of units
in
is used
T
the
action
system
for
of
electricity
of
of
\sith
electric
units.
electrostatic
The
the
in
electrics
di-
charges
volt-
calculations,
vi
PREFACE
in accordance
with
Ascoli
Electrical
OHver
in
TO
THE
Professor
Vol.
I of
St.
Congress,
Heaviside's
at
the
Mr.
John
F.
for the
read
to the
answers
85
TO
author's
influence
with
the
upon
is
attempt
an
in
friend
and
made
and
electrical
manuscript and
the
colleague,
engineering
in
proofs, checked
excellent suggestions
many
is made
doubled.
completely
reset
in
somewhat
problems
these
The
book
in
more
of conductors
of variable
texts,
line,transformer
capacity)
(electrostatic
that
of
in his classes
its size had
are
The
new.
large number
are
be
motor
and
topics are
of
the
electrical
of
characteristics
induction
to
practicallyrewritten,and
cross-section,the
and
pamphlet
years
topics added
performance
systems,
so
the cuts
new
as
its present edition,the book
In
detail,and
The
for two
has been
All
type.
EDITION
issued
was
used
texts.
of
provided.
are
polyphase
this book
other
independent
than
SECOND
the author
some
Y.
N.
THE
of
which
pages
supplement
treated
the
University, Ithaca,
August, 1910.
first edition
The
more
International
famihar
23,* where
instructor
problems
PREFACE
to
his
fessor
Pro-
text.
Cornell
some
and
the
to
Douglas,
Sibley College, who

the
due
are
H.
notice
22
the
Those
1904).
will
of
by
paper
electrostatic nomenclature.
thanks
Many
Transactions
Louis,
writings
rational
EDITION
Giorgi'sidetis (see a
author, particularlyin Arts.

made
FIRST
practical
resistance
relations in
the
mission
trans-
the permittance
lines.
of transmission
of complex
alternatingcurrents by means
quantities,particularattention is paid to the trigonometric form
E (cos 6 -{-j sin 6) of the expression for a vector.
In fact, the
In
the
treatment
transmission
some
trusts
more
e
line, the transformer,
extent,
that
of
are
the
convenient
treated
reader
in this
will
and
trigonometric
find this
in numerical
the
induction
form.
somewhat
applications than
-\-je'.
*
Chapter
14 in the second
edition.
novel
the
motor
The
to
author
treatment
usual
form
PREFACE
the
Since
by
electrostatic
of
capacity
this
mode
acting
is
treatment
medium
Mr.
F.
of
the
indebted
proof
Cornell
edition,
Mr.
of
and
the
Untversity,
the
checked
H.
the
of
Y.
farads
lines.
The
readily
than
of
students
the
old-
the
tric
elec-
present
continuous
action
dielectric.
of
and
manuscript
to
answers
for
lation
calcu-
and
of
the
and
the
squares
department
work.
Douglas
X.
idea
the
ment
treat-
to
purpose
sincere
express
edition.
Ithaca,
1912.
role
competent
F.
second
the
electrical
to
and
the
May,
with
the
in
inverse
The
corrected
John
of
of
units,
treatment
more
law
with
wishes
faithful
to
and
and
author
painstaking,
them
of
read
second
much
distance.
Keller
has
The
galley
itself
R.
University
at
this
been
has
treatment
of
transmission
the
upon
impress
to
and
author
permittances
extended
has
his
system
of
use
cables
bavsed
in
ampere-ohm
VU
the
edition,
colleagues
presentation
of
way,
charges
of
EDITION
first
his
the
He
SECOND
the
the
darafs.
in
fashioned
the
in
involves
elastances
in
of
some
circuit
which
grasp
of
appearance
encouraged
THE
TO
Columbia
the
the
critically
lems.
prob-
new
appreciation
The
proofs
author
reading
of
is
his
also
the
CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface
Suggestions
to
I.
Chapter
xi
Teachers
Relations
Electrical
Fundamental
rent
Direct-cur-
in
ClRCUTTS
volt, the
The
the
ampere,
and
Resistances
efficient.
the
and
ohm,
mho.
series
in
conductances
Ck)-
Temperature
in
and
parallel.
'
Electric
Chapter
power.
II.
and
Resistivity
of
The
The
law
Chapter
Voltages
the
or
transient
Some
irregular
an
Currents
ant"
31
of vectors.
of
sine-wave
Non-sinusoidal
Circuits
in
are
phase.
special methods
Power
curve.
Reactance,
electromagnetic
inductance
of
Concept
irregular patlis.
Representation
subtraction
voltage.
with
in
45
effective
The
calculating
for
when
and
current
Impedance
and
inertia.
and
60
Reactance.
non-sinusoidal
opening
Susceptance
series and
flow
Vectors
by
voltage
of
current
VII.
radial
of phase.
as
of
Influence
and
and
Inductance,
Inductance
Chapter
and
value
out
are
VI.
of
Alternating
currents.
and
current
of current
voltage
{wint.
Aiternating-current
in
when
effective
Chapter
22
The
voltages.
Power
Power
values
Sine-w.\ves
Addition
V.
at
conductance
of
voltages and
and
currents
Chapter
voltage
refraction.
by
vector.
and
Representation
Sinusoidal
by
voltage gradient
resistance
of current
IV.
density
Cross-Section
Variable
of
density and
current.
and
Laws.
Conductors
Current
13
Current
conductivity.
KirchhofiF's
III.
Chapter
rent
Direct-cur-
in
(Continued)
Circuits
gradient.
Relations
Electrical
Fundamental
closing
Impedance.
voltage.
a
The
extra
circuit.
Admittance
ant)
Concept
susceptance.
parallel combinations.
75
of
admittance.
Impedances
in
Equivalent
parallel and
tances
admit-
in series.
Chapter
VIII.
The
Addition
by
vectors
as
Chapter
and
quantities
IX.
Power
The
and
and
expressed
as
Use
of projections of
Impedance
Complex
in
exponential
and
82
Rotation
vectors.
admittance
of
expressed
operators.
or
of
phase displacement
operators
Quantities
Complex
of
ninety degrees.
complex
Vectors
Use
subtraction
Quantities
(Continued)
expressed by projections
polar coordinates.
functions.
ix
Vectors
and
91
of vectors.
operators
CONTENTS
FAGB
Chapter
X.
Systems
Polyphase
Two-phase
Three-phase Y-connected
system.
phase delta-connected
Chapter
XI.
Regulation
in
Three,
system.
system.
Voltage
Imperfections
and
99
of
108
resistances
replaced by equivalent
transformer
Transformer
the
Analytical
a
diagram
lytical
voltage regulation. Approximate solution. Anasolution.
Exact
determination
of voltage regulation.
The
reactances.
of
determination
transformer.
of
vector
"
"
Chapter
XII.
Characteristics
Performance
Induction
the
of
Motor
The
122
of
equivalent electrical diagram
analytical determination
of
XIII.
The
The
The
XV.
field.
The
hysteresis and
of
elastance
The
phase
line.
of
single-phase line.
and
elastance
between
XVII.
The
XVIII.
of
the
Single-phase
of
171
elastance
The
ground
of the
produced
Elastance
line
single-
the elastance
upon
electrostatic
by
of
lines
of
of
force
single-phase line. The
and
Charging
Current
in
193
with
Dielectric
Reactance
and
into
voltage regulationof
concentrated
or
at
one
in
203
susceptance.
regulation of
permittance
Susceptance
and
Circuits
reactance
Voltage
Three-phase
symmetrical spacing.
line
spacing.
Alternating-current
resonance.
tric
Dielec-
corona.
large parallelcircular cylinders.
two
unsymmetrical
Dielectric
electrostatic
dielectric
The
Lines
Three-phase
Chapter
refraction.
Permittance
equations
Equivalent
Three-phase
with
permittance and elastance
The
single-corecable.
equipotential surfaces
Chapter
157
Lines
influence
The
mittivity
Per-
flux density and
Dielectric
flux
The
and
Transmission
and
paths.
conductance.
Elastance
Cables
dielectric
(Continued)
field.
law
strength of insulatingmaterials.
XVI.
the
to
of dielectric
elastance
Circuit
Dielectric
irregular paths.
Chapter
143
dielectrics.
Energy in the electrostatic

of
of performance.
(voltagegradient).
stress
The
primary
analytical determination
hydraulic analogue
elastivityof
and
electrostatic
to the
Circuit
permittance and
The
reduced
reactances
The
Dielectric
electrostatic
Chapter
Induction
the
solution.
Exact
XIV.
circuit.
output.
of
133
circle diagram.
"
Chapter
solution.
(Continued)
secondary resistances and
circuit.
maximum
The
motor.
Approximate
"
Characteristics
Performance
Motor
The
an
performance.
Starting torque, pull-out torque, and

Chapter
induction
and
line,taking
Approximate
account.
transmission
more
Current
transmission
formulae
voltage
its distributed
for the
line,considering its permittance
points.
Appendix
215
Bibuography
219
TO
SUGGESTIONS
(1)
book
This
which
and
lectures
Some
order
in
suggested,
parts
reference
to
permit
of the
book
the
in
the
in
them
lecture
of
subject
in
best.
of
point
as
basis
much
as
his
view.
for
cussion
dis-
for
it is not
written
are
can
last
to
necessary
One
the
schedule
can
chapters
next.
possible
as
teacher
that
omitting
manner,
in
theses.
the
on
only
recitations, others
most
so
and
or
freedom
again
the
Moreover,
starting
abridged
an
that
so
omitted
own
made
are
method,
before
chapter
one
book
the
concentric
the
according'to
finish
him
brief
for
another,
one
others
room,
or
of
for
course
periods
more
his
suitable
more
room,
parts
it suits
as
are
in
text
been
teacher
establish
to
designing
(2) Different
independent
him
has
matter
the
allow
to
as
computing
recitations,
descriptive
Purely
work.
used
be
to
lectures,
comprises
home
intended
is
TEACHERS
the
cover
of
parts
some
chapters.
(3)
The
an
integral part
be
omitted.
of
in
numerical
book
by
be
popular
are
circumstances
no
obtaining
clear
principles, and
(5) The
coefficients
of
with
that
of
by
except
and
few
standing
under-
acquiring
the
Making
and
of
course,
analytically inclined
precision of judgment,
is
tangible
has
solution
no
to
scale
in
lations
re-
diagrams
should
and
be
one
it may
students.
and
to
imjwrtant
though
even
order
not
Mechanical
gives the
student
concrete.
avoided
standards,
where
and
the
sketches,
machines
the
sketches,
illustrate
to
own.
circuits
some
author
and
his
features
develops
knowledge
companitively
opportunity
electric
important
drawing
of
way
article
every
under
})ractical application,
an
sketches
of
drawings
the
nearly
should
physical
contains
student
of
royal
no
of
examples.
(4) The
the
is
their
and
book,
the
end
the
at
undorljang
the
assurance
give
of
There
of
an
given
problems
except
general
giving
in
definite
problems,
significance
numerical
where
they
is ascribed
data,
are
to
dispensab
insuch
SUGGESTIONS
xu
data.
His
reasons
books,
will be
(6) Sufficient
one
(c) The
text,
numerical
found
coefficients
phenomenon
and
by substituting the
in
will
be
able
confronted
by
gives
teacher
before
should
solve
of view
student
the
the
is
data
of
will
with
the
several
into the
that
ûseof
the
the
Ohm's
law
examples
and
make
for
his
circuit.
The
will
He
from
these
two
book,
simple
magnetic
indeed.
analogous quantities in the
Electrodynamic
f
Voltage
"
Voltage gradient (or
'
electric intensity)
( Electric
is very
or
e.m.f.
three
Voltage
The
gradient
Dielectric flux
density
Dielectric
kinds
find
in
of circuits.
Magnetomotive
(or
M.m.f.
force
gradient (or magnetic

intensity)
Magnetic flux
Current
flux density
Resistor
Elastor
Reluctor
"
Resistance
Elastance
Reluctance
Resistivity
Elastivity
Reluctivity
Conductor
Permittor
"
Conductance
Permittance
Conductivity
Permittivity
Magnetic flux density
'
(condenser)
Permeator
(capacity) Permeance
trie constant)
then
circuit,and
'
and
following table
electric intensity)
current
student
Magnetic
e.m.f.
or
students
circuit,treated
Electrostatic
Voltage
cuit.
cir-
densities,resistances,
resistivities,
current
to the
as
involving voltages
conductivities.
transition
made
ordinary electric
difficultyin mastering the electrostatic

the
is
electrodynamic
to
electrostatic
and
currents
of
circuit
little
the
responding
cor-
when
constants
very
shows
definite law,
it advisable
numerical
conductances
companion
that
throughout
comforting feelingthat he
electrostatic
to
find
the
starting on
voltage gradients,
the
(d) Most
emphasized
numerical
necessary
of
definite practical situation.
perfectly familiar
circuit*
the
this
conditions
art.
to
experimental
point
with
practice by assuming
according
occurs
available
treatment
The
in
pocket-
reality many
the
of the
sign
de-
authority to
in
according to
obtained
This
much
too
the
and
and
in conjunction
the progress
possible analogous
as
used
limits
with
obtain
to
The
(6)
much
and
book,
coefficients
text-book, while
question
formula.
the
in
are
the
be
to
wide
and
numerical
likely to ascribe
given
practical problem,
numerical
is
within
vary
coefficients obscure
good electrical hand-books
ought
student
value
coefficients
a
in
of which
TEACHERS
(a) Numerical
are:
general exposition.
data
TO
(dielec- Permeability
LIST
following
The
not
here
occurring
has
the
symbol
use
comprises
list
where
stated
that
from
sjinbols
the
of
most
explained
are
different
SYMBOLS.
PRINCIPAL
OF
they
appear.
the
below,
correct
used
in
When,
meaning
the
Those
text.
also,
is
given
symbol
where
occurs.
Page
Meaning.
Symbol.
a
Radius
of
Radius
of
Cross-section
of
conductor
where
first
defined
used.
176
line
transmission
cable
of
core
or
171
13
between
distance
transmission
line
176
Interaxial
Radius
Susceptance
75
72
of
Constant
Permittance
Dielectric
surface
inner
conductors
of
cable
of
171
sheathing
54,
electrostatic
or
flux
154
density
Dmax
Rupturing
Electromotive
force
Instantaneous
value
Horizontal
e'
Vertical
ei
Local
et
Terminal
flux
165
density
of
of
component
of
34
voltage
of
component
source
147
capacity
of
vector
e.m.f
83
of e.m.f
vector
83
3
e.m.f
voltage
Effective
Vector
Em
Maximum
value
Frequency
of alternating
Mechanical
Conductance
Qeq
Equivalent
Voltage
value
of
the
of
voltage
of
83
voltage
34
current
voltage
or
33
force
"X)
2
conductance
gradient
Gmax
Rupturing
Elevation
Head
Instantaneous
Current
"
Horizontal
Instantaneous
t'
Vertical
electric
or
voltage
of
of
48
voltage
alternating
intensity
16
gradient
above
conductor
165
the
ground
181
fluid
10
value
of
harmonic
54
1
of vector
component
of
87
curn-ui
.
Effective
Vector
value
component
value
of
the
of
current
of current
of vector
alternating
/
33
of
current
current
87
48
S8
xiv
LIST
PRINCIPAL
OF
SYMBOLS
Page
Meaning.
Symbol.
Il,
Primary load
Im
Maximum
Jm
Mesh
defined
first used.
116
current
value
where
or
of current
34
,
in
currents
squirrel-cagerotor
133
V^
83, 85
kh
Breadth
factor
Relative
permittivity
Length
log
Common
Inductance
winding
of
133
151
13
172
logarithm
60
Ln
Natural
Mass
Number
of
phases
133
Number
of
poles
135
Constant
Input
Power
Pave
Average
Instantaneous
Rate
Constant
60
73
phase
per
of induction
123
motor
10
48
power
displacement
of discharge of
of
electricity
193
fluid
10
73
Quantity
of
Quantity
of heat
Resistance
Teg
R
171
logarithm
electricity
144
2
1
7
resistance
Equivalent
Resistance
Ro
Resistance
at 0" C
Rt
Resistance
at
"" C
of induction
SUp
Area
Elastance
Time
Temperature
Time
Variable
Current
of
5
5
123
motor
53
curve
148
33
of
Velocity
Volume
Energy
one
6
33
cycle of alternating wave
33
angle
15
density
60
158
46
of energy
158
Density
Reactance
63
Variable
171
Admittance
Ordinate
Admittance
Impedance
Impedance
radius
76
of
curve
operator
50
89
67
operator
88
LIST
OF
PRINCIPAL
SYMBOLS
XV
where
Page
SjrmboL
Meaning.
Angle
A
of
14
natural
Phase
angle
î
Angle
of
01
Angle
0t
0t
of
2
82
of
incidence
of
dielectric
Angle
of
refraction
of
current
Angle
of
refraction
of
dielectric
JCo
28
flux
163
28
flux.
ltJ3
151
of
air
151
Resistivity
Circle
13
coefficient
or
dispersion
factor
Elastivity
Elastivity
Time
Phase
Magnetic
iPm
Maximum
if/
Angle
CO
logarithms
current
Permittivity
system
72
temperature
of
Permittivity
"t"
of
incidence
#c
Conducti\'ity
Difference
"Ta
94
coefficient
Temperature
"T
defined
used.
189
first
43,
ratio
Base
or
of
induction
motor
138
152
of
air
152
of
constant
circuit
72
angle
34
flux
value
114
of
magnetic
flux
114
121
Angle
52
Angle
52
CIECUIT
ELECTRIC
THE
CHAPTER
RELATIONS
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTAL
CIRCUITS
CURRENT
1.
is
student
supposed
from
and
mind,
and
these
relations
law
is
to
be
to
establish
in
form
to
conductor
is
in
relations
of
permits
circuits.
applicable
ically
theoret-
sjTiopsis of
brief
the
which
alternating-current
to
presented
refresh
to
point of view
law, both
A
The
Mho.
the
Ohm's
experience.
is intended
below,
and
Ohm,
with
familiar
laboratory
his
given
law,
the
the
Ampere,
the
Volt,
The
DIRECT-
IN
his
extending
the
Moreover,
dielectric
and
magnetic
circuits.
the
When
is
current
circuit
the
the
as
under
the
the
voltage
is
is used
proportional
to
the
the
of
and
in
the
the
units
Ohm's
coefficient
electromotive
law
force
value
the
terminals
of
"the
consist
of
two
the
that
the
of
law.
of
part
or
more
force
electromotive
states
no
of
Ohm's
sense
merely
the
effect
or
(1)
r*i,
proportionality
When
conductor.
called
of
It may
i, this law
where
the
are
the
fact, called
Considering
current
cause,
between
in
there
and
conductor,
here
"
consideration.
of the
cause
steady
experimental
an
physical conductors.
distinct
is
This
within
to
"conductor"
word
The
proportional
conductor.
the
forces
electromotive
local
in
current
the
is
current
volts,
in
is called
the
in
expressed
resistance
resistance
the
amperes,
is measured
ohms.
is sometimes
written
in
g'e,
1
the
form
(2)
Chap.
the
DIRECT-CURRENT
I]
values
Their
meter.
units
These
established
international
name,
electrical units.
standards
concrete
tional
interna-
an
with
minutely
of
properties;the ohm
by a column
the ampere
by a silver voltameter, and the volt by a
cell. It is understood, of course,
of
out
that only two
units need to be standardized,the third being determined
their product, or
It has been
their ratio.
decided
by
mercury,
standard
the three
as
consider
international
agreement
to
fundamental
units, the
volt
being
the
derived
present system of practicalelectrical
the
ampere-ohm system.
the
use
of standard
cells as
fact does
from
units
the
ohm
them.
as
Hence
is
properly called
preclude, of course,
not
secondary standards.
volt, and
the
ampere,
This
and
ampere
the
The
by
and
specifieddimensions
either
the
representedby
are
been
have
whence
agreement,
CIRCUITS
the
ohm
connected
are
by simple
multipliers(powers of 10) with the absolute electromagneticunits

system of units).
(the C.G.S.
prominent physiciststhat
fortunate, according to our
is better
in any
and
gram,
In
the
the
choice
at
of the
present by
units
not
was
some
quite
magnetic
present understanding of the electroSince, however, it is too late to change these
relations.
units, it
It is conceded
consider
to
and
not
nected
conarbitrary',
the magnitudes of the centimeter, the
with
way
them
as
second.
law
applying Ohm's
clearly remembered
that
practical problems, it
to
represents the
be
must
tween
voltage acting bethe ends of the conductor
This
is important when
the
r.
of counter-electromotive
circuit contains
sources
force,such as
electric batteries,or motors.
Let, for instance,the total resistance
of
circuit,connected
ohms, and
the
Then
no
as
to
value
Should
is
current
equal
net
terminals
voltage of
of
the
generator, be
generator be
10 amperes,
to
120
volts.
provided that there
forces in the circuit.
12
are
Let, however, the
so
storage battery of, say, 24 volts,connected
charging, that is, opposing the applied voltage. The
be
in the
120
the
generator
=
let the terminal
contain
current
the
across
counter-electromotive
circuit
"
24
circuit is
=
96
8 amp.,
the
only (120
24)/12
being the net voltage in the external circuit.
terminals
now
of the
voltage, the
"
battery l)e reversed, so

would
current
increase
to
as
to
help the
(120 -|-24)/12
12 amp.
Thus,
when
force, say
there
is
an
ej, within
external
a
or
local
source
of electromotive
conductor, the terminal voltage et
so
that
have, instead
we
is added
conductor
of the
ends
the
between
[Art.
CIRCUIT
ELECTRIC
THE
algebraicallyto
(4)
in the
positivewhen
is considered
ei
ei,
(1),
of eq.
et-]-ei=i'r,
where
direction
same
counter-e.m.f
as
et.
is therefore
foregoing numerical example the

considered
negative.
convenient
to use
In numerical
computations it is sometimes
multiples and submultiples of the units originallyagreed upon,
In the
large numbers
to avoid
in order
or
This
fractions.
small
very
is
of the originalunits certain

accomplished by adding to the names
Greek
prefixes for the multiples,and Latin prefixesfor the subThese
multiples.
deca.
prefixesare
follows
as
deci
one
tenth
hundred
centi
one
hundredth
thousand
milli
one
thousandth
million
micro
one
millionth.
.ten
.
hecto.
.one
.
kilo
one
.one
mega.
of
For
instance, instead
10
kiloamperes; instead
or
300
small
microvolts,
instance, one
For
1.
Prob.
order
In
electrical macMne,
is measured
10
0.44
Amperes
8.1
is the
abseissse and
of
ratios,or better,plot
of the
average
probable value
most
draw
the
2.
voltage is
of
75
The
volts against the
the
(b) when
resistance
at the
the
(a) when
amp.
a
pressure
of 500
of
transmission
ohm.
At
to 4 per
The
what
cent
as
armature
current
0.0559
ohm.
What
to
produce
current
the receiving end;

line is short-circuited
at the receiving
be maintained
volts must
at
Ans.
3.
an
amperes
is 1.2 ohms.
line
in order
generatingend
end?
Prob.
Take
straightline through the origin.
necessary
1.73
Hint:
resistance?
an
31.0
Ans.
Prob.
age
drop of voltreadings:
24.0
18.1
the
the
1.33
1.00
0.73
12.9
of
of the armature
through it and
The following are
the brushes.
ohm, of
10~^
etc.
is sent
direct current
between
as
of 7 X
resistance
large or very
a
multiplier.
very
power
millivolt,
0.3
say
write
or
say
may
may
the resistance
determine
to
one
proper
10' mhos,
Volts
What
to the
one
to avoid
way
speak of
to 5 X
equal
conductance
Another
use
may
volt
of 0.0003
etc.
is to
numbers
10,000 amperes
resistance
250-volt
voltage drop
voltage?
will the
of the terminal
of
90
in the
volts;
590
volts.
generator
is 0.025
armature
be
Ans.
400
equal
amp.
Chap.
I]
Prob.
of
conductance
The
4.
voltage is
what
CIRCUITS
DIRECT-CURRENT
requiredto send
of molten
bath
current
metal
is 5
10''amp.
of 7 X
kilomhos;
through it?
14 volts.
Ans.
Prob.
The
5.
is connected
"
10 per
across
is,in order
counter-e.m.f.
series with
the coil.
What
be twice
that at 100
of
to
Temperature
The
CoeflScient.
practicallyall alloys increases with

rather complicated law.
Within
a
increase
the
rise; in
temperature
of
conductor
other
its
and
words,
the
temperature
relation between
The
Fig. 1.
is
in resistance
in
if the
rent
cur-
80 volts.
and
of all metals
resistance
the
it,a
volts?
Ans.
2.
in
is connected
be the voltage of the battery
must
tive,
sensi-
more
of current
negligibleresistance
of
must
volts
120
the fluctuations
accentuate
to
storage battery
in the coil at
the regulating mechanism
order to make
In
cent.
that
resistance
coil of a regulatingelectromagnet of 50 ohms
110- volt line; the voltage of the line fluctuates by
a
temperature, according
the
usual
of
limits
perature
temthe
nearly proportional to
relation
is
between
the
representedby
the resistance and
ance
resist-
straight
the temperature of
metals.
(Fig. 1).
line MN
the
resistance at
the
Let
the
\s
values
For
the
words,
cailed the
of
the
resistance of
0**C.
as
The
100
per
then
materials
copper
see
conductor
material.
For
electrical handbook.
an
copper,
the
0.0042;
increases
the
by
in other
0.42
resistance
per
at
cent.
formula
computations
Ro ohms;
(5;
degree centigrade, considering
for each
cent
be
Roil+at),
important material,
most
0" C.
of
temperature coefficient
for various
at
temperature t" C. is
some
Rt
where
resistance
than
given below
is sometimes
formula
Assume
(5).
more
that the
convenient
same
in
straight-
THE
line law
be
from
the
the
axis of abscissae.
T,
have, for any
point
the
resistance
Ri
0, from
let temperatures
straightline
this
crosses
point by
it is not
Ti/T2
(6)
The
is found
eq.
(5),Ia
point
which, according
to
refer
to
necessary
computations
from
=
the
condition
1/a.
"
to
Thus, for
temperature,
any
T
For
the
copper,
of water.
temperatures;
it is convenient
part of
the
in
straight line
the
be
0.437
machine
ohm
of the
Ti
final
286.9
See
books.
Prob.
23"
to
1.
75" C.
Prob.
2.
What
On
the lower
the
with
ohm,
increase
the
of 22" C.
After
resistance
of the
in its resistance.
We
and
known
according to eq. (6) the un260.1
X (482/437)
286.9, or
=
Two
in
other
practical formula?
of
electrical
method
of the
Appendix
Institute
Electrical
handbooks
given
in
for
ization
Standard-
Engineers.
and
problem
pocket2 below.
conductor
increases by 31 per cent from

Ans.
0.00691.
(5)?
in formula
between
the
is easily obtained
movable
hours
electric
an
final temperature
found
winding of
ature
temper-
convenient
is
full-drawn
the
American
relation
The
of the
required to calculate
T2
resistance of
conductors
of copper
ance
resist-
room
reprintedin most
also
The
the
the
48.8" C.
of the
are
0.482
260.1,
temperature
Rules
rules
be
from
rise will be
temperature
These
22
equation
temperature
room
it be
winding
238.1
that
mean
of the
for several
to
Let
238.1
not
the
resistance
run
found
unchanged.
have
does
C. below
Fig. 1.
at the
been
has
winding is
same
This
lies 238.1"
is,point
to express
Let, for instance, the

machine
(7)
actually varies according to this law at such

A is merely a fictitious point through the position
copper
of which
1/a.
t+
-{-238.1; that
freezingpoint
of
the
temperatures,
0" C.
at
and
Denoting temperatures from

two
this formula
which
at
R1/R2
With
[Art.
CIRCUIT
(Fig.1) holds for low temperatures,
measured
we
ELECTRIC
scale mark
resistance
and
the
temperature
lows:
ordinary slide rule,as fol0" C. on division 238; 10" C. on
on
an
division 248, and so on.

resistance on the lower fixed scale,
Set a known
and bring the correspondingtemperature opposite. Then
the resistance
at any
other
temperature
the temperature
Prob.
3.
scale.
Prove
Standardization
is read
Give
an
the formulae
Rules.
opposite the correspondingdivision
explanationof this method.

for Ri+r and
in the
above-mentioned
on
Chap.
I]
DIRECT-CURRENT
When
resistances
connected
are
to
fluid be
increased, the
greater;
in like manner,
the
of their individual
sum
from
in
the
the
Let
two
of
source
pipe carrying a
the
becomes
flow
difficult
more
in series is
conductors,
voltage
and
ri
e, and
let
is shown
for
the
to
This follows
below.
it must
quantity of
same
r^, be
connected
i flow
current
path
equal
interval through all the cross-sections of
time
given
to
ing
resort-
in its flow behaves

electricity
that
incompressiblefluid;that is,the
a
by
of
In the electric circuit,the
one.
as
resistances,
experimental fact
conductors
two
Parallel.
resistance
total
length of
resistance
short
in
and
easily seen
more
long rod offers
of
equivalent resistance
an
frictional
than
of heat
passage
be
can
instance, if
For
analogies.
series,the
in
This
circuit is increased.
the
in Series
Conductances
and
3. Resistances
CIRCUITS
pass
circuit.
in series
like
across
Part
through them.
overcoming the resistance of the

first conductor, the rest in overcoming that of the second
ductor.
conthe conditions
are
But, according to Ohm's
law, when
the first conductor, ei
i-ri] the
steady, the voltage across
the second
i* rz.
is et
voltage across
Adding these two equations
gives the total voltage
of the
total voltage
is
in
spent
62
total
same
voltagee,
allows
the
req
be
law
for any
is true
across
where
ii,U,
total current
is
is
are
Hence,
ii-ri
i2
sum
into
in
in
series;it
groups
"
we
have
rs
in the
may
of two.
the voltage
parallel,
branches, so that
to the
them
connected
are
the currents
equal
(8)
of conductors
to all the
common
through
conductors.
ri-\-r2
number
several conductors
them
i to pass
Teq.
"
proved by successively combining

When
given
which, with
one
foregoingequations gives
the two
Comparing
current
same
of the
combination
the
the circuit,as
The
i(ri-\-r2).
is
equivalent resistance,r^,, by definition,
An
the
ei
(9)
separate branches.
of the currents
The
in the separate
ELECTRIC
THE
electricitybehaves
branches, because
fluid.
CIRCUIT
its flow
Hke
pressible
incom-
an
equivalent resistance,Veq, is determined
the
Thus,
in
[Akt. 3
by the condition
e
{ii+
+ etc.) Veq
Z2
(10)
"
of I'l,
ii, etc., from
Substituting the values
(9) into (10) and
canceling e, gives
lAeg
in words:
or,
when
1/ri + l/n + etc.,
two
or
conductors
more
(11)
connected
are
the reciprocalof the equivalent resistance

parallel,
of the reciprocalsof the individual
resistances.
sum
We
so
defined
have
that eq.
conductance
geq
be
It will thus
rule is: Resistances
added
are
parallel. This
rule follows
resistance
conductance.
Prob.
and
1.
Prove
they
2.
Show
The
gi/gz
in
simple
in
added
are
physical concept of
the
and
in
2, are
parallel
r2/ri,
(13)
Qi/gi
(14)
in series
are
61/62
Prob.
conductances
use
in series circuits.
conductors,1
two
=
that when
to
directlyfrom
that when
(12)
......
in series;conductances
ii/ii
and
etc.
"/2 +
resistances
and
parallelcircuits
reciprocalof resistance,
it is convenient
that
seen
cî +
to the
equal
also in the form
be written
(11) may
the
as
is
in
that when
ri/rz
resistances
two
are
in
the equivalent
parallel
resistance
req
and
conductances
that for two
geq
Prob.
3.
the
ohms;
100
in series
7-2
ri
by
by
Equivalent resistance of
Equivalent conductance
Vi
ri
and
Ri is 0.2 +
rz
rz
and
750
4.
ohms,
Four
are
resistances, ri
connected
as
shown
is
What
ohms.
50
Solution:
O.Ol
1.2,
in
0.0200
1/0.1629
Rn is
4.76
Ans.
Prob.
0.21
4.76
mho;
ohms;
Ri is
0.1429
Equivalent resistance of
1/0.21
Ri is
and
of
combination?
and
of
r2
resistance Ri
of the whole
Equivalent conductance
ohms, are connected

comparatively high resistance
and
5 ohms
is shunted
is shunted
equivalentresistance
(16)
+ gd
9192/(91
resistances,
ri
Resistance
in series.
Ri
Two
(15)
rir2/iri-^r2),
r^
Fig. 2.
6.14
1.7, R
The
0.1629 mho;
6.14
10.90
25, and
ohms.
ohms.
ro
generator voltage
I]
Chap.
DIRECT-CURRENT
points A and
the
between
and
the resistance R
Tt), and
1/(jB +
the
resistances
the
is 500
ro
into
it with
combine
Determine
volts.
the current
this resistance.^
voltage across
and
CIRCUITS
the
termine
2.
total resistance between

from
the
This
line.
.4. and
1/ro.
De-
of resistances.
between
the points M
and X, and the
subHaving found the total current, tract
B.
generator voltage the voltage drop in the part AM
will give the voltage
bine
Com-
conductance
combination
series-parallel
equivalentresistance
the
leakage conductance
N
Fig.
Solution:
determine
one;
the
through
across
MN,
and
of the
consequently the value
After this,
of the leakage current.
the drop in rj is determined, and
thus
the voltage
the resistance
across
R is found.
Ans.
The
Prob.-5.
of
volts;
447.3
consists of 108
of each
the
circuit is closed
positiveand
negative brushes
at four
the winding,
so
as
in
to
divide it into
are
What
two
connected
also the two
are
is the
gether,
to-
negative
equivalent
resistance of the armature

the terminals
nately
alter-
parallel. The
positivebrushes
as
placed
are
two
equidistant points of
four branches
brushes.
The
in series in such
itself. Two
upon
(Fig.3)
ance
coils;the conduct-
coil is 61 mhos.
that
way
winding
machine
connected
coils are
amps.
armature
direct-current
17.8
Tcnninals
between
of the machine?
Fig.
Ans.
"
This
combination
is ri -|-ri; the useful
by
fo.
the theory of
*
For
"
The
0.1106
3.
ohm.2
represents
load resistance
problem in
transmission
four-polemultiple winding.
line the resistance of which
represented by R, and the leakage resistance

generalized form is of great importance in
is
circuits (see Figs. 41

alternating-current
details of armature
Engineering,Vol. 2, chap.
windings
30.
see
the author's
and
42).
Experimental Electrical
In
kilogram-meters
If
to
equal
to et
the
i, where
e*
is the
into
be either smaller
may
find that
(4) by i, we
Let
ei
battery
extra
an
the
of e.m.f. is also converted

as
the
practice),
power
the
power
this
case
If this
e.m.f.
chemical
is
motor, the
motor
shaft.
circuit
be
110
circuit
be
100
be
20
is
watts.
the
volts;
only
heat
at
The
power
the
of
communicated
time;
the
if it
of
in the
motor
circuit to
the
converted
to
in
the
on
in
resistance
to
of
source
terminals
a
In
the
into heat
is 2000
motor
the
the
1.
The
conductor
be
must
expressed
in thermal
relation
1
kg.-calorie
armature
current
of
4186
a
joules.
220-volt
direct-current
motor
certain load is 63 amp., and the armature

resistance is 0.14 ohm.
much
is converted
electric power
into mechanical
form, and what
torque developed by
the armature
if the
speed is 1050
Ans.
Prob.
source
ed.
work
through
current
voltage drop due

volts,and the power
10
later
into mechanical
the
dissipatedin
units, use
Prob.
the
case
is stored
energy
let the counter-e.m.f.
assume
than
local
the
to
Let, for instance, the voltage at

volts, and
boost
to
is in this
heat
is smaller
available
is converted
energy
circuit
If,however, d is negative,
in
(which is usually the case
into heat
made
be
(for instance,
total power
supplied to the circuit is 2200 watts.
is the watt-second, or joule. When
unit of electrical energy
watts, and
The
into
storage battery, the
may
Then
amp.
conductors
is 200
is
et
into the
ed is communicated
source
form, and
into heat.
converted
as
supplied by the local
power
counter-e.m.f.
(19)
direction
same
ih- converted
voltage); the power

larger than eti,because
edy
Multiplying both
eu
th-
generator connected
or
the
that is,if it acts
the
larger than
or
power
ed + eii
positive,that is,in
be
the
the power
But
voltage.
polarityor direction of
the
upon
of eq.
sides
heat
terminal
nicated
commu-
terminals, is
its
circuit, between
of
"
either
local e.m.f. ei, the power
this part
ih- converted
depending
expressed in joules(watt-seconds)
contains
conductor
introduce
to
necessary
cal
calories,since mechanical, thermal, and electri-
or
all be
can
energy
is not
however, it
cases,
many
11
CIRCUITS
DIRECT-CURRENT
I]
Chap.
2.
If the currents
3, Art. 3) represent pure
arrangement?
in the shunted
13.3
is the
r.p.m.?
kw.; 12.3 m.-kg.
resistances Ri and
loss of power, what

Solution;
Let the voltage
at
How
Rt
(problem
of the whole
is the efficiency
the resistances ri and
across
12
Ri
.be
useful
the
in
lost
the
Then
e.
Hence,
Prob.
3.
designed
of
is
Ri
and
R2
element
it
will
C.
heat
per
of
the
ey/7
eVlOO
of
liters
1.5
minute,
assuming
element
and
(1.29
110-
liter
of
turns
amp.-turns
sq.
allowed
Hint:
this
Solve
(12,000/n)nr
is
in
9000
rated
are
into
is
be
must
following
0.9
heat,
and
125,
absorbed
three
of
pole;
at
order
during
kettle
must
watts.
to
field
in
field
the
water
What
utensil?
9.5
amp.
i, the
coil
of
number
5000-kw.
excitation
short
required
overloads
of
12,000
field
the
coil
surface
avoid
about
rheostat,
as
ihn
500
amp..-
18
turns;
1.562
10-^
be
the
10
a
per
margin.
28,000/4;
125/6.
Ans.
is
must
overheating
overload
9000;
be
of
ohms;
cooling
the
the
equations;
e^
current
area
of
cm.
in
in
of
The
external
sq.
e.
power
0.0433
radiation.
11.6
data:
per
The
service,
voltage
voltage
.-turns
amp
by
current
turn
per
cu.
exciting
following
needed.
converted
watt
the
the
The
decimeter)
losses
no
the
resistance
the
continuous
exciter
calculate
to
from
pole
dm.;
The
of
load
per
per
coils.
cent
and
pole,
per
rated
the
280
required
is
It
turbo-alternator,
6-pole
at
4.
1.29
watts.
electric
1
Ans.
Prob.
e^
e)750
volt
(6.14/4.76)
"
cent.
per
(1
the
0.438
90
is
R2
(1.29
4.33)
heating
The
10"
is
and
1-2
43.8/(43.8
resistance
the
are
e^/5
[Art.
CIRCUIT
across
is
power
that
so
rate
voltage
resistances
the
efficiency
The
at
ELECTRIC
THE
ohms.
CHAPTER
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTAL
CURRENT
may
be
considered
and
in
parallel.
12
unit
840
in
connected
of
ohm.
of
one;
of 70
of
set.
at
12
out
it.
is denoted
and
by
Thus,
p.
cross-section
The
the
numerical
one
kilometer
English
mil, and
such
ohms,
and
long;
length of
0.016
^^ of the
the
ance
resist-
instead
times
the
given
resistance
of
of
of
unit
of
resistimty^
of
ance
resist-
tor
conduc-
unit
ductor
con-
conductor
the
at
material
conductor
of
and
length
have
or
units
in which
the
Dome
the
dimensions
is
"
13
be
fwt,
of
the
I and
to
be
unit
specific resistance."
are
meter,
one
or
In
the
circular
mile,
one
and
have
cube.
equal
case,
length
one
centimeter
resistivity may
In each
of
instance,
may
thousand
one
units
for
may,
cross-section
Besides,
older
the
upon
be
foot,
one
(20)
millimeter, and
microhms.
megohms,
The
about
p'l/A
it may
or
it may
'
the
conductor
square
specified length.
the
of
the
resistance
depends
unit
one
system
a
of
of
cross-section
is
twelve
are
conductor,
paths,
70
sets
is
value
used.
resistance
offer
resistance
The
offered
by
is called
specified temperature
is
first
ohm.
is characterized
of
parallel has
12
unit
0" C,
resistance
0.002743
such
cross-
are
the
in
series
the
Therefore,
material
made
in
millimeter
then
of 70
conductors
of
series
having
composed
as
unit
of
in
and
long
m.
parallel, and
current
conductor
conductors
square
temperature
the
one
These
conductors
unit
12
resistance
connected
(0.016/70)
Each
The
because
sets
in
unit
regarded
of
each
70
and
twelve
is
of
sets
wire
be
may
DIRECT-
cylindrical
of
long.
series.
one,
one
mm.
meter
copper,
set
instance,
sq.
one
into
combined
made
For
conductors,
section, and
combination
IN
(Continued)
Conductivity.
as
of 70
cross-section
RELATIONS
CmCXJlTS"
and
Resistivity
5.
II
or
any
expressed
in
of resistance
expressed
in
14
ELECTRIC
THE
formula
(20)
formula.
of the
user
so
suit
to
as
the
For
values
handbooks
various
of the
one
see
selected
are
[Art. 5
CIRCUIT
the
of p
and
of the
convenience
for
materials
different
pocketbooks for electrical
engineers.
In
of
to
reasoning similar
of
of the
material; the
same^mate-
the
1/p. By
the
that
I and
the
tance
conduc-
is
yA/l
(21)
of aluminum
resistivity
The
1.
Prob.
find
we
having the dimensions
conductor
given above,
that
to
is called
specified temperature,
conductivityis the reciprocalof the resistivityof

have
rial. Denoting this conductivity by y, we
of
conductance
The
conductivity(or specificconductance)
electric
conductance
the
use
of its resistance.
conductor, at the
unit
convenient
more
conductor, instead
unit
the
it is
cases
some
equals
microhms
2.66
cubic
per
Solution:
The
sistance
recentimeter; what is its conductivity per mil-foot?
of a conductor
foot long and having a cross-section equal to
one
mil
circular
one
197,300
is 2.66
IQ-^ X
197,300
mils,and
into circular
is the number
30.48
Ans.
field coil of
Each
2.
Prob.
length of
of the
mho
0.0625
1.5
coil is to
the air at 25" C.
above
Prob.
3.
between
given
distance
given localities whose
two
About
at
most
saving in the originalinvestment,but
cost
The
account
economical
conductor
on
most
depreciationplus the
the cost of
Let
q
cents
pe"
cubic
cost
one
is
for which
one
Let
and
depreciationin per cent to be allowed

lost in the
The cost of the power
cost
of the conductor
The
qlA.
on
the
constant
be
versa.
interest and
the
annual
interest
the originalcost of the

of the
=
ductor.
con-
initial
the
problem is that
(22)
min.,
depreciationon the
is essentiallyindependent of the
first derivative
Equating the
0, or
get "pi'^p/A'^-\- 8q
size of the conductor.

we
annual
vice
represents the interest and
poles,insulators,etc., the size of which

zero,
higher operating
line is pi^pl/A, and
condition
pi^pl/A+ SqlA +K
where
an
small
tion:
Soluis a minimum.
of the i-r loss per year
watt-year be p cents, and let the conductor cost
centimeter, installed.
is
the
mm.
Deduce
conductor, and
lost in the
the
to
given voltage
size of the line conductor.
economical
of the power
required
20 sq.
is I.
apart
conductor
turns, the
According
expressionfor the
means
720
size wire is
transmitted
be
one
rise of 50" C. is allowed
Ans.
i is to
current
has
be 1.14 ohms?
Rules, a temperature
A. I. E. E. Standardization
in
circular mU-foot.
per
What
m.
meters
centi-
square
of centimeters
electric machine
an
being about
turn
resistance
hot
if the
olmis; where
16
(1000/2.54)2 X 4/7r is the factor for converting
foot.
average
30.48
with
respect
to
to
pi'p/A
8qA
(22a)
Chap.
II]
DIRECT-CURRENT
In other
words, the
charged to the
sum
of the wasted
line and
(22a);
13
C, h
result is
voltage,and is known
data, the cross-section
also problems 6 and
see
Prob.
to
This
of the
all the
interest and
annual
energy.
cross-section
economical
most
4.
transmission
I kilometers
as
is that for which
the
depreciationis equal to the cost

independent of the length of the
Kelvin's law of economy.^

ing
Knowbe calculated from condition
can
7 in Art. 6.
line from
B
At
15
CIRCUITS
generatingstation
the
the line is divided
to a
place
into two
long.
branches; one
the other to D, U km. long,
long, and carrying a current t'l;
and carrying a current
The
total permissiblevoltage drop from A
i2.
to either C or 7) is e volts (one way).
Determine
the sizes of the conductors
km.
in the
three parts of the line
so
the total initial cost
to make
as
of copper
minimum.
Solution:
the unknown
Take
a
voltage drop x
from A to B as the independent variable; then the three cross-sections
determined
are
itph/Ai
The
X.
"
that lA -f-hAi
conditions
the
by
value
-\-liAi
zero,
get iP/x^
we
found
Having
three conditions
6.
written
Current
"
density by U,
the
over
speak
to
per
square
density
is
conductor
*
to
in
the
current
conductor.
minimum
into
current
cylindrical
density,or
the
Denoting
this
(23)
millimeter.
considerations
while
the load
The
this subject.
complicated
He
is
above
will find
of
more
A.
C, Perrine, Electrical Conduclom, Chapter
cases
in various
to
small, and
problem
of
that
each
unit
to
economy,
as
is
lined
out-
the original investment
change
is intended
numerous
line conductor
of
reduce
and
perio"lioals
8.
current
consists.
besides
be desired
may
The
through
current
given conductor
instance, it
larger size afterwards.
the reader
the
(or kiloamperes, milliamperes, etc.)
amperes
other
many
For
of
i/A
centimeter, or per square

numerically equal to the
by
above.
from
have
of which
determined
to
of the
practice the selection of the cross-section
In
find that
we
When
cross-section
of the
cross-section
we
is measured
x,
easilycalculated
are
Voltage Gradient.
and
U
U
and
condition
above.
uniformly
unit
per
equationand solvingfor
cross-sections
it is convenient
conductor,
x,
"
the
"
of this
Density
is distributed
current
the three
x,
itself is determined
Substituting the values of A, Ai and At

equating the first derivative with respect to x
iil^/{e x)- + Ul-^/{t x)-. Extracting the
of each member
root
square
iipU/Ai
by
x,
"
min.
into this expression,and

to
of
ipl/A
the
only
conductors
to
contributions
transactions.
introduce
treating
See
also
16
ELECTRIC
THE
When
the
is distributed
voltage drop
it is convenient
[Art. 6
CIRCUIT
uniformly along
of
speak
ductor,
con-
unit
voltage drop per

length.
This voltage drop across
a unit length is called the voltage
gradient,
in volts,kilovolts,
and is measured
or
millivolts,
etc., per meter
centimeter.
per
to
Denoting
the
voltage gradient by G,
(or a cross-section)of
called the
the
e/l
value of G characterizes
The
of
unit
conductor; for
electric intensityat
can
G=pU
of the
reason
point
is
times
some-
resistance
and
ance
the conduct-
write Ohm's
now
law
for the
form
the
Equation (25) has
this
at
point.
the
conductor, we
conductor, in
unit
(24)
the electrical condition
Having previouslyintroduced
7
have
we
definite
U/y.
(25)
.......
also without
meaning
the
concept
the
conductor; namely, it gives the relation between
voltage gradient and the current density at a point,for a given
unit
The
material.
Hooke's
and
cause
from
and
the
materials
thermal
analogue.
analogous to
is also somewhat
the
it expresses
relation between
a
straight-line
be deduced
effect. Equation (25) can
directly
(1) by writing
eq.
of
easily think
can
for elastic
law
(25),because
eq.
reader
the
latter in the form
Gl
={pl/A)
canceling I and A.
Prob.
having
1.
a
Solution:
What
is the
voltage drop
and
cross-section of 70 sq. mm.,

U=
150/70= 2.143 amp.
per
kilometer
per
carrying a
current
The
mm.
sq.
of
amp.?
conductivity of
for
the temperature of the line,is equal to 57 mhos
cross-section
and
meter
of one
millimeter
one
square
conductor
of
Therefore, the electric intensityor the voltage drop per meter

according to formula (25),is 2.143/57= 0.0376 volt per meter.
Ans.
Prob.
unit
2.
What
conductor?
3.
in
What
problem
4.
The
G'U
is the
long.
length,
volts /km.
into heat
in
(25a)
y'G^
conductor
lost in the
of power
sidered
con-
space
(0.0376 X 2.143)
available
for the outside
12
cm.
on
the
70
frame
for the
1000
of
5640
watts.
generator for
inside dimensions, and
dimensions; the limitingheight is 15
cm.
tangular
rec-
28
What
densitycan be allowed in the coil,if 12 sq. cm. of exposed surface

requiredper watt loss,in order that the temperature of the coil shall
current
are
Uyy
=U^P==
amount
field coil is 16 X
cm.
unit
1?
Ans.
Prob.
Ans.
p
Prob.
37.6
converted
is the expression for power
wire
copper
of 150
y, at
copper
24
UA
"
Chap.
II]
exceed
not
the safe limit?
words, 55
The
the
air spaces
by
surface is 2 (2S -f 24) X
be allowed
can
section
of copper
of
turn
one
4950
is 6 X
With
15
49.5
therefore,130
of 0.55
factor
space
0.55
cm.
sq.
The
loss
watts
the useful
the
sq. cm.;
being
exposed
cross-
length
average
SO cm.
Therefore, the coil contains
equals 2(22 -|- IS)
3960 imit conductors, each one
meter
long and one square
millimeter
in cross-section.
130/3960
1560
the rest
is occupied by copper,
Solution:
insulation.
0.8
15
in the coil.
factor of the coil is 0.55; in other
space
of the gross space

and the
per cent
taken
17
CIRCUITS
DIRECT-CURRENT
0.0328
watt.
permissibleloss per unit

Hence, according to the answer
conductor
The
is
problem
to
Vo.0328 X 57
This
result is
1.37 amp.
alcove, U
per
sq. mm.
the
the
of
size
of
factor
remains
the
independent
wire, as long as
space
The maximum
approximately the same.
ampere-turns are 137 X 49.5
space-factor,are also independent of the size
67S0, and, for a constant
=
of the wire.
Prob.
What
6.
are
if the
problem
the size of wire and
the excitingcurrent
voltagedrop
not
must
exceed
Ans.
Prob.
Referringto problem
6.
for the most

Prob.
economical
current
3 in Art.
4.74
5, what
6.5 amp.
sq. nmi.;
is the
Ans.
density?
what
Referring to the
in the preceding
volts at 80" C?
20
generalexpression
=
Sq/
(pp).
is the
most
nomical
ecoprecedingproblem,
densityif copper costs 15 cents per poimd, the annual
depreciationis taken at 12 per cent, and the estimated cost
7.
current
interest and
of wasted
is 22 dollars per kilowatt-year?
power
Ans.
7.
Kirchhoff's
conductors
^V^len
will flow
will be
potential
conductors.
all the
two
The
currents.
As
between
the
much
are
the
resistances
possibleto calculate
conditions
(1)
conductors, and
established
Thus, if all
to be
ought
the
the
distribution
25**C.
at
network
e.m.f. connected
is left to
system
taking p
arbitrary
an
of
sources
such
through
per sq. urni.,
Consider
Laws.
(Fig. 4), with
places.
more
0.95 amp.
in
of
one
or
definite
itself,
rents
cur-
definite differences of
junction points of
and
e.m.fs.
magnitude and
of the
given,
are
direction
is such
currents
the
it
of
that
satisfied :
flows
toward
each
junction as from it,

like an
behaves
electricity
incompressiblefluid. For any
junction this is expressed mathematically by the equation
current
because
2i
in which
all the currents
with
sign plus, all
the
minus,
currents
or
vice
versa.
flowing toward
0,
flowing toward
those
flowing away
Thus,
for
the
(26)
the
from
instance, at
junction be
junction
20
the
and
are
it with
taken
the sign
ix"intC
let the
30
respec-
amp.
Chap.
law
this
see
be likened
jointsmay
of
differences
to
clearly. For
more
to absolute
the
above
is desirable
and
forces
to
of
zero,
equation
of the
sum
result
is
law.
In
voltagesmust
be
second
Kirchhoff's
and
of currents
positive. Let, for instance, in the circuit ABCDEFA

be taken as positive;that is,all the currents
clockwise direction
flowing clockwise are to be considered positive,and also
assumed
the
as
e.m.fs.
all the
direction.
which
Let
ei
Let
tend
70
resistances of the
all the
those
sho^vn
X, and
50
from
6 amp.
to
For
ez
5 amp.
clockwise
volts, and
50
2, 3, 5, 4,
be known
8 and
except
let the
6 ohms
that
tively.
respec-
DE,
in
and
let
the directions being

respectively,
Denote
figure.
it to flow
in the
2 +
the
the
"
15 X
6 amp.
and
is
unknown
the
clockwise
in DE
current
direction.
Equation
(26) is equal
equation
other
In
15 X
other
5 -f-4
words,
-I-3 X
the
8 +
5 X
6,
in DE
current
is
flowing counter-clockwise.
given network
of the form
because
10 X
which
equal
be
in the
currents
becomes
(28) then
70
in the
assume
volts, and
currents
be 10, 15, 15, 3 and
produce
to
conductors
them
by
closed
(28)
as
direction
certain
along
Sir
is known
(27)
of eq.
network.
in the
conductors
the
it
that
so
given electromotive
The
general expression
the
The
by term.
together, term
according to eq. (27),so that the
them
different
somewhat
conductor
for each
holds
law
Se,
this
in
through
expressions for all
path, and add

Ct'sis equal to
form
zero.
resistances of the conductors.
the
these
This
to
to
of the differences
sum
usually not knowTi,
et are
them
express
of Ohm's
(4)
Write
values
the
because
the
of certain
altitudes
the
cases
(27) is usually written
Equation
form,
the
to
all such
In
path is equal
closed
voltages
level,while the voltages correspond
sea
their relative elevations.

around
pared
com-
Again, the potentialsof
analogous
are
be
the
pipes,and
of
network
readings
the voltmeter
potentialsmay
the
of pressure.
points A, B, C, etc.,
points,say
in
pressures
differences
the
to
et
Or
temperature.
potentialsat the
the
instance,
temperatures, and
to
19
CIRCUITS
DIRECT-CURRENT
II]
of conductors
to the
for the
equations.
number
last
The
the
of
point
of
equations
junction points
can
number
number
be
of
obtained
less one,
by
bining
com-
equations of
the
20
THE
form
(28)
the
is
equal
network.
The
just equal
currents
the
to
1.
station,and
of 0.5 ohm
to
the
motor
number
of independent closed
total
number
of
number
constant
of
current
(a) when
at such
in
resistance
the motor
speed
that
currents,
by solving the
e.m.f. of 110
devices
internal
unknown
of which
Prob.
Ans.
tiTi
"
armature
Prob,
unbalanced
An
blocked, and
igTg
=
"
Show
3.
12
U]
ii +
ig', is
0; itr-i. z"4 +
"
that
the
28.7
Wheatstone
six
the
(b) when
line
the
it revolves
igTg
amp.;
13.05
amp.
bridge.
unknown
in
currents
balanced.
ii +
ig',ibU
îî
^2r2
e;
0.
preceding six equations
are
reduced
three
to
the galvanometer circuit is open.
when
Fig.
leaky electric circuit containing a counter-e.m.f.;this

analogue to the magnetic circuit of a loaded electric machine.
Prob.
against
these
2r.
i2
ing
generat-
is 90 volts.
equations for the

bridge (Fig. 5) when it is not
ib
iiTi
5.
Write
2.
the
at
Calculate
is 5 ohms.
is
Ans.
Wheatstone
equations.
simultaneous
volts is maintained
these
that
so
is
through a line having a resistance

viz.,a resistor of 10 ohms, and a
parallel,
the counter-e.m.f.
Fig.
kinds
both
equations of
in
paths
is transmitted
power
two
[Art. 7
CIRCUIT
the
be determined
can
Prob.
to
ELECTRIC
4.
each
sources
The
6.
is
an
e.m.f.,Ci and e^ (Fig.6),are connected to act

The internal resistances of
other, ei being larger than e^.
main
the
external resistance is
r^ respectively;
are
ri and
Two
sources
insulation
of
between
the
terminals
of
the
sources
of
e.m.f. is
Ch.\p.
II]
imperfect, and
the
respectively.
Write
(a) when
there
(d) when
both
at
distance
of
an
the
the
at
element
point, then
For
the
proportional
to
express
C\ cosh
of
the
determined
Ct
itself.
of
di
The
The
reader
find
0,
and
^'"^Vg'
check
can
differential
A\
and
and
At
C\ and
of
constants
the
Ct
solution
this
receiver
the
are
stants
con-
ing
bj' substitut-
integration
end
of
the
are
line.
(1/^')(di/ds)
(m/g') (Cisinhms-ti
h.
/";
Consequently, Ci
=
and
Et
^r'g'
"
this
is
The
equation.
at
given conditions
cg'c?^
we
of
derivative
"
where
ms,
second, gives
it is preferable
However, in our
case
i
in
the form
hyperbolic functions,
Referring
6.
the
preceding problem, the resistance of a

kilometer, and the insulation resistance to
kilometer; the line is 400 kilometers
per
to
telegraph line is 7 ohms

per
the ground
is 1.2 megohms
long. A relay of 300 ohms resistance and
it, is connected
Calculate
the
between
the
required current
receiver
and
requiring 0. 12
end
of
The
electric circuit shown
good analogue
forces
and
to
and
ci
the armature
and
'
See
gii.
problem
Primed
the magnetic
cj
correspond
respectively,the
being represented by
Qii and
in
2 r, ri and
the
author's
r^,
the
battery voltage
Ans.
to
to
Etg'/m.
Prob.
as
is the
corresponding
into the
solution
Aie'^"",where
through
the
For
ms).
If
e.
its second
that
differential
from'
from
Namely,
Cj cosh
solution
integration.
it in
function
C2 sinh
ms
sider
Con-
the receiving
we
function
of integration.
the
of the current
from
this point be
the first equation
from
^le"'"* +
the' constants
are
of
i is such
the
to
is
equation
r'
r'g'i,or
at
of
g' mhos
Solution
distance
the leakage current
line is di, and
Substituting the value

dî/ds-
line,at
of
line is E2, the
the
receiving station?
the
and
0;
resistance
ground
of
end
gii
of the voltage and
the ground
to
has
the
to
git
currents
have, according to Ohm's

law,
g'ds is the leakage conductance
through the element ds
Ohm's
law gives de
ir'ds.
the element
of the line itself,
eg'ds,where
length
voltage
same
of
ds
of the line.
from
imknown
(c) when
return
receiver
the values
ds of the
the
0;
ground
the
at
are
kilometer
let the
line current
\Miat
infinitesimal
gi2
leakage conductance
voltage
!"".
current
end, and
di
The
for
equations
telegraph line with
kilometer, and
per
receiver
Kirchhoff's
and
represented bj' gn
are
no
leakage; (b) when
leakages are present.*
kilometer.^
per
conductances
is
6.
Prob.
ohms
leakage
21
CIRCUITS
DIRECT-CURRENT
Fig. 6
the
while
loaded
to operate
ampere
and
the ground.
the sending station.
0.195
amp.;
445
because
machine.
magnetomotive
reluctances
Magnetic
at
is of importance
circuit in
to
line
volts.
it
The
forces
of
of the parts of the
serves
motive
electrothe
main
field
path
the
leakage permeances
correspond
Circuit, the latter part of Art. 40,
13.
symbols
quantities refer
to
are
used
unit length.
in this book
and
in the
Magnetic
Circuit
where
CHAPTER
CONDUCTORS
8.
cross-section
of
the
voltage drop
per
In
conductor
is
is
and
example,
at
only
an
over
the
vice
conductor
lines
The
and
the
points
This
represent
surfaces
of
chapter
of
to
that
of the
of
the
latter.
taking
author's
up
an
MN
in
the
length
the
at
(24) give
age
volt-
than,
this
case
gradient
voltage
average
this
the
of
are
perpendicular
This
Chapter
Magnetic
omitted
lies
chapter
electrostatic
in
The
may,
electric
the
them,
to
distribution
if
desired,
chapters
the
circuit, and
chapter
14.
of
direction
following
fact
because
on
therefore,
is also
treatment
22
the
it
be
is
and
analogous
that
for
necessary
is
greatly facilitates
to
to
loci
The
currents.
treatment
conveniently
the
the
are
it is not
analogous
with
flow, while
alternating
that
therefore
Circuit.
and
stream
lines, marked
stream
the
be
may
hnes
stream
(Fig. 7) represent
The
The
the
surfaces.
diagram
surfaces.
equal potential.
understanding
importance
the
traversing
equipotential
and
larger
cross-section, showing
of variable
equipotential
arrowheads,
of
of
unit
per
also
are
conductor.
equipotential
lines
density
cross-section
also
are
and
(Fig. 7),
Consequently,
(23)
density
When
length
resistance
versa.
Equations
its
Point.
current
the
density
current
PQ.
the
the
small,
at
along
where
MN,
large, and
the
varies
length and
like
current
average
7.
Fia.
unit
Gradient
Voltage
comparatively
gradient
CROSS-SECTION
conductor
places
correspondingly
for
and
Density
the
variable.
VARIABLE
OF
Current
III
analogous
the
studied
that
used
study
before
in
the
Chap.
Ill] CONDUCTORS
of the
direction
analogous
In
let
the
of
and
to
deflection
of
the
which
Between
the
on
of flow
along
between
two
drop
these
between
lines
Stream
the character
especiallyif
and
current
be
drawn
so
to
lines is
could
if there
so
were
surface,and
same
be
not
in
current
supposed
to
of
Idc the
of
the
are
ponent
com-
be
an
voltage
current
of
any
for
same;
of flow
two
any
us
of
should
equal strength.
let
"
of
irregularshape,
lines
between
same
idea
clear
equal increments
to
the
included
the
give
conductor
that
means
be
on.
zero.
correspond
to
current
surfaces should
lines
voltmeter
the
equipotentialsurfaces
Similarly, the voltage between
ampere.
the
the
on
an
meter
equipotentialsurface the voltThe
define tubes
the
form
equipotential surface, and
lines,because
This
All
same.
volts
10
say,
the
points for
the
for which
all those
zero.
drawn
are
instance, in Fig. 7
stream
voltage.
as
us
inside
the
remains
of flow of
they
about
possible),marking
same
points
and
moved
of
terminals
equipotential surface there would
an
points
two
of the
one
be
voltmeter
while
reading is evidently
perpendicular to the stream
ir
be
another
points
two
lead
reading is,let
the
form
volts
are
equipotentialsurfaces,
of
applied at
other
let the
equipotential surface;
11
the
meaning
be
this
points for
reads
the
(assuming
the
the
lines indicate
stream
equal temperature.
voltmeter
conductor,
which
of heat, while
understand
to
lead of
conductor
of heat; the
flow
flow
those
to
order
one
the
in the
obtains
which
23
CROSS-SECTION
VARIABLE
OF
For
adjacent
equal to one
potential
adjacent equi-
say,
two
example,
one
volt.
If
drawn
close together, they give complete

sufficiently
about
the voltage and current
information
ent
relations in the differparts of the conductor, and also show places of high and low
current
The
an
are
density
true
and
current
infinitesimal
tube
cross-section
voltage gradient.
density at
of current
dA
Then, instead of
of the
eq.
poinl is obtained
di and
tube
(23),we
by considering
dividing di by
at the
point under
the
ation.
consider-
have
U=di/dA
If,on
the
tesimal
infini-
other
hand, it is desired to express the total

through the density,the preceding relation gives
UdA,
(29)
current
(30)
24
THE
the
integration
U
being
is the
current
ELECTRIC
be
to
extended
function
of
and
the
the
over
the
whole
position
equipotential
of dA.
In
other
face,
sur-
words,
surface integralof current
relation between
The
[Art. 8
CIRCUIT
total
density.
variable intensityG along the conductor,
the
voltage
its
at
terminals,is
longer expressed
no
the
simple relation (24), applicable to the whole conductor.

Relation
be written for an infinitesimal length dl
now
(24) must
of a stream
G is constant
line,because
only for an infinitesimal
by
definition of G remains
The
length.
of variation
rate
of
voltage
Thus, denoting by de
surfaces at
total voltage
The
to the
equal
between
of these
sum
dl
de/dl,
unit
per
namely, G is
same,
length of
voltage between
distance
the
the
the
conductor.
potential
adjacent equi-
two
have
apart, we
G'dl
or
de
the
terminals
infinitesimal
(31)
of
the
conductor
is
drops, or
-s:
G'dl
Equation (32) is expressed in
words
the
(32)
that
by saying
voltageis
the
integralof electric intensity(or voltage gradient).
line
A
clear
of relations
understanding
importance
in
(31)
and
(32) is of
study of electrostatic
the
This will be aided by recallingto

phenomena.
In the
of the
case
analogy previously used.
and
mind
mount
para-
magnetic
the
thermal
of
heat,
flow
corresponds to the rate of change in temperature per unit length

of the rod, while e represents the total difference
of temperature
between
the ends of the rod.
the fact
Equation (31) expresses
that, by taking the rate at a certain point and multiplying it by
a
between
of temperature
Thus,
for
of the
rod be
in
drop
0.00025"
of
equal
The
C.
the
in
can
0.1
of the
assumed
be used.
difference of temperature
length.
meter
say
rod
between
(or the integral)of the drops
is obtained.
at
point
some
Then
the
actual
0.0001
be
small, because
by
is not
constant, and
the
or,
(32) thus
the
difference
is 2.5 X
mm.,
For
constant,
Equation
actual
element
of length must
cross-section
be
rod, the
temperature
drop is consequently variable.
values
sum
drop
element,
element
quantitiescan
the
the
the
of this
ends
to 2.5" C. per
short
very
length of
the
instance, let
supposition
rate
of the
element
short
very
ends
the variable
short
length
more
age
correctly,aver-
states
of the
in the very
the
that
rod
is
total
equal
to
small elements.
Chap.
Ill] CONDUCTORS
per
this
speak of
head
point. The total loss of pressure,

by summing up the small losses of head
G^ at
rate
e, is obtained
infinitesimal
length dl
the
over
is
elements
of the
length of
(25)
G and
the
of the
material, as
effect
it
conductor
of
Canceling
dA
1.
of
such
being
is 65
at
truncated
1.2
and
cm.
volts.
Ans.
from
Gx/Oo
for
law
the
the
property
This
relation
infinitesimal
an
cause
cal
cylindri-
dA, namely,
is flowing along a cylindricalconductor

of the material varies in conresistivity
centric
amp.
that the current
from
the axis.
density is proportionalto
is the current
density at
What
Ans.
17.7 amp.
of circular cross-section,
225 cm.
per
the diameters
cross-sections
of the two
terminal
cm.
sq.
long, has the
respectively. The total drop at a certain current

general expressionfor the voltage gradient (?,
cm.
is the
What
distance
50
way
cone,
between
(25) is obtained.
The
the periphery?
Prob.
2. A conductor
form
relation
non-uniform
ipdl/dA)UdA.
de=
of
distance
of the
for
true
cross-section
dl,relation
current
layers in
the cube
Ohm's
as
in diameter.
cm.
holds
length dl and
and
and
point,depending only upon

expressed by the factor 7 or p.
at
Gdl
Prob.
is the
merely gives
be also considered
may
for
pressure
integralof this expression

cally
pipe. This is expressed mathemati-
the
lêtween
well, because
as
loss of
The
pipe.
in
(32).
eq.
Relation
flow
or
total head
the
Gdl]
whole
by
25
CROSS-SECTION
VARIABLE
pipe of variable cross-section the rate of loss

unit length is variable, so that it is only possibleto
Similarly,in
of head
OF
the smaller end?
[a/ia +
"
x)]-,where
150
is the distance
cm.
from
the smaller end to the apex of the cone, and Go

0.723 volt per centimeter
is the voltage gradient at the smaller end.
from eq.
Go is determined
=
a.-dx/{a-{-xY.
X23S
Prob.
non-linear
irregularconductor, made of homogeneous material,

U
and
electric
current
a
density
an
intensityG, varying from
is the general exprespoint in magnitude and direction. What
sion
3.
has
point
to
for the
Ans.
According to eq.
P
where
converted
power
volume
which
dv must
(25a),
Cg' Udv
dv is the element
is extended
into heat?
fu'dv
of volume
over
be taken
the
as
is in the
to which
whole
G and
volume
cylinder or
Cg-dv,
of
(33)
gration
refer,and the inte-
the
conductor.
The
the length of
parallelepiped,
being
direction of flow of the current, the cross-section

perpendicularto this flow.
"
UI]
Chap.
CONDUCTORS
VARIABLE
OF
of such
the insulation resistance of I kilometers

is
of rubber
megohms
[pX 10-*/(2 tD]
Ans.
Ln
"
cable,if the resistivity
cube?
centimeter
per
27
CROSS-SECTION
c/Va) megohms, accordingto
(1 -I-1.772
(34).
eq.
Prob.
by doubling the thickness
that
Show
6.
resistance
insulation
the
preceding problem,
the
of
insulation
the
is increased
in
less than
t\nce.
Prob.
6.
radii
and
is
current
flowingthrough
hemisphericalshell
Express the resistance of the shell

the conductivity y of the material.
along radial lines.

b, and
Ans.
Prob.
the method
Apply
7.
in Arts. 60
and
63,
conducting me"lium
between
of
unlimited
an
parallelcylindricalterminals.
two
of its
the result obtained
of the resistance
calculation
the
to
(b-a,)/{2xyab).
superposition and
of
as
of metal
fimction
Such
load resistor consists of two vertical

a
obtains, for instance,when
pipes in a pond, the pipes being used as the terminals,the current
flowing through the water.
case
10.
Let
The
conductor
the
conductor
This
bod"' of
e-/r,where
depends
the
is the
the
make
the
upon
conductor.
The
dissipatedenergy
is constant
Irregular
Paths.
in
of the
conductor.
distribution
of the
current
in
general law, demonstrated

of the
Since
by
is such
current
maximum.
resistance
all experiments, is that the distribution

to
of
to
irregularshape (Fig. 7) be connected
The
converted
into heat
voltage e.
power
is
resistance
the
Conductance
of
of constant
source
and
Resistance
as
by supposition
(unlimited supply), the resistance
be
must
minimum.
Let
the
now
constant
current
with
passage
voltage
that
at
consider
The
of the
"
of nature
of one's
resistance
into
form,
judgment.
that
flow of heat
their
iV.
as
resistances
of
or
tribution
dis-
effect its
to
is,minimum
again
student
that of minimum
cases, and
of
parts by
shown
These
This
of
source
The
as
energj', that
of conductors
small
means
is advised
to
fluid,in order
to
himself.
to
"
is such
The
appliesin all such
is divided
so
conductor
minimum.
perfectlyclear
best
in
is
in the
cases
general law
resistance
and
to
arc-light machine.
minimum
matter
conductor
in the
connected
expenditure of
the terminals, or
minimum
a
similar
the
be
instance,an
current
resistance
the
make
for
"
of the
conductor
same
in
small
or
effort
is used
or
culation
in the cal-
irregularform.
means
of
stream
Fig. 7, drawing them

cells
mum
mini-
are
conductances
The
lines
to
the
nearly cylindrical
are
easily esti-
28
THE
mated
by using their
of the
resistance
The
the
shapes of
the
modified,
somewhat
conductance, of
maximum
is the
lines
The
of
value
true
of the
trials is made
the
arc
again, and
the
as
give the
the
case
true
this
may
bution
distri-
conductor.
systematic by following
more
Rayleigh, and
method
assumed
the
or
resistance,
is found, and
minimum
voltages within
This
Lehmann.
Dr.
minimum
conductance,
or
procedure suggested by Lord
by
conductances
is calculated
conductor
given
resistance
and
of the
work
The
the
the
resistance
corresponding to this
of currents
the
and
series,
the
Thus, by successive trials,
on.
be.
and
bining
by properly com-
in parallel. Then
lines and
stream
cross-sections.
average
is found
cells in
obtained
thus
and
conductor
of these
[Akt. 11
CIRCUIT
lengths
mean
whole
resistances
filaments
of the
so
ELECTRIC
is described
further
developed
in detail in Art.
54
applicationto the electrostatic field,and also in Art. 41

of the author's Magnetic Circuit,in applicationto the magnetic
in applying the method
student
will have no difficulty
field. The
in
below,
electro-conductingcircuit.
to
an
to
one's
self is actually to draw
The
11.
for the
mapping
from
passes
their
in
media, and
the
which
refraction,
di and
71
02
the
are
it clear
irregularshape
to calculate
The
method
lines and
of stream
its
another
direction
at the
lined
out-
tial
equipoten-
conductor.
homogeneous
to
so
make
When
(Fig.9), the stream

dividing surface AB
the
doing they obey
law
of
rent
cur-
is
tan
Here
out
a
of
simplicity)and
Refraction.
substance
one
suddenly change
between
in
to
manner.^
Current
appliesonly
surfaces
current
of
Law
above
of
best way
conductor
above-mentioned
in the
resistance
lines
for the sake
dimensions
(in two
The
0i/tan 02
71/T2
(35)
angles of incidence
and
refraction,while
media.
of the two
respective conductivities
stance,
the lower the conductivity of a subthat
equation shows
the more
nearly do the stream lines approach the direc-
and
This
are
72
the
two-dimensional
In
functions
may
be
used
cases.
as
to
See
Thomson,
Lamb,
make
J. C.
Recent
this
method
Maxwell,
Researches
Hydrodynamics,
of this kind, the
propertiesof conjugate
geometric forms involved

However, the purely mathematical
when
by analytic equations.
such
problems
the
appHcable only
chap. 4.
be
expressed
diflSculties
are
comparatively few simple
Magnetism, Vol. 1, p. 284; J. J.

and Magnetism, chap. 3; Horace
Electricity
and
Electricity
in
in
can
Ill] CONDUCTORS
Chap.
of the
tion
the
of
path
normal
between
lower, and
an
is
conductor
is
lengthened in
case
that
is
this way,
in the
is shortened
medium
higher conductivity,by such

of the composite
total conductance
of
that
the
In
dividing surface.
the
refraction
larger with
of refraction
existence
at
given points
two
in each
amount
law
N1N2
29
CROSS-SECTION
VARIABLE
OF
it.
without
than
of the
consequence
necessary
Hence,
the
general
of least resistance.
Medium
of bi^h
1,
coDiloctirit7
Fig. 9.
To
deduce
The
direction
centimeter.
and
let Gi and
conditions
cd is
is the
the
equal
must
to
same
ab and
perpendicular
Let
as
of
(35), consider
eq.
the
refraction
Ui and
G2 be
tube
of
flux.
of current
width
plane of
the
to
or
let the
cd, and
U2 be the
the
current,
current
the
between
the
of the
path
paper
be
densities in the
in
one
tube,
corresponding voltage gradients. Tvvo
be satisfied,
namely, (1) the total current
that
that
through ab, and

along bd. These
through
(2) the voltage drop along ac
conditions are
expressed by
equations
Ui'ob
Uf
G2
cd
and
Gi
"
6d
"
ac.
Dividing the first equation by the second

terms
gives
Ux/Gx
Ut/G,
_
bd/ab
ac/cd
and
rearranging
the
30
But,
according
Fig.
in
in
the
and
preceding
the
media,
mapping
law
di
Make
follows
of
tangents.
Prob.
2.
Prob.
3.
Show
Draw
the
ratio
law,
that
of
is
obtained.
55
the
law
similar
Art.
(see
satisfy
to
for
these
circuit
as
maximum
separately.
yourself
to
in
while
total
set
substituting
(35)
drawn
so
From
72.
two
(35),
eq.
combination,
applies
and
below,
in
trostatic
elec-
to
Art.
41a
of
Circuit).
clear
sine
electro-conducting
be
fluxes
Magnetic
1.
when
part
By
62.
relation
be
must
U2/G2
and
71,
tan
an
must
magnetic
author's
light
lines
each
and
Prob.
out
stream
for
ac/cd
equation,
conductance
not
the
di, and
11
[Art.
CIRCUIT
{25),_Ui/Gi
eq.
tan
the
Thus,
and
to
bd/ab
9,
values
of
ELECTRIC
THE
of
the
the
curves
conductivities
of
case
refraction
is
giving
is
why
reason
the
values
10
of
and
refraction
electric
for
impossible
1, 2,
the
Oi
100.
for
current
an
electric
different
of
it
is
rent.
cur-
values
IV
CHAPTER
of
electric
the
of
the
(1) Alternating-current
into
power
the
transmission
at
higher
of
of alternating
electric
into
are
calculations
with
the
it
time
results
voltage
theory
obtained
and
with
because
another,
one
the
of
waves
remains
shows
the
the
the
The
commutator,
homopolar
has
not
of
it
form
(see
current
up
to
is
the
31
voltage
or
which
machine,
proven,
of
15
the
each
of sine-
sine-wave
below)the
Fig.
t"e
10
taneous
instan-
represented
machine
to
of
differs
series
the
being
time,
with
in
form
sine-wave,
direct-current
pn^sent
then
Art.
moreover,
current
or
into
even
vary
tion
assump-
shape
particular
to
This
standard
resolved
that
so
them
comparable
are
voltage
be
can
construction
the
to
of
frequencies,
well-known
of
refer
nators
alter-
ing
engineer-
greatly;
assumption
all
motors).
(Fig. 10).
law
rugged
simple and
assume
calculations
and
curve
fundamental
values
'
the
sine-wave,
different
sine
instead
curves,
If
the
this
they
current
specific problem.
greatly from
to
to
convert
to
for most
but
shape,
enough
accurate
according
simplifies
the
is
in
irregular
tion
atten-
commercial
by
generated
waves
currents,
alternating-
possible
of
motors
tion
genera-
constant
synchronous
and
motors
(2) the
three
or
it is
system
possible
making
needs
two
rent
cur-
easily converted
of direct
that
which
using
power,
less
or
than
direct
the
distances;
simpler
is
voltage
more
thus
long
over
polyphase
(induction
Alternating
voltage,
(3), bj' combining
and
mechanical
construction
be
Some
currents.
over
can
power
commutator,*
into
circuits
current
lower
currents
operation;
current
at
or
power
requiring
latter
in
alternating
and
purposes,
alternating
of
form
the
the
of
advantages
are:
the
in
generated
is
traction
large proportion
lighting, industrial
for
used
power
VECTORS
BY
Currents.
and
Voltages
Sinusoidal
12.
AND
SINE-WAVES
BY
VOLTAGES
AND
CURRENTS
ALTERNATING
OF
REPRESENTATION
without
commercially
as
cessful.
suc-
32
THE
ELECTRIC
ordinates, against time
seconds, the
abscissa3.
as
is sometimes
curve
[Art. 12
CIRCUIT
Instead
of
actual
plottedagainst some
time
other
in
tity
quan-
for instance,fractions of a complete

proportional to time
convenient
to use
abscissae the angucj^cle. It is sometimes
as
lar
"
positionsof
field
conductor
armature
pole of
in which
the
alternator
with
electromotive
the
to
respect
force under,
an
sideration
con-
is induced.
An
Fig. 10.
To
draw
the
alternatingcurrent
the
construct
circle the
radius
Divide
wave.
parts, such
of
curve
the
representedby
alternatingcurrent
an
of which
circle into
equals
a
mark
points a',b',c',etc., corresponding

the
circle.
That
h'c' is either
an
abscissa
central
of
one
equal
such
angle
as
or
to
a'e' represents, to
same
scale
complete cycle of
an
the
to
the
equal
arc
of
equal
un-
so
In
on.
The
ac.
360
on
proportional to ab;
or
certain selected
The
or
points of division
the
angle of
wave.
of
value
the axis of abscissae
on
equal
voltage,
or
maximum
proportional to be, and
corresponding
to the
represents
is,a'b' is either
the
certain number
ah, be,etc.,and
as
sine-wave.
general,
scale,the
length a'm'
the
time
the
sine-
degrees, or
ordinates
of
equal to the corresponding ordinates of the circle. For

is obtained
example, the point c'" on the curve
by transferring
wave
the
are
ordinate
The
ec" of the circle to the

"sine-wave
name
ordinates
The
proportional
are
represent to
"
scale the
some
equation of
Let
the
maximum
the
is derived
to
the
central
a'e'.
corresponding abscissa
from
fact that
the
sines of the
these
abscissae,which
angles of
the
circle of reference.
curve
expresses
this
property
value
of the
current, which
lytically.
ana-
is also
rV'l
Chap.
equal
from
the
ordinate
the
of
value
the
the
time,
the
"
time
0,
"
at
and
0;
uniform
when
t
u
because
this
of
the
values
expect,
because
of f
at
its
these
positiveand
the
"/m;
the
counted
be
the
of the
When
alternating wav".
2Tr.
Therefore,
general,
in
(37)
foregoing conditions.
the
stituting
Sub-
obtain
(36), we
the
moments
vice
these
at
(38)
0,
At
as
would
one
changes
current
versa.
Equation
(36)
from
I T, I T, ^ T,
the current
moments
maxima.
negative
terval
in-
radius,
l,nsmi2irt/T)
positive to negative values, or

have
=a'm'
revolution
0, ^ T, T, | T, etc., i
proportional
i be
time
Let
let T
one
sponding
corre-
2Trt/T,
into ec[.
etc., we
expression satisfies
this value
For
T,
is
time
generates the sine-wave
speed.
complete
of
angle
of this radius, and

to
instantaneous
moment
variable
The
complete c?/côf
one
the
at
radius Oc which
necessary
of
(36)
c'c'" represents the
u.
the
positionOa
the
cc"
angle
because
of time
or
to revolve
is assumed
from
then
Imsinu,
alternatingcurrent,
to
to the
have
we
triangleOcc"
i
where
by I";
of the circle,be denoted
to the radius
33
VECTORS
AND
SINE-WAVES
reaches
is used
when
is
sine-wave
plotted against the values of angle as abscissae.

referred to time
curve
alxtissae.
Equation (38) gives the same
as
In practice,the rapidity with
which
and
currents
voltages
alternate
which
the
by
that
an
is not
by the fraction of a second

convenient
cycle is completed, but, in a more
number
of cycles per second.
Thus, instead
alternator
within
g'yof
of the
current
in
denoted
generates
second,
is 60
cyclesper second
it is
customary
manner,
completes
to say
that
the
Denoting
the
saying
a
cycle
frequency
frequency
l/T,
(39)
I"s\n2Trft
(40)
consequently
i
This
during
of
which
cycles per second.

by /, we have
/
and
current
is the usual
expression for
frequency of / periods per second.

voltage we
an
alternatingcurrent
having
Analogously, for
ing
alternat-
an
have
e
Eâm2wft,
(41)
Chap.
SINE-WAVES
IV]
Prob.
of "75
values
the
between
fluctuates
alternatingcurrent
An
1.
making
amp.,
35
VECTORS
AND
the sine law
according to
alternations
6000
minute
per
taneous
of instancurve
negative ones). Draw
a
(3000 positiveand as many
values of this current; mark on the axis of abscissae the time t in
thousandths
of a second, the angles u in degrees,and the same
anglesin
radians.
Prob.
in
great, and the
when
first
the
Ans.
the
on
1 the sine-wave
problem
as
Plot
3.
in the preceding
the current
second?
cycles per
Prob.
frequency of
is the
\Miat
2.
of
current
ampUtude,
52 amp.
is at
curve
the
with
sheet
cur\-e
same
the frequency
The
Show
zero.
in
times
is three
is to be at its maximum
curve
maximum.
by one,
preceding curves
Supplement
wliich is 50 cycles per second,the amplitude 63 amp.,
instants in which
the
maxima
its positive
at the same
through
50.
obtained
curve
of which
the
4.
Prob.
lem,
prob-
with
that
data
these
the frequency of
and which
reaches
first curve
distinct
two
passes
cun-es
be
can
drawn.
the
curve-sheet
with the
a
precedingcurves
sine-wave
representinga 50-cycle alternating current, the amphtude of
and which
which is 120 amp.,
lags by 30 degrees with respect to the
in problem 1.
current
mentioned
in problem 1 is generated by a
Prob.
6. The
current
At what
12-pole alternator, that in problem 3 by a 14-pole machine.
be driven in order to give the required
these machines
speeds must
Prob.
Draw
5.
on
frequencies?
Prob. 7. Express the
of the form
"63
cos
w;
Prob.
8.
in
of eq.
same
Ans.
currents
Ans.
(36).
120 sin (u
given
i
in
problems
75 sin m;
and
500
1285
to
"
r.p.m.
by
tions
equa52 sin 3 u; i
=
30").
The angle u
to the precedingproblem is exanswers
pressed
degrees; rewrite the equations so as to have u expressedin
in the
radians,and
in fractions of
of the time
cycle.
Also represent the currents
as
tions
func-
t.
oidal
Express by equations similar to eq. (41) the followingsinusof
volts,
voltages
frequency /: (a) Amplitude E"
(b) AmpUtude
EJ volts, lagging degrees with respect to the first curve,
(c) Amplitude
E"" volts,leadingthe second curve
by "b radians,
(d) Amplitude
EJ" volts, lagging one nth of a cyclewith respect to the curve
(a).
Prob.
10. The
voltages requiredin the precedingproblem are induced
by four identical alternators,having p poles each, and coupled together.
Prob.
9.
By what
be
the revolving or the stationarj'parts

geometrical angles must
in
order
the
to give
displacetl
requireddiff"Tonoes in phase?
13.
from
Representation of
the
or
fort^goingtheory
voltages
only, namely:
relative phase
and
wave
in
amplitude;
jwsition.
In
most
by
Vector.
that
prol"leins
different from
are
(1)
Sine-
one
(2)
all sine-wave
another
in
It is clear
in three
frequency;
practicalcases,
and
all the
rents
cur-
respects
(3)
currents
in
36
THE
and
so
voltages entering into

that
differ from
they
phase positions.
or
waves,
/""
of the
absolute
and
permanent,
sine-waves.
determined
are
by
"reference"
be
is true
vectors
varies all the
In
into
is unsuitable
also
is called
vector.
of
all the
limitation, the
imagined
as
are
relative
revolving
can
the
in
them
revolving
when
a
The
positions of
which
vectors
arbitrary
an
has not
in space
in
of
in
or
only
The
and
radii
which
direction
While
vectors.
become
in
the
it is
plane,
mechanics, force
is
sent
repre-
plane.
direction
selected,the
definite,so
While
called vectors.
generating
system,
required
the
their
that
relations
radii,so
that
vectors.
they
respective
wîth
must
sine-
their
relative
always
depend
maintaining
altogether disregarded,and
simple stationary
quencies
fre-
alternating-current problems have
be
as
the
at
of the
different
to introduce
is not.
radii
radii
of
between
angle
magnitude
other
revolving
are
voltages
instance,
may
be
and
usually arbitrary,once
yet they revolve
as
respect to this
general, the graphical method
volume
and
positions unchanged.
vectors
direction
for
both
is
first vector
the
problem
same
foregoing representation
physics,a quantity
Thus,
have
definite directions
upon
in
problems.
therefore,to call
It is proper,
waves,
In
definite
while
quantity,
sine-waves
this
the
be drawn
can
with
is
is arbitrary
alternatingquantities
it is necessary
for such
and
but
directions
of
position
in the
the
all the
problem,
for reference.
magnitude,
the
they
positionwhich
radii
radii
that
when
only
mathematics
vector'
magnitude
is counted
phase displacement
time, and
of time
solution
time
all other
clearlyunderstood
enter
zero
the
instant.
of the
one
same
same
rotating radius, at
relative
the
speed, that is,only with

currents
frequency. When
the
their
radius.
It must
by
hence,
their
The
relative
which
from
position. Then,
to indicate
(Fig. 11),in
curves
at that
It is their
moment
sine-
radii is immaterial, because
determines
problems;
desired
any
which
The
in most
of the
time.
the
to draw
projection to scale
voltage
or
and
necessary
positions.
its vertical
amplitudes
; it is sufficient
equations
13
frequency,
same
solely in their
it is not
relative
position
revolving all
are
of the
are
generate these
alternating current
The
other
cases
which
instant,gives by
any
be
such
and
magnitudes
true
In
each
[Abt
CIRCUIT
problem
to write their
even
the radii I J and
of
ELECTRIC
the
fact that
the
they
radii considered
the
of the
the vectors
Draw
1.
Prob.
37
VECTORS
AND
SINE-WAVES
IVl
Chap.
in
currents
and
problems 1, 4
5 of
preceding article in their true magnitudes and relative positions.

voltage of which
Prob. 2. A single-phasealternator has a terminal
mum
equal to 16 kilovolts. The maxiis 325 amp.
The
value of the current
supplied by the machine
behind
the
that
is
the
current
such
voltage
wave
lags
character of the load
both
the
and
the
37
of
voltage
Assuming
degrees.
angle
by an
wave
tions
condiaccording to the sine law, represent the foregoing
current to vary
by
vectors.
two
Draw
3.
Prob.
of
currents
is
value
instantaneous
the maximum
diagram showing
vector
2o-cycle three-phase system
the phase (star)voltages and

(Fig. 36), the ampUtude of
each voltage being 7235 volts,and each displacedin phase by 120 degrees
the first phase
m
voltages. The current
with respect to the other two
is 30
lags behind
and
amp.,
The
cycle.
by 18 degrees.
corresponding phase voltage by
the
in the second
current
The
phase
in the third
current
is 47
and
amp.,
phase is 72
i of
leads its voltage
amp.,
and
lagsbehind
correspondingphase voltage by 0.004 of a second.

In the foregoing three problems the student is supposed to
Note:
draw
the vectors
equal in length to the amplitudes of the alternating
vectors
to draw
it is customary
equal in length to
In practice,
waves.
values of voltages and currents, and not to their amplitudes.
the effective
For sine-waves
the effective value is equal to the amplitude di\'ided by
the
V2
The
purposes..
of effective values
use
scale to which
the vectors
in which
practicalproblems
to
added,
be
when
two
current
the
at
delivered
the
of
receiving end
the
to
frequency, the resultant quantity

frequency.
the
This
component
one
must
the two
currents
For
find
to
line, the
be
the sine law
is also
found
instance,
the
sine
voltage
voltage drop
and
are
the
ponent
com-
all of
of the
curve
in
one
same
(a) graphically,by adding
point by point; (b) analytically,by adding

(c) by adding
or
first be
frequency
may
curves
their equations;
It
curve
voltages have
generator voltage. When
according
quantitiesvary
many
parallel,the total
of
equal to the sum
Or,
transmission
from
the line is subtracted
machine.
each
supplied by
currents
is
bus-bars
station
the
to
are
in
working
are
or
another.
from
one
alternators
more
or
There
of Vectors.
alternating currents
subtracted
or
drawn.
are
Subtraction
and
Addition
14.
important for our present

would
trary
merely change the arbi-
difference is not
The
(see Chapter 5).
proved
is also
to be
I
i'
that
sine-wave
added
be
the
the
vectors
sum
of the
of these
of two
same
represented by
curves.
sine-waves
of
Let
frequency.
the
equations
/", sin (u -f-0)
/"'sin(u + 0')f'
^^^^
38
THE
where
the
with
waves
variable
respect to
of
sines
foregoing
the
The
the
form
No
constants.
are
igq
this
of eqs.
equation
be true,
to
coefficients of sin
and
cos
cos
grouped
are
-\-B
cos
This
where
u,
and
may
to the
(43)
pression
ex-
and
have,
the
form
(44)
equate the right-hand sides
we
the
get
we
u,
two
expand sin iu-\-(f)eq).

Equating
"t"eq Im
leqmCOS
the
{u-\-(l)eq)
sin
the
"equivalent."
values
eqm
(44), and
and
(43)
sinu
Assuming
for
w,
and
equation is reducible
ieq
The
u.
adding
/",'cos ^') sin
(f)+
what
the
obtain
we
matter
side of this
right hand
angles, and
subscript eq stands
is of
two
Expanding
"j).
"
coefficients of sin
constant
together.
i' is "^'
two
{Im COS
/"/' sin
wave
cos
{Im sin (/)+ Im' sin "/"')
+
the
of
(f)'
are
(p and
phase positions of
relative
i and
sum
i -\-i'
ieq
angle, and
reference
for member,
equations, member
where
time
some
between
phase displacement
[Art. 14
CIRCUIT
angles characterizing the
constant
two
wft is
ELECTRIC
IJ
"/)+
COS
COS
0')
(45)
leqmsin "t"eq Im
=
These
Im' slu (f)'
slu "/"+
simultaneous
equations with leqm and (f)eqas the

quantities. Squaring and adding these equations, we
two
are
unknown
obtain
(Im SlU
leqm^
Dividing
tan
No
of
second
the
from
eq.
eq.
The
waves.
wave
are
When
their
it is
sum
(44).
(44)
variable
that
or
from
This
ieqis
sine-wave
the
angle, hence
amplitude
by
currents
difference
same
and
the
eqs.
(46)
or
have,
may
equations
represent
the
same
(}"').(47)
values
the
real.
are
(43)
eq.
proposition,
having
because
u
in
we
In
the
see
27rftfor
frequency as the component

phase position of this resultant
and
(47)
represented by vectors,
vector, because, as proved before.
voltages
is also
to
the
proves
0'
these
always possible
determined
two
Im, Im', (f"and
values
(t"eqdctcrmiued
words,
of
the
what
first gives
the
/,"'sin (j"')/(Im
cos
0 + /,"'cos
matter
form
equation by
/,"'COS "^')'. (46)
"/)+
COS
(f"eq (Im sin "/"+
leqm and
other
+ {I
Im' slu (/)')'
"f"+
are
it is also
find the
is to
of the
resultant
of the
ordinate
of the
resultant
of the
vector
be
must
wave
ordinates
corresponding
equal
component
to
the
the
rotation
the
resultant
of
the
three
two
vectors
Fig.
Let
From
the end
to
in
and
OA
OA.
OB
be
projection of OC
projectionsof OB and
parallel to
OA,
axis is equal to
on
the
whatever.
the
the
that
resultant
the
of
OBC.
the
The
OB
and
BC
upon
that
This
resultant
resultant
their geometric sum.
of two
is,during
line BC
added
together.
equal and parallel
resultant
OC,
vector
the
figurethat
I'-axis is equal to
the
sum
seen
same
axis.
projectionof OC
BC
But
of the
is
holds
true
on
forces.
to
that
However,
instant
is
pleted,
com-
for finding
in
practical
complete the parallelogram,
perfectly determined
vectors
vectors
for any
parallelogram OBCA
is identical with
equal
the vertical
projectionsof the given
mechanical
is
This
from
the
necessary
be
to
gives the
construction
construction
not
draw
the
of the
sum
of
axis.
of time, that
vectors
the
sum
the
to
of vectors.
It will be
the
two
applications it is
because
given
drawing AC,
By
so
the
upon
so
axis.
same
Addition
position.
and
the
and
12.
Connecting
its
adjacent sides.
the
are
that
satisfythis requirement
diagonal of a parallelogram of
the
of the vector
magnitude
be
the
To
vectors.
must
vector
other
the
which
fulfilled at all instants
be
must
of the
Hence,
waves.
projectionupon the F-axis (Fig. 12) shall be equal

the same
vectors
the projectionsof the component
on
condition
vectors
sum
satisfythe condition
must
wave
knowing
wave,
problem
the
magnitudes and positions. Any
in their
waves
The
frequency.
same
resultant
of the
vector
component
the
of
sine-wave
39
VECTORS
AND
SINE-WAVES
IV.]
Chap.
obtained
by
the
in t^'i"^w;"v
triangle
w
"
-illtYl
40
If the
the
for
ELECTRIC
THE
trianglewere
particularinstant
one
closed, the condition
not
projections of
of the
sum
instants.
Thus,
the
resultant
vector,
the
sketch
The
the
we
fulfilled when
the
vectors
with
the
by OA
the
end
the
and
would
be
opposite
draw
OC,
FiQ.
Subtraction
13.
This
braic
rule
of vectors.
and
addition
rule:
values
for
voltages
Fig.
diagram
are
whether
reference
75 and
by
30
these
1.
The
with
true
and
OB
the
the
-(B
results
as
to the
to
one
represents
the
with
see
current
resultant
up
true
in
resultant
regard
in the
to
ing
follow-
geometrically
to
Fig. 12;
provide
vectors
arrows,
directly from
or
the
instantaneous
is customary
It
it
OA,
A).
algebraically/or
voltages,hold
If it
general alge-
summed
are
in
equal and
former
with
triangulararrows,
vector
and
determines
AC
usually distinguished by pointed
From
equal
from
obtaining
quantities.
enables
represented
voltage.
draw
to
is in accord
that
instance, the
thus
resultant
thus
OB,
OB
given vectors,
two
subtract
preceding
are
distinction
This
13.
Prob.
which
of currents
of the
of vectors
currents
of
vectors
vectors
of
subtraction
sinusoidal
of
the
rj.^^
Relations
the
to
it be
from
BC
vector
equal and opposite to
OC.
to add
resultant,OC, represents
necessary
to
the
represented by OB.
of
required
were
axis; but
wave
magnitude, and
sine-wave
the
OA
for
mean,
The
difference
direction
to
equal
means
vector
voltage
that
opposite to Ovl.
the
in
immediately from
vector
the
the
of OB
is
shown
opposite sign. Thus, let
of
from
line OC
rotate.
required to subtract
(Fig. 13); this may
subtraction
satisfied
the
same
follows
subtract
to
the
be
instant
axis OF
upon
of vectors
preceding rule, because

vector
BC
be satisfied
not
assuming
the
upon
and
for subtraction
rule
would
14
equality with
might
for the
that
see
of
vectors
for instance,
projectionsof OB
is not
condition
given
cycle, but
projectionof OC
the
of the
sum
the
of the
for other
to be
[Art.
CIRCUIT
as
in
the
out
voltage, with-
text.
currents
generated by
two
alternators
in
parallelare
the second current

lagging behind the first
respectively,
amp.
the
relative phase position
the magnitude and
degrees. Determine
120
(b) analytically;(c) by
188.8
Ans.
Prob.
laggingby 18"
preceding problem
32' behind
is also
sine-waves
sin
/e,sin {u + "f"eq) 75
=
the first current.
(46)
of eqs.
proved above, that the
without
theorem
of the
means
the difference of two
(a) point by point;
of vectors.
means
amp.,
the
(47),simply by
and
or
Solve
2.
methods:
by three
line current
resultant
of the
41
VECTORS
AND
SINE-WAVES
IV]
Chap.
the
sum
Solution:
sine-wave.
-\-120 sin (u
use
"
30").
It contains
equation is true for any instant,or for any value of u.
unknown
two
quantities,the amplitude and the phase position of the
It is necessary,
resultant curve.
therefore,to apply this equation to two
of time, in order to obtain two
equations with two
particularmoments
in
most
convenient
this
to
It
is
particular case
unknown
quantities.
This
choose
with
in
unknown
two
the
7r/2 and
of
solution
remember
so
0.
practicalproblems,
(46) and
eqs.
be selected
Substituting these values,

This method
quantities are obtained.
u
(47), and
also
it is not
because
because
equations
is preferable
two
the two
to
necessarj'
values
of
can
to give the simplest equations.
as
of poles,are coupled
number
alternators,with the same
in
27 degrees,the voltage
together so as to give voltages differing phase b}-^
first.
that
of
the
The
first alternator
machine
of the second
leading
generates a voltage the amplitude of which is 2300 volts, the second
in series.
connected
Find
The two machines
1800 volts.
electrically
are
graphicallythe vector of the resultant voltage in its magnitude and phase
the terminals
position. Find also the vector of the resultant voltage when
Ans.
reversed.
ing
of the machines
3988
of one
(1)
are
volts, leadthe first by 11" 49'; (2) 1074 volts,lagging behind the firstby 49" 32'.
is 6600, supplies
Prob.
4. An alternator,the terminal voltage of which
line. The conditions are such that the
its load through a transmission
current
lags behind the generator voltage by an angle of 35 degrees.
in phase by
The voltage drop in the line is 540 volts,leading the current
an
angle of 67 degrees. Find the receiver voltage by subtractingthe
voltage drop in the line from the generator voltage (geometrically); also
determine
the phase displacement between
the receiver voltage and the
current.
Ans.
6149 volts; 32" 20'.
Prob.
15.
or
Two
3.
Non-sinusoidal
voltage
it is often
of
Currents
difTers
wave
convenient
sine-waves
to
or
considerably
harmonics,
of
irregularwave
of harmonics
phase
they
sine-waves
the
the
When
sine
pure
result of
current
form,
tion
superposi-
ter
frequencies (Fig. 14). No matperiodic wave
be, it can
always be
may
the
as
from
represent it as
complicated a
represented with sufficient
amplitudes and
Voltages.
of different
how
so
and
relations
called.
are
is necessary
exactly.
accuracy,
In
is sufficient.
by properly selectingthe
of the component
Theoretically, an
in order
sine-waves,
infinite
ber
num-
represent any given

practice,however, a limited number
to
IV]
Chap.
SINE-WAVES
43
VECTORS
AND
is/,the frequencies
frequency of the given irregularwave
of the harmonics
are
When, however, the
/, 2 /, 3 /, and so on.
the axis
is sjTnmetrical,
that is,when
the part above
given wave
If the
of abscissae is identical
with
4/, etc.*)
drop out, and
student
by taking
harmonic
fundamental
and
will be
wave
third
of the
sine-wave
harmonic.
In
the
(2/,
fundamental
(3/, 5/, eto.).
The
truth of this statement
and
adding
the
first
it
to
resultant
the
case
second
second, sjTnmetrical. Nearly
in the
unsjinmetrical;
harmonics
even
only of
harmonics
himself
easily convince
can
consists
wave
the odd
frequency /, and
of
wave
the
below, all
that
practiceare sj-mmetrical.
be represented by the equation
the fundamental
Let
wave
Ci sin (u
ai), the third harmonic
by the equation t/s
t/i
The
Cs sin 3 (m
as), etc.
meaning of Ci, Ca, etc., and of ai,
all of the
in
encountered
waves
"
"
etc., is clear from
as,
the
angles
symmetrical
J/
The
measured.
are
wave
Ci sin (u
are
expression is known
In
y,
one
is asked
into
to
harmonics.
more
treated
not
textbooks, handbooks
wave
any
desired
curve
with
planimeter
is
here, because
mechanical
the
os)
"
may
a
is of
required to analyze
its harmonics.
the
In other
values
great
will be found
be
manner
market,
for
problem,
magazine articles.^
the
resolve
or
words,
of C and
purely mathematical
analyzers on
stylus,in
(u
presents itself is usuallythat of
the solution
and
harmonic
series,and
Fourier
which
determine
This
aj) + C5 sin
"
(48)
is to say, it is often
given irregularwave
given composite
physics.
practice,the problem
analysis; that
of the
ordinates
sin 3 (u
as
in mathematical
importance
which
arbitrary'
originfrom
an
etc
+
This
is
representedby the equation
ai) + d
"
Fig. 14;
in
one
or
and
is
numerous
There
by
ing
know-
are
also
of which
means
separated by tracing
similar to the way
the
given
in which
is used.
importance for an electrical enguaeer to train his eye

the discernment
of prominent harmonics, without math^natical
It is of
in
analysis.
is, in
that
This
trainingis afforded by
combining various assumed
exercises
in
harmonics
synthems,
into irregular
wave
waves.
'
See, for instance,the author's Experimental Electrical Engineering,Vol. 2,
p. 222.
44
THE
Take
first
this
flat
way
will
wave
be
harmonic
fifth
the
irregular
in
the
Draw
1.
have
must
Prob.
2.
be
combined
can
method
literature
set
three
simple
mechanically,
Analyze
given
in
the
the
curves
of
sets
the
this
so
third
and
some
tice,
prac-
in
irregular
in
given
will
waves
of
transactions
connection
about
different
point
Art.
30
given
irregular
reference
above,
subject.
by
in
and
curves
the
preceding
each
curve
position.
of
means
resultant
the
by
six
phase
apparatus
and
suggested
curves
comprise
must
with
Devise
3.
on
or
harmonic
plotting
actually
Proi).
two
each
paragraph;
the
After
of
in
Read
and
Circuit.
Magnetic
Prob.
societies.
electrical
mental
funda-
the
harmonics
and
ence
influ-
harmonic,
prominent
periodicals
third
the
for
on.
"
the
see
with
so
oscillograms
current
many
various
the
of
Numerous
of
curves
wave
and
tive
rela-
"humped
to
seventh
fundamental
discern
easily
wave.
found
similar
plot
simultaneously,
will
eye
order
the
harmonic.
third
magnitude
in
waves,
harmonic,
the
combine
harmonics
the
be
fifth
the
of
different
one-sided
of
cent
per
the
15
harmonic
with
one,
and
change
that,
30
and
wave
similar
After
with
Finally,
peaked
Then
factor.
this
wave,
into
waves
third
and
15
fundamental
the
construct
wave
on.
of
obtained.
and
of
these
positions
and
between
say
Combine
phase
In
sine-wave
magnitude,
fundamental.
[Art.
CIRCUIT
fundamental
reasonable
ELECTRIC
waves
which
harmonics
out
with-
observed,
point.
into
wave
or
any
other
its
harmonics,
method
using
found
in
the
the
CHAPTER
16.
a
resistance
the
voltage
The
current
sine
law,
so
of the
current
is i
voltage
the
direction
same
Divide
the
intervals
other
the
with
and
maximum
the
whether
liljerated,
the
of liberation
The
with
as
second,
of
dt is t"
under
per
A/
"
and
"
may
be
If
and
would
considered
the
(iV
"
dt)/dt
45
and
the
reaches
in
being
because
the
other,
time, the
power
for
constant
to
irr.
As
only during
liberated
energ"'
to
say
This
at
is
the
tesimal
infini-
during
at
rate
analogous
one
matter
that
a
rate
variable.
instantaneous
equal
ih:
it
is also
is liberated
=
cycle,
when
the
the
remained
it is projier
energy
the
zero
in
power,
constant
the
vals
inter-
energy,
or
the
be
that
dt, so
Nevertheless,
because
such
negative,
with
vary
represents
ance
resist-
positive.
instantaneous
ih"
always
current
the
consideration
second,
dissipated
small
voltage
and
becomes
is
the
13.
the
in
to
zero,
direction,
\t,
"
liberated
of time
dt.
the
one
the
or
ei
in
iV
near
loss, never
current.
element
tV
energy
fact, e and
time
"
of energj',
direct
the
values
of
of
practically equal
have
flows
voltage
expression
is
values
but
Fig.
of
to
interval
the
instantaneous
in
number
one
and
lengths,
delivered
during
of
position
However,
current
heat
equation
current
OD
and
time,
voltage.
the
u,
the
to
the
the
large
energ"'
joulean
frictional
of
OC
like
cycle into
energy
them.
of
the
Since
the
of
sin
law.
sine
of
dififerent
of
vectors
the
that
Em
alternator,
an
moment
anj'^
with
Let
Phase.
according
Graphically,
u.
amount
voltage
with
nature
heat
with
instance,
time
varies
for
is
two
one
into
This
current.
the
the
the
words,
current
of
converted
varies
in
Then
sin
by
to
phase
wave
"
for
"
time
Af.
and
{E"/r)
according
true
is in
voltage
represented
are
holds
current
of the
of
also
resistance
in
are
terminals
the
varying
law
of the
curve
equation
in
the
Ohm's
because
Voltage
across
terminals
through
If the
the
connected
the
at
the
that
be
and
Current
when
Power
CIRCmTS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
IN
POWER
the
equal
to
the
stant
into
the
46
in which
way
a
ELECTRIC
THE
of
period
instant
to
speak of
we
instant
merely
velocityfor one
same
which
the
to
second, it
would
cover
instantaneous
would
total
the
be
is
speed
developed
at
to
indicates
per
varies
to
from
certain
at this
move
equal
space
In
";.
the
amount
second, if the
current
power
the
of
and
constant.
liberated
energy
body during
speed
that, if the body continued
voltage suddenly became

The
The
that
say
of
speed
retardation.
or
that
means
the
sense,
energy
the instantaneous
acceleration
instant, so
[Art, 16
CIRCUIT
in
of heat
form
the
during
one
complete cycle is
nT
JT
i^r*dt
local e.m.fs.
no
by
the
to
is different
loss
between
mechanical
The
work
the
represented
into
eq.
the
before
as
(49),we
sin^
that
^(1
its value
"
(51)
counter-e.m.f.
is the
in
of
phase opposition
of the
the circuit and
motor
Then
to et.
difference
is the
equation
whether
true
sine law
the
or
converted
that
the
into
following method.
i
Im sin
u.
and
current
If
not.
they
the
the
Let
the
oidal,
sinus-
are
energy
per
current
be
Substituting this value
have
IJr
f^siii'udt
expression is easily integrated by

w
i^-dt.
Jo
be easily performed, and
hy
This
to
integration can
by
an
motor.
according
cycle evaluated
rl
I
r
nearly
foregoing equations are
voltage vary
during
nr
eii'dt
ed dt
ei
supplied to
in the
under
dissipatedas heat (Art. 4).
that
right-hand side
the energy
it
to
nT
that
therefore
the
on
circuit
part of the
communicated
I
'dt -{- I
Jo
Suppose, for example,

circuit,and
(50)
in the
from
eti
I eti'dt+
J(^T
Jo0
ih
is represented
energy
same
have
(19),we
eq.
W=
the
(49)
ei'dt
total energy
the
interval of time
local e.m.fs.
are
consideration,
in the
dt
expression
there
According
present, the
are
When
t^
Jo
When
Or
cos2w).
remains
the
same
be
it may
if
using
(52)
the
evaluated
cosine
substitution
by observing
is substituted
for the
Chap.
V]
2v, and
the
IN
summing
in
sines
up
in
quantities,only
same
of
limits
the
integration are
cosines
or
through
and
Hence
order.
different
47
CIRCUITS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
is because
This
sine.
u
POWER
take
we
we
may
write
XT
the
Adding
sin^M
cos-
1,
IJr
converted
the energy
that
get
we
2W
or
by term, and remembering
expressionsterm
two
(52a)
cos^ udt
dt
Irrrr-T,
during
into heat
cycle is
one
(53)
W^hlJr-T
there
When
with
the
have
voltage, we
analog^'to
E"
that
I"r, so
is in
current
from
phase
(53),and
eq.
by
have
(18), we
eq.
the
local e.m.fs. and
no
are
\UE^'T
(54)
\{EJ/t)'T
(55)
and
W
student
The
the
between
(53),while
in
(54) and
eqs.
be
said
to
voltage
which
1.
Prob.
refer
Or
that
component
up
in Ir
drop.
phase relation
when
the
is
current
latter expressions
of the
which
alternatingcurrent,
in eq.
consequence
in these
to
sine-wave
no
only
true
else,E^
the
that
is of
voltage
(55) hold
voltage.
is used
the
and
current
the
may
clearlyunderstand
must
with
phase
total terminal
fluctuates
between
flows through a resistance of 10 ohms.

of instanPlot cur\-es
taneous
the
is
50
values of the voltage and power;
frequency
cy./sec.
"75
amp.,
Ans.
Prob.
2.
Determine
E"
volts;
750
max.
liberated
the total energy
problem, by integrating
graphicallythe
Ans.
Prob.
problem
time.
3.
1
Prove
is
Proof:
analyticallythat
sine-wave
The
equation of
the
of
ceding
pre-
obtained
power
frequency, tangent
is P
in the
of power.
joules(watt-seconds).
curve
curve
kw.
56.25
cjcle
per
curve
562.5
the
of double
power
/"V
"
the
to
sin*
u.
in
axis of
But
from
trigonometry
cos
Substitutingthe
P, we get
first term
"
value of sin* u from

P=
The
cos*
J/"V-
is constant, while
sin* u
this
"
2 sin*
u.
equation into
the
expressionfor
i/"*r.cos2".
the
second
represents
sine-wave
of
48
THE
ELECTRIC
double
frequency, because
smaller
than
lies above
the second, so
that P
0, only when
is always
The
is
{2f)t. The
2Tr
the axis of abscissae.
firstand
and
positive,
second
is
the whole
never
curve
becomes
term
multiple of
first term
At
tt.
equal to the
these points the
is tangent to the axis of abscissa?.
curve
Deduce
4.
Prob.
of the cosine
(53) directlyfrom
eq.
of the double
dt
eq. (37),
From
u
2u
17
[Art.
CIRCUIT
in terms
in
the preceding problem.

the limits of integrationare m
angle,as
{T/2 tt)du, and
(52),expressingsin
Hint:
0 and
2Tr.
17.
Effective
The
it is the
is of
that
speed
by dividing
within
expressed by
the
average
speed of
the
total energy
to
in eq.
use
Im,
because
(56)
the
that
Analogously, if we
is found
the
according
into
by T,
we
heat
find
to
is
that
new
(56)
value
(57)
for the
direct-current
current,
Im,
expression
in
of the
power
average
circuit,namely,
Pr
(58)
define
E
(54) and
0.707
Pave
eqs.
sides
in
actual
hln.'r
IJV2
then
identical with
becomes
both
the
cycle by
one
cycle converted
per
the
power
varies
current
of
using
to
when
average
energy
value
average
machine,
of
power
It is convenient
of
dissipation
analogous
This
In practice,
Voltage.
developed during
(53). Dividing
eq.
is
limits.
Pave
instead
the
cycle. When
the
law,
words,
This
total energy
the
or
power.
certain
and
delivery
other
average
of the
sine
the
the
varies
period
in
interest,or,
calculations
of
rate
average
instantaneous
variable
of Current
Values
(55)
EJV2
0.707
(59)
E^,
become
Pa.e
Pave
E'I
.
(60)
and
which
are
perfectly similar
direct-current
E
and
I, as
definition
current
is
to the
corresponding expressionsin
circuit.
defined
alternatingvoltage
by
(61)
E'/r,
the
equal
and
above,
current
respectively. We
effective value
to
such
of the
values
called the effective
are
constant
of
an
may
say
that
alternating (or variable)
current
which, when
flowing
Chap.
V]
POWER
through
the
the
certain
variable
the
which
variable
to
the
During
limits,but
same
rents
cur-
the
condition
of
run
with
occur
of
value
effective
for the
the
heating of
the
would
as
is called
The
current.
appUes
motors.
wide
within
current,
constant
actual
the
railway
Avindings is nearly
motor
the
as
power
for instance, in determining
is used,
It
fluctuates
current
value
efFective
an
rise of electric
temperature
car
of
form.
of any
average
same
current.
definition
This
49
CIRCUITS
resistance, dissipatesthe
variable
actual
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
IN
same
average
vhr loss is
Pr-T
p=
equation
This
value
average
value
variable
the
that
expression,so
of
the
T.
I- is the
the
Taking
of
square
for
that
square
also define the effective
can
we
(62)
language
time
mean
is true
form
the instantaneous
of
alternating or
effective voltage is defined by a similar
generally
The
current.
period of
equation,
root
definition
This
values.
in mathematical
of i^,over
the square
as
obtain
to
Ci'-dt
{\^T)
expresses
sides of this
of both
root
it is desired
Hence
effective value.
the
i'dt,
for which
interval of time
is the
where
more
any
(63)
y.ff'=il/T)JJy^-dt,
where
denotes
an
Alternating-current
so
When
as
an
irregularwave
in
k
be
where
the
A; is
corresponding
brated
cali-
and
voltage.
cally,
voltage is given graphiis found
by taking a sufficient number
(Fig. 15) and replacing the integration
of current
equidistant ordinates
eq. (63) by a summation.
equal parts,
voltage.
or
always
are
the effective values of current
to indicate
its effective value

of
voltmeters
and
ammeters
of current
value
instantaneous
an
Let
or
the half-wave
and
number,
even
ordinates.
let t/o, yi,
according
Then,
divided
be
"
into
"
"
Vu
Simpson's
to
Rule,
y.f/=
[1/(3A;)]
[(yo'
+ yO
^y,_,i)+2(yt^
y,^+
4(yi* + y,'^
+
"
"
+y*-r))
(63a)
V]
Chap.
51
CIRCUITS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
IN
POVS^R
the sine-wave
For
Vav,
iym/ir)I
sin udu=
Vare/Vm
2/ir
(2/r)y",
or
=
ratio of the
The
the
it
idea of the
is flat
sine-wave
peaked
or
form
the
gives
an
mean
compared
as
perfectlyflat-toppedor
value, the
that
so
effective
the
form
the
influence
the
quadratic
than
the
value
high
ordinate
either
the
the
form
middle
effective is
in
or
voltmeter
indicate
and
considerably higher
larger than
1.11.
The
tested for power
was
its terminals.
across
the
what
values
what
627
an
Both
readings
the average
was
of the current
Ans.
that
aware
to
any
instruments
siderable
con-
and
watts;
the
19.3
in
been
phase,
consumption
also the
on
an
it,and
calibrated
were
volts and
110
were
power
Determine
consumption
in series with
ammeter
the voltage to have
its resistance?
was
the sine law.
The
and
current
case,
is not
author
practice.
effective values.
Assuming
nearly the
is
more
same,
peaked waves,
prominent in
amplitude factor is used
the
electric heater
An
1.
effective value.
alternating-current
circuit,by having
a
factor
form
verj'
is
ordinates
the
the
For
all the
are
helps in judging about the shape of

amplitudefactor,or the ratio of the maximum
factor
extent
Prob.
value
average
maximum
the
ratio which
to
(67)
rectangular wave,
the
that
so
mean,
is the so-called
curve
and
value, and
Another
For
wave.
1.11
factor is equal to unity.
of the
mean
sine-
the
which
to
factor is
{yjV2)/{2yJir)
For
degree
the
to
the
is called
ordinate
effective to
form factor,because
curve
(66)
Om7
to
5.7
amp.
which
is
of the heater,
maximum
taneous
instan-
voltage,under the supposition of

ohms; 155.56 volts; 8.06 amp.
"4ir-
-e-X"
v"
H"ym
Fio.
Prob.
factor and
16.
stepped curve
of current
or
voltage.
the average
value, the effective value,the form
the amplitude factor of the curve
in Fig. 16.
shown
2.
Determine
Ans.
0.75
"/";
0.791
y,,;
1.055; 1.264.
52
THE
Prob.
Check
3.
ELECTRIC
factor and
of the form
of the values
some
[Art.
CIRCUIT
the
18
amph-
Handbook
(see Index under
given in the table in the Standard
This
will
in
afford
factor").
practice
calculatingeffective values
when
of curves
they are given by analytic equationsof the form y
f{t),
using eq. (63).
4. Plot an
Prob.
taken from an available oscillograph
irregularwave,
and effective values
by the point-byrecord,and calculate its average
point method, or by using a planimeter.
tude
"
factor
form
18.
Value
Some
of
Special Methods
Irregular
an
article,squaring
the
effective value
are
available
which
Curve.
As
number
large
of
for
is
curve
sometimes
is mentioned
in the
of
in
ordinates
tedious
process,
lead to the
end
above
is
quickest and
the
probably
the
most
to
find
methods
and
quickly.
more
who
has
admitted, however, that for one
only occasionally,the plain point-by-pointmethod
work
preceding
order
be
must
Effective
,Calculating the
do
to
It
this
described
reliable.
Given
dlirve
An
FiQ. 17.
(Fig.15) and
irregularcurve
plottedin
(a) Fleming's
in
polar
angle
no
between
in
The
given
(Fig.15) is.replotted
curve
respond
(Fig. 17), so that equal polar angles Cl/k corequal distances ir/k upon the axis of abscissae. The
abscissa u in Fig. 15 and the corresponding polar
an
Fig.
17
is of
difference what
distance
sine-wave,
coordinates
to
ratio
Method.
the equivalent
polar coordinates.
by
in
a
Fig.
no
total central
15.
in other
consequence;
The
polar angle do)
area
is
angle
of
an
" y^dw,
words,
corresponds
infinitesimal
because
to
it makes
the
total
tended
triangle sub-
y is the
base
of the
Chap.
V]
POWER
in
is its altitude.
y dw
and
triangle,
Thus,
the total
of the
area
curve
17 is
Fig.
But, by
the
mean
the
53
CIRCUITS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
IN
^ry^dw
(68)
ratic
definingequation (63),the effective value, or the quadfrom
in Fig. 15 is found
curve
ordinate,of the same
expression
yef/
because
is
(i/^)"y'do,,
proportional
to
preceding
the
Comparing
t.
(69)
two
find that
equations,we
y,y/
(70)
2S/n
Since S is easilyevaluated, for instance,by

the
effective value
the
ordinates, but
from
is calculated
of
means
(70)
eq.
planimeter,
without
simply by replottingthe given
squaring
in
curve
polar
coordinates.^
the
When
given curve
polar coordinates
in
curve
is selected
equal
either
from
and
as
eq.
by
the given
When
the
find j/e//
the
i/" be
ym/^2.
This
this for himself,
maximum
the
of the circle is "S
area
angle
is the
iryj^,
value
same
method.
different
is not
curve
corresponding
the
sine-curve; then
(70) we
before
found
sine-wave,
pure
circle,provided that
student
can
easilyprove
is
The
tt.
graphicallyor analytically. Let
of the
ordinate
to
is
much
different
from
sine-
pure
approaches a circle in form

corresponding polar curve
it is possible to
ir). In such cases
(always provided that O
without
the area
determine
of the polar curve
a
planimeter, by
the
wave,
drawing
circle of
effective value
The
the
sine-wave
diameter
equal
is then
area
as
the
corresponding
to
(Fig. 17).
eye
for the
and
given curve
this circle,and is equal to
same
by V'2.
of the circle divided
the
judged by
Such
sine-wave
for
the
is called
It is often convenient
in dealing with
equivalentsine-wave.
and voltage waves
to replace them
by equivalent
irregularcurrent
sine-waves, so as to be able to apply an analyticalsolution,or
the
to
construct
*
see
For
C. O.
duisant
vectors.
more
detailed
Mailloux,
le
m^mc
"
treatment
M6thodc
Echauffement
of the International
de
and
practicalapplications,
numerous
D"5 termination
qu'un Courant
du
Courant
Variable,"
Constant
in
the
Pro-
tions
Transec-
Turin,
Congress of Applications of Electricity,
1911.
54
THE
(b)
The
Effective Value
irregular wave
is
the
effective
the
harmonics.
and
gives
be
can
to
(63),we
have
of
harmonics
be
form
Harmonics.
of
of
Fourier
the
use
to
the
square
of
harmonics.
represented by
the
When
series,eq.
the
expression for
kinds, namely,
two
products of pairs
Terms
expressed through
In order
terms
[Art. 18
CIRCUIT
in
in the
given
value
formula
This
ELECTRIC
y in the
Fourier
the
(48),
amplitudes
of
mental
funda-
expansion.
of
squares
Let
an
nth
harmonics,
and
the
pth
expressions
hn
C"sin?i(w
hp
Cpsmpiu
"
a")
(71)
Up)
(72)
and
Then
the
of
right-hand side
"
(63) will contain
eq.
the
following
terms:
H/T)
hn'dt
(Cn'/T)
Jo
rJipHt {Cp^T) r^sin2

p(w
a/T)
sin
the
values
as
way
fact that
sines.
is shown
in
first two
the
Prob.
Art.
their
values
do not
change
The
that
16,
(C3/V2)2+
effective
of the
complex
value
of
irregularwave
An
amplitudes of which
of that of the
to 71.3
average
per
value
are
effective
consistingof
wave
has
third
Show
that
the
substituted
to
is
as
zero,
wave
known
(76)
equal
to
harmonics
and
given in the preceding

eq. (76).
and
12
per
fifth
harmonic,
cent
and
4 per
effective ordinate
amplitude of the fundamental

depends upon the phase positionsof
of the
of
basis
of its harmonics.
values
equal respectivelyto
first harmonic.
cent
the
are
etc.,
complex
its effective value
2.
precisely the
is,on
if cosines
(a) by the method

article;(b) by the Fleming method; (c) from
Prob.
in
integralis identicallyequal
Thus
below.
eq. (63) becomes
(Ci/V2)2 +
squares
a
(75)
third
of the
Plot
1.
determine
^ Cp^', (74)
found
integrals are
(52) in
of the
sum
ap) dt
ap) dt
of eq.
problem
square
"
that
Vef/
the
"") sin p{u
"
of the
for the
or
(73)
n{u
iCnCp/T)"
same
C^^;
rhnhpdt
(1/r)
The
i
=
Jo
Jo
2
rsm^niu-an)dt
Jo
wave,
and
the
cent
is equal
that the
the harmonics.
Chap.
V]
POW'ER
Prob.
that
Prove
3.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
IN
55
CIRCUITS
identicallyequal
sin ^
trigonometrj',
is
expression (75)
of
to
zero.
sin B
According to the familiar formula

i5)
an) sin p(u
ap)
J cos (-4
^ cos (^ + B), we have sin n(u
h
and
do
where
not
m
a
+
+
[(n
p)
6],
cos
p) M + a]
\ cos [(n
5
these
cosines
leads
contain the variable u.
to
terms
of
the
Integrating
sin [{n
form
p)u-\- a] and sin [{n -\-p) u -\-h\. Since the limits of
the values of these
integrationare 0 and 2 t, and n and p are integers,
limit are the same
the
lower
sines at the upper
at
limit,and conseas
quently
Proof:
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
each
19.
In
of the
and
Current
Power
less
or
and
the
The
when
pronounced phase displacement between

is due
This
voltage.
forces,the
fluxes
(selfand
in the
circuit.
The
(c)
which
between
be
(Fig. 13)
of the
the
Here
just
sufficient
current
to OC
OD
is in
divided
that
phase
the
by
net
the
with
forces due
electromotive
is due
about
they bring
the
current.
let OA
to
in
more
that
forces
in
phase
Let
represent the
OB
sum
forces
in
the
voltage OC
is
obtained, which
circuit.
tracting
Subis
ohmic
drop in the circuit. The

this voltage,and is numerically equal
r
of the
circuit.
displacement "^ between
voltage OB;
phase displacement
circuits
it is sufficient to note
that
total resistance
is a phase
there
the generator
the
supply
to
of other
discussed
are
voltage and
the
OB,
the
by
surrounding the cu'cuit
local
produce
local electromotive
from
OA
created
electromotive
generator voltage,and
various
be
influence
causes
alternating-currentcircuits,and
displacement
cuit,
into the cir-
permittance).
workings of these
followingchapters.
factors
are
The
(a)
by alternatingmagnetic
may
dielectric meditun
the
actual
detail in the
the
to
current
follows:
as
connected
fluxes
be due
(electrostaticcapacitjôr
there
These
induction),
"elastivity"of
being
forces induced
electromotive
mutual
these
the
of local electromotive
presence
forces of motors
itself,
or
thej'may
current
the
to
principal among
(b) The
seen
zero.
of Phase.
out
Voltage are
majority of practical alternating-currentcircuits there is
more
the
is equal to
integrals
it is also clear from

to
the
the current
the
figurethat
of the
presence
It will be
and
this
electromotive
force BC.
We
during
between
the
shall first calculate

in
cycle
one
the
current
expression
current
is
for
the
supplied by the generator

the specificcase
when
the phase displacement
and
the voltage is exactly 90 degrees. If
energy
the
represented by
the
voltage
\s
E^
equation
cos
w.
The
I^ sin
u,
the
instantaneous
56
THE
is equal to i
power
the
varies
power
the
the
as
has
power
Let
the
now
be
average
power
in
of the
the
the
du
the
The
referred
defined
to
equal,
alternator
so
that
is in this
be
must
into
another
EI
Pave to the
power
the
case
smaller
component
The
cos
sin "/",in
angle
apparent
IE.
it
appliesalso
in
problem
and
power,
the
voltage,or
power
is
power
(77)
apparent
the
general,because
more
4". The
"l"
'COS
of the
cosine
and
the current
to
component,
power-factor. Thus,
the
as
the
investigated.
total average
the
is called
EI
say,
and
According to the proof given

produced by the quadrature component
power
the
as
either
between
is
the current
current.
is zero,
product
time
=0.
rigidproof of this expressionis given
more
zero,
positiveones.
the
2u\
be
resolved
be
Pave
A
it has
as
cos
"
its value
can
toward,
now
cycle is therefore
one
quency;
fre-
generator
"l2ir
\\
the
by
Thus,
u.
have
we
19
integral
complete cycle. Omitting the
current, and
average
voltage
for
degrees,and
90
voltage E
quadrature with
of the
the
from, and
r
cos
delivered
with
phase
above,
over
product EI, and
the
of double
phase displacement between
less than
voltage
^ ImEm sin
represented by
quantitiesEm and 7^,
X27r
vector
is
power
away
power
this result
sin
cos
negative values
many
instantaneous
constant
than
now
average
as
Mathematically,
of the
flows
The
sine function
[Art.
CIRCUIT
ImEm sin
energy
generator.
for the
"
ELECTRIC
3 below.
power-factor can
of
be
phase displacement
the ratio of the
as
is
cos^
The
second
true
definition
to non-sinusoidal
currents
voltages.
and
into
Fig. 13, the factor I cos ^ which enters
I upon
the direction
of the
eq. (77) represents the projectionof
Hence, eq. (77) can be interpretedby saying
voltage OB, or E.
is equal to the product of the voltage by
that
the true power
Referring
to
of the current
the component
of the
while
current,
the
cos
component
the voltage, is called

Instead
The
name
with
it.
This
component
called the energy component,

7 sin (p,at right angles or in quadrature with
the reactive
of resolving the
older
phase
(f),is therefore
it is sometimes
1
in
component.^
vector
of the
preferableto
for this reactive
current
resolve
component
the
into
two
voltage
is wattless
ponents,
com-
current.
into
V]
Chap.
the
components
with
the
current.
the
that
saying
in
voltage
EI
(^, and
cos
relation
same
righttrianglebear
Let
apparent
the
to
{Ely
and
sine-waves, and
fundamental
in all cases,
(I T)
that
so
of
values
instantaneous
The
curve.
the
sin 0, stand
the
true
the
in
sides of
two
is,
sin
each
(78)
^Y
different from
be
curves
other
pure
form.
in
The
given graphically,
are
curves
i, and
of
planimeter
this
to
the
below
curve
separatelyfrom
taken
two
the
on
gives
curve
parts of the resultant
be evaluated
the
corresponding
the
the
using
ordinate
the
of
difference
(79)
by multiplying
average
the axis of abscissa? must

the
rei'dt
if the
and
Of course,
power.
it, and
the reactive
and
of power,
as
that
from
cycle is found
per
energy
average
EI
components
equation
holds true
resultant
These
EI
{EI
voltage
Pare=
the
the
current
it.
power
power
different
also
times
the
components
"pY +
cos
by
componerd
hypotenuse;
{EI
the current
now
two
quadrature
expressed in words
to
with
phase
reactive
the
the
to
equal
the energy
voltage are also called

component respectively. The
of the
power
is
is
(77)
eq.
power
average
of the
component
this case,
In
in
phase and
in
sin "f),
and
cos
57
CIRCUITS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
IN
POW'ER
those
above
total
the
represent
energy.
If the
two
expression for
the
for
The
of the
of the
nth
proof of
this
P""
other
if it
were
and
of the
terms
of two
first
"
frequency,
same
quencies.
fre-
to
are
the
sults
re-
is,for
that
wave;
En and /"
amplitudes
pha.se displacement Ix'tween
kind
being analogous
sions
expan-
of different
harmonics
fundamental
"^" is the
second
the
obtained,
are
of the
of
in terms
kind, after integration,give
"^",where
| J^"/"cos
of terms
harmonics
for the
as
harmonics,
article.
as
form
same
The
them.
of two
obtained
series,an
Substituting
kinds
(79), two
of the
terms
harmonic
the nth
harmonics.
containing products
those
and
and
i into eq.
be
may
power
the
containing products
those
In
of
effective values
the
the
average
of Fourier
form
in the
given
are
waves
give
that
in
after
zero
problem
integration,
3 of the
ceding
pre-
Thus
=
hEJ
words, each
cos
Ed
"t"i-\-^
harmonic
acting alone.
cos
0s -H etc.
contributes its
own
share
of
(80)
power,
Chap.
V]
Explain
the
why
that
there
Prob.
5.
double
are
(A
cos
Prob.
270
sin
the
it
problem
(.4
4-
-f
sin
62
is
Calculate
ing
remember-
cycle,
of
sine-wave
of
the
representing
Suggestion:
16.
age
aver-
ie
ImE"
transformation,
sin
sin
.4
jB=
B).
is
voltage
(u
latter
the
3,
the
(77).
circuit.
the
consists
Art.
trigonometric
the
in
power
term,
non-sinusoidal
current
10").
constant
Use
of
of
part
forces
curve
with
-cos
during
formula
by
15")
sin
18
the
(m
true
16
represented
sin
30")
"
(u
7
25")
"
sin
"
average
and
power
the
by
(u
the
the
equation
ing
correspond-
50")
2.5
sin
of
power-factor
system.
Ans.
the
the
plus
"t").
B)
6.
line
5(m
that
Compare
(h
negative
is
obtained
value
the
electromotive
local
59
CIRCUITS
with
curve
power
frequency,
sin
this
Prove
power.
sin
of
ordinate
average
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
IN
POWER
P""
power-factor
i
-
is
(4S60
75
cos
per
30"
454
-
cent.
cos
75"
40
-
cos
5")
2027
watte;
CHAPTER
INDUCTANCE,
that
shows
it
of
form
tend
to
tends
direction
in
it.
by
These
to
is
it
to
L
to
is called
and
turns
the
increase
while
the
current
in
inductance
the
mean
in
our
in
and
di/dt,an
the
case
to
municate
com-
Here
vice
versa.
external
e.m.f.
to
the
circuit
motion.
The
circuit, and
absence
or
makes,
and
here.
In
discuss
induced
the
(81)
characterizes
the
conductor
case
it
the
Ldi/dt,
presence
(81) is written
to
of
but
dv/dt.
7n
when
applications,
necessary
to
those
to
pipe,
other
tends
Thus,
in
e.m.f.
themselves,
positive,
rate
mechanical
of
the
necessary
of eq.
at
which
the
which
is
the
on
in
water
force
\s
is
magnitude
mass
the
dv/dt
an
similar
practical
external
as
external
induced
are
them.
acceleration
constant
proportions,
it is not
side
is
the
direction
therefore
reactions
overcome
m,
where
the
acceleration
of the
is necessary
mass
an
when
positive
Similarly,
of
In
the
e.m.f.
the
its
in
in
if
when,
and
the
instance,
not
to
but
current
retarded.
or
necessary
body
moving
the
if
as
manifested
induced
the
current,
of
for
body;
consider,
to
forces
the
as
change
such
decreases,
reason
any
Thus,
current;
reactions
moving
convenient
external
of the
in
current.
current,
some
is accelerated
its motion
of
the
direction
same
strengthen
is
for
in
behaves
is
force
Experiment
state
to
opposition
change
that
to
current
the
exerted
the
opposite
the
hand,
opposition
an
This
increase
to
Inertia.
variable
electromotive
counteract
to
e.m.f.
is
"induced"
an
is
direction.
and
magnitude
in
current
there
inertia;
possessed
IMPEDANCE
Electromagnetic
as
electric
an
AND
REACTANCE
Inductance
20.
VI
with
the
e.m.f.
designates
the
60
upon
of
the
iron,
other
some
books
most
the
external
its
the
of
shape
of
number
factors,
because
reaction
is analogous
coefficient
depends
sign minus,
or
and
which
right-hand
e
the
is understood
circuit;
voltage, equal
and
Chap.
VI]
REACTANCE
INDUCTANCE,
opposite to this reaction.

preferable,because
in
the
moreover,
The
When
flux induces
Any
with
using
eq.
the
For
which
quantity,
circuit,according
of the
its
physics
is
cause
just
inertia
is of
The
fact
external
that
ds
=
mv
"
stored
The
induced
in the
inertia
the
it.
engineering as
of
given
to
Mechanical
fundamental
deep
that
surrounding
the
mystery
magnetic
electro-
believe
physicists even
to
reference
any
produces
the
acceleration, together
leads to the conclusion

of
amount
while
body
moves
ds
m{dv/di)ds,
or,
since
The
total work
done
upon
all
that
Fds=
electromotive
that
the
ing
mov-
The
energ"'.
through
v
the
"
dt,
tance
dis-
have
we
erating
bodj'while accel-
mv'dv
^ mvK
Jo
law
moving
with
is therefore
velocityv
stored
it
of
conservation
body
electrical work
with
assume
the
as
effect.
experimentally,
shall
we
flux
calculated
terms, while
Jo
to
be
can
known.
un-
the
inertia
other
resists
upon
rest to
According
which
in
certain
ds
"
dv.
it from
the
or
it in any
of energy-,
done
is F
same
present
increases
(81), without
modern
body
possesses
work
and
is at
measured
be
eq.
flux
expressing the
of which
circuit
induced
of
electromagnetic nature.
an
law of conservation
body
as
Some
inertia.
of
ways
law
the
stating
characterizes
to
magnetic
explaining
ds
ence
exist-
present purposes
our
entity,without
"
Thus, postulatingthe
circuit which
can
circuit
electric
this
its inductance
it
produced thereby.
induction
nature
given electric
in
true
increases
of
(81).
nature
to
of
of the
inertia is, used
as
Faraday's law
different
two
accuracy,' or
constant
electric
the
it,also
less
or
the
an
arrangement
inductance
more
be
by
e.m.f.
physical phenomenon,
The
flux embraced
circuit
about
brought
field
to
but
perhaps
is
magnetic
of the
according
in the
beginner.
current
electromagnetic inertia,and
e.m.f.,are
linked
electric
the
varies,the
current
changes, and
of
of
effect
components of the
induced
counter-e.m.f.;
confuse
to
is
equation used here
wnth
the
with
is apt
sign
of the
deals
one
than
mechanism
the
the
also
minus
inertia
through
practice
rather
applied voltage
form
The
61
IMPEDANCE
AND
done
of
its kinetic
as
in
energ"
increasing
force,during the time
See the author's
tliis work
energy,
current
dt is dW
Magnetic Circuit,Chapters
is
against
"
10 to 12.
ci
"
the
dt,or
62
THE
substitutingfor
while
the
circuit
the
to
does
This
loss.
include
not
According
(82) represents
the
of
remains
the
this
current
body
into the
heat
either eq. (81)
-into
is
of
either
broken,
when
non-
is
verted
con-
from
definitions
be
may
the
defined
be
the two
purposes
Similarly, in mechanics, mass

ratio of F to dv/dt,or as a ratio of
the
as
is
energy
can
i^r
value
the
as
circuit
the
Inductance
the
expression
long
as
identical.
are
i, is
supplying
its accumulated
for most
(82); and
or
for
Analogously,
heat.
impact.
value
of energy,
When
stopped,
of power,
(82)
required
same.
20
total
^Li^
of conservation
the
The
source
certain
stored in the circuit
energy
moving
to
zero
Lidi.
external
the
energy
law
is converted
energy
elastic
the
the
to
from
rLidi
(81),dW
eq.
from
increases
current
[Art.
CIRCUIT
from
its value
supplied
energy
ELECTRIC
defined
kinetic energy
to^y^
The
the
unit
henry.
According
when
henry
one
current
of inductance
at
include, of
not
inductance
ohm
is
the
for
inventors
"the
for the
total instantaneous
Ohmic
so
that
resistance
eq.
(83)
analogy
force
possess
used
necessary
practice by
friction.
can
the
to
be
other
its
by
at the
be.
a
time,
same
Therefore,
variable
state
compared
in
the
a
(83)
to
mechanical
reference
following
body
the
is
ir-\-L di/dt
accelerate
amount
In
called
been
has
it may
interpreted by
above,
large unit,
this reason,
For
inductance,
small
be
may
[RT].
"ohm-second."
voltage applied during

e
the
"
secohmmeter.
resistance,however
some
[L]
or
measuring inductance
All actual circuits which

have
for overcoming
millihenrys. Substituting
[LI/T]
does
of the voltage in the ampere-
dimensions
get [IR]
henry stands
in
the
volt
one
rather
henry being
frequently measured
instrument
one
The
of
increase
to
This
second.
per
inductance
an
order
in
is called
system
has
e.m.f. necessary
the
circuit.
we
circuit
is necessary
ampere
(81) the physical
system,
words,
one
course,
of the
resistance
into eq.
of
ampere-ohm
the
(81),a
eq.
volt
one
rate
to
in
must
to
way;
be
required for overcoming
the
friction,
ical
mechan-
namely,
augmented
the
the
in
inevitable
VI]
Chap.
and
circuit which
1.
Prob.
carries
inductance
an
is broken
voltage induced
is the average
of
250
21.
exert
in this
It is natural
influence
to
case
of power
decreases.
be
may
is
There
the
the
resistance
part of
(81), we
eq.
that
means
through
current
law, and
is in
of the
seen
the
It is therefore
a
new
0.4 henr\^
the
to
tions
rela-
current
is
current
of inductance
mo\Hng parts
during the periods
is returned
when
the
gain
to the
source
velocity (or
loss of energj'
or
values
instantaneous
the
for
of current
and
affected.
circuit
"
which
the
has
inductance
current
only,
according
vary
Substitutingthis value
a).
2TrfLI"cos{2irft-a),
the
voltage
inductance
an
of
also
varies
with
the
irfLI", or
the
voltage and current,
from
to
necessary
leading quadrature
E
It will be
net
no
/" sin (2 irft
voltage E"
effective values
295
get
e
which
coil reads
inductance
the
is stored
being negligible. Let
familiar law i
to the
into
considerably
first
Consider
equal
150
inertia of the
the
of time
intervals
the
complete cycle,although
voltage
of
rate
to
ohms;
influence
The
velocity (or in current), and
in
during
current)
1.3
voltage and
the
upon
magnitude all the time.

is analogous to that of
in
of increase
of the
expect
reciprocatingengine; i.e.,energy-
is
alternating-current circuit, because
an
varying
uniform
the current
Ans.
considerable
in
joules.
135
the voltmeter
is 100 amp.
current
reading
data calculate the resistance and the inductance
these
Reactance.
at
van,'
the terminals
acroas
coil.
of the
9 volts.
instantaneous
From
volts.
instant when
connected
the
volts; when
to
in the circuit of
Ans.
steady.
coil is made
the
At
is
the current
in
current
voltmeter
is 230
in
while
second.
per
amp.
amp.,
The
3.
Prob.
stored
the electromagnetic energy
precedingproblem
the
one-fifth of
circuit during this

Ans.
Calculate
2.
millihenns
12
within
in the
inter\-al of time?
Prob.
63
IMPEDANCE
AND
possesses
of 150 amp.
direct current
What
second.
REACTANCE
INDUCTANCE,
force
sinusoidal
according
to
current.
The
relation
the
between
sine
tude
amplithe
is
tt/LI
(84)
....
(85)
this relation that, in
quantities / and
convenient
to
introduce, for
composite quantity x,
x
calculations
alternating-current
as
a
always appear
product.
defined
2rfL
by
the
the
sake of abbreviation,
relation
(86)
64
THE
The
quantity
refers to
is called
stated
ELECTRIC
the
from
which
frequency /.
resistance.
it follows
that
This
not
does
of the
reactance
Equation
[Art.
CIRCUIT
circuit, and
(85)
(87)
is measured
that
however,
mean,
Let
now
AA/WW\/^\A^n
series
the
(Fig. 18), or
with
let the
inductance
like
ohms,
ties
quanti-
two
in
Since the
total
19.
sine-waves
varies
of
waves
in
The
instantaneous
fundamental
relations
same
two
figuresmay
the
inductance
coil which
also
an
sesses
posciable
appre-
Substituting
current
in
(2 irft
cos
"
sine-wave
the
the
is advised
the
to
(88)
(see Art. 14),
sine-law.
and
sum,
and
a).
These
current
ponent
comwave
study this figure
voltage relations in the circuit
Fig. 18.
of the most
important
represents one
the whole
of
theory
alternating currents.
represented vectoriallyin Fig. 20,
are
be
nected
con-
it
relations in
The
their
student
shown
carefully,because
is also
according to
voltage,
Fig. 19.
The
a) -f-xlm
"
of two
be
expression for i, given above, into

get
eq. (83),we
rim sin (2irft
voltage e
shown
actance
re-
series.
sum
sine-
Fig.
and
Resistance
18.
the
have
resistance.
x=2irfL
very
in
resistance
some
in
I
are
then
xl,
reactance
the
always
similar in their physical nature.
are
Fia.
becomes
21
conveniently
phenomenon
from
examined
instant
to
together.
instant;
the
and
One
other
the
scribes
de-
gives
Chap.
in
the salient features

of
in
Ir
component
one
in
with
leading quadrature
with
phase
the
The
form.
symbolic
first
The
current.
The
to
serves
and
current
second,
/V
the
phase displacement
the
For
tance
reac-
have
r-x\
E=lV?Tl^
or
(89)
between
the
and
current
the
voltage
have
we
water
to and
fro
The
by
"t"
r/Vr' -j-x*
(90)
x/r,
of the
whole
in
circuit
heav"'
freely
force upon
to the
the
Fig.
a
21
may
closed
make
these
pipe circuit
in
mass
with
the
water
IF
to be
the inertia
is
trated
concen-
F, which
the
water.
piston rod
ing
analogous to the alternatvoltage E in Fig. 18; the
velocity of
in
represents
is as.sumed
water
shown
(91)
of the piston
means
and
of inertia,
\s
cos
to oscillate
is made
devoid
The
Ix/Ir
ACDGA
clearer.
which
moves
"f"
hydraulic analogue
relations
B.
tan
power-factor
the
The
in Fig. 18,
triangleof voltages we
the
E^-
or
resistance; the
ohmic
From
circuit.
of the
component
voltage relations in the circuit shown

representedvectorially.
the
overcome
Ix
another
current, and
the
consists
vector
Ir
Fig. 20.
65
IMPEDANCE
AND
REACTANCE
INDUCTANCE,
VI]
is analo-
alternating current,
Fig. 21.
hydraulic analogue
to Fig. 18.
the friction in the
pipes represents
the inertia of the hea\'j'
resistance
the ohmic
F stands
mass
r, and
L.
To
make
the analogy closer,we
for the inductance
assume
that the piston is forced to perform a simple harmonic
motion;
gous
\T]
Chap.
REACTANCE
INDUCTANCE,
coil considered
AND
67
IMPEDANCE
problem 1 is connected in series with

of 12 amp.
lOOohm
resistance; it is.required to maintain a current
a
obtained
various
the
at
frequencies. Supplement
curve
through the two,
the resistance,
of voltage drop across
and the
in that problem with cur\'es
The
4.
Prob.
combination.
the
total voltage across
Determine
of
in
Plot also the corresponding values

ordinates
the
of
power-factor.
and check a few points analjtically.
="^r,and
total
per
the
same
At
1.
At /
frequency.
1927 volts,
cos
100, Et"tai
/=
graphically,
curves
.^
0,
62.25
cent.
house
instrument readings in a power
that
The power-factor meter
shows
7520 kw. ; 66 kv. ; 147 amp.
:
behind
is
the
What
the
current
voltage.
are
lagging
readings at the
is 45 ohms
instant at the recei^nng end of the line,if its resistance
and
simultaneous
Three
6.
Prob.
are
"
cos
of the
volts, independent
1200
Er=
Ans.
the
Hint:
ohms.
83
its reactance
Draw
the
of the
vectors
generator
relative position. Subtract

the ohmic
drop in phase with the current, and the reactive drop in quadrature with
result will give the receiver voltage in its true magnitude and
it. The
voltage and
in their true
current
Ans.
phase fKjsition.
Prob.
order
In
6.
determine
to
the
110- volt motor,
without
in series with
non-inductive
110, when
the
the voltage
the
is
motor
use
across
From
the
across
data
these
through
amp.
power-factor of the motor, and calculate
be
The
terminals
motor
Under
tions
condi-
these
127, and
is
the current
determine
graphicallythe
input.
its power
Ans.
is connected
220-volt circuit.
carrying the requiredload.
23
kv.
53.4
single-phase
the motor
the resistance is founc^to
across
motor
kw.;
input into
wattmeter,
resistance
that the voltage
adjusted so
resistance
is
the power
of
6547
72.3
per
cent; 1826
watts.
Referring to the preceding problem, calculate cos "t" trigonometrically, from the triangleof voltages, instead of determining it
Prob.
7.
graphically.
22.
with
When
Impedance.
(89) and
resistance, eqs.
voltage
relations
alone, but by
quantity
impedance
quantity, but
the
of the
has
of the
into eqs.
the
the
radical
It
can
abbreviation
an
in eq.
(91), we
of the
tance
reac-
(92)
resistance,anil
hardly
for
circuit;in
be
called
certain
other
the
physical
combination
words,
(92). Introducing
is called
an
viation
abbre-
value
of
obtain
E
and
of
ilimension
circuit.
rather
(89) and
by the value
and
current
Vr'-\-x^.
physical properties of
for
not
the
in series
composite expression
The
(91) indicate that
determined,
are
is connected
reactance
COS0
=-
zl
(93)
r/z
(94)
68
ELECTRIC
THE
Impedance
to
the
In
be defined from
may
in
current
circuit
non-inductive
in
total resistance, while

is
equal
to
the
the
It
resistance
is
be
and
voltage
reactance.
simply equal
inductive
must
relation
the
the ratio of the
impedance
purely
reactance.
(93) gives only
eq.
(93) as
eq.
containing
circuit
[Art. 22
CIRCUIT
the
one
to
impedance
clearlyunderstood
between
the
the
that
magnitudes of
the
phase relation is given by Fig. 20, or by eq. (94).

The
three quantitiesr, x, and
z form
a
triangle of which
z is
angle
the hypothenuse (Fig. 20). This
triangle is similar to the triin
of voltages, but the quantitiesr, x, and z are not vectors
and
From
the impethe same
currents
voltages are.
as
sense
dance
The
vectors.
the
have
trianglewe
following
r
useful
relations:
(95)
(j"
cos
zsmcf)
and
X
When
impedances
two
voltage and
connected
are
relations
current
(96)
in
represented in Fig. 23.

total terminal
voltage E
the
the
impedances
phase angles "î and
It will be
from
seen
the
02
of
their
to
resultant
The
in series.
value
the
The
the
two
triangleABC
E2
of
across
and
geometric
has
between
impedances.
component
the
is
sum.
phase angle 0
intermediate
that
is less
sum
impedances,
two
equal
Two
arithmetical
voltages Ei and
the
22.
(Fig. 22), the
as
are
than
c-TT-^vvwWNA-^TyDW^jijMQ^
Fig.
series
resultant
voltage
^"^
23.
Fig.
is the
of
The
same
resistance
current
that
as
ri
and
l"o
iri
voltage relations
required by
-|-r^ and
an
reactance
in the circuit shown
impedance
xi
X2.
in
which
In
other
Fig. 22.
consists
words,
Chap.
VI]
the resultant
resultant
the
V(ri
the
adding
by
shown
in
to
voltage
of
and
22
in
vectors
impedances
and
the
ohms, but
12
Fig.
by
23
the relations
into
latter
relations
of the
voltages.
1.
The
impedance
measured
of
in
with direct current
easily extended
the
gram
/, the dia-
current
and
to
relations
Di\-idingall
impedances,
(97)
An
equal
The
(98), are
in
as
Fig. 20,
(98).
It must
be
physical point
of \iew
the
the
same
sense
coil is 7.5 ohms
is not
is less.
and
in series
separately.
of the
of
eqs.
vectorial
not
are
added
are
in series.
one
mind, however, that from
in
Prob.
(97)
value
being represented by
borne
rule
eqs.
the
(98)
of 7 ohms
impedances
voltages is converted
of
the equation
reactances
one
as
23, and
of
(97)
....
from
two
in series with
number
any
(xi + X2)S
(xi + X2)/(ri+ rj)
resistances
Figs.
r2)'+
that
5 ohms
impedance of
an
impedance
show
equations
69
IMPEDANCE
phase angle is determined

tan
These
AND
is
impedance
z
and
REACTANCE
INDUCTANCE,
What
those
are
cycles; the
60
at
is 6 ohms.
as
sistance
re-
is the inductance?
Ans.
11.9
miUihenrj's.
in series across
292impedance coils are connected
a
the coils are
volt line. The
152 and
175 respectively;
voltages across
is 7.3 amp.
that
the
resistance
the current
of
the first coil is
Knowing
10 ohms, determine
graphically the resistance of the second; also the
Prob.. 2.
impedances
Two
of both
coils.
Ans.
Prob.
a
3.
\Mien
r,
23.8;
zi
20.82;
certain non-inductive
of alternatingvoltage, a current
source
z,
23.97, all in ohms.
resistance is connected
/ flows
through it.
is connected
inductance, containing negligibleresistance,
voltage,the
of
source
displacement when
series
E.
EJV
source?
resistance
the two
are
(a)
Let
shown
Influence
an
in
the
Ell\
connected
the current
are
the inductance
Solution:
is
in
an
same
the phase
connected
are
Let
the unknown
the
unknown
is E/z=
the
and
reactance
Il'/il*+
in
voltage be
the impedance
series,
current
of
Inductance
alternating voltage
Fig.
14, be
(non-inductive).
instant
What
and
When
across
[{E/I)*
/'')*
; tan
.^ =
i/r.
23.
as
resistance
same
unknown
When
the
is /'.
{E/ry]^. Coasequently,the
-h
X
the
across
The
current
across
equal
to
voltage.
with
e
of
applied at the
The
current
e/r, and
an
Non-sinusoidal
irregular form,
terminals
of
pure
through the resistance
consequently
has
the
same
Voltage,
such
as
is
resistance
is at
wave
any
form
70
(b)
a
ELECTRIC
THE
Let
inductance
yure
that
the
and
the
now
will
will be
frequency harmonics
of the
offered
This
of
property
useful
in
Let
the inertia
voltage
harmonic
voltage,
produce
to
the
currents
the reactance
its
frequency.
harmonics
choking higher
applications.
inductance
an
voltage across
'priori
circuit;the high-
proportional to
of
of
follows from
frequencies,because
is
inductance
an
unable
are
said
of the
This
of the
terminals
be
that
sine-wave.
at lower
as
from
23
is
some
the
Fourier
each
to
as
in the
magnitude
same
different
nearly
more
of inductance
concept
very
the
applied at
(without resistance). It may
wave
approach
be
voltage
same
current
[Art.
CIRCUIT
be
given
in the
form
of
series,
e
El sin (2 irft
ai) + Ez
Substitutingits value
El sin (2 irft
both
of
sides
(2 irft
this
as) +
fundamental
ai)-j-Es sin
Multiplying
in the
sin 3
(81), we
eq.
(2 irft as) -f-etc.

dt
by
get
L
equation
etc.
and
di/dt.
integrating
gives
cos
{El/2 TJ)cos (2 irft ai)- {Ez/Q tt/)
etc.
"
The
have
device
electric
or
unidirectional
valve
iEi/2 wfL) cos
of
equal
to
without
some
ai)-
that
means
{Es/Q wfL) cos
current,
is the
as
if this
harmonic
of such
sum
harmonic
harmonic
for the
nth
wave;
therefore, the higher

than
smaller
(c)
at
the
Let
terminals
determine
expected
the
will
resistance
more
same
and
nearly
extent
those
of
wave
be
a
pure
in the
Substituting the
as
voltage
The
form
of
the
case
above
of
own
current
of the
coil
fundamental
current
tively
rela-
are
alternating voltage be impressed

the
the
pure
let it be
The
current.
between
than
its
wave.
those
inductance; viz.,the
form
as)
total
for the
as
in
The
reactance
impedance coil,and
an
(2 rft
e.m.f. produces
great
harmonics
in the
intermediate
of sine
as
times
non-sinusoidal
now
is
currents.
(99)
acting alone.
were
commutating
etc.,
in the
harmonic
each
the current
Therefore
sort.
which
as)
because
zero,
component
(2 Tft
(2 irft
Li -\-const.
of integration is
constant
cannot
voltage
required
result
derived
current
wave,
for
pure
not
to the
inductance.
given expansion
for the
be
will be
wave
but
to
to
voltage
wave
Chap.
VI]
REACTANCE
INDUCTANCE,
into the fundamental
i, which
equation
(83)
eq.
obtain
we
readers
some
choose, therefore,the opposite
that
able
be
not
may
way;
differential
71
IMPEDANCE
AND
is,we
equation
We
solve.
to
the
assume
for
current
the
and determine
given, instead of the voltage wave,
from
procedure is
corresponding voltage wave
eq. (83). This
be
to
wave
the
Let
i
/i sin (u
be
current
Substituting this value
in the form
given
ai) + /s sin
"
(m
into eq.
of integration.
instead
differentiation
it involves
simpler, because
much
az) -\-etc., where
"
rft.
rearranging the terms,
(83) and
gives
e
[Iirsin (u
This
"
irfLIicos (u
TcJLIzcos
that
result shows
The
total
is
voltage
Therefore
conclude
we
would
current
be
produced by the
impedance
is 23
harmonic
between
the
is determined
The
voltage
contains
summing
the
of the
sum
az)
"
(100)
requires
current
if it
flowing
were
harmonic
equal
to
the
sum
of the
Vr^ +
is z"
is 2i
in
=
the
harmonic
given,
currents
voltage.
If
the
Vr^ -j-3?^ that
to
the
reached
is
as
of current
=
nx/r, or
follows:
higher harmonics, the total

harmonic
alone.
(3 x)-,and in general the impedance

Vr^ + {iix)-. The phase displacement
condition, tan 4"n
conclusion
the
voltages.
that, conversely,if the voltage were
corresponding harmonics
from
general
the
to
(m
etc.
of the
voltage, as
first harmonic
nth
the
{u -[as)]+
respective harmonics
the
to
third harmonic
to
of the
equal
sin
a\)\-{-[Izr
"
harmonic
each
harmonic
corresponding
the
ai) +
due
currents
to
and
r/Zn.
"/""
cos
When
the
applied
is found
current
each
voltage
harmonic
of
by
the
voltage acting alone.

Prob.
110
effective value
The
1.
volts; it has
pronounced
of the
fundamental
wave
of
third hannonic, of 24 per
cent
an
This voltage is applied across

a pure
reactance,
for the fundamental
frequency. Calculate the current.
wave.
5 ohms
Ans.
Prob.
170 sin 250
haAing an
that
the
1.09 sin
24.
a
alternatingvoltage
An
2.
62 sin (1250 t +
1 +
inductance
current
(1250
The
" +
in
represented by
2.3). It is applied to an
22.07
the
equal to
amp.
expression
impedance
coil
of 45
Show
millihenrysand a resistance of 7 ohms.
is
12.82
equal to
an
1.015) +
(250 1
amperes
"
0.853).
Extra
Circuit.
is
e.m.f. is
of the fundamental
or
Since
Transient
an
Current
electric
current
in
Opening
possesses
and
ing
Clos-
inertia
iu
72
THE
the
form
of
inductance,
unless
instantly,
ELECTRIC
the
current
no
when
of continuous
voltage,the
interval before
it reaches
is broken, the
current
the
appreciable
air
for
transient
an
its final value.
time.
they
and
on
in
be taken
must
off
there
(a) continuous
(a)
of i which
di/dt
because
and
and
satisfies this
to the
i, which
constant
is the
is
possible to select
where
base
is
circuit
which
when
here
to
of
source
alternating voltage.
e/r, because
two
circuit possessing
the
value
one
in this
case
general solution,
most
exponential expression
an
satisfythe equation.
in addition
Put
e/r + Ce-'/\
of natural
Cre-'/^-
(101)
C and
and
logarithms,
value
of
are
switching
consider
shall
(83) is constant,
not
will
Substituting this
constants.
We
in eq.
equation
these
cases
under
is connected
through
arc
high-frequency oscillations,
sinusoidal
(b)
this
However,
it is
in
inductance
Voltage. When
0.
an
closing of
source
the circuit
majority of
currents; namely,
extra
voltage
Direct
of
appreciable
an
circumstances
are
circuits,etc.
of such
resistance
form
and
of energy,
large amounts
cases
to
into consideration; for instance, in
highly inductive
simple
In
during
infinitely
Again, when
the
opening
practical importance, yet
no
in
continues
at the
phenomena
increases
current
be
force
24
broken
or
is connected
large electromagnet
established
be
can
electromotive
applied
large. Thus,
[Art.
CIRCUIT
of i into eq.
(L/T)Ce-'^
certain
are
(83),we
get
0,
or
Besides,
0
e/r -f-C,
when
from
0,
expression (101) becomes
-e/r,
consequently
(e/r){I -e-'^/^).
1=
In other
words, when
increases
at
reality,the
of
factor
L/r
the rate
of time.
direct-current
becomes
unless
is called
of the
the
the
of
more
closed,the
slowly;
e/r only after
an
practically constant
inductance
time
(102)
.....
circuit is
and
more
its final value
current
second,
first rapidly,then
it reaches
In
that
so
which
C
and
L/r.
constant
is
current
and
retically
theo-
infinite time.
after
tion
frac-
exceedingly large. The

of the
initial rise in current, and
circuit; it
has
mines
deter-
the dimension
Chap.
VI]
INDUCTANCE,
(b) Sinusoidal
REACTANCE
If the
Voltage.
Em
s\n2Trft,one
(Em/z) sin (2 -rrft "^),where
of eq.
cos^
general solution, because

of the form
term
in such
that
way
of the
sine term
before
that
it is
this term
L/r.
The
0 when
to
in eq.
satisfies the
constant
But
law
it
to
an
the
nential
expo-
time
constant
(83).
Since
equation,
is determined
before, is
this is not
select the
will cancel
alone
current
r/z.
the
seen
possibleto add
and
''',
Ce~'
have
we
73
IMPEDANCE
voltage follows
(83), as
"
most
as
solution
AND
the
will find
we
tion
by the condi-
0, or
-iEJz)sm,f"
0=
C,
which
from
C
Therefore
Under
{Em/z)sm4,
the
current
(EJz) sin (2x/"
ordinary conditions
small
within
to consider
the current
heretofore.
However,
exponential
of
to be
for
second,
so
current
that
be
may
instance, at the
becomes
term
sine-wave,
pure
the extra
phenomena,
transient
"f")
+ (EmX/z^)e-'^^^,
the
fraction
E"x/zK
(103)
gibly
negli-
it is legitimate
as
have
we
of
importance
of
moment
done
in
closing a
circuit.
The
solutions
trials,because
the
(103) of
it is assumed
method
general
otherwise,
(102) and
the
that
the reader
solution
could
have
been
and
book
any
on
familiar
written
by
with
equations;
directly. Equation
are
functions
of
Q,
of this
(104)
By referringto
constants.
or
differential equations, the
general solution
is not
above
form
dy/dx -\-Py
P
found
(83) are
for the solution of linear differential
(83) is of the
where
eq.
reader
will find
that
the
equation is
(-'\Je'Qdx-\-c\(105)
where
^
-f'
Pdx
Prob.
cent
1.
The
current
of its final value
is closed.
Show
in
within
coil due
one
that the time
to
(106)
hundredth
constant
constant
of
e.m.f. reaches
second
99
per
after the circuit
of the coil is equal to 2.17 milliseconds.
CHAPTER
VII
SUSCEPTANCE
25.
of
Concept
introduced
in
alternating
an
alternating
is
in
We
parallel,
in
reciprocals
called
of
it is
their
is
measures
through
Since
one
behind
of
without
in
for
clear
like
The
that
proof
Art.
3).
of
mhos
simply
is similar
gives
to
use
is
reactance
6.
Thus,
susceptance
alternating
an
pulsating
current
field.
magnetic
is measured
to
that
of
for
6, -H
the
in
of
susceptance
75
"
the
inertia
is very
mhos.
degrees
concept
reaction,
important
in
parallel, their
etc
mhos
5
90
chapter,
(109)
addition
the
of
pure
connected
are
6i +
that
limitation
together,
susceptance
total
implies
rest
coils
added
lags by
current
is reminded
this
the
inductive
are
Thus,
are
(108)
the
student
6,,
The
the
susceptance
of reactance,
understanding
susceptances
reactors
hE,
that
resistance;
ohmic
several
\Mien
nected
con-
sjTnbol
that
say
of
ohms,
before
as
voltage.
any
are
(87) becomes
understood
susceptance,
of
it
(107)
forcing
reaction
the
I, that
calculations
by the
may
in
is measured
Equation
it being
in
or
an
gous
analo-
\/{2TfL)
ease
the
coil, against
reactance
mhos.
\/x
of
degree
the
coils
of
is
resistors
reciprocal
usually denoted
conductance,
with
analog}'
The
reaction
Chapter
when
convenient
more
as
susceptance
h
By
in
reactive
reactances.
and
susceptance,
by definition, the
when
Similarh',
the
reactance
however,
seen,
reactance,
difficulty in forcing
respect,
conductances,
use
of
degree
this
In
of
concept
coil, against
have
to
parallel.
connected
the
field.
magnetic
convenient
more
the
through
current
resistance.
to
The
Susceptance.
21, indicates
Art.
ADMITTANCE
AND
of
in
conductances
parallel with
(see
one
of
76
THE
Two
Prob.
reactive
connected,first
line.
The
in each
coils of
in series and
ohmic
and
10
20 millihenrys respectively are

across
a
parallel,
40-cycle,180-volt
in
then
resistance of the coils is negligible.What

Ans.
Concept
connected
in
[Art. 26
CIRCUIT
case?
26.
of
ELECTRIC
of Admittance.
parallelwith
alternatingvoltage
Let
23.85
now
ohmic
pure
(Fig. 24),
is the current
107.35
amp.;
inductance
pure
resistance,across
let it be
and
amp.
required
be
source
to find
"ii.||i.
Fig.
24.
in
susceptance
wth
be
expressed
The
current
as
susceptance, and
the
through
quadrature with
the
conductance, according
to
the
(2),is gE,
eq.
conductance.
as
to
eq.
current
in
can
(108),
is
through
phase with
the
total current
The
the
the
shown
circuit
inductance
according
voltage (Fig.25) ;
in
and
the resistance
susceptance,
bE,
voltage.
The
through the combination.

a
the
current
Fig. 24.
in
the total current
voltage and
in
relations
conductance.
The
Fig. 25.
parallel
V{Egy
(Eby
from
phase angle is determined

tancl"
Eb/Eg
EVg^-\- h\
the
=
(110)
relation
b/g
(Ill)
62_
(112)
or
In
to
the
introduce
in
of
case
series
g/Vg^ +
"t"
cos
connection, we
the
impedance
parallelconnection
as
have
symbol
found
for
it is convenient
it convenient
Vr^ +
to
x^.
introduce
larly,
Simithe
abbreviation
y
The
quantity
in mhos,
the
VfTb^.
y is called the admittance

same
as
6 and
eq.
of
Equation
g.
i
and
(113)
a
circuit,and
is measured
(110) becomes
yE,
(114)
g/y
(115)
(112),
cos(/)
Chap.
The
y
quantities g,
three
is the
and
hypothenuse,
angle "t".
in which
triangle(Fig. 25),
angle adjacent
the
obtain
triangle we
this
From
y form
b and
77
ADMITTANCE
AND
SUSCEPTAXCE
VII]
to
phase
is the
useful relations,
two
ycos(f)
(116)
and
6
there
When
the energy
and
reactive
in
conductances
and
several susceptances
are
(Fig.26), the
y sin "f).
parallel
of the
components
current
Fig.
volt
Fig.
added
be
must
in
the
or
and
conductances,
voltage and
The
27.
quadrature
that
the
current
paiallel.
Therefore,
separately (Fig.27).
pha.êor
in
Susceptances and conductances
26.
relations
the
the
amperes
also be added
in
per
volt in
per
circuit shown
in the
susceptances, must
amperes
Fig. 26.
separately,so
equivalentadmittance
the
^{3x +
etc.)2+
6f2 +
(6i + 62 + etc.)2,
(117a)
(117b)
and
tan"/)=
+
(61 + 62 + etc.)/(iî
should
Fig. 27 with
The
student
the
similarity of procedure
that
current
is
are
voltage
currents
to
is
are
added
common
combined
the
and
With
cases.
common
partial voltages
the
compare
in the two
phenomena
j^2 +
all the
etc.).
Fig.
difiference
series
all the
In
in order
in
the
see
it is the
circuit,while
the
tion,
parallelcombina-
l)ranches,while
in their proper
to
physical
connection,
parts of the
geometrically.
to
23
the
ponent
com-
])liaserelations.
78
THE
The
ELECTRIC
followingtable gives
preceding chapter, in
Prob.
What
1.
resistance
cent?
per
quantities defined
connected
be
must
voltage
the
E.
total
Show
Two
2.
Also, what
line current
is the
value
resultant
mhos;
6.25
mittance?
ad-
mhos.
parallelto a line of
power-factorcos 0i;
in
/i at
current
of the
I, lagging behind the voltage by an angle 4".

graphically the susceptance and the conductance
Series
Equivalent
resistance
another
Ts
be
series
supply,
Tp be
factor
as
called
equivalent. It
series
combination
the
parallel and
same
is sometimes
by
current
at
the
two
in
convenient
also
reactance
that
of
same
power-
combinations
replace
to
when
series,it
replace them
all
by
of
parts
some
are
given
is convenient
an
circuit
for
let
source
same
the
Xp.
selected
so
the
to
Xs;
a
are
Let
and
equivalent parallelcombination,
an
instance,
others
to
reactances
connected
the
reactance
parallelwith
parallelcombination, then
For
versa.
and
when
let through
with
in
connected
of the resistances
Combinations.
Parallel
in series
combination,
will
and
connected
resistance
If the values
vice
tion
combina-
is
determine
to
connected
are
consumes
3.75
the
devices.
27.
the
device
One
how
of both
electrical devices
the
parallel with
in
bring the power-factor of
to
Ans.
Prob.
in this and
relations.
proper
in order
ohm,
80
to
the
susceptance
of 0.2
down
their
[Art. 27
CIRCUIT
are
numerical
in
culations
cal-
series
equivalent parallelor
combination.
The
problem
r"
Tp, Xs and
is to
find
Xp, if these
According
is the
for
same
the relation
to
quantities form
both, and besides,according
refers to
series combination.
we
l/rp
l/xp
binations.
com-
(93) and (114),
to eqs.
(118)
l/z,
Combining
now
and
eqs.
to
the
ycos(t"
ysiiK})
lent
equiva-
(116), (95) and
have
^
ties
quanti-
equivalent
two
parallelcombination
the
four
above-given definition,the angle 0
the
where
the
between
(l/z) (Vs/z)
rjz^;
(l/z)(Xs/z)
Xs/z^;
(96),
Chap.
79
ADMITTANCE
AND
SUSCEPTANCE
VII]
or
r.rp
x^p
By
of
means
replaced by
Instead
practice,g and
and
and
of
then
the
to
the series
either
of
and
r,
x,
are
reciprocalsof
not
used
Prob.
1.
of the
and
r,
x,
the
reciprocalsof
are
given, it
(119)
and
words, for
susceptance
Vp
is first
(120), and
series circuit
are
r,/z\
(121)
x./22
(122)
given,
are
(123)
g/y';
h/y^
(124)
of
are
x,
impedance coil has
An
winding
no
practical importance, and
What
is 2 ohms.
reactance
are
Check
the
at
Prob.
Show
of 7.5 ohms; the resistance

and
the
ductance
consusceptance
the
124.3
and
33.2
the foregoing problem
millimhos.
culating
bj- actually cal-
power-factorof the series and
the
parallel
assumed
some
that
Tp
In
eqs.
Hint:
to
answer
and
the current
solve for Tp and
the
equivalentparallelcombination?
combinations
3.
are
eqs.
other
Ans.
2.
but
in this work.
of the
Prob.
the
and
the other hand, if g and

r,
In
parallelcombination;
from
Xp
be used.
h, may
the conductance
as
If r, and
and
equivalent conductance
and
they
reciprocals. In
their
and
The
that
x,.
On
(120)
the
or
Tp and
determine
take
1/^2
usually spoken of
are
not
to
necessary
(119)
reciprocals,
g
Xp, their
clearlyunderstood
be
Xp,
z2
lY;
be
can
(119) and (120) a series combination
equivalent parallelcombination, and vice versa.
of Tp and
it must
eqs.
an
susceptance
22
voltage.
are
always laiêr than r, and x, respectively.
Xp
and
and
z*
(119)
(120) replace by r,* + x,*,
and
Xp.
takes
and
2000
watts
at 110 volts,
the equivalentconductance
being a lagging one.
are
and susceptance of the de\'ice? What
the resistance and reactance
are
in series eciuivalent
to this apparatus?
0.156 mho;
Ans.
0.165 mho;
3.2 ohms; 3.04 ohms.
Prob.
6, In adjusting a measuring instrument, a non-inductive
sistance
reused in parallelwith a choke coil. The impedof 120 ohms
was
ance
of the coil was
75 ohms, its resi.stance 16 ohms.
In the regular
Prob.
4.
An
apparatus
the current
manufacture
of
the
in series.
instrument
Determine
25
amp.
What
it is desired to
use
resistance and
their values, either graphically or

Ans.
r,
3S.0
ohms;
x,
44.3
actance
re-
cally.
analytiolmis.
80
28.
the
in
ELECTRIC
THE
in Parallel
Impedances
preceding chapter
series,and
Let
in this
two
now
or
required to
by replacing each
admittances
find the
and
given impedances
and
then
rule
developed
the
connected
is
an
replaced by
impedances
it is important
that
occur,
to
and
acquire
in parallel,
problem,
in series.
addition
in
be
can
induction
eral
sev-
each
both
the
is geometric,
algebraically.
mission
theory of transfor this
is
as
reason
binations,
equivalent com-
from
changing
vice versa,
student
cases
motors;
facilityin
The
added
understand
and
parallelcombination,
equivalent
an
this
instance, in the
the student
he
that
for
is done
tion,
equivalent series combina-
only like components
lines,transformers,
and
the
by
let
let it be required to
solve
added
are
This
Conversely, let
series,and
To
parallel.
admittances
above.
admittance.
of this kind
Problems
in
that
their
adding
in
and
parallel,
the
course,
that
in
of
the
of
connected
In
impedances
admittances
equivalent impedance.
parallelcombination
understands,
add
to
the
be
then
be
in Series.
find
equivalent
and
how
add
to
impedances
parallelcombination,
according to
Admittances
learned
chapter how
more
it be
and
have
we
[Art. 28
CIRCUIT
series
explained
in the
preceding article.
Prob.
to
The
1.
load of
consist of 1200
of motors,
will be the
Solution:
working
generator
at
lamps,practically
non-inductive,and of
an
power-factorof 75 per cent.
average
181.8
is 121.2
current
is 121.2 tan
component
is 1200/6.6
current
generator is estimated
expected generator output, in amperes, and

of the motor
The
current
component
energy
the reactive
amp.;
single-phase,6600-volt
kw. of
amp.
181.8
"
"^
106.8
total energy
The
303
321.3
kw.
What
the power-factor?
is 800/6.6=121.2
The
amp.
component
lamp
of the
Consequently, the total
amp.
is (303^-1-106.8^)2
generator current
is 303/321.3
94.3 per cent.
800
amp.;
the
power-factor
Prob.
2.
Check
Prob.
3.
Three
4 and
2.5
current
ohms,
line.
the solution of the
precedingproblem graphically.
of
resistances of 2, 5 and 10 ohms, and two reactances
in
all connected
parallelacross
a 250-volt alternating-
are
What
are
and
the total current
the
Ans.
Prob.
4.
impedance
Three
of
respectively,and inductances
in parallelacross
connected
a
source
the total current
voltage. Calculate
and
solution
Ans.
4 ohms
graphically.
Prob.
second.
to the same
5.
Solve
the
Construct
scale,so
the
as
of
precedingproblem
vector
to
see
258
having ohmic
coils,
diagrams
13,
10
power-factor of
77.5
amp.;
per
the
bination?
com-
cent.
resistances of 2, 3 and
and 22 millihenrys,
are
220-volt,60-cycle alternating
the
power-factor. Check
110
for
of the
amp.;
cos
frequency
currents
"^
of 25
in both
the influence of the frequency.
the
0.495.
cyclesper
problems
Chap.
VII]
Prob.
but
not
be
the
total
determine
third
the
coil,
admittance
The
7.
vs-inding
of
34
degrees
resistance
and
lags
the
Determine
by
is 0.2
winding
with
the
to
respect
of
reactance
Prob.
and
parallel
in
9.
across
components,
Ans.
resistance
parallel
Calculate
ohms.
series
equivalent
Prob.
ha\Tng
connect^
is
X
8.
ohms
coil
to
the
of
vector
with
another
the
resistance
circuit.
coils
The
55
Ans.
given
volts.
and
20.85
2.3
in
preceding
the
Calculate
the
amp.;
the
power-factor
10.78
amp.;
total
of
the
17.88
its
at
terminals.
winding.
and
coil,
for
and
the
of
2.255
and
energj'
combination.
amp.;
cos
the
ohms.
connected
are
its
ohms
reactance
ohms;
of
reactance
which
problem
current,
ohms.
2.796
ohms;
ohms
1.36
through
current
voltage
the
4.145
of
the
mho^
the
Ans.
the
of
position
the
coil
graphically
and
analj'^tically
and
third
the
of
inductance
magnitude,
in
given
be
current
the
assume
to
in
current
total
the
current.
Prob.
the
how
Show
of
let
4,
position;
phase
unknown.
vector
the
its
in
problem
In
6.
81
ADMITTANCE
AND
SUSCEPTANCE
"^
0.5165.
in
tive
reac-
Chap.
VIII]
If E
and
the
given,
are
COMPLEX
OF
USE
THE
83
QUANTITIES
projections
calculated
are
from
the
expressions
e
d;
cos
(125)
e'Êsine.'
given, the
projectionsare
If the
the
magnitude and positionfrom
^=(e2
^
tan
In numerical
tan
and
(127)
eq.
for
necessity
the
and
e'
first to calculate
convenient
determine
to
tables.
This
from
does
projections and
squaring
(127)
more
then
(125), using trigonometric
eqs.
(126)
e'2)3;
it is
in
equations
e'/e
computations
from
itself is determined
vector
of
one
with
away
extracting
the
the
square
root.
The
that
fact
is
perpendicular axes
two
of the
components
are-
vector
along
expressed symbolicallythus:
E-=e-\-je'
Here
is
vertical
to the
for the
time
of
that
but
by
its direction
When
The
P.
the
and
Steinmetz,
due
credit is also
used
method,
voltages by
The
is
below,
Steinmetz
of
dealing
of their
means
and
addition
and
the addition
Dr.
of
on
Thus,
50
the
vector
resultant
if
70
current
amp.,
sum
of
these
E,-hE,
nifies
sig-
tions.
projec-
the dot is omitted.

Dr.
by
Charles
in this country.
developing
alternating
the
Much
analjlic
and
currents
axis
is
represented
another
as
equal
e\
fe, +
the
to
vectors
a
simply
100
4- j 110
and
-f-jei'
î
the
its
ej
e.) 4- }(e,'-\-e^').
same
tions
projec-
j 40
amp.,
Or, the
amp.
=
of the
sum
on
to
Fig. 12,
to
by
vector
by
current
is 150
currents
=
reduced
are
its component
voltages, Ei
of two
E,^
and
is
the
by
projections. According
any
corresponding projectionsof
axis.
of the vector,
defined
of vectors
subtraction
vector
with
under
in
projections.
subtraction
the projection of
for
sign plus
dot
introduced
universally used
now
to
been
value;
tion
abbrevia-
an
The
The
is meant,
only
has
notation
as
only the magnitude
not
magnitude
foregoing
addition.
real
any
merely
well, the latter being
as
have
not
vertical axis."
the
geometric
is meant
projection e' refers
the
considered
be
along
the
denotes
that
syralx)lmust
it may
"
words
indicates
This
axis.
being,
the
(128)
eq.
symbol which
(128)
'
j''
'
84
THE
As
projections.
in
the
Take
horizontal
the
projection of
and
Both
voltage
second
2300
0.
The
27"
is 1800
vector
first alternator
the
simplest assumption.
the
expressed as Ei
the
of
vector
direction, this being
is therefore
vector
volts,
[Akt. 30
CIRCUIT
let us solve problem 3,Art. 14, by the method

illustration,
an
of
This
ELECTRIC
cos
its vertical
1603.8
volts.
817.2
projection is 1800 sin 27"
projectionsare positive,because the second
of these
leads the first,

and
izontal
hor-
is therefore
1603.8
817.2
volts.
The
3903.8
817.2
volts.
For
leave
the
in the
some
Thus, E2
first quadrant.
voltage,E,g
resultant
vector
i/g
^1 +
it is sufficient
purposes,
to
in this
form; if,however, the magnitude and

phase position are required,they are found
as
explained above:
tan e
11" 49'; cos 6
817.2/3903.8
0.2092; d
0.9786; Ee^
3988
volts.
3903.8/0.9786
If the terminals
of the second machine
be reversed, then Egg
answer
El
El
"
696.2
"
projection and
it lies in the
fourth
by less than
-49"
32'; Eea
Prob.
the
Prob.
90
vector
Check
2.
has
vector
tal
positive horizon-
negative vertical projection. Consequently,

quadrant,
and
degrees.
Proceeding
lags
behind
reference
the
above,
as
tor
vec-
find d
we
volts.
1074
Solve
1.
assuming
This
817.2.
problem
1, Art.
of the
first current
14, b}^ the method
of
projections,
horizontal.
to be
the solution of problem 4, Art.
14, by the method
of
projections.
30.
Rotation
of
Vectors
involving reactance, it is
current
by the reactance
degrees, in
order
to
it into
scale.
of
But
its
In
turning
of
the
it
the
notation
being zero.
the
it is
reactive
vector
of
then
let its
abscissae,and
represented
is directed
Ei
as
by
turned
along
symbolically represented as
a,
the
E2
90
to
the
by
the
90
The
reactance
the
magnitudes
find
relation
projections.
new
along
be
the
ence
refer-
In the symbolic
a.
other
projection
wise,
degrees counter-clock-
positive
=
the
relative
length
=
it
voltage.
by
Ei be drawn
vector
of the
vector
merely changes
the
original and
problems
turn
in
drop
thus
modifies
the
the
current
voltage,and
After having been

vector
and
is, therefore, necessary
magnitudes of
let
the simplest case
axis of
circuit
the
vector
the
axis,or
is
of
vector
projections;
between
and
the
of
In
Degrees.
multiply
to
necessary
determine
simple multiplication
converts
by Ninety
ja,
axis
the
of
ordinates,
horizontal
pro-
Chap.
VIII]
USE
THE
jection being
It is convenient
of any
will turn
by j
vector
value
of
Ez be turned
by
multiplication
degreesin
by 90
division
by 90 degrees in the negative direction

find
that
manner
the vector
while
(counter-clockwise),
direction
rotation
case,
multiplication by j.
definej in such
to
85
QUANTITIES
Thus, in this particular
zero.
degrees is equivalentto
90
COMPLEX
OF
by j will
the
positive
the
turn
tor
vec-
In order
(clockwise).
to
satisfies these requirements, let the vector
j which
again by 90
degrees counter-clockwise, being now

directed along the negative X-axis.
Its expression is now
E3
On
"a.
the
hand, the
other
by multiplying E2 by j.
1; consequently, J =V"
Therefore,
turned
it
numerator
and
it appears
to
the value
We
by j.
Let
of
be
Ei is to be
originalvector
first quadrant,
get the vector
must
but
and
quadrant
has
horizontal
original vector
the
projectionb of the
to
the
"
/^
arbitrary
an
vertical
Ex.
'^'^ relation between
^'*^- '^-
"
of coordinates.
axes
jection
pro-
Thus,
expressed as-
is
vector
new
above, when
set
is equal
the
vector
that
^"^
\
Ei.
to
projection a of
Ei) the horizontal
to
seen
the
second
projection equal
value
1, as
jb. Multiplying Ei
"
with
be
(Fig. 29) have
Ei
E2, of the
of E2 is negative, and
in its absolute
Ei
of the
checks
requirements
or
perpendicular
vertical
in
This
It will thus
along one
original vector
li
ja/f.
"ja.
"Ei.
is directed
magnitude,
same
E2
E^
1 satisfies the
"
in the
we
by j, E^
above, then
the
now
direction
the
or
the denominator
the originalvector
the
fa,
"a=
must, according to our assumption,

then have ""4
a/j, or, multiplying the
preceding result, because
Ez
obtained
by 90 degrees clockwise, we
divide
by j
have
we
If the
1.
"
be
expression must
same
theprojectionsof
perpendicular
to
twovectô
each
otho-.
On
the
other
="b-\-ja.
hand,
multiplying Ei by j we have jEi
ja -|-/6
rj2
the
same
above.
as
=
"
Therefore, in this
is correct, and
It is left to the student

in
by
some
90
other
to
leads
verifythe
quadrant, and where
to
cases
ja
"
also
case
rotation
Ei is divided
the
by
in which
b, which
90
tion
assump-
degrees.
the vector
by
is
lies
j, for rotation
degrees in the negative direction.
Expressions of
and
the
"
1,
form
are
called
jb, where
in
and
are
real quantities
algebra complex quantities.
86
THE
The
student
our
need
of
and
is
purposes
a
of
simply
the
quantity which
separates the
name,
that j^ ="1.
nature
complex quantities
simple
as
jections
pro-
division,
solutions
Moreover,
quite
are
two
30
for
because
discouraged by
vector, obeys the law of multiplication and
is of such
means
be
not
[Art.
CIRCUIT
ELECTRIC
by
as
by
other
methods.
Prob.
The
ohmic
flows through
43 amp.
of 3 ohms.
reactance
Solution:
impedance.
components,
of 80 +
current
in series with
2 ohms
the
1.
The
Find
of the
vector
resistance
of
the voltage drop across

voltage consists of two
representing the ohmic and the reactive drop respectively.

160 + j 86 volts.
To
drop, E,, is equal to 2 (80 + j 43)
=
find the inductive
by a3, and
Thus, Ei^Sj
E
E,-\-E,
=
3l-]-jS26 volts.
Solve the preceding problem when
Prob.
the
drop, E2, the vector of the current must be multiplied

then turned by 90 degrees,in other words, multiplied by j.
=-129
The
total voltage
(80 +i43)
+j 240 volts.
2.
First
is unknown.
current
represented by its projections as
Let
Solution:
ji'.
i +
the
We
the
voltage is given and

unknown
have,
as
be
current
in the
preceding
problem,
a + ji')+3j
2
or,
the
collecting
(i+ ji')
31 +
i 326,
(129)
containing j,
terms
(2i-3i')
+i(2i'
3i) =31+i326.
(130)
be satisfied only if the terms

with and without j
equation can
because
be
are
a real quantity cannot
equal to each other respectively,
equal to an imaginary one.
Or, from a geometric point of view, the lefthand side and the right-hand side of eq. (130) each represent a vector
by
their correits projections. But
identical only when
two
vectors
sponding
are
have
equal. Thus, we
are
projections
This
2i-3i'
31; 2i' +
3i
326.
Solving these equations for i and i',we find i

43, as in the pre80, i'
ceding
problem. Second Solution: Equation (129) can be written in the
form
(2 + Sj) (i -f ji') SI + j 326; or, i+ ji'={Sl+ j 326)/(2 +3;).
Considering here j as an ordinary algebraicquantity, we can get rid of
nator
and the denomiit in the denominator
by multiplying both the numerator
3 j. The
result is
by 2
=
"
or
i -f-ji'
Prob.
coil
3.
80
A
produces
resistance and
13
2^-{Zjy
-|-i 43,
a-s
voltage of
in it
.559
(31+i326)(2-3y)_1040
..,
''+3'
13'
before.
28
current
the reactance
"^"^
-{-j 120 volts
equal
to
applied to
4 +j
the terminals
1.5
amp.
16
ohms;
of
Determine
of the coil.
Ans.
)"
a;
24 ohms.
the
Chap.
VIII]
THE
USE
CX)MPLEX
OF
the answer
\'erify
projections,
assuming the vector
Prob.
4,
31.
Impedance
and
Operators.
or
sar"- to maintain
the method
of
of the voltage to be horizontal.
Expressed
as
to find
it be
required
i + ji'through
current
problem 4, Art. 28, by
to
Admittance
Let
87
QUANTITIES
tities
Complex Quan-
the
voltage
resistance
and
neces-
ance
react-
voltage drop in the resistance is r (i +ji') ;

is jx {i + ji'). Hence, the total voltage is
that in the reactance
E
or
r{i+ji') +jx{i+jn,
The
in series.
It is
as
{r^-jx) {i+ji').
(131)
legitimateto factor out the expression (i + ji'),and to treat

other
algebraic quantity, because j is now
assigned a
any
value, V
definite
Moreover,
1.
"
geometric addition
of
four
along the X-axis
directed
As
jV
long
desired
in any
arranged
component
and
the
in
of
two
vectors,
other
interpretationis kept
this
as
(131) represents simply the
eq.
along the
two
mind, the
terms
them
F-axis.
may
be
order.
Equation (131) shows that, in order to obtain the expression

of the voltage drop through an
be
impedance, the current must
multiplied by the complex quantity r + jx. The
expression
r
-|-jx is not
but
vector, because
the
operator upon
an
it does
of the
vector
consists,first,in multipljiug the

in
multiplying the
current.
and
for
The
of the current
vector
by
vector
same
stand
not
sine-wave,
operation
by r, then
turning it bj'90 degrees

adding the two vectors
in
positive direction,and finally,
geometrically. All these operations are included in the expression
in
the
-f-jx, which
In
order
the terms
the
to
the impedance operator.
get the projections
the
on
results
is called
right-hand
represented
side must
in the
form
get then, separating the real and

E
real and
The
equal
to
e-\-je'
the
{ri
other
of the
same
be
of
the
on
have
problems
been
these
eq.
(131),
complex
quantity. We
imaguiary parts,
each
-j-xt).
side of this equation
are
because
resjxjctively,
E
vector
upon
ri
ri
they represent the projections

the two
axes.
Consequently
xi'
"
In
from
actuallymultipliedand
xi')+i(n'
imaginary parts
each
e' of E
and
steps
are
substituted,in order
(132)
4- xi.
best
left until the numerical
to avoid
values
complicated expressions.
88
THE
If the
ELECTRIC
voltage and
to find the current,
the
order
form
reduce
to
of
impedance
get from
we
j^'
^ +
In
CIRCUIT
given, and it is required
are
(131) the relation
eq.
right-hand side
complex quantity, we
by the expressionr
(e + je')(r
This
jx.
"
jx)
of
this equation
multiply the
{jxY
Equating the real and
r^ +
the
the
and
numerator
-f-xe'
re
to
nominato
de-
gives
re'
^^
r'-
31
(e + je')/(r+ jx).
the
[Akt.
x^
xe
^^'^'^^
'
r^-^x^
imaginary parts respectively,we
obtain
i
i'
(re-\-xe')/z'';
\
(re'
Equation (131) expresses

to the
of the
product
(r + jx) be
notation.
the fact that
voltage E is equal
by the impedance, if the operator
impedance of the circuit in the complex
current
considered
the
as
Denote
the
as
capital Z is used
distinguishedfrom
The
vector, but
provided
that
notation,
expression each
when
the expression must

of the two
value
with
complex
of the
ance.
imped-
same
dot, because
quantity,
Z
is not
eq.
(131) becomes
(136)
letter stands
for
complex quantity,
algebraic relations
or
again be expanded
are
so
necessary,
into (131) and
the multiplication
complex quantities actually performed.
of
dividing the voltage by the operator (r -\-jx) and

convenient
eliminatingj from the denominator, it is more
then
to introduce
in order
that
another
26,
order
to
get the
must
be
expected
admittance.
operator by
to obtain
Art.
the
voltage
current.
to
have
which
current.
be
must
the
It will be remembered
multiplied by
an
elements
and
the
component
(Art. 27), the
Eg through
"jEh through
pure
pure
conductance,
susceptance
in
by
an
current
and
parallelwith
in
question
dimensions
unknown
in
from
admittance
Consequently the operator

the
be multiplied
voltage must
Replacing the given series combination
parallel combination
into
it is
IZ
numerical
actual
Instead
that
operator.
an
this
(135)
the numerical
In the abbreviated
In
r+jx
to indicate
letter is not
the
impedance by Z, then
Z
Here
^^'^^'
xe)/z\ J
of
an
alent
equivis
split
nent
compo-
the
con-
Chap.
VIII]
latter
The
ductance.
it
because
USE
THE
lags by
behind
the
provided with
is
component
degrees
90
89
QUANTITIES
COMPLEX
OF
the
prefix "j,
total
the
Thus,
voltage.
current
(137)
(138)
expression
The
is called the admittance

Z
I=E(g-jb)
g-jb
provided with a dot because it is

the two preceding equations gives
above, is
Combining
(1) and
(2) for direct
form
of the relation
on
the other,
and
r,
deduced
in Art.
are
simple
sions
expres-
is
viated
abbre-
an
(140)
the
imaginary parts
get
ge -{-be'
between
the
Equation (139)
real and
the
equation, we
i
relations
of Ohm's
(.e-\-je')(g-jb)
equating
and
out
sides of this
both
The
(139)
current.
i+ji'
vector.
YE
alternating currents, corresponding to
Multiplying
(139) represent generalizedforms
Equations (136) and

for
not
not
law
symbol Y, like the symbol
The
operator.
on
27; it being understood, of
the two
that in the present treatment
g, b and
hand, and
one
combinations
on
course,
equivalent.
are
(139) imply that
Equations (136) and
YZ
(142)
=1,
or
ir-\-jx)(g-jb)
1.
Substituting into this last equation the values of g and b from

it will be
(122) and performing the multiplication,
eqs. (121) and
to the identity 1
found that the equation is reduced
1, this
=
being
check
on
sjonbolsjE/,/,
or
connection
series.
In
vectors,
many
notation
of
complex quantities,
using the
Y, alternating-currentproblems
direct-current
admittance
the
or
until the
the
and
easilyas
as
operator
relative
(142).
the abbreviated
With
almost
eq.
solution
-\-je' and
solved
problems. Either the impedance
operator is used, depending upon
of the
cases
are
parts of the
the
abbreviated
has
been
i +
ji',and
circuit,whether
notation
obtained,
the
the
expanded
may
the
parallel
be
served
pre-
projections
forms
of
of the
CHAPTER
THE
USE
32.
Power
of
at
is P
power
E
The
of
"ftis the
E
EI
Ecosde-
that
the
between
-\-Ji'
calculate
to
for
the
respectively form
the
the
average
phase displacement
difference
and
required
tions
Projec-
current
expression
"j"is the
by
between
angles 0e and
with
the
reference
have
we
Remembering
supplj-
The
(Continued)
"
Expressed
let it be
"f",where
cos
vectors
alternator
generator.
angle
Hence,
Displacement
an
the
EI
QUANTITIES
-{- je', and
of
the
di which
axis.
Phase
/.
and
and
Let
output
power
COMPLEX
Vectors.
voltage
OF
IX
given
EI
"f"
cos
(Be
cos
1 cosdi
vectors
the
de, etc., represent
the
on
I sin 6i.
E^nde'
sin
^"
cos
di)
of
axes
tions
projec-
coordinates,
have
we
simplv
P
Another
of
way
of
vectors
deducing
and
current
of coordinates,
axes
the
to
phase, give the
power
e'i'.
The
the
power
the
with
power
from
e' and
total
average
To
output,
i is
resolve
to
the
contribution
projections
of each
and
projection V
of the
of the
same
voltage,
the
reason
to
the
average
i'
in
give
average
in
phase
resulting
power
ei -\- e'i' represents
Thus,
zero.
zero
being
two
jection
pro-
i, being
gives
current
given
along the
components
Similarly, the projections e' and
ei.
equal
the
The
power.
the
their
into
consider
to
projection
For
quadrature.
voltage
(143)
(143) is
expression
and
total
e'i'
ei +
the
power.
find
the
we
write
phase
displacement,
the
or
tf,
tan
"
tan
fa
{B,
"^
tan
\
di)
n
"
power-factor
tan
"
"
r"
r"
the
of
tf"
"
1 -f- tan
tf,tan
tfi
oi
^*
(^^"
l +
Knowing
'
Or
relations
tan
else
it
(e7e).(.V0
0, its cosine
the
tan~*
is found
power-facUx-,
^/e, and
9.
cos
"
^
tan-
from
coe
"
"
91
{$,
i'/i.
trigonometric
"
5,),
can
be
tables.'
found
from
the
92
THE
Power-factor
"^
cos
PjEl
[Art.
CIRCUIT
also be determined
can
ELECTRIC
directlyfrom
the
32
sion
expres-
+ e'^)(i^+ ^'2)]^, (145)

{ei+ e'z')/[(e2
but
the calculations
are
involved
more
than
when
formula
(144)
is used.
,
The
negative.
between
The
the
is
power
it.
reference
Pr
to the
the
EI
apparent
(144)
the current
than
is
the
di)
"
The
current
upon
that
3.
P/
from
Prob.
50
"
In the
di-E
Let
2300
50
the current
meaning
to determine
the
ent
appar-
(148)
and
(143),
0 from
of
Ans.
eq.
must
hne
in
current
is 5370
and
and
of the machine
shall become
i'=
be
leading
answer.
or
"58+
amp.
J 12
"^.
amp.
Draw
voltage.
generates
voltage equal to 2300

impedance of 5 + y
current, through an
generating a
synchronous machine
What
and
zero?
"1264
the plus sign of tan
suppliesa
volts.
j'735; the
kilowatts; 92 per cent.

be the projectionof the
problem
sign of the power
from
(144).
the output
894.5
is found
cos
alternator
an
Calculate
A synchronous machine
of the
(147)
0,
preceding problem, what
the
another
to
del sin di,
cos
(146)
the F-axis in order that the power
volts,and
ohms,
it is
ei'
tan
voltage
47 amp.
of the current
4.
as
have
we
cos
eq.
of the load.
Explain the negative

the vectors
not
lagging by
question is decided by
Ans.
Prob.
and
motor
also be negative, which
convenient
more
terminal
is 173
2.
that
the relation
the power-factor
Prob.
as
E sin del cos
e'i
trigonometric tables,knowing
line current
so
(^2+ i'^)^
(e2+ e'2)|
is calculated
1.
are
is
power
P"
Prob.
degrees,
90
over
The
(Art. 19)
sin (Be
it is sometimes
and
power.
power
Pa
where
phase displacement
leading,or
degrees.
90
(143) sometimes
machine, instead of being delivered
may
EI
from
the
voltage is
to the
Pr
power
projectionsof
0 in formula
reactive
=
However,
of the
acts
sign of
sin (l"
the
or
The
of formula
words, the machine
Tan
angle larger
For
and
current
either that
an
means
interpretation is that
other
generator.
by
some
being supplied
In
means
if
negative,
out
comes
by
calculated
power
is the
output
power
lagging?
Make
Ans.
counter-e.m.f.
first machine?
of
Is
yourself the physical

kw.; "t" 173" 3' lagging.
clear
"4.55
of the
"
50
to
Chap.
IX]
Prob.
THE
5.
the power
"
the
(144) together for the unknown
and
is maintained
pedance,
through an imamp.
kw. at a power-factor of 86 per cent
lb
output being 952
the voltage across
impedance.
projectionse
Hint:
and
Ans.
Prob.
and
X
6.
Solve
problem
the
multiplj-ingthe impedance by
tan
Prob.
2930
volts.
-|-j 987
of the
Hint:
current.
(143)
unpedance,
power
I-r;
4".
7.
33.
Solve eqs.
e'.
the value
by calculating
93
QUANTITIES
COMPLEX
of 350
current
lagging. Find
OF
USE
problem 5, using the expression for
Solve
Vectors
and
representing a
vector
it is sometimes
in terms
values
the
of
to
of its
and
in eq.
orthogonal projections,as
convenient
more
complex quantity
its
by
Instead
Coordinates.
in Polar
Operators
the reactive power.
the
express
magnitude and
e' from
as
direction.
(125) into
eqs.
(128),
vector
same
of
stituting
Sub-
(128),we
eq.
obtain
E
Similarly,a
in phase with
current
while
the
/=
and
from
shown
in
In
similar manner,
is necessary
expressions
to
find
of the
(96)
2
form
product
cos
are
is
(151)
to
the
use
(135), we
get
(152)
eq.
(138),gives
j sin "^)
"
in the
expressed
(cos"^+isin0)
or
the
or
0 "\-j sin d.
separating the
(153)
the
ratio
By
real
E/Z
current
of
two
it
complex
actually performing
from
the
imaginary
find that
(cos d-\-j sin d) (cos "^-}j sin "^)

=
This
Substituting the values of
into eq.
1/ (cos "^
the
multiplication and
we
voltage
it is convenient
calculatingthe voltage drop /Z
When
term
voltages
using eqs. (116) in

F
the
(9 -"/")].
similar form.
and
above,
(95) and
eqs.
the
equation
form
F
(150)
angle "f"behind
an
of currents
operators Z and
voltage is expressed as
/[cos (0-"^)+isin
the vectors
trigonometric
this
(149)
/(cos^+jsin^),
lagging by
current
represented by
When
E{cosd+jsmd)
cos
(0+"^)+ j sin (5+0).
gives a simple rule for the multiplicationof two

In order
complex quantitiesin the trigonometricform.
or
(154)
more
to deduce
94
similar rule for
ELECTRIC
THE
observe
division,we
[Art. 33
CIRCUIT
that
l/(cos "f"-\-j sin (j))

=
cos(f)
This
relation is
sin 4", so
of the
to
as
cf))
-\-j sm{
"
left-hand
side
of the
get rid of the complex
(155) leads
Equation
of
cos
easilyverified by multiplying
the denominator
j sincf)
"
the
to
sin
an
instance, if the
for
Thus,
0)/(cos"/)+isin 0)
impedance expressed by
equation by
"/"
cos
"
in the
nator.
denomi-
for the
division
eq.
(150) flows through
(152),the required
eq.
and
given by
current
(155)
numerator
quantity
form
(d-(p)+ j sin (^-(/"). (156)
cos
the
followingrule
complex quantitiesin trigonometric

(cos d+j
(t").
"
terminal
age
volt-
is
E
which
result
leads
the
The
by
the
without
A=
the
projectionsof the
(152) multipliesa
eq.
the
in
angle
an
(a'cos
-\-j
the
course,
the
angle
the
relation
A
result
same
6 which
tan
(6 +
cos
the
a)
and
of complex
use
consider
line.
the
Let
treatment
of the
capacityand
regulation
of
the
with
and
the
angle 0,
to
turn
following expression:
a' sin a)
"
(158)
by first calculating
the reference
determining
Line}
the
axis,from
tions
projec-
new
of
of the
As
single-phase
of the
let it be
let
current
hne
transmission
leakage,is given in Arts. 68 and
/ and
69 at the end
the
erator
gen-
to determine
given
is disregarded here;
line,taking
us
transmission
line,and
required
of
example
an
trigonometric form,
reactance
and
capacity
required
be obtained
in the
voltage regulation
electrostatic
the
-\-a sin a)
Transmission
and
positive direction,the
from
(a cos
given;
voltage El,
the receiver voltage Ez for a given
The
the
by
(0 -\-a).
quantities
the resistance
in
then
sin
be
and
Hence,
by
vector
if it be
forms
a'/a, and
VoltageRegulation of a
the
could
vector
turns
found
are
(a -f-ja')(cosa -\-jsin a)
Of
Iz
to
vector
positive direction.
4")simply
vector
new
voltage is equal
length. Thus,
-jrja' by
the
(157)
angle ^.
sin
its
changing
vector
that
means
angle 0
(cos 0 + j
operator
+ j sin {6 + "^)],
[cos (0 -h "/))
given by
operator
by
Iz
simply
current
it
turns
IZ
into
power-
complete
account
of the book.
the
IX]
Chap.
factor of the load
COMPLEX
OF
USE
THE
"f"'.In
cos
Ei
eq.
(152).
the
load.
important
so
way,
the
in
the
direction
its
magnitude
alone,
the
of Ei
magnitude
formula
the
by
the
lags by
current
American
Art.
Rules,
ca\ise
to
zero.
6), where
sin
6 is unknown.
therefore
is
The
expressed
(159) becomes
eq.
Iz
/2 sin
((t"-"l"');
cos
(0
(161)
"/)')
(162)
0')
(163)
(161)
eq.
cos
Iz
(0-0')-
cos
"
to determine
(164)
"
the
voltage
According to the definition adopted by
of Electrical Engineers (Standardization
line.
187),
=
of
electrostatic
determine
E2
at
capacity
the
by substitutingfor
100
regulation
cent
Ez' is the value

the
to
usually required
Institute
per
where
is determined
"t"')
+ j sin ("t" "{"')].
(160)
(/2/-î)sin (0
El
is
practice,one
regulation of the
the
find from
6, we
E2
In
ence
refer-
(162)
sin 0
Knowing
and
"{"').Thus
Ei +
^1 sin
eq.
sin
the
In
the imaginary parts gives
Eicosd
From
"
E2-\- Iz [cos(0
real and
select
E2
then
angle
E2,
behind
angle "f"'
to
angle being equal
the
but
given,
(cos 0'
El (cosd-hj sin d)
Equating the
is
direction
possible.
as
expressed by Ei (cos 6 -\-j
is
generator voltage
The
the
much
is convenient
Eo, because
of
expressed by
(159), it is highly
most
advantageous
as
in the
as
is
line,the angle (p'to
the
to
calculations
the
and
known,
axis
consideration, it
under
case
(159)
equation such
an
reference
the
simplify
to
as
axis
by
select
to
have
we
E^-\- IZ,
phase angle "t"refers
The
actually solving
When
symbolic notation
the
of the line is
impedance
the
where
95
QUANTITIES
6 the
cos
load.
no
of the
difference
(Eo'
Ei
"
^2)7^2,
But
line is
here
"
E2
expression 1"2
sin-
6.
Ei,
be-
It is possible
neglected.
E2 directlyfrom
(165)
eq.
We
(161),
obtain
then
AE
El-
E2
Iz
(0
cos
0') +
2 Ei sin*
^ d.
(160)
Equation (165) becomes

per
cent
regulation
100
Ê/{El
AE).
(167)
96
THE
When
it is
loads,
of the
followingform:
practice,the
is not
known.
But,
since
to
estimate
else
Or
as
matter
of
curve
It is
load.
several
in
table
that, strictlyspeaking, the
so
is not
E2
much
the current
different from
with
the
solve
possible to
the
Ei,
it
sufficient accuracy.
be read
regulationmay
for
current
voltage regulation is plotted against
that
abscissae,so
voltage regulationfor
voltage regulation is usually required
of P2 watts,
easy
an
the
conveniently arranged
are
load
certain
is
computations
[Art. 33
CIRCUIT
required to calculate
the
In
ELECTRIC
the
off at any
load
desired
problem exactly,by using for
case
expressionPilÊ^ cos 0') in eqs. (161) and (162). In this

the equations are
squared and added, so as to eliminate Q.
This
gives
its
voltage
This
are
can
problem
can
expressed in
the
form
order
both
biquadraticequation for Et, from

be computed.
here
used.
to
become
when
orthogonal form,
The
student
is
the
instead
urged
to
the
receiver
complex quantities
of the
work
out
trigonometric
in
details,
the
thoroughly familiar with complex quantitiesin
forms.
Prob.
1.
A vector
direction.
Prob.
house, at
cycles,to
cent
also be solved
which
72 +
What
are
be turned
by 25 degreesin the negative

87.65 + j 17.6,
projections? Ans.
53 must
its
new
line is to be built from

a power
single-phase aluminum
at a frequency of 50
which
voltage of 11,500 is maintained
a
km.
When
of 60 amp.
at 80 per
distant.
25
current
a
a point
2.
laggingpower-factoris delivered
in the line must
not
exceed
be the size of the conductor, and

at this load?
Prob.
3.
Check
The
the
spacing
answer
at
the receiver
end, the
power
loss
What
must
cent of the useful power.
what will be the per cent voltage regulation
10 per
the wires is to be 61
between
B.
cm.
" S.; 11.4 per
Ans.
No.
to the
precedingproblem graphically.
0000
cent.
Chap.
IX)
THE
electrical handbooks
to
answer
Prob.
problem
2.
Show
how
5.
Show
6.
determine
to
97
QUANTITIES
diagram
check
by
found
in various
of it the
means
the
mission
trans-
the receiver voltage is given.
line when
Prob.
COMPLEX
OF
the theory of Mershon's

and pocketbooks, and
Explain
4.
Prob.
USE
how
to calculate the receiver
voltage E2 from
eq.
(159),
Discuss
and operators.
using the orthogonal projections of the vectors
the relative advantages and disadvantages of the rectangularand polar
coordinates
34.
in this
case.
and
Vectors
Operators Expressed
Expressions (149)
(153)
to
as
Exponential
sometimes
are
written
tions.*
Funcin the
exponential form, using the identity

d-\-js'mdê^,
cos
where
follows
^,
base
is the
obtained
from
of natural
the
last series,when
^-
6 is substituted
^"'
tion
equa9
and
calculus; namely,
for d, becomes
"'3!
2!
Substitutingthese values into

Thus,
in
important
for sin 6, cos
"^5!
+
cos0=l-2|
This
expansions
Theorem
3!
The
logarithms.
well-known
by Maclaurin's
(168)
4!
(168),it is found
eq.
to be
an
tity.
iden-
have
we
E{Qose-\-jsme)
Et"
(169)
2c'*,
(170)
Similarly,the impedance operator becomes

Z
and
the admittance
an
impedance
these two
nuity
This
of tho
j sin "/)) t/W*.

=
as
It'^ and
if it flows
(171)
through
plying
by multi-
expressions,or
article may
trontment
(cos"^
26'*, the required voltage is found
E
*
is given
current
=
(cos 0 + j sin "^)
operator
F
If,for instance,a
be
=.
IZ
omitted
in tho
rt^t
if
/2e"("-f-*)
desired, without
of the book.
(172)
impairing
the
ooDti-
CHAPTER
POLYPHASE
35.
Two-phase
work
of the
by
in
the
combination
polyphase
system.
used
electrical
that
induction
in
are
relations
become
in such
circuits.
two-phase system
the
the
simplest
principle
produced
differing
currents
impressed
two
of the
and
the
polyphase
it
(Fig. 30), although
alternating-current
essential
and
current
is
system
is not
of
transmission
it is therefore
with
or
is called
phase displacements
systems;
famihar
field is
mentary
ele-
his
the
on
are
generation
polyphase
student
Theoretically,
which
upon
large majority
in
such
alternating
more
from
operates
that
definite
having
practice
energy
the
or
circuit
motor
field, and
two
electric
of e.rni.
waves
circuits
of
An
phase.
more
a
that
knows
student
The
System.
revolving magnetic
SYSTEMS
the
voltage
four-wire
most
econom-
Kecelver
DfO00000"O"0"0O0"
B
PJmsoS
Fig.
ical
30.
in
one
and
The
four-wire
practice.
two
alternating voltages
displaced
in time
may
be
used
may
be
combined
phase
The
for
can
with
system
phase
by
in these
the
be
production
treated
for
of
windings
of
of
quarter
separately, for instance

in the
windings
ninety
induced
by
separately,
as
single-phase system.
99
if it
circuits.
ent,
independ-
are
electrical
windings
synchronous
magnetic
belonged
to
degrees.
are
Each
cycle.
lighting, or
revolving
independent
two
generator
relatively displaced
are
two
motor,
two-phase
both
or
phase
phases
mduction
field.
an
fore
there-
Each
ent
independ-
100
ELECTRIC
THE
Some
in line conductors
economy
combining
Such
(Fig. 31).
conductor
return
system is called
Generator
G'
Fig.
lagging
three-wire
31.
The
two-phase system.
a
~)
Keceiver
and
one
A'
E'l
load
into
three-wire
^1^
"
35
by-
insulators is achieved
and
belonging to different phases
conductors
two
[Art.
CIRCUIT
voltage relations for
and
current
current
two-phase system.
in
shown
are
vectors
Ei
E2 represent the voltages
and
in
induced
or
The
Fig. 32.
balanced
the
two
transformer
point 0
the
generator
from
windings
points A
the
to
and
respectively;in other
the voltages
words, they are
between
the
each
The
wire.
return
and
phase wire
vector
""12* is the geometric difference

of the
represents the
two, and
the two
phase
""12 is the
ence
differ-
voltage between
That
wires.
and
Fig. 32
and
vector
,.,,_.._,
voltages for
shown
of currents
diagram
the
in-
wire
A A'
at
that
a
of
sum
i
Ei
.1
the
following reasoning: Let
the
E2
IS
proved
".
OGG'O'
wire
so
the
by
and
X
two-phase system
in Fig. 31
grounded,
not
its
potential is
be
instant
certain
Let
zero.
for
the
example
be
permanently
potential of the
volts
100
above
ground, and that of the wire BB' 60 volts above the ground.
A A' and
the voltage between
or
the difference of potential,
Then
The
instant,
reasoning applies to every
same
BB', is 40 volts.
the
so
that
the
vector
of the
geometric difference
of
the
Pronounced
Ei
between
the
voltages between
*
voltage
"
one
between
and
E2, which
points A
"
A A'
two, and
and
not
the
are
0, and
E sub
BB'
and
twelve.
and
is the
vectors
re-
Chap.
spectively.
in
^12
The
by
the
The
corresponding voltages.
the
by
geometric
the
return
of
sum
the
^2
is
BE'
in the
be
respect to
is
is
represented
the
that
seen
the
conductor
return
each
large as
represented
are
phase currents, and
as
of the
(173)
and
It will thus
times
represented
ends
the
angle 4" with
an
current
two
In..
diagonal vector
current
A A'
li, lagging by
I\ and
vectors
is
^2V^
conductors
in the
currents
^1 V2
and
connecting
magnitude by the vector

Ex and Ei.
Numerically,
vectors
is,the voltage between
That
and
phase
101
SYSTEMS
POLYPHASE
X]
common
current,
component
or
/i2
If it is desired
three
V2
have
to
the
The
two
at
Fig. 33.
in
phases
their
same
Fig.
middle
star-connected
30
two
is done
phases.
the
between
voltage between
two
relations
are
shown
four
in
""
'"
"'-
to
and
is
D
and
of
equal to^
and
the
at
left.
potentialbetween
is E, then
wire
is
V2
equals E^
This
"
the
age
the volt-
\ E, and
the
E/y/2.
For
E^.
circuit is
These
times
some-
quarter-phase system.
generator
''vlirated
33
Fig.
the left,a mesh-connected
each
vectorially in Fig. 34.
windings
be
must
the right.
point 0
called the sfar-connected

The
in
shown
example, the voltage Eâ between
wire
interconnected
electrically
sometimes
difference of
phases
of the
in each
wires.
between
voltage
common
the
return
the
quarter-phasesystem
in order to fix the

If the
of
points, as
system
This
density
are
to
(174)
current
of the other two
of each
that
72V2
cross-section
conductors, the
times
/i V2
in
Fig.
or
33
motor
to
are
the
sometimes
right.
With
nected
con-
the
102
THE
the
connection,
star
while
directly,
the
the combination
of the
ELECTRIC
voltages OA,
star
mesh
voltages AD,
of the
OB,
the
mesh
etc.,
DB, etc.,are
voltages. With
star
windings, however,
[Art. 35
CIRCUIT
established
the mesh
line
or
induced
are
by
connection
induced
voltages are
shown
in Fig. 34.
mesh
and
star
directly. The
voltages are
Electricallythe two arrangements are equivalent,provided that
the
The
line and
and
currents
Fig.
numbers
proper
34.
of turns
mesh
those
currents
in the
diagram
vector
used
are
indicated
are
star-connected
of currents
system
shown
of the
square,
with
to the
corresponding
depends
upon
voltages
are
is natural
the
taken
to take
the
character
in the
the
arrows
in
of the
currents, each
line
currents.
Fig.
33
current
Hence,
line
represented
are
the
lagging by
voltage;
star
load.
positive direction
With
The
Fig. 34.
windings
current
of the
in
Fig. 33.
cyclic order
way.
adjacent mesh
each
windings.
voltages in the quarter-phase
and
in
by the sides
respect
in the
In
the
angle
and
Figs. 33
AC, CB, BD, DA;

of the
showing
is the
the
current
of
34
lag
the
hence, it
in the
same
positive directions
difference
in the vector
angle 0
between
two
the
mesh
diagram
Chap.
X]
POLYPHASE
currents
of the
current
mesh
mesh
mesh
and
in order
and
36.
V2
1/V2
are
is necessary
to
in
to the vertices
the center
that the angle between
seen
voltages is also equal
times
as
the
large as
times
the star
have
the
star-connected
voltages,the
This
power
the
While
to 0.
star
currents.
same
condition
phase
per
in
the
systems.
Y-connected
Three-phase
shown
mesh
the
voltages are
currents
mesh
It will be
square.
currents
the
the radii from
represented by
are
103
SYSTEMS
Fig. 35; the
and
current
This
System.
system
relations
voltage
are
is
repre-
FiQ.
in
sented
Fig.
36.
for
"
armature
third
of
the
in
outward.
120
vectors
Fig. 36.
The
The
upon
system
phase
by onerection
positive dibeing
represented
are
Ea, Eb,
motor
currents
the
is
and
Ec in
windings
that
symmetrical
lag l)ehind
relative
receiving
windings
similarly displaced, so
whole
alternating
Fig. 36.
the
of
respect to
windings
They
windings
generator
ator
gener-
of
cycle,the
three
duction
in-
angles
in these
in
system.
represent
the
are
the
that the
induced
star-connected
OC
on
degrees with
displaced
arc
and
O'C
three
or
placed
at
core
voltages
by
are
other, so
OB,
and
The
windings
each
OA,
instance, an
motor.
electrical
three-phaseY-
O'A', 0'B\
windings;
apparatus
35.
amounts
e.m.f. in the circuit.
the
are
and
line and
The
the
connected
hne
star
currents
system shown
voltages,
in
in
the
Y-
Fig.35.
the
with
to
respect
voltages by
of r""-i"^""""
an
the
three
phases.
angle "t"depending
r,..,.t.in..""
and
counter-
104
THE
The
diagram of
points of
and
the
the
the neutral
points
distinguished from
points A
and
voltages OA
and
OB,
two-phase
line.
in
by the
36
Fig.
the
ends
the
line
to the
of the
three phases
the
connected
and
by
wire,
little current
very
is that
reason
towards
the
from
or
the
shown
above
line
in the
voltages are
the
large as
and
the
by
dotted
line,or
through this
of the
that
seen
phase voltages.
0
algebraic sum
connect
It will be
points
flow
represented
neutral
the
of
case
Eca, which
perfectlybalanced
two
will
or
Eab, Ebc, and
shown
as
phase voltages, as
voltages between
any
star
geometric difference between
as
are
nearly sinusoidal, the
are
the line conductors
phase voltages.
Vs times
neutral
the
the
vectors
the
between
been
Consequently,
voltagesare
called
voltage, for instance
has
three
is also called the
35
are
voltages, or
line
as
of the vectors
When
line
B, is equal
0'
called the
Fig.
voltages between
are
the
line conductors.
two
in
points 0 and
The
system.
shown
36
[Art.
CIRCUIT
connections
and
connection,
star
ELECTRIC
0'
and
be
may
grounded,
connection.
three
the neutral points is equal to
currents
The
flowing
currents
at all
zero
instants,
because
sin
This
the
expression
will also be
vectors
form
closed
which
from
seen
current
resistances.
still in
at
sin
(w
The
the
or
of the
sine
because
neutrals
neutrals
neutrals
these
of the
sum
insulated
from
loads
unbalanced
controversial
the line
=
transmission
the
is 3 lyEy
cos
only
one
in
some
To
ground.
protective
neutrals
is
cos
Ey
IyEa
where
"/",
Ey
^^3,we
have
Vd
0.
cos
phase
is
available
and
is the
practicalcalculations of three-phase transmission
electrical machinery,
lines
during short-
or
generator windings
voltage Ea
3 IyEy
added
stage.
in the
generator terminals
three
when
vectors
are
It
angles.
often
are
developed
of two
sum
member,
grounded through
question of grounded vs. ungrounded
somewhat
power
left-hand
grounded, although
are
are
with
currents
The
the
(175)
0.
Fig. 36 that the geometric
both
both
voltage. Since
In
the
f tt)
"
triangle. In practice,there
prevent large
circuits,the
for
is equal to zero,
one
installations
"
f tt)+
+ sin (w +
identity is easilyproved by expanding
using
on
considered;
phase
(176)
lines and
that
is, the
cuit.
to an
equivalent single-phasecirthree-phase circuit is reduced
Let it be required,for example, to calculate the cross-sec-
Chap.
X],
POLYPHASE
tion and
transmit
line,to
a
cent
per
50,000
neutral
is
is
phase
the
to
66,000/Vs
50,000/3
following
16,700
voltage regulation of
spacing of
and
the
of this problem
cent
in the
phase
5 per
cent
in
line
between
the
the
that
the
1.8
and
wire
power
m.
the
per
problem is reduced
cross-section
in Art.
given
or
conductor
one
conductor
return
is
per
the
each
the
Hence,
i^r loss in
resistance of the
solution
spacing to be
at
and
cent
per
single-phase38,100-volt line, having
the
1.8 m.,
kw.
Determine
one:
the
volts, and
38,100
and
power-factor,
cent
per
voltage between
the
find that
we
80
at
three-phase 66,000- volt
of the useful power;
loss of 10 per cent
First of all
kw.
105
SYSTEMS
above.
33
voltage, because
kw.,
1670
being negligible. The
voltage
star
being
also
means
of
drop
the
fixed
of say
drop of
l/VS
ratio
two.
the
Assuming the reference axis in Fig. 36 to be horizontal,
line voltage equal to 44 kv.,the current
and the angle4"
per phase 73 amp.,
down
to
write
the
15
for
all the curcomplex expressions
equal
degrees,
rents
and voltages.
Ans.
2238.1 kv. ; /"
18.9 + j 70.5
Ei
j 12.7 kv. ;Eab=22-j
Prob.
1.
amp.
Prob.
2.
three-phase 60-cycIe line is

is equal
the wires is symmetrical and
of
a
copper
voltage of
What
6700
of
wire
between
is the generator
14
16 km.
to 61
diameter.
mm.
the conductors
tween
long; the spacing becm.,
It is
the conductors
required
the receiver end
at
the load is equal to 1000
voltagewhen
power-factor?
Prob.
3.
to
of the line.
kw. at
Ans.
Show
that
three-phasetransmission
line may
sisting
con-
maintain
unity
7040.
be treated
at the same
single-phaseline which transmits one-half the power
The
line
conductors
three
of
the
size
three-phase
voltage.
requires
same
the single-phaseline,with the same
as
spacing (25 per cent saving in
as
material).
Prob.
4.
neutrals
are
Prob.
6.
When
the phase currents
have
higher harmonics, show that

flow through the neutral
must
equalizationcurrents
connection, even
the
balanced.
What
the
though
phases are perfectly
happens when
insulated
Show
from
each
that the line
other?
voltagecannot
the
fifteenth,etc., harmonics, even

phase voltages.
have
if these harmonics
the
third,the ninth,
are
present in the
37.
This method
Three-phase Delta-connected
System.
is shown
in Fig. 37, one
end
of the
three-phase connection
being connected, for instance, to an alternator,the other end
motor
or
to
three
transformers.
Fig.
38
represents the
of
line
to
current
Chap.
X]
While
there
of them
or
are
in
reactances
sho%vn
Vs
line
as
bear
the
in view
necessary
and
design
considered,
far
As
load
generator and
line is
designed
and
As
only
factor
deltawith
load.
of the
balanced
the
The
ages
volt-
delta
the
star
or
is
This
currents.
(178)
"{"....
cos
phase
one
the
when
only
is
load
is
delta-connected
concerned, the
is
and
currents
has
the
that
the
bearing
no
the
it is
calculations
generator
upon
in the
as
same
voltage, and
the
power,
the
Then
voltages.
of fact, for line
fact
The
or
the
power-
the
load
is
performance
line
load.
6600-volt
2000-kw.
Ec.
calculations
matter
Y-connected
or
are
performance calculated
know
to
necessary
conductors
being identical
line
same
its
preceding article.
Une
replaced by equivalent star-connected
be
may
the
give
to
line
the
3 EyIy
"i)
cos
phases
as
The
delta
the
to
resistances
three
voltages, while
star
more
relation
power
performance
three
the
balanced.
windings
Ea, Eb and
or
one
lines.
the
and
ratio
EJa
system,
by dotted
Fig. 37
the
as
same
of the
P
In
large
delta
by connecting
neutral
this
times
currents
with
in
shown
as
Fig. 38 by the vectors
in
are
star
between
Y-voltages
points
artificiallycreated
be
may
neutral
no
107
SYSTEMS
POLYPHASE
induction
is fed from
a 66,000the
hightransformers,
three-phase
in Y, the low-tension
connected
tension windings of which
windings
are
in
is
What
when
the
motor
in delta.
the
currents
these
windings
are
Prob.
1.
line through
volt
carrying a 25 per cent

the power-factor is 90
of the
current
three
overload?
step-down
It is estimated
and
cent
per
motor
the efficiency92
is
transformers
Prob.
2.
Show
that,
single-phase alternator
the output
load remains
Note:
with
see
of
the
unbalanced
the author's
Ueber
Steinmetz's
cent.
26.4
and
the
electrical
frequency
is true
same
in
and
two-
also for the theorj'of the
Experimental
per
is practically constant
that the
Show
The
netizing
mag-
of
as
153
amp.
of
output
the
will
also
Stroms^ysteme
See
be
bci
current,
long
as
the
for motors.
three-phase systems
V and T connections,
Electrical Engineering, \o\.
treatment
mehrphasige
(published by Enke, 1900).
in Dr.
double
electrical relations
loads, and
exhaustive
more
entitled
at
poljiihase machine
constant.
For
varies
instantaneous
the
this overload
at
negligible.
Ans.
while
that
2, Chapter 25.
in his investigation
found
Belastung
iingleichtndssiger
also the chapters
AUemating-currerU Phenomena.
on
polyphase systems
CHAPTER
and
windings
When
iron
and
core
If this
winding.
alternating
an
flow
be
may
latter
of current
through
transmitted
from
large sizes)
with
in
tion
field
of
the
the
On
quite
are
its
of
perfect
and
voltage
tion
regulathe
hand,
there
the
the
being
voltage,
like
pre-determina-
is of
transformer
circuit.
medium
exacting,
Therefore,
generator.
power
most
other
adjusting
load,
that
the
the
other
ing
correspond-
secondary
and
cent,
the
electrical
a
of
.one
is excited
in
order
the
other.
ing-current
alternat-
flux
efficiency (in
its
itself for
regulation
voltage
is
close.
quite
apparatus
in
rheostat
into
jêr
regulation
for voltage
winding,
which
each
to
an
in
that
in
to
causes
primary
general
upon
is induced
it, and
transformer
is
core
possible
voltage
first
hundred
load
varying
provision
the
the
one
iron
is connected
the
in
constant-potential
through
apparatus,
nearly
is
requirements
no
flows
Equivalent
constant-potential
alternating magnetic
winding
current
the
an
as
alternating
an
pieces of electrical
to
an
constant-potential
The
closely
as
by
is familiar
of
of
consists
of power,
source
in the
It
is connected
winding
one
reader
operation
placed
are
TRANSFORMER
Replaced
The
and
(Fig. 39).
transformer
THE
Transformer
Reactances.
construction
the
two
in
Imperfections
Resistances
with
OF
REGULATION
VOLTAGE
38.
XI
considerable
practical importance.
similar
manner
line.
e.m.f.
primary
rated
of
be
228
be
opened;
at
the
is 100
by
secondary
that
the
220) /220
108
3.64
of
voltage
of
the
that
have
the
now
will
per* cent.
mission
trans-
to
voltage
primary
the
suppose
Let
voltage
regulation
=
us
order
in
load.
rated
let
in
expressed
for
secondary
is necessary
the
is
above
33
rated
the
definition, the
(228
Art.
volts, and
220
volts
volts, provided
Then,
load
2280
voltage
secondary
circuit
this
Let, for example,
transformer
in
given
that
to
transformer
ten-to-one
of
regulation
the
Numerically,
the
ary
second-
rise
to
is
kept
transformer
tically
pracstant.
con-
at
Let, in general,
Chap.
XI]
secondary terminal
the
load
voltage
slight imperfections in the
to
in order
able
be
to
given load, it is
imperfections by
no
(179)
full load
fore,
There-
itself.
voltage regulation
and
certain resistances
tions;
imperfec-
of these
nature
at
replace
to
reactances,
shown
as
Fig. 39.
In
The
corresponding windings.
any
good transformer
the
two
at
^-indings are luiked

the voltage induced
per
hence
denoting the primary and

Ei2, and
relation
same
load.
no
the
with
ary
the second-
nearly
from
of turns
fact that
the
flux, and
Hence,
and
voltages by En
in series
in
true
in both.
same
secondary induced
in the
of turns
magnetic
same
is the
turn
to
is very
follows
This
corresponding numbers
the
primary
numbers
of the
ratio
the
to
ratio of the
the
ideal transformer
an
voltage is equal
by
and
ni
n^,
have
we
Eii/Eii
Furthermore, in
that is,the
primary
currents
This
to have
turns
any
reluctance
no
is because
in its
secondary
that
ampere-turns
tums, and
the
are
the
from
In
slightly different
term, and
loss.
between
load
the
nj,
simply
from
the
means
that
an
no
ampere-
source
from
the
eqs.
of such
of power,
the
primarj'
secondary
am]"ere-
tain
is just sufficient to mainof the core,
(180) and
(181)
and
term
to
by
find that
we
Eiilx
This
supposed
automatically draws
real transformer
the two
Multiplying
canceling rti and
is
that
the
secondary
the
transformer
alternating flux through the reluctance

core
to
or
magnetic flux in it. Consequently,
current
the difference
supply the
of turns,
magnetic circuit,so
(181) is satisfied.
eq.
opposite
ideal
an
required by
current
compensating primary
value
equal and
are
required to maintain
are
(181)
hjio,
inversely as the numbers
are
ampere-turns
ampere-turns.
(180)
ni/no
ideal transformer
an
IiUi
at
at
it is convenient
of computation,
for purposes
\n
learn the
to
necessary
that
transformer
the
calculate
to
E2)/Ei.
voltage and
no-load
the
{Eqz
100
difference between
these
load be E-i,that
certain
regulation
cent
per
is due
at
Then, by definition,
Eq2-
The
109
TRANSFORMER
THE
OF
-REGULATIOX
Eiilo.
ideal
transformer
transmits
circuit without
i)riinaryinto the st'ii.n.Iiry
loss.
power
no
THE
(a) The Ohmic

in
drop
ELECTRIC
One
Drop.
transformer
the
[Art. 38
CIRCUIT
of the
is the
of the
causes
ohmic
resistance
windings.
the
primary
of
terminal
voltage Ei (Fig.39) is slightlylarger than
of
the
primary
age
volt-
of its
Because
resistance
internal
winding,
the
induced
cvTJOCnSQIT'"AAA'W^",,
"
lo^l
i\
a-,
r.
Eo Load
LineEj
I
D
lion
Fig.
in
Imperfections
39.
Core
Windings
transformer
represented by
resistances
and
reactances.
counter-e.m.f.
causes
voltage drop,
is smaller
effect
the
to
as
The
than
of
such
the
make
the
ratio
themselves
be
may
The
is the
voltage drop
of
r^
voltages
ratio
the
be
may
is
ni/ni.
of resistance,
devoid
as
the
Thus,
terminal
Fig. 39.^
Another
imperfection
Drop.
Reactive
and
ri
Ei2.
than
thought
voltage E^
placed
side
out-
in
shown
as
the
smaller
E^/Ei
terminal
e.m.f.
upon
resistance
secondary
secondary
resistances
the
The
induced
secondary
transformer,
internal
that
it.
corresponding resistances
but
(b)
balances
so
internal
windings
the
which
En
so-called
leakage
of
cause
or
of
reactance
the
magnetic flux in a loaded transformer may

be considered
viz.,the useful
as
consistingof three components;
flux linking with
both the primary and the secondary windings,
the primary winding only,
the primary leakage flux linking with
The
windings.
and
the
total
secondary leakage
In
only.
absent
ideal
an
the
transformer
the
because
two
with
flux linked
windings
the secondary winding
supposed
are
fluxes
last-named
two
to
be
are
perfectly
The
for
the
leakage
flux.
primary leakage flux, being produced by
the
primary
current, is
interwoven,
in
so
as
leave
to
phase with it,and induces

^
ohmic
The
equivalent resistances
resistances
current
loss in
of
the
new
transformers
conductors.
built transformers
circuit.
the
room
e.m.f. in
an
ri
and
windings, but
the
conductors, this latter loss

In
no
may
In
should
replace
also
low-tension
be at least
eddy-current loss
it is calculated
must
r^
from
can
the
not
account
windings
great
as
with
lagging quadrature
as
the
only the
for
the
made
of
heavy
iV loss.
theoretical
only be estimated;
wattmeter
reading
true
eddy-
in actually
on
short
Chap.
En
be
must
secondary terminal
reactive
the
is in such
drop
For
voltage.
windings
imaginary
to
the
cause
flow
This
circuit is open.
eddy currents).
assumed
be
may
loss; but
60 and
we
winding
to
draw
to
For
be
connected
the
and
to
the
flux.
P(i watts;
Let
then
the
see
For
further
the author's
in
equal
the
loss
core
loss
calculated
^0 is detenninwi
=
the
the
Magnetic Circuit, Art.
the
04.
core
no
core
primary
magnitude
upon
the
to
the
shown
are
both
En, which
core
60
the magnetizing
value
of the
is proportional
loss be
equal
to
equation
Ea^go
details in regard to
iron
the
across
because
depend
from
(hysteresis
have
to
^0 and
Both
measured
or
ance
reluct-
equivalent susceptance
or
of
the
upon
core
phase and
the value
current
magnetizing
or
computation
voltage En,
Po
*
depends
fictitious
ideal
the secondary
no-load
(Fig. 39) connected
induced
the
when
even
upon
transformer.
consequently upon
flux and
outside,
circuit
that
means
the
of
windings
of ampere-turns
reluctance, and
zero
current
of the
current
and
the
magnetic
This
purposes
of
go
exciting current
across
actual
the
impedances
number
Its amount
imagine
may
as
secondary ampere-turns
certain
is called
circuit
conductance
and
iron.
current
magnetic
of the
and
of
transformer.
of the
current
the
primary winding
the
through
such
are
to
thus made
their
making
the
magnetize
to
necessary
must
of
problem
quite equal, because
not
are
that due
as
Having
before, the primary
stated
As
ondary
sec-
ings
wind-
the
of these coils
Xa
perfect by placing
the
the
transformer.^
in the
still have
also.
and
Xi
current,
transformer
with
in series
voltage drop
reactive
same
transformer
of the
we
reactances
the
magnetic leakage fluxes,but
no
coimected
are
the
computation,
Exciting Admittance.
The
(c)
coils
The
fluxes
leakage
produce
to
reactance
(Fig. 39).
of
ging
lag-
lowers
raise
to
an
of
leading secondary
in
load
it
makes
that
windings
phase positionas
purposes
assumed
are
With
voltage.
from
that, with
in both
power-factor,the reactive drop
that
voltage "',2,and
below
It is shown
ideal transformer.
The
similar, in
different
voltage E2
terminal
secondary
the
e.m.f.
transformer.
is
reactance
applied
induced
the
or
ideal
an
induced
secondary
the
part of
absorbs
voltage
in
secondary leakage
of the
effect
that
from
different
this
either
that
primary voltage, so
the
by part of
balanced
be
e.m.f. must
This
this current.
HI
TRANSFORMER
THE
OF
REGULATION
XI]
leakage
(182)
reactance
of
transformers,
112
THE
The
phase
with
the
flux
quadrature
with
the
induced
represented
the pure
from
magnetizing
the
which
speaking both
in
However,
admissible
the
the
to
60 and
flux
influence
the transformer
that
chapter
of the
only
60 and
^0
voltage En,
be
to
of the
the
it is
load
that
over,
More-
the
upon
voltage
The
magnetizing current
completeness,so as to make
of
We
of considerable
shall
in the
see
importance
next
in the performance
motor.
made
are
of
strictly
En.
current
foregoing reasoning,both
this,the performance
that
so
quantities.
constant
cases.
sake
current
counter-e.m.f.
little with
so
most
are
the
ideal,and
resistances
replaced by external
are
"o
magnetizing
pure
functions
for the
transformer
of the
the
magnetizing
induction
the
Thus, by
Kjiowing
(183)
absolutely perfect.
core
of the
it is
60 is determined
susceptance
the
to
varies
regulationis negligible in
here
is in
this reason,
susceptance.
pure
the
nor
or
go and
assume
is mentioned
For
therefore
Io7En
are
go
practice. En
to
and
produces,
lo,
current
the core-loss component
proportional
core-loss component,
voltage En.
bo
are
the
equation
Neither
it
flowing through
as
(Akt. 39
CIRCUIT
current, without
magnetizing
pure
is in
ELECTRIC
and
transformer
and
core
all the
imperfections
be
done
Having
reactances.
can
the windings
readilytreated
either
as
explained below.
graphicallyor analytically,
Prob.
several
Prob.
Draw
1.
The
Vector
perfect magnetic
certain
load
may
to
make
order
are
to
be
computations.
given
The
properly
lo
are
transformer
suitable
in the
calculation
next
of the
For
with
actual
article is
loss and
supposed
to
be known.
Having
circuit
diagram
the
at
and
the
the
graphical
of explanation than
calculations
(Fig. 40).
voltage drop
reason,
duced
re-
(with
relations
voltage
this
for
analytical
preferable.
of the magnetizing current
theory of magnetic phenomena,

Magnetic Circuit, Arts. 19, 33, and 34.
to the
electric
vector
for purposes
For
core
Transformer.
clearer,the
greatly exaggerated.
numerical
author's
for
39
and
current
the relations
more
represented by
is
Fig.
equivalent
an
link),the
treatment
method
of
Diagram
transformer
the
losses
to
secondary windings supplyingindependent load circuits.

2. Draw
auto-transformer.
a diagram similar to Fig. 39 for an
39.
In
similar
diagram
and
is treated
Here
the
belongs
in detail in the
values
of Po and
Chap.
XI]
Let
that
the
REGULATION
THE
OF
the secondary terminal

vectors
Ez and
phase position.
/j
The
voltage and
be
can
113
TRANSFORMER
drawn
in
secondarj' induced
the load
be
magnitude
e.m.f.
given,
and
En
so
tive
rela-
is found
o*
Fio. 40.
by adding
reactive
The
both
to
The
Et the ohmic
drop /jXj
in
of the two
induced
diagram of
drop /jrj
in
transformer.
phase
with
/j,
and
the
leading quadrature with /j.
primary induced
are
vector
voltê
En
is in
phase
with
Eit, because
by the same
magnetic flux. The
magnitudes
the
of
voltage are as
respectivenumbers
turns; see
Chap.
XI]
inductive
secondary
however,
and
theory
the
not
drops
be
can
with
case
and
to
half to the
other
the
Usually,
inductive
that
drop
in such
total
short-circuit
particular
20/1-kv.
the
the
circuit.
equal
1.
transformer
is 2.2 per
the rated
in
that
means
is
equal
25
to
volts,or
and
current
at
drop is 10 per
the secondary ohmic
SO
cent, the primary ohmic
drop
2.8
be neglected.'
may
the
Determine
10.1
voltage regulation
the
at
rated
The
cent.
per
Ans.
cent
per
volt,25-cycle
power-factor ging)?
(lagdrop
cent
per
220-
of
netizing
magcent.
per
the
load and
former
trans-
80 per
at
power-factor,leading.
Ans.
"
1.4 per
voltage,instead of
Prob.
3.
4.
40.
Adapt
the vector
the
An
the
loss amounts
in
shown
an
As
internal
accurate
transformer.
drop
vector
tlje m:ignetizingcurrent
1 for the
to 20
Fig.40
of
to an
of
diagram
in problem
to
it
is
transformer
is selected
auto-transformer.
Voltage Regulation.
exi)laineilabove,
voltage regulation
excessive
construct
secondarj-
ing
magnetizkw., and that 8500
the flux,without the iron
to maintain
necessary
in the secondary winding is 64.
core
diagram
Solution.
'
diagram of problem
Analytical Determination
calculate
rise in
drop.
Correct
effective ampere-turns are

loss. The number
of turns
Prob.
negative signindicates
The
cent.
current, knowing that the
and
given
of 20,000
cent
600-kw.,2200/
specifiedin the precedingproblem

cent
to
from
voltage of each
voltage drop in
volts,or
is 2.5 per
the
upon
is
cent, this
5 per
reactive
cent, and
2.
only
the
article
determined
reactive
of 1000
cent
per
regulationof
is the
total
current
Prob.
be
how
in the next
no-load
if the
current
volts.
What
at
The
primary
difference
or
the
to
to
primary drop
the
to 500
Prob.
is said
is 2.5
it
and
primary
voltage drop
internal
instance,
transformer
that
the
any
calculated
to refer
For
secondary drop
volts,and
is
When
cent, it is understood
per
either
test.
the
to
It will be shown
drop,
when
computations,
voltage regulation depends
the
impedance
make
not
is distributed.
case
of
component
it does
be neglected; then
can
drop
active
re-
circuit.
secondary
magnetizing
Therefore,
for actual
half of the Ix
one
total
the
only
secondary.
diagram
vector
to ascribe
is customary
the
the
use
is,
knowledge; both
of
state
determine
to
us
drop, including primary
separately. Such
calculated
present
our
enable
experiment
it is desired
of Fig. 40 that the primary and
in the construction
It is assumed
115
TRANSFORMER
THE
OF
REGULATION
purposely
a
to
convenient
3 also
are
too
"
proxima
Ap-
preferable
to
analytically,
enable
sc:Ue.
high
for
the
student
The
a
losses
atandanj
116
THE
because
with
the
shown
in
[Art.
CIRCUIT
of
voltage drop are very small

primary and secondary voltages.
vectors
of the
those
ELECTRIC
Figs.
and
39
40
compared
as
The
relations
expressed analyticallyby
are
40
the
equations
E2=Ei2-
I2Z2,
(186)
and
Ei=Ea+IiZi
Since
our
is to find the
purpose
is necessary
to
eliminate
relation between
from
and
En
(187)
relation
between
equations Eii
these
Ei2 is given by
multiply eq. (186) by ni/n2
Ei2.
and
it
E2,
The
(180); therefore,we
eq.
it from
subtract
and
Ei and
The
(187).
eq.
result is
El
The
(Wi/W2)^2
relation between
correct
/i
(188)
(189)
/2 is (Fig.39)
and
h Mni)
(ni/W2)/2^2.
IlZl +
Jo
II +
lo,
where
h
is the
primary
which
is
majority
per
of
the
then
in the
the
For
these
AB.
only by the
calculating regulationwe
current,
the
use
Il=
so
is
rated
a
few
current
great
only
few
The
load.
cent
per
of
permissiblein Fig. 39
the
place
in the
transformer
for the
that
approximate
to the
MN
is
of
purpose
relation
hMnO
(191)
their values from
eq.
(191) in
terms
lL[Zi+(ni/n2yZ2]
of
(192)
equation, the quantity

El
is called the
reduced
the
Yo from
load
may
it is
voltage drop
Ei-El=
called
is also but
reasons,
In
current
the
at
The
Ii=
In this
current
primary
circuit.
the magnetizing
primary
Substitutingfor 7i and
I
finallyobtain
L, we
of the
secondary
excitingadmittance
terminals
caused
the
(190)
part
primary winding
voltage Ei.
to transfer
primary
total
that
or
into
practicalcases
of
cent
line
current,
transmitted
voltage drop
the
load
h MnO
the
primary load voltage,or

to the primary circuit.
secondary impedance
primary
circuit.
the
The
reduced
The
quantity
Zi+
(193)
inxInÊt
age
secondary terminal voltexpression (ni/n2yZ2 is
to,
{nxIn^YZ^
or
transferred
into,
(194)
Chap.
XI]
REGULATION
is called
reduced
the
total
the
to
in
Using
THE
117
TRANSFORMER
of
equivalent impedance
or
the
transformer
circuit.
primary
(192) the
eq.
(194), we
eq.
OF
abbreviated
notation
introduced
get
Ei-El=IlZ
Equation (195) corresponds

of the
Fig.
transformer
39
primary
showTi
The
being connected
terminal
latter
exciting admittance
voltage
change
directlyto the modified
makes
instead
of
is connected
the
across
ary'
secondthe
across
induced
voltage.
the
equivalent diagram only approximately

correct, but simplifiescomputations greatly.
Equation (195) is identical in form with eq. (159), Art. 33,
for the
the
voltage drop
per
cent
without
the
in
This
diagram differs from
Fig. 41.
(1) The magnetic link is omitted, the
respects:
the
simplifiedequivalent diagram
in
circuit
circuit; (2)
(195)
to the
in two
primary
in
in
transmission
line; both
and
solved,'
are
In fact,
voltage drop determined, in the same
way.
excitingadmittance
Yq, the equivalentdiagram shown
Fig. 41 reduces
transmission
the
performance of
transformer
to that
of
line.
Expression (194) for the equivalent impedance

resistances and
reactances
can
be transferred
from
shows
the
that
secondary
I.
Line
EiQ
î9SXjl"g
Efj x=Xi+xi
l-J-
The
Fig. 41.
approximately equivalentdiagram
induction
circuit into the

the
a
tension
circuit
transformer,
the
causes
resistance in the
ohm
as
primary, and vice
10,000/ 1000-volt
follows
then
in the
drop
in
the
Let
the current
the
same
of turns.
1-ohm
per
is 2 per
reduction
cent
resistance
cent
in the
is 20
current
For
resistance
This
load
is
by
in
the
as
low-
100-
easilyverified
circuit be 20 amp. ;
will be 2 amp.
The
volts, or
drop in the 100-ohm

of the
an
or
instance, in
voltage drop
in the low-tension
high-tension circuit the

1-ohm
transformer
by multiplying them
versa,
high-tensioncircuit.
secondary voltage. The

volts,which
same
of
Load
motor.
of the ratio of the numbers
square
El
primary voltage.
per
cent
resistance
In other
of the
is 200
words,
voltage will be produced by using
118
THE
either
resistance of
in the
ELECTRIC
ohm
one
[Art. iO
CIRCUIT
in the
secondary circuit
100 ohms
or
circuit.
primary
The
secondary resistance r2 transferred
in Fig. 41 by r2',
is denoted
where
ra'
r2
x^
x-i,{ni/rhY
into the
cuit
cir-
primary
(ni/na)^
(196)
Correspondingly
The
of the
the
xi
-\-X2
The
quadrature
ri+(ni/w2)V2,
sum
(197)
....
is
Or
else it is calculated
a
from
is calculated
a
windings and
two
short
illustrate,when
the
the
circuit test.
The
the
known
sistances
re-
former.
trans-
the i^r loss measured
equivalent reactance
in the
voltage
for
the
voltage ratio of the
directlyfrom
the terminal
allowance
proper
(197a)
....
easily calculated,knowing
the
in
-{- {jfiiln^^Xi
xi
of
wattmeter
making
consists of the
equivalent reactance
X
by
r2'
r=ri
and
(196a)
short-circuit test,
resistance
drop.
To
secondary circuit is short-circuited,

eq. (195)
becomes
E^
El
and
II
from
calculated
the total
sufficient accuracy
or
the
(198)
that
directly,so
the
Knowing
measured
are
IlZ
expression
"
y2,
equivalent leakage inductance

by
means
of various
be
can
Pllj},
V^^
the
for
calculated.
reactance
is
former,
trans-
new
is estimated
with
semi-empirical formulae;^
total
else the
impedance drop IlZ is taken as a certain percentage

of the rated voltage,from previousexperiencewith similar
transformers.
Prob.
1.
Check
the
analytically
answers
to
problems
1 and
in the
preceding article.
former
high-tension winding of a 2000-kva.,33/11-kv. transand the voltage on the low-tension side adjusted
short-circuited,
was
circulate
the
rated
to
current
the
The
through
as
so
windings.
470 volts and 30 kw.
Calculate the per cent
instrument
readings were
Ans.
1.5 and 4 per cent.
ohmic and reactive drops in the transformer.
formula
similar to (192), but referringto the
3. Deduce
Prob.
a
circuit.
secondary
Prob.
2.
The
See
for instance
the author's
Magnetic Circuit,Art.
64.
Chap.
XI]
Prob.
REGULATION
Show
4.
be
voltage regulationof a transformer
can
diagram given in various electrical handbooks
the
how
estimated,using Mershon's
and pocketbooks.
Prob.
5. The
primary voltageof
at a
for
known
value.
119
TRANSFORMER
THE
OF
h
is the equivalent
be known.
to
Z),
of the
impedance
ZIl
E,-
E^/{Zl
is
current
transformer
supposed
itself,
load voltage is
The
El
constant
"
given impedance
reduced to the primarj'circuit,
be Zl] then the load
kept
the percentage internal drop (""1 El)/ Ei

of the load.^
Solution:
Let the load impedance,
where
is
given transformer
Determine
E,Zl/{Zl
E,/[l + {Z/Zl}].
Z)=
and unknown
Having expressedall the known
quantities in the complex
in
either
Cartesian
the
tion
or
form,
polar coordinates,
magnitude and direcof El can
be determined,by using the general method, i.e.,
equating
the real and the imaginary parts on both sides of the equation.
Prob.
6, The
equation for El gi'ênin the preceding problem leads
to involved
numerical
El
computations. Moreover, the difference Ei
be accurately determined
cannot
in this way
when
differs
but
little
El
from El.
Show
how to simplify the numerical
tage
work, by taking advanof the fact that Z is small compared with ZlSolution : \Mien
a
quantity a is small compared to unity,we have by division 1/(1 + a)
"
-{-a^
"
We
etc.
"
have
accordingly
El
Ei[l
El
Ei-EiZ/Zl
(Z/Zl)] approximately,
"
or
Let
^L
Let
also Zl
be the vector
according
to
or,
by A^"!and
aEi
aEi
sin e)
El (cose+j
0
"
(0 +
"t"Lhy/3,we
have
[cos{e + p)+jsmie
"^
^Pl)],
0)].
in the form
El+
"t,L)
+jsm
"t"
be written
now
may
(156),
Eiz/ZL [cos(9 +
denoting EiZ/Zi
Equation (A)
(154) and
eqs.
EiZ/Zl
reference; consequently Ei
Ei (cas 6 -{-j sin e).
Z
z (cos "t"+
j sin "^). Then
(cos "t"L+ j sin "^l) and
zl
of
(A)
a"i
[cos(" + /3)+ j sin (e + /3)],
where
aEi
is
Eiz/ZL
known
quantity,as well as
the imaginary parts, we
real and
EicosB
El sin
*
two
The
factor.
El+
load
ÊlCoa(B
in this
(1) The
+
=
"^
"
Separatine
"^l.
problem
0),
xEi sin
tbn
(B)
" cos
differ from
/3 +
those
aEi
instead
of the
tfsin
cos
in the
voltage is given instead
primary
its impedance
is given by
get
Ai?, sin {e -\-0)
conditions
respects:
(2) the
the angle /3
of
current
text
the
ff.
(C)
above
in
secondarj-;
and
power-
120
THE
From
(C),dividingboth
eq.
tane
from
cos
which
e
the derivation
41.
consists
The
in
(E)
approximation
made
primary
induced
the
admittance
exciting
shown
equivalent diagram
e.
in
the
ous,
tedi-
work.
Exact
"
article
preceding
Yq
so
that
it is
voltage Ei, instead
of
(compare
and
Fig.
Figs.
The
42.
(E)
somewhat
for numerical
in its correct
in
Voltage Regulation.
terminal
voltage En
transformation
2 sin2
seem
may
convenient
most
of
the
primary
the
(D) and
shiftingthe exciting admittance
across
Retaining
of formula?
get, after division by Ei,
{e + fl)+
cos
the
(B)
in Art. 33, we
as
{aEJE^)
in eq.
Using
Determination
Analytical
Solution.^
same
in the fonn
are
(D)
calculated.
41
find
e, we
cos
A"îsin/3/("'i A^JiCos/S),
El)/E,
[Art.
CIRCUIT
sides by
2 sin^ I e, the
"
the results
the
be
can
(El
While
ELECTRIC
39
nected
con-
across
41).
obtain
place, we
secondary
im-
"o-^TORJ^KR5^-AAAAA/V-^=ri V\AAAA-'T5WK5COT"^-o'^
"
I.
il^n
X)i"o
E.
Line
B
Fig.
42.
E,
The
equivalent diagram
correct
induction
Load
of
transformer
an
or
motor.
pedance is reduced to the primary circuit as before, by being

multipliedby the square of the ratio of turns (ni/w2)^. This procedure
is strictly
correct,the magnetic link being by assumption
perfect.
Equations (186) and (187) hold here as
shall
of using the approximate eq. (191) we
is
(189). The magnetizing current
before, but
use
the
instead
correct
/o=îiFo,
so
that the total
primary
current
Expressing /i
current
l,
and
in
is
(186)
eqs.
eliminating En
and
(^1
/a
(199)
iL+îiFo
U=
and
(200)
and
Ei^
(187) through
before, we
as
Zi7l)/(1 + ZiFo) =El+Il
This
equation takes
two
equations become
^
This
the
place
of the
identical
article may
tion
rela-
when
Fo
be omitted
0.
if desired.
eq.
load
obtain
{nxImYZ^.
approximate
the
(201)
(192). The
Chap.
XI]
REGULATION
The
complex
be
may
called
OF
quantity
1 +
TRANSFORMER
ZiYo
which
factor, and
correction
THE
121
into
enters
may
(201)
eq.
be
represented
sin
a).
in the
form
K
Since
ratio of two
the
(201)
eq.
l-hZiYo
the
corrected
E,i
and
corrected
the
Zc
(159), and
This
problem
in the
form
the
of
that
provided
If the
convenient
for
not
in
terminals
is
loads, the
the
and
current
circuit
to
becomes
this,the
drop,
being
lOOiiE/iEci
Consequently,
and
0, Ei^
AE), where
eq.
(166) and
AE
the
Ed
the table
so
/o
current
drop
En,
Ed,
the
at
impedance
I LZ2
are
gives the
on
tances
admit-
primary
the
Dividing
current, and
Zi.
be
can
the
Thus,
calculated.
calculated.
desired
This
secondary
circuit.
that
per
cent
regulation
Ej^ (algebrai"Uly,
ance
imped-
the
and
gives the primary
the primary
to
series
more
Fig. 42),
load
impedance.
one
the
from
subtracted
when/jr_
-
in
be
to
assumed
an
limits.
it may
connected
primary
and
known,
current
voltage E2, reduced

Namely,
in the
drop
certain
(according
for
impedances
whole
actually calculated,
is
is constant,
but
2,
former
trans-
difference
no
within
calculations
finally reduced
After
tities
quan-
being represented
it makes
case,
selected
voltage by this impedance
voltage Eii
33.*
profitby working
results
regulation
given
the
are
the
perform
the
will
and
(195)
eqs.
in Art.
(205)
the voltage regulation of
such
loads
parallel,the
consequently
of
In
Combining
is
as
given
student
to know
curve.
assumed
an
Zl.
primary
voltage
to
(204)
by keeping the complex
also
The
range
these
primary
a)],
rp).
sin
form
method
form.
particular loads
which
for
(d
himself.
certain
sin
(cos ^p+j
Zc
the
solved
it is desired
over
tity,
quan-
(203)
standard
same
by
be
can
for
Sometimes
in
the
orthogonal
details
the
out
{ni/n^yZi
solved
be
can
complex
is of
(203)
Equation
(202)
IlZc,
(Ei/k) [cos (d-a)-\-
Zi/K
primary voltage
Ei/K
form
in the
expressed
Ecx=El
where
(cos a + j
quantities is also
complex
be
may
page
96
are
not
is
equal
to
geometrically).
directlyapplicable.
Chap.
XII]
THE
INDUCTION
ing the electrical relations
123
MOTOR
in the
under
rotor
the
following three
headings:
Relationship between
The
(a)
input into
the
Slip. Let
and
secondary \\'inding,
instance, s
than
lower
field.
the
0.05
the
sP
that
means
watts
the
because
surface
of
be
running
at
(1
the
rotor
travels
it is
as
glidingmagnetic
(1
at
into
s)P
"
heat
watts
the
coupling between
friction
amount
of
below
that
coupling,
in each
phase of
available
are
of the
the
on
But
rotor.
sj-nchronous speed, the
at
sjnichronousspeed. The
the
and
stator
between
the
tromagneti
elec-
lar
is simi-
rotor
shafts, having
two
is
certain
of the
is transmitted
power
and
5 per
cent
in the
the
For
phase.
This
speed of the driven shaft is say 5 per cent

of the slip in the
driving shaft, on account
cent
per
of the
surface
the
on
If the
of the
is lost in heat
With
coupling
sUp.
95
the
on
flux travels
s) times
"
For
slips.
the
converted
are
stator
the
of the
phase
per
output
the
while
phase
watts
and
(including friction and windage).

the tangentialelectromagnetic effort is the same
as
to
Resistance
speed of the rotor is 5 per cent

speed, or the speed of the revolving
secondary winding, and
shaft
be
rotor
4et the motor
the sATichronous
Then,
External
the
coupling.
blocked, let R
rotor
secondary,
a
slips we must
and
be
the external
let h
be
have
the
s(i2-f-r2)/22
the
resistance
secondary
current
per
per
condition
r2/2S
or
s
If the
r./(R-\-ri)
slipis given, the required external resistance

R
r2(l
(b) Equal Secondary Current

Rotor
Running
winding
per
frequency.
the
(206)
Blocked.
or
phase be
With
secondary
the rotor
currents
the
ohms,
Xj
is
s)/s
and
Let
is
at
running
only equal
(207)
Phase
Displacement
of
reactance
the
at
the
with
the
secondary
primary or synchronous
a
slips, the frequency of
times
the
quency,
primary freso
Therefore, the
per phase is sxj.
the induced
phase displacement "t"2 between
secondary voltage
and the current
is determined
the
relation
by
that
the
rotor
the reactance
tan
With
to
blocked
satisfyinjicondition
"f"2
=
and
(206),
the
sxi/r^
provided
total
with
(208)
external
resistance
of
the
resistances
secondary
124
THE
circuit
is
phase
per
to that
equal
ELECTRIC
is R
in the
-\-r2
also
are
While
equal.
e.m.f
secondary
the
is
.
with
the
stationary
ratio
of 1
ratio
The
(206).
to eq.
r2 is also
of the
blocked, both
circuit
The
Reaction
Same
is the
the
with
both
the
the
revolving
the
than
is
equal
in
travels
resultant
air-gap
is the
rotor
force
which
in
due
force
the
of
form
that
supply, so
of the
the
(1
of the
s
synchronous
s) part
"
of
speed.
the
rotor
But
synchronous
-}-(1
"
the
same
We
have
relation
s)
1,
the
as
the
magnetomotive
equal
velocity
above
seen
are
is
or
that
in
same
force
Consequently, with
of
the
the
is also
the
same
the
case
the
of
that
in
respect
to
frequency
supply,
so
same
as
that
the
The
currents.
magnetomotive
With
is
the
secondary phases
primary
flux.
the
cent
per
speed equal
revolving
of that
force glides
to
per
cent
speed of the rotor itself is

speed. Hence, the velocity
force
secondary magnetomotive
Circuit
that
magnetomotive
at
the
at
motive
magneto-
with
resultant
one
revolving
of the
running
as
speed, the
the
the secondary
relativelyto the body
the rotor
series,provided
rotor, the frequency of the secondary currents

of the
same
secondary
The
same
to all the
synchronous
forces
produces
the
Primary
force is considered
force
at
magnetomotive
magnetomotive
two
according
ratio of the e.m.f.
Blocked.
or
resistance
magnetomotive
the
s,
the
it is
the
upon
stationaryprimary circuit. In the latter

is equal to that of
of the secondary currents
resultant
cases.
the
the
of
to the
higher
largerin
when
: 5
Running
the magnetomotive
cases
of
of 1
impedance
Secondary
Rotor
with
rotor
induced
total secondary
the
is also
in both
same
the
of
force of the
stationary
and
ratio of 1
is the
impedance,
the
s, because
ratio
same
reactance
the current, which
Hence,
(c)
the
currents
higher frequency. Thus, with
e.m.f.
the
largerin
are
slips.
to the
secondary
account
on
larger in
rotor
(208).
eq.
the
cases,
speed of cutting the secondary conductors, yet

resistance i^ +
frequency
given by
flux in both
the
largerin
that
as
same
revolving magnetic
same
secondary
8X2/r 2;
phase displacement is
the
The
X2/(r2/s)
With
Vi/s.
42
primary circuit,so that
tan(/)2
thus the
[Art.
CIRCUIT
with
respect to the
stator
is
synchronous speed, and is

the primary magnetomotive
force.
secondary currents and their phase
to
two
the
the
cases,
same
in
flux,determined
so
that
the
secondary
phase and magnitude.

by the applied volt-
Chap.
XII]
THE
the primary
age,
This
cases.
that
are
the
the
revolving rotor
have
We
that
the
that
of
the
with
same
that
electric
(Fig.42).
in the
to
be
in
of
transformer.
the
phase of
the
method
equivalent
kind of connections
Prob.
by
motor
of
means
Prob.
of two
Prob.
circuit
(usually
per
in the
phases, and
of
number
speed
3.
induction
Show
how
an
secondary
from
Art.
of
control
those
the
an
same
below.^
45
induction
an
cuit.
secondary- cir-
in the
adjustable external resistances
phase of
with
primary circuit; see
the principleof the
motor.
replaced by
is
secondary winding
rately
accu-
understood
different
are
an
be used
can
of the
number
differential cascade
Explain the principleof the direct and
2.
connection
are
the
ceding
pre-
or
induction
an
diagrams
connections
same
as
Explain
1.
of
of the
one
the
to
replaced by
these
into
When
circuit,the
primary
from
be
in turn
performance of
primary
three-phase motor).
in the
know
reduced
equivalent diagrams
same
enter
phases
be
may
we
can
experimentally,
as
circuit,either approximately (Fig.41)

Thus,
the
power-factor
with
as
electrically
motor
But
transformer
quantities which
and
and
loaded
rotor
induction
an
of the
per
current
both
in
same
mechanically.
predetermination
All the
primary
the
well
as
proved theoretically,
stationary
equivalent
the
loaded
thus
chapter
is also
stationary
performance
a
force
magnetomotive
means
125
MOTOR
INDUCTION
motors.
induction
generator
be
can
reduced
to
an
equivalent electric circuit.

43.
The
Analytical
Solution.
characteristics
Determination
The
of
given induction
as
primary
kilowatts
torque, and
of both
either
by
The
efficiency.The
that
so
the
each
sufficientlyaccurate
'
to
be
The
given
author's
in Art.
values
known;
for
resistances
or
the
the
following
proxima
Ap-
"
ance
perform-
in other
"
and
the
words,
viz.,
curves;
diagram
66.
can
The
from
iron
reactances
supposed
be
(Figs. 41
The
and
42).
it is
tion
solu-
exact
loss,friction,and
of the windings
the dimensions
are
to
replaced
here, because
practical purposes.
of the leakage reactances

their calculation
leakage
of the motor
the exact
below.
Magnetic Circuit,Art.
motor
only is considered
for most
47
calculate
primary circuit,are
jirimary phase
diagram
Performance.
input, primary power-factor, slip,
to the
approximate
approximate
is
to plot
abscissae,
windings, reduced
be known,
is to
problem
against the output

amperes,
of
supposed
of the motor
see
the
here
the
126
THE
magnetizing
current
to be
load, in the
quantity.
problem
is solved
of
the
Fo is known.
constant
The
that
the
transmission
is,a load
current
other
minor
some
the
While
in
similarlyto
of
or
In order
transmission
the
line and
in the
circuit
is
above;
is solved
given below, with
numerical
work.
As
in
have
we
ZIl,
in
ent
independ-
treatment
transformer,
El (cosd + j sin d) =El-\Here
the direction of the unknown
the reference
by assumption
axis.
the
The
(209)
the
selected
reasonable
for
and
El,
for
of
El +
Ilx
We
II, and
Then
sin 0.
the
finally determine
rating
Sepa-
(211)
(212)
eq.
from
El, because
Ilt;
which
of the load
values
therefore,a series of
assume,
from
(210)
get
we
it is immaterial
curves,
computation.
values
values
is non-inductive.
imaginary parts,
El sin
plottingthe
II is in phase with
resistance
Eicosd
When
II {r + jx).
voltage El is again selected
load
current
external
the real and
of
the
simplify the
what
some-
it is considered
transformer, treated
the
expanded,
or,
are
realityit varies
chapters, a complete solution
changes which
that
so
43
of the voltage regulation
that
to make
Ei=El
as
known,
solution
II is selected, and
complex notation.
of the
to be
approximate
line
[Aut.
CIRCUIT
also supposed
are
exciting admittance
with
ELECTRIC
(212) calculate
eq.
(211)
outputs
the
find the
we
phase
per
sponding
corre-
values
from
the
equation
Pl
II, El, and
Knowing
performance
(a)
The
The
(213)
IlEl
angle d, the
calculated
are
curves
Slip.
the
as
rest
of
the
for the
the
primary
follows:
resistance,reduced
external
values
to
circuit,is
R'
and
the
slipis found
the
from
s
which
is identical with
quantitiesreduced
eq.
per
equation
(214a)
r2'/(R'+ r^'),
(206),except that
to the
(b) The Primary Current

current
(214)
El/Il;
ri
and
R'
are
ary
second-
primary circuit.
and
Power-factor. The
total
primary
phase is
/i=/o+/l,
(215)
Chap.
XII]
the
where
with
is
/o(cos0o
known,
be
can
sented
repre-
as
(216)
jsintô)
"
respect to the terminal
current, in its phase relation with
load
and
voltage Ei
to the terminal
respect
/o
The
/o
current
magnetizing
127
MOTOR
INDUCTION
THE
voltage, is
lL
that
so
Ii
ii-jii
is found
e-\-IoCOS(f"o)
-j {iLsin d-\-Iosm (l"o).(218)
cos
ii of the
projectionsii and
.the terminal
to
respect
{h
the
Knowing
the
from
table.
The
The
input
per
(d)
The
Pi
EJiCOs"t"i
in
meter,
one
or
the
(Pl +
nometric
trigo-
(221)
Eiii
to the
synchronous
watts,
or
output
plus
the
input.
the
input
secondary
phase, in kilograms
phase, in kg.-meters is
per
torque per
973.8
(220)
output
the
tangentialeffort
The
from
is taken
"t"i,
of the
to the ratio
useful torque
(219)
ii/cos"t"i
is
the secondary, is equal to

loss.
phase angle 0i
primary
ii/ii,
phase
efficiencyis equal
The
with
current
itself,
current
Ii
(c)
primary
equation
primary power-factor,cos
the
then
and
the
voltage Ei,
tan "î
Pl
(217)
hicosd-jsmd),
at
being expressed in kilowatts, so
as
applications.
the performance data
Sometimes
avoid
to
copper
radius
/LV2')/(synchr.r.p.m.),
0.001
into
of
(222)
large numbers
in
numerical
load, Pl, only;

The
which
desired
above
rated
in this
may
of the machine.
output
case
particular
one
be somewhat
tedious,
values
II and El
has to find by trials the proper
lead more
quickly to the
give the desired output. It may
of
one
end
to
solve
equations
Squaring
angle
the
instance, at
outlined
method
because
for
desired for
are
d is
the
for
first two
eliminated, and
Ex^
Substituting
equation
taneous
(211),(212), and (213) as three simulthe unknown
quantities El, II, and 6.
equations and adding them together, the
eqs.
for
for
El
we
get
El^^-Il^z'' +
its value
from
2EJu.
eq.
(213), gives
quadratic
zlj},namely
{zIl^Y
-2
{zIl^){\ "i"
Pix)/z -h Pl"
0.
.
(223)
128
THE
The
solution
zIl"
The
It
current.
the
plus sign corresponds
the
motor.
For
the
ViÊi'-PLrr/z'-PL'.
numerical
be
can
the
shown
radical, because
that
unstable
the
to
computations
the
solution
of
it
with
operation
of
the preceding equation is put
in
region
form
zIl'
sake
for the
where,
of
In the
last two
and
and
that
Pl is the output per phase.
the
is small
Pl
difference
result
is
or
of
compared
zll'
inaccurate,
and
latter formula
The
than
small
as
the
is much
(225)
kilowatts,so
The
(224), because
eq.
the
not
compared
to
the
of
is reminded
line
expand
to
voltage,and
the
the
expression
This
theorem.
in the
term
third
term
gives
etc.].(226)
for numerical
second
first,and
to avoid
(224) represents
The
nearly equal value.
binomial
the
as
student
convenient
more
(224)
Q, formula
to
it is better
to
the notation,
Q [i{Pl/QY + I (Pl/QY + ^^ (Pl/QY +
1000
in
are
quantities
two
(Pl/QY]'^'according
"
voltage,and
star
PLr)/z
Ei is in kilovolts.
El is the phase
p^2)^
introduce
{500 Ei'-
that
When
VQ2
brevity, we
equations Pl
large numbers,
{Q
1000
Q=
[1
before
sign only is retained
smaller
PLr)/z
43
is
equation
(I ^1^
minus
gives
of this
[Art.
CIRCUIT
ELECTRIC
tions
applica-
brackets
is
usually be
can
neglected.
II, the
Knowing
rest
of the
values
determined
are
as
before.
of a three-phase, 25complete performance curves

load and
between
no
cycle,150-kw., 6-pole, 2200-volt, induction motor
no-load
from
data:
Total
25 per cent
the following
input (for
overload,
Prob.
1.
Plot
phase of the line

is 13 amp.
With
the armature
rent
blocked, the input
kw., the curof
The
resistance
the
227
winding
primary
amp.i
per phase being
the approximate
of
Hint:
Follow
Y
ohm.
is
0.60
consistently
phase
per
no-load
do
the
correct
reading for 'the
not
diagram. Fig. 41; that is,
with the armature
the magnetizing current
primary i^r loss,and assume
all three
phases) is
10.5
kw.;
the
no-load
current
per
is 230
locked
1
are
not
to
be the
data
The
with
armature
as
the
at
no
armature
load.
locked
by extrapolating the curves

practicable to apply the full hne
obtained
be
same
blocked.
refer
taken
to
at
voltage
the
lower
to
rated
voltage; they
voltages.
large
motor
It would
with
the
Chap.
XII]
rated
the
At
Ans.
power-factor is 90.8
per
cent; and
Prob.
2.
Prob.
3.
Extend
the
motor,
judging
designing
or
to the
of
the
the
amp.;
88.5
efficiency,
precedingproblem, using eq. (226).
and
the
given above
formulae
induction
an
Pull-out
Starting Torque,
When
primary current
slip,3.5 per cent;
kg.-m.
theory
performance characteristics
44.
the
cent;
per
is 49
the
output
the torque, 302

Check
the answer
129
MOTOR
INDUCTION
THE
the
to
generator.
and
Torque,
the
performance
new
motor,
of
Maximum
induction
given
put.
Out-
following features
the
are
of
or
in
importance :
The
(a)
its ratio
started
be
for
either
starting torque,
the
to
by
the
at
torque
rated
calculate
required to
the
values
If the
value,
is to
motor
secondary circuit,one
resistances
of these
prescribed starting torque,
its absolute
load.
in the
of resistances
means
in
for
or
may
necessary
maximum
be
starting
torque.
(b)
reaches
The
pull-out torque,
the
torque
(c)
is
limit of stable
usually given through
The
maximum
times
is
speed
that
maximum
to
stop.
motor
This
full-load torque.
in
kilowatts.
at
which
when
but
maximum,
the
the
motor,
slip than
which
comes
its ratio to
of the
output
at
torque
operation, and
output takes place at a smaller

The
is a
pulls out.
output
torque
the
or
the
This
the
motor
of
product
not
when
the
can
be determined
torque
itself is greatest.
quantities mentioned
three]
The
using
the
(a)
equations
The
speed being equal
to
this
Hence, II
In the
Starting Torque.
the
(Fig.41)
in the
deduced
start, because
at
general formula
It will be
seen
proportional
one
to
lower
to
short
to
from
resistance.
the
output,
curcuit
of the
load, or
into eq.
/2
(222), we
0.
find
kg.- m.
synchr. r.p.m.).
expression that
the
,J_'7
,
starting torque
is
of the line
voltage. This fact permits

the initial torque when
on
a
startinga motor
voltage,by
that
this
the square
determine
shows
EiW/iz''
0.9738
In the equivalent electrical diagram
zero.
that the startingtorque per phase, in
Tu
(222),Pl
mechanical
no
Ei/z; substitutingthis value
by
foregoing article.
supplies
motor
corresponds
above
the
It is not
implicitlycontained
of
means
auto-trausformors.
startingtorque
increases
quite proportional
in
z.
The
to
with
same
tion
equa-
the secondary
it,because
fj' is also
Chap.
XII]
or, after
131
MOTOR
INDUCTION
THE
simplification,
a;
Equating
to
sin 2 0
cos
^)
max.
(233)
of this expression with
derivative
the
zero
(1
ri
to
respect
6, gives
X
2 0
cos
ri
"
sin 2 0
0,
or
tan 2 0
6, the values of El and
Knowing
(212), and
and
to
torque is determined
that the angle 6,
note
this resistance
r2'. Neither
does
the maximum
torque which
speed
which
at
the maximum
secondary resistance, the
is
This
resistance.
its rotor
at the
one
takes
El
II for which
and
the
constant
sin 6 [cos d
Equating
6, gives
the
to
the
zero
the
The
of the
maxima
resistance
external
where
tan
El
calculated
are
x/r.
from
is
6 from
Ei^/x, we
(r/x)sin 6]
"
derivative
Knowing
eqs.
angle
factor
torque
are
the
in,and
find the
to
maximum.
eqs.
of
Again
(211) and
(212),
have
=
max.
of this expression with
h"f",
values
respect
to
(235)
the angle 6, the values
(211) and (212),and
then
of II and
their product
is determined.
ElIl
Prob.
1.
The
motor
designed to be started
used
about
30
Prob.
and
only the
higher the
determines
the
product ElIl
II through
omitting the
and
be
Hence,
near
expressing El and
is
(233).
eq.
place.
synchronism, with it out.

(c) Maximum
Output. The problem is
other
resistance
speed at which the motor

external startingresistance,and
lower
start, with
the motor
secondary
resistance
torque
(222).
eq.
which
at
(211)
eqs.
pendent
capable of developing is inde-
pulls out of step. By using an

rotor
a
winding of low resistance,two
obtained,
from
into
enter
motor
from
calculated
are
step, is independent of the
of
of
II
the
then
It is of interest
pulls out
(234)
x/ri
on
per
2.
the
cent
The
specifiedin problem
at a reduced
auto-transformers
1 of the
voltage.
in order
to
What
get
preceding article
tap should
starting torque of
per cent
a
of the full-load torque?

60 per cent of the line
Ans.
is provided with a phase-wound
motor
same
b to be started
by using resistances
in series with the rotor
voltage.
secondary
windings.
132
THE
What
external
equal
to
resistance
times
1.5
Ans.
Prob.
give
3.
the
article
the
0.78
What
4.
pulls
full-load
full-load
torque?
ohm
phase,
per
out
of
motor
when
step
in
to
the
specified
in
the
obtain
of
terms
the
primary
problem
exceeds
circuit.
About
1
2.45
would
5.7
the
of
44
torque
problem
Ans.
torque
starting
preceding
torque?
the
that
order
in
resistance
starting
Show
in
necessary
starting
maximum
Prob.
is
[Art.
CIRCUIT
ELECTRIC
times
ohms.
preceding
the
rated
torque.
5,
Check
6.
Show
times
the
Prob.
the
to
answer
problem
by
the
using
lem
prob-
to
answer
3.
Prob.
to
2.15
Prob.
when
Prob.
pulls
out
7.
rated
Show
45".
=
8.
Show
of
step,
the
:
II
how
and
output
of
the
is
motor
same
equal
output.
that
Hint
maximum
the
that
to
also
into
input
cos
calculate
the
speed
induction
an
is
motor
maximum
max.
the
at
per
which
cent
the
slip
output
at
which
is
the
maximum.
motor
Xm
CHAPTER
The
45.
to
the
into
primary
rule
same
number
holds
of
and
This
hardly
is
and
phases
the
by
for
the
is the
of
number
same
circuit
slots
different
and
holds
expressions,
of turns
number
to
the
and
Tz
of
the
of
the
phase
the
preceding formulae
for
the
phase
the
The
ary,
second-
and
(236)
....
phases,
so-called
breadth
When
with
and
mo
(196)
eqs.
refer
per
equivalent
rni
factor
The
reactance
the
is the
and
respectively.
and
(237)
of
subscripts
are
Xz
For
values
in
series,
of
these
ki, will be
be
both
in
either
the
the
both
different.
formulse,
found
to
see
in Arts.
the
27
133
to
resistances
that
understanding
are
of phases
proof
of
the
connections
number
(237) refer
with
all
are
the
that
if the
number
identical
become
(236) and
phase,
per
and
of
number
tities
quan-
phase
quantities
Abi
and
A-^j,
(196a)
transformer.
Equations
each
primary
(the
circuit.'
primary
per
the
kh is the
circuit; r2' and
secondary
in
resistance
actual
the
different
windings
secondary
are
X2
the
pitch).
winding
same
with
the
winding.
the
and
primary
that
type
same
(hini/hiniY,
for
and
phase,
per
characterizes
which
stands
the
The
secondary
in the
(jni/iUi){h\ni/kh2n%f.
these
(ni/niY.
reactances,
3:273^2
In
true
(wi/m2)
for the
analogously
the
of winding
formula
Ti/ri
and
case,
types
following
and
phase
by
provided
of
are
transferred
be
and
primary
former
trans-
can
motor,
windings
per
the
ever
in the
in
that
40
muItipUed
induction
two
Art.
reactance
being
same
the
that
and
Reduced
Reactances
in
proved
is
resistance
true
phases
windings,
It
Circuit.
secondary
the
and
Resistances
Secondary
Primary
the
{Continued)
MOTOR"
INDUCTION
THE
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
PERFORMANCE
star,
the
or
author's
29
of the
the
mesh,
the
actual
Magnetic
same
in
both
Otherwise,
ances
react-
of
windings
and
stator
and
rotor;
even
con-
Circuit, Art. 44;
book.
134
THE
nections
and
tV
be
must
further
x%
loss must
ELECTRIC
taken
into consideration
and
modified, keeping in mind
be
the
As
[Art.
CIRCUIT
in the
same
the
the
values
fact that
equivalent winding
of
r-l
total
the
in the
as
45
tual
ac-
let the
be
threestator
simple illustration,
If
phase Y-connected, and the rotor three-phasedelta-connected.
the equivalent secondary resistance
calculated
of
by means
is
then
be used
in the equivalent
r-l
only \ r^ must
eq. (236)
one.
This is because
the current
diagram, per phase of Y.
per phase
V3
of Y is
times
as
large as that per phase of delta, hence, for
the same
iV loss,the resistance
be only oneper phase of Y must
of that
third
per
phase of delta.
for reactances, because
Fig.
43.
the
squirrel-cagerotor
The
stored
and
the
Fig.
The
44.
the
star
the
equivalent diagram
between
of energy
In
the
most
let it be
Tm.
and
be the
mesh
must
the
in
currents
star
case,
and
let
(Art. 20), and
current
correctly the
express
primary
general
the
the
metrical
sym-
secondary circuits.
??2-phasesymmetrical
an
the
same
currents
star
two-pole squirrel-cagerotor
resistances
in both.
and
The
r,
such
/" forming
an
that
the
the iV
relation between
those of the mesh
the
cyclic exchange
required to find the relation between
the star currents

the
of
square
given, for instance
shall
is also
?".-phasesystem.
proportional to
and
true
vectorial relation between
and
ring.
be
holds
electromagneticenergy
resistances equivalent to the end
star
relation
same
wi-sided
currents
Im being the radii of the polygon.
because
it satisfies the
(Fig, 43),
loss per
the
polygon, and
This
followingconditions:
ances
resist-
mesh
is shown
currents
system
phase
vectors
in
of
Fig. 44,
the
mesh
diagram is correct
(a) the
star currents
XIII]
Chap.
displaced in phase relativelyto each
are
mesh
the
whole
the
7r/m, over
of 2
range
(c) each
currents;
adjacent mesh
is equal to
currents
the star
of the
the geometry
current
is the
find
Ta/ty
that
before
as
of
(d) the geometric sum
From
have
(238)
Imsmiir/m)
4:smHWm).
for the
holds
relation
for
ence
geometric differ-
(Kirchhoff'sfirst law).
zero
rJr,==(Is/W
similar
is true
same
IJh-m leads to the ratio
/.^r,
condition
The
(b) the
currents;
figurewe
hL
by equal angles
other
of 2 tt;
star
of the two
135
MOTOR
INDUCTION
THE
When
reactances.
(239)
3,
we
3.
tion
Equation (239) finds its practicalapplicationin the calculaof a squirrel-cage
of the equivalent resistance and reactance
the bars are meshThe sections of the end-rings between
rotor.
connected, while
bars themselves
the
be considered
may
as
parts
of
W2-phase system, where m2 is the number
ing
bars per pair of poles. Let r^ be the resistance of each bar, includresistances between
the end-rings and the
contact
the two
of
star-connected
bar; let
r, be
consecutive
two
connections
we
bars.
to
star
pure
the
that
find
The
of
section
resistance
in series with
resistances
by added
(239)
resistance
the
new
system
of
of the
end-ring between
rings can be replaced
an
the bars,
change the
(Fig.43). According to eq.
resistance
per
so
bar
as
to
be
must
equal
to
has p poles,or ^ p pairs of

rr/[4sin^ (ir/ma)]. If the motor
poles,there are I p bars in parallelbelonging to the same
phase, so
resistance
of
the
that the total
secondary winding per phase is only
the 2/p part of that of one bar.
Hence, assuming that the primary
winding is star-connected, and that all the coils in each phase are
in series,the value of r2 to be used in eq. (236) is
fft -|-2
r2
[r6+ ir,/sin"(x/m2)]/(^p).
[x6+ iav/sinMir/w2)]/(^p).
(240)
Analogously,
X,
Since
to
there is
one-half
used
of
in eqs.
Prob.
1.
for two
only
a
one
turn,
(236) and
bar
the
per
phase, and
value
n-
one
bar is
and
hi
(241)
equivalent
must
be
(237).
two-phase induction motor has the primary winding arranged

the
is
independent phases;
secondary three-phaseY-con-
136
ELECTRIC
THE
nected.
When
[Art.
CIRCUIT
the rotor is stationaryand
its circuits-are open,

produce 97 volts between
impressed at the primary terminals

rings. The calculated starting resistance,per phase of
is 14 ohms.
is the actual resistance to be used
What
circuit,
the rotor windings? Hint : Consider the primary circuit as
star-connected
system,
that
so
nikbi/njcb2
2.
six-pole,
three-phase,Y-connected
squirrel-cagerotor
of 80
diameter
with
the slip-
the
primary
in series with
a
Ans.
Prob.
volts
440
four-phase
440/(97/ V3).
" X
46
ohm.
0.34
induction
has
motor
bars; the resistance of

each
bar is 120 microhms
the
contact
resistance). In order
(including
to have a certain required torque and sUp, the equivalent rotor resistance
What
be equal to 1.07 ohms.
must
per phase of the primary circuit must
be the actual resistance of each end-ring per centimeter
of its length?
There are
100 turns
hi
0.95;
per phase of the primary winding, and
for the squirrel-cage
is
to
kî
winding
unity.
always equal
cm.
73
5.8 microhms.
Ans.
46.
The
obtained
vectors
of the
Circle
from
at
Diagram.
brake
phase
proper
vectors
is found
Fig. 45.
angles
or
the
diagram holds
in
The
with
true
be
of
primary
motor
be
to
the
respect
The
nearly
very
an
of the
locus
current
plotted as
Ei
vector
ends
of the
semicircle.
induction
This
motor.
auxiliarylines,is called the circle
diagram of
the
induction
motor,
gram
dia-
similar
for the transformer, although it is hardly
ever
practice.
importance
in the fact that
be
some
Heyland
to
values
induction
an
circle diagram of
The
locus,together with
can
on
primary voltage (Fig. 45).
current
used
test
the
Let
the
predictedif
and
the
convenience
of the
complete performance
the diameter
of the
of
an
circle
diagram
induction
semicircle
and
lie
motor
its
posi-
Chap.
XIII]
tion with
is
the
respect to
of the current
(the subscript s stands

those of Id and
The
the
of the
and
/o of the no-load
when
diagram
shown
no-load
losses
load
standstill.
primary
II and
the
forming
simply
is
are
in
Fig.
in the
approximately equivalent
The excitingcurrent
and the
41.
assumed
to
The
no-load
graphic representation of
be
constant
all loads
at
is resolved
current
from
7i is the geometric
current
no-load
the
locus of the current
(212),because
eq.
/o, the
current
from
Il/sih
which
is
easilyseen
value
The
equal
the
to
determined
smaller
into
loss
component
reactive
ponent
com-
of these three currents
have
Ei/x
Zl is a circle follows directly
or
const.,
equation of
its
circle in
nates.
polar coordi-
II'
of the
the
r243)
circle,which
leakage reactance
diameter
of the
is,the larger is the circle and
(242)
....
constant
diameter
solely by
because
no-
At any load,
of the load current
sum
vectors
it we
to be the
of the
/i
Ei/x
is
from
triangle.
That
any
lies between
7i
vector
and windage; and

represents the iron loss,friction,
Iq' which excites the main flux in the motor.
the
is locked
circuit). At
/o", in phase with the voltage Ei, which
component
circle
semi-
current,
the rotor
short
or
current
voltage relations
circuit diagram
to
The
/,.
Heyland
current
known.
are
/" obtained
for starting
load, the extremity
other
Ei
the vector
by
137
MOTOR
voltage vector
usually determined
the vector
and
INDUCTION
THE
the
power-factor is higher and
is thus
The
motor.
better
the
its overload
motor,
capacity
larger.
The
load current
I"l with the
in phase with
component
the
line
loss in the resistances of the stator

could
on
be
eliminated
put
or
short circuit would
be
the diameter
the
Thus,
of
to the load current

the
armature
and
an
the
motor,
and
energy
of the vhr
If these resistances
rotor.
purely reactive
the
equal
to
load
II
current
=
Ei/x.
is
equal in position and magnitude

of
the
machine
with
(secondary current)
blocked, provided
eliminated
and
is called
ideal short circuit.
an
has
voltage Ei, because
outside
circle
blocked
armature
only leakage
Leaving the loss component
that
the internal
reactances
h"
are
left.
of the no-load
resistances
This
are
condition
current
out
of
Chap.
XIII]
form
of
taken
charts,
for
Prob.
of
motor
Show
1.
which
from
the
given
that
the
or
139
MOTOR
INDUCTION
THE
dimensions.^
assumed
circle coeflScient of the
specifiedin
motor
problem 1, -\rt. 43, is equal to 0.0526.

few points on
obtained
Prob. 2. Check
the curves
a
Art. 43, by constructing the circle diagram of the motor.
47.
The
AnalyticalDetermination
Solution.-
The
of
is based
Fig.
41.
induction
an
upon
the
The
exact
and
go
because
(a) the
the
loss,and
the
Exact
"
teristics
charac-
performance
in Arts.
characteristics
performance
equivalent diagram
correct, both
problem 1,
43
and
46,
in
approximately equivalent diagram shown
expressing analyticallythe
correct
of
explained
motor,
in
of Performance.
predetermination
be
coefficient may
of the
value
bo
obtained
are
according
shown
in
To
be
varied
must
friction and
Fig.
42.
somewhat
be
by
to
the
absolutely
with
the
load,
windage
depend upon the speed,

(b) the iron loss is not exactlj^proportional to the square of the
is not proportional to the
flux, and (c) the magnetizing current
voltage. Moreover, the friction loss ought to be separated from
iron
added
subtracted
to the
from
All
the
instead
output,
of
being
these
the calculations
input.
more
involved,and, while it is well to know about them,
in practice.
they are hardly ever justified
In large and medium-sized
motors
the losses and the internal
voltage drop are comparatively small, so that the performance
corrections
make
much
calculated
that
according to
obtained
with
approximate
the
diagram differs but little from

less time
and
effort,by using the
exact
much
diagram.
It is only in small
motors,
or
where
treme
ex-
is
required for some

special reason, that the procedure
given below is justified.In verj- small motors, say below
kilowatt, the difference between
the approximate
and the
accuracy
one
performance is quite appreciable,because

large voltage drop.
correct
and
H.
M.
Hobart, Eledric
that
note
to
circle diagram,
diagram
exact
and
Zeitschrift
*
This
the
known
will be
correct
as
found
Elektrotechnik
article may
and
somewhat
(1910),Chapter
equivalent diagram
the
Ossanna
in the
und
circle.
various
21.
It may
high losses
be of interest
(Fig. 42) also leads

Numerous
volumes
articles
this
of the ElektroUekniadiit
if desired, because
the approximate
is sufficient in
in
on
to
^faschinenbau.
be omitted
given in Arts. 43 and 46

used
However, the method
another
Motors
of
tion
solu-
a great majority of practicalcases.

this article is of interest to the student
as
different application of complex
quantities.
140
THE
It is much
than
curves
reasonable
of
slipaccording
performance characteristics
Then
another
repeated, and
admittance
the
so
general
the
primary
in
(1)
The
of
impedance
data
are
of
the
R'.
are
total
calculated, using
the total
II
and
admittance,
El
obtained
are
lated,
calcu-
are
in Art.
as
43.
follows:
as
load
the
R'
of
is
then
known;
details of the calculations
The
this value
the
28, that is,adding impedances in
of the
rest
would
(214a), and
value
parallel. Knowing
becomes
current
finallythe
and
in Art.
given
series and admittances
assumed
an
as
the calculations
primary terminals
the
between
method
is assumed, and
For
on.
such
eq.
for
calculated
are
of R'
value
to
output.
specified
R' is assumed,
resistance
value
plot complete performance
to
performance data for
the
to calculate
[Art. 47
CIRCUIT
convenient
more
certain external
give
ELECTRIC
plus that
of the
secondary
{R' + r^) + JX2.

(2) Using eqs. (121) and (122),Art. 27, find the corresponding
winding
admittance
g2
(3) The
(^0+ Qi)
jb^.
"
total
between
admittance
the
points
and
is
j{bo + 62).
(4) Using eqs. (123) and (124),Art. 27, find the corresponding
impedance tmn + Jxmnthe primary terminalsîs
(5) The total impedance between
-
Zeg
{tmn + ri) + j (xmn + Xi).

(6) The
corresponding admittance
from
(122).
eqs. (121) and
=
(7) The
primary
Yeq
Qeq
jheg is
"
is
current
h=E,Ye,
(8) The
voltage
or,
I,Zi
h-
substituting the values
h
(10) The
load
Eîl-ZiY,g).
(246)
is
load current
Il=
(245)
MN
across
Ea=Et-
(9) The
lated
calcu-
of
h-EnY"
h=
/i
and
E, [Yeq(1 +
En
from
FoZi)
eqs.
Fo].
(245) and
.
(246),
(247)
voltage
El
Iifi'
(248)
Chap.
The
as
of the
rest
in Arts.
of
Yeq, computations
in
brackets
the
in
admittance
composite
erence
ref-
Ei along the
take
to
value
the
determined
the
with
begun
manner
same
44.
Having
axis.
in the
calculated
quantities are
work, it is convenient
numerical
In
are
and
43
141
MOTOR
INDUCTION
THE
XIII]
orthogonal expressions of the form r -\-jx

be
the polar expressions of the form
z (cos "/"+
j siiKj))may
or
the
or
used, according to one's preference or familiaritywith one
Either
(247).
eq.
The
form.
other
the
student
form
trigonometric
The
division,while
It may
form
to
forms.
both
with
multiplication and
for
and
preferable in addition
is
advisable
be
familiar
be
to
convenient
is
Cartesian
the
subtraction.
ought
in the
forms
both
use
same
problem.
The
calculator
should
numerical
operations step by step.
by arranging
the
steps in
consecutive
irregularity of the
numerical
is also
time
the-
the
different
if not
to
other
are
in
will
be
hand,
be
repeat the
R'.
of
An
of
the
Arnold's
are
of
in
time
all
it is
time
an
in
an
pression.
ex-
compared
as
to
to
figure out
probability, the
be
principal term, Ygg, must

at least
obtaining
large
waste
factors
only by its first significantfigure.

equal
to determine
rewards
desired
For
is
(247) Yeq
eq.
to
is
art
an
early
mental
energy
which
accuracy
in the
of
accuracy
too
never
calculated
result,
skill,
experience,and
This
and
desired
that
the proper
engineering problems.
things, while
'
to
indication
sure
correction
higher degree. Considerable

necessary
The
the
small
and
affected
intelligentexercise, and
it.
as
values
is saved
time
tween
by intelligentlydiscriminating be-
It would
degree of accuracy
is
expression accurately, when,
principalterm
the
table, so
column
saved
instance,in
YeqYoZi.
to
latter
On
in
principal terms
For
Fo and
values
Much
error.
Much
see
long algebraic expressions, performing
operations mechanically for
same
to
avoid
to
ment
judg-
tions
computa-
which
by
grows
begin practicing
saved
for
better
with
is commensurate
result,'
complete
set
Wechsdstromlechnik,
slight inaccuracy
imaginary part in
current
Phenomena,
is introduceti
a
Vol.
5, part
there
in
com[)lex quantity.
under
for induction
of final formulae
"Induction
the
(1909),
pp.
65-78.
beginning, by
Si'o also
Moinr."
characteristics,
motor
Dr.
Steinmetz's
very
neglecting
the
AUernaiing'
142
THE
Prob.
1.
for
Prob.
order
method.
2.
see
the
to
Mark
the
table
of
set
on
determined
points
to
out
complete
according
motor,
few
Make
ELECTRIC
the
detail
according
to
resulting
order
in
obtained
the
from
of
of
47
tions
computainduction
an
above.
developed
sheet
the
characteristics
performance
curve
inaccuracy
in
showing
method
[Art.
CIRCUIT
e.xact
the
problem
1,
equivalent
use
of
the
Art.
diagram,
approximate
43,
in
'.*"'
tLtClt".v.AL
0^
PfioPEBTY
TY
CHAPTER
THE
48.
The
is assumed
that
of electrostatics from
given
treatment
which
are
of
CIRCUIT
Field.'
student
the
his
In the
knows
study
the
of
this
in
fundamental
physics.
in electrical
field is considered
following discussion,it
The
phenomena
purpose
the principalnumerical
here is to deduce
importance
*rPl-'."0 SC.tN.
XIV
DIELECTRIC
Electrostatic
OF
The
engineering.
book
from
of the
relations
static
electro-
Faraday's point
and
view, viz.,as consistingof displacementsof electricity,
of
stresses
h-f-HHf-
^^B
Condenser
Fig. 46.
plate condenser
in the dielectric.
action
Let
of electric
a
connected
of which
*
is different
charges
E
source
to
This
completing
at
from
direct-current
the older
circuit.
theory of the
distance.
electromotive
of continuous
force
(Fig.46) be
tion
parallelmetallic platesA and B, the combinais commonly known
Let the plates
a condenser.
as
two
See the footnote
at
the
143
beginningof Chapter
3.
144
be
ELECTRIC
THE
separated from each other by air,or by
and
the
This
same
from
the
to the
be
can
measured
Within
of the battery and
the flow of current
This
insulation
of
displacement
similar in
of
of the electric stress

the
through
electricity
lines.
These
displacement
the
be
can
in the
in
stress
in the
dielectric,
displacement
dotted
figure by
the
battery.
charged, since
the
force,
the
When
only in a closed
platesmust be connected
its
plates.
elastic body.
an
of the lines of
relieved
condenser,
same
of
condenser
stress
and
are
remains
condenser
the
opened,
that
opposite to that
the
shown
produce
stresses
finally balances
which
air
of
circuit,including the
between
mechanical
difference
stops.
accompanied by
respects to
some
directions
The
is
battery.
incompressiblefluid,the
an
dielectric
or
plate A,
galvanometer
the
equal and
displacedthrough the whole
is
quantity, Q,
layer
plates becomes
like
time
short
very
the
behaves
electricity
ballistic
the
by
certain
quantity flows from the plate B back
potentialbetween
Since
pressed upwards,
to the
circuit.
in the
is
other non-conducting
some
battery
quantity
shown
key
electricity,
Q, flows
of
quantity
the
When
material.
[Art. 48
CIRCUIT
key
stress
circuit.
by
is
and
the
To
charge
dis-
conductor;
The
deflection of the
by pressing the key down.
ballistic galvanometer during the discharge is equal and opposite
this
to
is done
electric energy
stored
in the form of heat.
is dissipatedby the current
that
condenser
The
of the
nature;
that
returned
to
flow
The
of
of these
preferablefor
stresses
and
as
matter
assume,
that
an
of
the
writing
our
e.m.f.
a
e.m.f.
certain
When
provided, the
give
to
stresses
and
cannot
in
stresses
to
not
fact,the
layer
quantity
the
nature
heat
e.m.f.
within
are
structure
sufficiently
by
produces
dielectric
and
are
is
a
which
shall simply
of dielectrics
is removed
nature
It is therefore
We
which
electricity,
the
be restored.
mechanism
material
friction.
of the true
produced.
the
to
of
not
dielectric.
specify the
of such
of
energy
resistance
is of the
clear account
displacements
across
the
the
elastic
an
stored
the
theory of electricityis
and
purposes
of
contrary,
into Joulean
electronic
displacements
the
of
is
electricity
and
in the
is that
conductor
be relieved
conductor
and
of
passage
can
On
is converted
at this
advanced
to the
circuit.
the
dielectric
stress
electricityin
modern
The
former
is,the
the
energy
these
between
difference
resistance
charge, and
the
during
to
a
be
such
ment
displace-
proportionalto
closed
circuit
relieved,and
is
the
Chap.
XIV]
DIELECTRIC
THE
The
displacement disappears.
to
external
analogy
mechanical
145
CIRCUIT
to
elastic
an
jected
sub-
body
forces naturally suggests itself.
that, with given metallic plates (Fig. 46)

Experiment shows
and the same
applied e.m.f.,the value of the electric displacement
depends upon the nature of the dielectric. With solid and hquid
insulatingmaterials, such
glass,oil,mica, etc., the

than with
produces largerdisplacements of electricity
dielectric.
These
materials
permittivitythan
When
as
the air
therefore
are
(some writers
said
to
is
air
the
as
higher
possess
the word
use
e.m.f.
same
inductivity).
of a
alternatingvoltage
applied
in the dielectric varies
condenser, the displacement of electricity
its direction;
continually in its magnitude and periodicallyreverses
in the
consequently, it gives rise to an alternatingcurrent
an
at
the
terminals
conducting part of the circuit. This is called the charging or

This current
leads the alternatingvoltage in
capacity current.
be seen
from the followingconsiderations
phase by 90 degrees, as may
:
the
When
the
charging
voltage has reached

is zero,
current
because
voltage and the displacement

short period of time.
As soon
the
begins to flow
current'
applied voltage,
now
larger than
the
current,
the
rate
the
of
the
at the crest
remain
of
rate
of
change
the
sin
elastic
reaction
flow
of
of
the
force.
At
instant,
any
is proportional to
electricity,
applied voltage.
the sine law, the
But
if the
rate
of variation
applied
also Art. 66 below.
That
there
be
must
49.
be zero,
Hydraulic
the
corresponds to the
parts
and
Analogue
hydraulic analogue shown
pipes B and
current
of the
supposed to be periodicallystored
given up again without
loss; hence,
any
must
understanding of
placement
dis-
is
energy
the dielectric and

power
is
the voltage and

the
degrees between
follows also directly from
the assumed
elastic structure
average
dielectric is
see
The
for
voltage begins to decrease,

the direction opposite to that of the
of 90
dielectric.
the
wave
grees
differingin phase by 90 deoriginal function,because d (sinx)/dx
x
cos
the
(90"+x);
of the
the
as
voltage varies according to

also represented by a sine function
from
maximum
practically constant
applied electromotive
the
or
in
because
its instantaneous
in
the
to
Fig. 47
electrostatic
source
current
the
Dielectric
may
circuit.
of electromotive
is
The
student
a
force in
cylinderD corresponds
the
reactive.
Circuit.
assist the
C represent the leads to the condenser,
of the circuit.
be
must
in
pump
Fig. 46.
or
to the
The
in the
which
The
the metallic
condenser,
Chap.
XIV]
placement
(material possessing higher permittivity),a larger disthe same
is produced with
pull; this corresponds to
for
solid or liquiddielectric is substituted
in which
some
material
the
147
CIRCUIT
DIELECTRIC
THE
case
the air.
Closing the stopcock
be
must
of the
some
inertia,the
the
beyond
partition
does
the
The
center.
produces
current
this
discharge,the
effect, and
carries
have
it
electric
the
of
thus
we
position
simple
electric discharge.
of the
alternatelytransformed
is
energy
possesses
water
inertia
electromagnetic
similar
of the
momentum
both
on
stop in its middle
not
explanation of the oscillatorycharacter

During
condenser, the
the
discharge
this
opened;
discharge, but
the
To
the
analogy that
from
seen
electric
the
breaking
to
equalizesthe pressure
elastic partition. Since, in reality,water
sides
during
It will be
charged.
remains
stopcock
corresponds
condenser.
circuit of the
condenser
into
potentialenergy' of dielectric stress, and into kinetic energy of

magnetic field. The oscillations of the partitionare gradually
the
the
damped
electric
of the
frictional
the
by
out
circuit,oscillations
conducting parts
student
The
can
damped
are
50.
Let
The
and
(Fig. 46)
be
the
In
the
resistance
ohmic
voltage
Elastance
total
of
of
displacement
explain
also the
resonance,
parallelwith
in
and
Permittance
the
by
pipes.
analogy still further, and
follow this
resistance in series and
the
circuit.
of the
free electrical vibrations, current

effect of
of
resistance
condenser,
Dielectric
etc.
Paths.
electricityin
the
ampere-seconds or coulombs, and let E

the condenser
be the voltage impressed across
or
permittor."
dielectric,measured
in
"
Experiment shows
E; this
that
up
strains
is similar to the
has
elasticity
been
reached.
the coefficient of
of the condenser.
When
in
units
farad
volt
The
is in volts and
called farads.
when
an
limit Q is proportional to
elastic body, in which
applied
the
Thus,
Q
where
certain
lieh;i\ ior of
proportional to
are
to
we
forces
in
limit
C^,
name
one
The
applied at its terminals.
for practical use, permittaucetiare
of
(249)
is called the
permittance
for C is electrostatic
coulombs, permittance
condenser
displacement of
the
write
may
C,
proportionality,
oKl*
until
the
has
coulomb
capacity.
is measured
permittance
is
of
one
produced for each

farad
being too large a unit
in microusually measured
148
ELECTRIC
THE
being equal
microfarad
farads, one
[Art.
50
part of
CIRCUIT
to
millionth
one
farad.
larger the permittance

with
displacement of electricity
The
of the
measure
produced
in
is
analogous
magnetic
permeance.
In
cases
some
but
ease,
be
can
of
with
difficulty
the
in
eq.
respect the
speak,
to
which
electric
an
For
SQ,
be
can
of
and
degree of
displacement
this
proportionality,the reciprocalof C,
(249) becomes
=
is
concept
of the
not
of
electric conductance
condenser.
given
this
of
those
to
hence
electric displacement
In
is the
larger
voltage;
same
an
it is convenient
produced
coefficient
and
which
the
condenser,
the
given condenser.
permittance
with
ease
of
has
purpose,
to be
used;
(250)
.......
where
S
electric
and
resistance
is measured
permittance
(251)
Elastance
condenser.
is called the elastance of the

to
C-'
in
to
the
gous
analo-
reluctance.
magnetic
farads,
is thus
unit
of
When
elastance
is the
reciprocalof the farad, and may therefore be properly called the

derived by spelling the word
farad backwards,
daraf. This is a name
that is,in the
A
condenser
has
same
in which
way
of
elastance
an
one
mho
is derived
daraf when
from
volt
one
of pressure
is
required for each coulomb of displacement within

being too large a unit for practicaluse, the daraf
farad
small
too
should
be
being
the
When
in
two
or
unit
for
name
word
of
permeance
permittance
is
because
connected
larger
word
darafs)
electrically
than
that
of any
largerpath is offered
in this connection
magnetic reluctance.
(or inductance) in
by spellingthe
sequently
con-
.^
The
the
has proposed callingthe corresponding unit

derived
Art.
unit
The
is
10^
are
condensers,
it.
practice, elastances
megadaraf (
permittances
resultant
in
Therefore,
be of interest to mention
of magnetic
author
more
component
It may
of the
unit.
measured in megadarafs, one

reciprocalof one microfarad
parallel,the
of the
ohm.^
henry backwards.
to
similar derivation
henry being the natural

ampere-ohm
of reluctance
system,
the
the
yrneh,
See his Magnetic Circuit,
5.
^
For
see
the
complete rational nomenclature

table
the Appendix.
on
page
xii at
the
of electric
beginning
of the
and
magnetic quantities,
book, and
also
the
one
in
Chap.
the
or
XIV]
149
CIRCUIT
DIELECTRIC
THE
displacement. The relation is similar to that of conductances

in parallel. Let Ci, C2, etc., represent permittances
permeances
in
connected
of constant
a
source
parallelacross
voltage
E, and let Qi, Q2, etc.,be the corresponding electric displacements

condensers
these
through
the definition of
(or permittors). Then,
CiE
Q2
to
have
permittance, we
Qi
according
CoE
^252)
The
be such
of a
to allow
as
equivalent permittance, Ce,, must
of the partial displacements, with
displacement equal to the sum
the
voltage; hence,
same
SQ
Adding
eqs.
by comparison
with
etc.
In
other
the
equivalent permittance
words,
more
like
when
condensers
convenient
to
(Ci + C2 4- etc.),
(253),
eq.
Ce,
When
SC
elastances
be
in series
denoted
of the individual
(254)
permittances
is
equal
their
to
is the
by Q,
and
elastors be
in
series,it
is
behaves
electricity
displacement through several
let the
Ei, E2,
parallel,
Since
in all of them.
same
in
sum.
connected
their elastances.
use
connected
are
(or elastors) are
incompressible fluid, the
an
(253)
(252) together gives

Qi + Q2 +
or,
Ce,E
Let
voltages across
etc.
this displacement
the terminals
Then,
(2oo)
where
The
with
Si, So, etc.,are
the elastances
equivalent elastance
the
same
total
eqs.
of the
separate condensers.
same
displacement Q
voltage,or
Ê
Adding
allow
must
of the
S,,Q
(255) together gives

Ei-\-Et
etc.
Q (Si + -S,+ etc.),
(256)
150
THE
ELECTRIC
by comparison with
or,
other
is
equivalent elastance
Prob.
their
has
magneto,
rate, so that the voltage rises at
Calculate
series, the
analogy
resistances
in
rate of 1.7 volts per
charging current.
Note: This is the principle
of
microamperes.
used for measuring the acceleration of railway trains.
17
Prob.
elastance
An
2.
volt,50-cycle line.
is 6.91 amp.
X
to
10')
The
V2
22
second.
current, is 4.4 V2
Prob.
Show
3.
The
effective
6.91
with
across
220-
charging
average
a
sine-wave
of
in
or
parallelthe ratio of the

is inverselyas the ratio
is the analogous relation for conductances
What
is
amp.
displacementsequals that of the permittances

of the elastances.
tus
appara-
displacement
value, assuming
condensers
two
This
hence, the
second;
that
coulombs.
10-^
(i-7r/V2)
is connected
an
the effective value of the charging current

maximum
displacement in the dielectric is
Îs of
is 4.4 V'2 amp.
kilodarafs
10
that
within
zero
of
Show
Solution:
V2/(10
reduced
current
series is
the
Ans.
220
the
to
permittance of 10 microfarads,is
the speed of which
is increased at
direct-current
to a
uniform
in
The
sum.
paralleland
condenser,which
1.
connected
connected
are
to
in
(257)
(see Art. 3).
self-evident
equal
of conductances
addition
'ES
elastances
when
words,
51
(256),
eq.
Se^
In
[Art.
CIRCUIT
and
resistances?
Prob.
When
4.
the voltage drops

as
the
Prob.
and
5.
exact
in
are
that
them
equals
permittances. What
across
ratio of the
resistances and
condensers
two
series,show that the ratio of

elastances,or is inversely
is the analogous relation for
of the
conductances?
sectionalized
condenser,such
is built
measurements,
of
up
as
is used
for calibration
following permittances:
the
is the extreme
What
0.5, 0.2,0.2, 0.05, and 0.05 microfarads.
range
of permittances and elastances possible by combining these sections in
in
series and
parallel?
Ans.
Prob.
Referring
6.
connected
are
the combination
with
0.5
mf.
to
as
From
the preceding
follows:
is shunted
Show
by
that
mf., or from
1 to 0.0192
the
problem, the
sections of the
denser
con-
mf.
0.05
Then
resultant
mgd.
in series,
and
are
the whole is put in series
0.2,0.05,and
0.2 mf.
1 to 52
permittance
is equal to
0.154
microfarads.
51.
shows
with
metal
Elastivity of Dielectrics.
Permittivity and
that
the
permittance
its dimensions
or
in the
the permeance
does; namely,
of the
the
of
of
same
layer and
way
that
magnetic path
permittance
of
sample
is
in
any
the
a
Experiment
dielectric
conductance
non-ferrous
proportional
to
the
varies
of
medium
tion
cross-sec-
inverselyproportional to its length
in the
Chap.
XIV]
in the
is increased
displacement
the
voltage must
in series.
of
with
Thus, by analogy
to
the
of
displacement
as
lines of
the
of its faces.
one
permittivityis
air the
For
unit of dielectric,when
ability
perme-
defined
be
may
analogous
the
to
or
straight lines perpendicular to
are
It is
dielectric.
the
Permittivity
cubic
put
(258)
conducting material,
elastances
kA/1,
medium.
magnetic
permittance of
the
of
conductivity
(21),Art. 5, we
eq.
of
permittivity
is called the
paralleland
in
permittances
C
where
the
which
through
distance
These
greater if the thickness is increased.
in the preceding
directly from the laws deduced
addition
article for the
the
the
to
is
act
follow
relations
inversely proportional
be
to
since
dielectric,
of the
thickness
is found
hand,
other
the
On
proportion.
same
of
cross-section
ment
(Fig. 46), the displace-
lines of force
the
path perpendicularto
the
By increasing the
lines of force.
direction of the
151
CIRCUIT
DIELECTRIC
THE
0.08842
Ka
10-" microfarads
cube.
cm.
per
(259)
dielectrics,
liquidand solid,the permittivityis higher than
motive
yieldingto an electroair; that is to say, they are more
For other
that
of
It is convenient
force.
of
The
to
of
in
Art.
For
magnitude.
56
older
values,
and
relative
use
absolute
than
avoided.
one
Besides,
with
This
of
taken
100
as
is obtained
relative
data
are
that
the
mittivity
per-
of the air.
reader
is referred
is
specific inductive
in tice
pracbecause
the
permittivities,
more
convenient
more
in
i'.q.
(259) is
readily comparable with
permittivityof air,which is a standard

procedure is aiuilogous to tabulating the conductivities
another, and
dielectric.
the
the
quantities lik("
necessityof tabulating small
that
engineering handbooks.
permittivity
capacity (or dielectric constant). It is

to
say
terials
important insulatingmabelow, merely to indicate their
tables
for relative
name
may
some
accurate
published physical
permittivitiesin
oil is 2.1 times
transformer
permittivitiesof
tabulated
various
The
certain
relative
are
order
their
express
air; for instance, we
of the
of that
terms
to
various
per
cent.
the
metals
The
in
terms
absolute
of
that
of
pure
permittivityof
by multiplying the absolute permittivityof
permittivityof
the dielectric in
copper,
material
air
by the
question. Equation (258)
thus becomes
C
where
stands
KKaA/l,
for the relative
permittivity.
(260)
152
THE
elastance
The
of
of
ELECTRIC
with
prismaticpiece of dielectric,
displacement parallel to
analogy with
[Akt.
CIRCUIT
of
set
one
its
the
61
lines
edges, is expressed by
(20),Art. 5, as
eq.
allA,
(261)
K-i
(262)
where
"T
is called the elastivity

of the dielectric.
the
resistivityof
conducting
Elastivitylsanalogous
material
or
the
to
to
reluctivityof
be expressed for practicalpurposes

in
magnetic medium, and may
For air,the absolute elastivity
cube.
megadarafs per centimeter
is,according
The
(259),
eq.
Ka~^
fâ
to
11.3
megadarafs
10^
cube.
cm.
per
could be introduced
concept of relative elastivity
in which
relative
its values
case
the relative
use
that eq.
elastances,so
used
is due
above
with
The
phenomena.
reciprocalsof
dealing
when
the
it is sufficient
However,
{"ra/K)l/A
with
(264)
to
Mr.
Heaviside;^ it
used
nomenclature
the
and
conducting and magnetic circuits,
of the
56.
if necessary,
(261) becomes
uniform
and
consistent
Art.
to the
permittivity,even
S
nomenclature
equal
in
tabulated
permittivities
to
The
be
would
(263)
in the electro-
is suggestive as
electrostatic nomenclature
is
to the nature
in
now
general
comprises but three terms; namely, condenser, capacity, and

rational and
inductive capacity. It is hoped that the more
specific
use
used
complete nomenclature
of the dielectric
here will help to
clearer
ing
understand-
and will simplif}^

tions
circuit,
engineeringcalcula-
relatingthereto.^
The
Note:
to
be
an
author
experimental
of materials
absolute
the ratio between

known.
In
the
the
The
matter
no
value of
the
Ka
can
what
their relation
be calculated
to
having an
dielectric,
a plate condenser
between
the plates equal to I cm., has
assiuning
theoretically,
O. Heaviside, ElectromagneticTheory (1894), Vol. 1, p. 28.

See
paper
"Sur
Transactions
Applicazioni Elettriche,
Turin, 1911.
air
a
as
The
Pratiques des Champs

Congresso Internazionale delle
Quelques Calculs
of the
the
distance
capacityequal to A/(47r^).
author's
an
the electromagnetic units to be
the
(259),
the so-called
electrostatic system of units, with

and
of A sq. cm.
area
absolute
eq.
arbitrary units established by
electrostatic and
Electrostatiques," in the
Ka,
other erties
same
sense
propby experimental coefficients. For an
are
ampere
of
in which
in the
coefficient,
agreement,
units.
above-given value
the
characterized
are
engineer,the volt and

international
considers
Chap.xiv]
factor 4
the
enters
ir
dielectric
of
account
on
for Coulomb's
unfortunate
an
which
153
circuit
selection of the
expression
should
been 9192/4 ttt-, instead of î^j/r*.
law,
In the absolute
electromagnetic units the same
capacity is equal to
(A /A ttI)(3 X 10"')-2,where 3 X IQi" is the velocityof lightin centimeters
To obtain the result in microfarads, the foregoingexpression
per second.
be multiplied by 10'*. On
must
the other hand, the same
capacity
expressedin
the rational units defined above
expressions gives xa
centimeter
The
Ka
which
the
0.08842
ir)
expressedthrough
Equating
the
microfarads
10~^
two
per
an
experimentally. As
the value
of
Ka
obtained
per
from
condenser
(Fig.46)
the velocity of
fact,one
consists in
light
of the ways
calculatingit
measurements.
Show
of
matter
that in the English system

inch cube.
1.
the velocity of hght does
because
empirical coefficient,
velocity of light is determined
from
indirectly
Prob.
be
can
""
the less
itselfis determined
in
10~5/(9
is KaA /I.
cube.
fact that
make
not
have
"",
0.2244
lO"^
farads
micro-
consists of two
metal plates,50 by
3
thick
between
them.
mm.
plate
glass
When
tic
a continuous
voltage of 2400 is applied to the condenser, the ballisWhat
is the
galvanometer shows a charge of 17.1 microcoulombs.
relative permitti\dtyof the glass?
Ans.
6.9
Prob.
70
2.
each, in
cm.
Prob.
3.
with
contact
0.5-mf
mica
condenser
12
by
cm.,
0.3
film of silver.
25
How
of the mica
sheets
many
is about
Ans.
Prob.
thick, and
mm.
coated
are
on
one
required?
About
side with
The
verj-
thin
relative permittivity
4.
96
the thicknesses
the equivalent elastance
Dielectric
Gradient).
Flux
as
the
Density and
Referring again
(Fig.46), consider
cross-section,and
cube
of these
laj'ers
correspondingvalues of relative mittivities

peris the capacitjôf the condenser?
Hint:
What
5.
Let
sum
of three elastances in series.

Ans.
in
sheets,48 sheets in parallelper terminal.

Let the dielectric in problem 2 consist,instead of glass,of
be 2, 3, and
62.
of sheets of mica
out
6.
three layers of different materials.

be 1.2,0.7,and 1.1 mm.,
and let the
Calculate
is to be made
to
of the
Electrostatic
the
uniform
one
dielectric,
2.94
Stress
10-"
(Voltage
electrostatic
square
mf.
field
centimeter
centimeter
long in the direction of the

lines of force.
Let a quantity of electricity
Q be supplied by the
battery, as shown by the ballistic galvanometer; then the same
be displaced in the dielectric. Negmust
quantity of electricity
lecting
small displacement at the edges and at the outside sura
faces
of the plates,the whole quantity Q is uniformly displaced
between
the plates. Therefore, if the area
of each plate is equal
to A
square
consideration
one
centimeters, the displacement through the cube

is
equal
under
to
Q/A
(265)
Chap.
XIV]
the
dielectric,
intensity,in
in Art.
as
same
measured,
is
and
kilovolts
In
point
Fia.
48.
electric
Let
infinitelyclose
non-uniform
circuit,in volts
in other
point.
to
(269)
E/l,
field,the
electric
expressed by
millimeter, or
per
from
voltage gradient,or
in the conducting
as
non-uniform
varies
This
6.
field is
uniform
155
CIRCUIT
DIELECTRIC
THE
electrostatic
suitable
voltage gradient,
voltage
MN
between
M'N'
and
meter,
centi-
units.
intensity,or
the
per
field,
representedby
two
(Fig. 48)
lines of
displacementand equipotential surfaces.

be
dE,
certain
and
let the
distance
line of force
HH', ]ye dl.
Then
the
surfaces, along
the voltage
gradient along
is
mn
G
The
length
point
any
When
of the line
between
the
mn
and
non-uniform
(270)
G is
being infinitesimal,
the
intensityat
n.
we
have
for the
total
the field
E
dE/dl
voltage gradient is uniform,
voltage across
In
between
mn
field,G has
Gl
to be
given as
E=rGdl,
(271)
a
function
of
I,so that
(272)
156
THE
integrationbeing performed between
the
between
Imagine
cube
unit
a
cube
uniform
of the
is
tance
of the
which
The
flux
cube
the
elastivity of
eqs.
(249) and
voltage is
total displacement
and
density D,
The
the
material.
the
(250),we
Thus,
consider
voltage
the
mined.
deter-
it is
across
and
such
through
permittance
to
the
on
be
to
and
dielectric,
respectivelyequal
are
points
two
any
the
existingin
voltage gradient G.
the
to
material.
to the
equal
equal
field
[Art. 52
CIRCUIT
ELECTRIC
the
elas-
permittivity and
applying
cube
the
to
have
Z)
fcG,
(273)
and
G
equations
These
and
to
be
may
considered
dielectric circuit,G
coefficient of
the
Similar
If the field
still hold
G the
and
that the total
or
stress
G.
of
Prob.
1.
problem
2,
Prob.
2.
to
and
These
of the
definition
What
Art.
The
difference
eqs.
a
the
hold
(or a)
material.
the
in the
elasticity. The
duction
con-
voltage
dielectric,
eq. (274) being
The
elastivitya takes
unit
the
(273) and
(250)
(274)
dielectric flux density
point considered.
(249) and
to
This
infinitesimal
an
be
can
par-
cube.
(272)
expressed
are
is the
statements
in words
by saying
surface integralof the dielectric
voltage E is
quantities and
are
being
the
at
displacement Q
density D,
of
theory
point, D
(268) and
Equations
effect
elasticity.
voltage gradient
allelopiped instead
book
These
effect, and
the dielectric is non-uniform, eqs.
proved by applying
flux
the
of
for every
true
and
cause
for elastic bodies.
law
modulus
or
this
theory of the
characterizes
called the stress iri the
analogous to Hooke's
the
in
the
cause,
between
heat, and
place of
the
proportionalitywhich
gradient is sometimes
the
of
in the
fundamental
as
being
linear relations
of
(25) in Art.
to eq.
(16), Art. 8, of the Magnetic Circuit.
(15) and
eqs.
relations
analogous
are
(274)
=aD
line
integralof the gradient
are
almost
the
structure
from
self-evident
the
of dielectrics.
the dielectric flux density and
voltage gradient in
kv./cm.
specifiedin problem 4, Art. 51, is subjected
the voltage gradients
What
of potentialof 10 kv.
are
51?
Ans.
4.885
IQ-^
mc./cm.^;
condenser
(stresses)in the three layers of dielectric?

Ans.
4.75; 3.16;
1.9
kv./mm.
XV
CHAPTER
DIELECTRIC
THE
53.
is
in
Energy
being charged,
of energy,
stresses
has
heat, and
in the
lost,
dielectric
by
can
the
elastic
to
of
electrostatic
the
first the
neglect
the
point
between
space
gradually raising
to
zero
of
the
final
of
as
and
under
the
to
With
energy
is stored
partition
This
energy.
be
it to
the
energy
moved
stored
the
uniform
Let
the
between
its
i be
current
at
outside
charged
surfaces
values
during
delivered
energy
charge
the
interval
*
key
The
bo
inductance
or
time
eidt=
dt.
and
the
voltage
which
of
as
The
to
e-dq,
charging, and
dq
added
the
kind
to
quantities dq
charging
This
suddenly.
acts
the
the
(275)
Jo
displacement
of time
closet!
by
from
instantaneous
moment
electrical
total
be
limiting
the
(Fig. 46),
occurring
dielectric
and
let
field
....
total
flux
and
it is
charging
is the
in
cubic
per
stress
displacement
Jo
T
by
stored
energy
energy
of
of
case
charging
W=
where
cuit
cir-
consideration.
of
and
The
the
function
voltage
E;
elastic
allowing
express
plates.
charging.*
in
dielectric
the
value
voltage
process
to
or
amount
the
it is stored
mechanical
calculate
to
simple
small
the
into
terminals.
Fig. 47, the
by
converted
returned
condenser
potential
dielectric
partition.
dielectric,
at
Consider
and
the
field;
of
density D,
piston
rod
be
tromotive
elec-
certain
the
to
conduction:
straining the
of
of
is not
can
of
source
due
energy
and
in
it is necessary
cases
centimeter
the
the
dielectric
expenditure
the
at
form
the
it from
metallic
shown
in
in
forces
some
voltage
pump
returned
of
case
analogy
partition,
In
an
the
bj^ the
be
This
the
When
the
potential form,
in
the
to
expended
the
in
Field.
counter-e.m.f.
the
overcome.
reducing
reference
in
because
as
into
involves
This
be
to
flows
current
(Continued)
"
Electrostatic
the
force.
amount
CIRCTJIT
is
current
on
account
ri.se
i dt is the
an
tesimal
infini-
condenser
during
be
expressed
can
gradually,
of
of electromagnetic
157
and
even
ever-present
inertia.
though
the
magnetic
158
THE
through
the
namely,
from
ELECTRIC
instantaneous
[Art.
CIRCUIT
flux
density Dt
and
and
the
53
Gt)
stress
Gtl.
dDt,
(267),dq
eq. (271) e
Performing the substitution,and taking the constant
quantities A
and I outside of the sign of integration,
we
get
eq.
In order to
vice
Gt, or
(273).
The
versa.
value
of the
unit volume
T.
of the
the
or
dielectric,
W/V
Using relations (273) and

in the
analogy
The
to
the
total
dq
stored
C -de;
Since
E/S, the
energy
be
can
Art.
formulae
of the
57
Let
as
different
infinitesimal
different
also
can
(279)
in Art. 69 of the
We
have
netic
Mag-
the
from
get
(280)
equals CE
or
following forms:
in the
lQ'S
mittance
per-
(249)
eq.
integrating,we
displacement
^QyC
(281)
corresponding expressions in
to the
and
the
stress
points,
the
so
field be
and
that
of
the
an
Consider
the
an
it is necessary
threads
to
MN
tube
and
of
of
are
consider
consecutive
equi-
displacement
infinitesimal volume
part of
irregularform
displacement
dielectric between
infinitesimal
dielectric,comprising
two
(278)
expressed through
represented also
The
layers of
the electrodes.
between
per
is
ÊyS
total
or
dielectric
potentialsurfaces, and
the
stored
energy
I (tZ)2
(275) and
eq.
analogous
in Fig. 48.
at
is the final
Magnetic Circuit.
the
now
shown
are
(277)
Q2/^
dielectric.
iQE
be
^CE^
charge,
W
These
density of energy,
^ D^/k
can
substitutingin
final
the
once.
of the
eq.
energy
elastance
or
the
Hence,
corresponding formulae
Circuit is apparent at
The
given by
(274), the preceding formula
^GD
is
two
h "iyG\
I kG2
followingforms
W'
the
the dielectric,and
of
stress, at the time
W'
be written
C^GtdGt
kAI
is the volume
Al
be expressed through
must
obtain
Eliminating Dt, we
(276)
relation between
"
GtdDt
integratethis expression, Dt
where
Al
from
of
mnqp
displacement
M'N'.
tween
be-
The
HH'
sides
Chap.
XV]
and
mp
of
provided with infinitelythin metal films,because

therefore no
in the equipotential surfaces, and
lie
Then
coatings.
into
is converted
consideration
under
volume
metal
along these
flow
would
current
159
CIRCUIT
be
can
nq
sides
these
DIELECTRIC
THE
the element
small
plate
can
condenser; the flux density and the stress within this element
be considered
uniform, so that formula (277) holds true, and
as
we
have
dW
Differentials
W
has the
and
is different from
value
The
(278) and
(279), also hold
for each
stored in
is
eqs.
energy,
non-uniformly
of
values
and
are
electrostatic field is
non-uniform
r^/cG"dFI r
points of
proper
point, because
to
density of
the
field; but
uniform
point.
total energy
The
point
for the
true
dielectric,provided that
stressed
used
other
(283)
of
case
expressionsfor
variable.
energy
^kG^,
in the
expressionas
same
its numerical
dW/dV
stored
the
and
volume
the
density of
The
infinitesimal.
are
energy
both
because
used
are
(282)
h"^G^'dV
GDdV
Jq
t/o
D^dV/K)
(284)
Jo
is used in place
expressionsmay be written in which \/"t
be given
In order to perform the integration G and D must
of K.
of coordinates, and
the integration extended
functions
over
as
the whole space occupied by the field. Equations (280) and (281)
two
more
are
true
formulae
these
the
dielectric
The
derived
above,
fibers of
zero
given
to
symbols G and
to
to the
electrostatic
the
to
particularform
centimeter
material.
of
let Dt be
are
for the
ones
Consider
the
work
stress
varies
some
intermediate
value
corresponding strain.
used here to denote
electric stress
field,
this is consistent
and
the
oscillations),
Let Gt be
and
the
mechanically the elastic

external mechanical
force being
avoid
the
of
to strain
TIk'
to
energ"^
corresponding
dielectrics.
of
its final value G.
of the stress, and
analogous
the
behavior
applied gradually (so as

from
as
of stressed elastic bodies;
cubic
per
for
analogous
are
assumed
necessary
is made
of
deduction
in the
the electrodes.
or
expressions
the
shape, because
assumption
no
potentialenergy
with
of any
for condensers
the mechanical
displacement.
While
The
same
quantities
the
strain
160
THE
increases from
Dt to (Z)"+
total work
dDt), the
But, according
Gt, similar
the
work
the condenser
Ans.
cubic
strains
elasticity,
are
tional
propor-
arrive
cubic
one
again
Dt and
the result that
at
unit of
an
elastic material
and
densityof
(tD^.
Calculate
Prob.
of
thus
We
to strain
necessary
to Gt dDt.
equal
linear relation exists between
(274).
to eq.
is equal to
law
that
to stresses, so
is therefore
GtdDt.
Hooke's
to
be considered
may
is
=r/
Tf
Gt
stress
done
of deformation
[Art. 54
CIRCUIT
the infinitesimal work
constant;
The
ELECTRIC
the total stored energy,
given
in
problem 2, Art.
milUwatt-seconds
20.52
the
in
energy,
51.
19.53
(millijoules);
microjoules per
centimeter.
The
54.
Permittance
where
practicalcases
most
elastance
or
the
apparatus,
insulation
are
and
of
it is
of i IrregularPaths.
Elastance
required
determine
to
dielectric,for instance
of
the
in
the
In
mittance
per-
high-tension
metal
geometric shapes
parts and of the
either irregularor too complicated to be expressed
is therefore
analytically. It
in such
necessary
to determine
cases
the shape of the field
by trials and approximations, or by experiment.

general law, substantiated by all known
experiments,
distribution of the lines offorce and equipotential
: The
The
is
follows
as
surfacesin
is
This
its
maximum
be
maximum,
; that
or
is,with
Let
to
The
in
constant
dielectric ; in
much
energy
The
10
Magnetic
treatment
requires in this
energy,
resistance
is
as
ble
compati-
expression (280)
E, the permittance C
must
must
minimum.
that
is similar to that of conductors
of this book, and

Circuit.
case
as
irregular
unlimited
required to establish a given

other words, let Q be a consta nt.
resistance
of
of minimum
that
means
the elastance
source
law
as
of
known
nature
condenser
let it be
Now
in Art.
connected
properties. This
be
general law of
resistance.
the dielectric take
requires that
with
of the
voltage E.
constant
the totalpermittancea maximum,
to make
as
minimum.
particularcase
(Fig. 48) be
having
of minimum
law
shape
dielectric is such
the elastance
or
the
of irregularmagnetic
the
flux
in
The
law
result
be
certain
of minimum
accom-
of irregularshape, given
paths
in
Art.
41
of
the
Chap.
X\
least
possibleexpenditure of
have
again
in order
to
plished with the

to
(281), we
eq.
the
of maximum
condition
same
According
energ"'.
or
.S.
minimum
Therefore,
tance) of
permittance (or the elas-
the
find the
as
of one's
flux densities and
stresses
field is
mapped
The
follows:
equipotentialsurfaces,
and
by lines of force
cells
to the best
them
drawing
to
parts of it,proceed
small
into
calculate
or
given dielectric,
in different
out
161
CmCUIT
DIELECTRIC
THE
the total
judgment;
permittance
is calculated
by properly combining the permittances of the cells
in series and
in
trials the
by successive
found
with
The
which
work
of trials is made
at
of metal
intervals
into
of the
the permittance becomes
lines of force
systematic by following
more
with
of the
actual
the
field would
tendency for the flux

other
thin
Rayleigh. Imagine infinitely
(material of infinite permittivity)to be interposed
the field under consideration,in positionsapproximately
exactly coincided
any
are
maximum.
If these sheets
coinciding with the equipotentialsurfaces.

permittance
on;
so
Lord
procedure suggested by
sheets
positions
what
some-
are
again, and
is calculated
modified, the permittance

until
directions
the assumed
parallel. Then
positionof
along the equipotentialsurfaces.
to pass
the
equipotentialsurfaces,the total
be changed, there being no
not
In
conducting sheets,the total permittance
of the field is
new
evidently increased. Moreover, these sheets become

equipotential surfaces of the system, because no difference of
potentialcan be maintained
along a path of infinite permittance.
Thus, by drawing in the given field a system of surfaces approximately
in
the
directions
of
the true
equipotentialsurfaces, and
assuming
these
arbitrarysurfaces
to
be
elastance
of the
path is reduced.
In
other
the elastances of the laminse between

surfaces
elastance
and
adding
which
gives a lower
for
the
these
is lower
permittance)
elastances
than
limit for the

of the
the
the true
"
the
true
ones,
the
true
words, by.calculating
incorrect
"
in series, one
elastance
required elastance
equipotential
obtains
of the field.
(or an
upper
an
This
limit
field.
the various
tubes of force of the originalfield
Imagine now
thin sheets of a material of zero permittivity
wrapped in infinitely
infinite elastivity(absolute insulator). This does not change
or
the elastance of the paths, because
flux passes
between
the
no
tubes.
But
if these
of the lines of
exactly in the direction

elastance of the field is increased,because
wrappings
force,the
are
not
Chap.
XV]
and
other
diagram, by observing
length of the
and
width
leads
elastance
ruled, and
and
it
method
is referred
of
cells
they
the number
of
is
equal
combined
are
few trials the space
to count
few
section, or
simple
is
properly
of cells in series
chapters.
be
two
used, and
in
used
in
references'in Art.
Prob.
circular
tance
elascross-
the result
obtained
determination
the
in
the
of
of
next
two
problems, that is,in determining

infinite parallelcylinders of any
conjugate functions
for further
cases;
details
can
the
see
10 above.
empiricallythe
Sketch
1.
simple
some
of
cables,
cross-sections whatever, the properties of

also be
determining the
principleof superposition
lines and
transmission
field between
the
in
cylinders
principle is used
This
two-dimensional
In
the shape of
equilibriumcan
in
of
capacity
for instance
spheres,
two
details.
for further
parallelmetallic
between
trials.
as
cases,
two
electric systems
without
originalarticle
the
to
between
the
remains
simply
Rayleigh's condition
combination
average
shows
few applications of his
a
parallel. Dr. Lehmann
of electrical machinery, and the reader
to practicalcases
in
In
After
in the
equahty
result, whether
same
in series.
parallelor
first in
the
to
Lord
the
is apparent
approximation
the lack of
cells.
since
automatically,
secured
163
CIRCUIT
the electrodes; the next
to
the
from
DIELECTRIC
THE
field between
infinite
two
parallel
the distance between

the centers
cylindersof equal circular cross-section,
than
the
diameter.
Determine
lower and
times
the
larger
being a few
limits of permittance per unit of axial length,and compare
the
upper
in
Art. 63 below.
results with the theoretical fonnula (320) given
terminal
of a high-tension transformer
consists of a
Prob. 2. The
long vertical rod connected to the winding, and a torus ring concentric
to the grounded case.
The
with it,connected
ring is of circular crosstion
section,and is placed near the center of the rod. Assuming the insulain the whole field to be of the same
permittivity,calculate b}' trials
the elastance
the rod and
55.
of the
the
The
flux passes
combination, with
ring.
of Flux
Law
from
certain
Refraction.
When
dielectric into another
one
assumed
of
an
a
dimensions
of
electrostatic
different
tivity
permit-
(Fig. 9, Art. 11), the lines of force suddenly change their

the media, and
between
direction at the dividing surface AB
in so doing they obey the law of refraction,which
is
tan
Here
di and
while
62
Ki
are
and
the
kj
î/tan di
ki/kj
angles of incidence
are
the
(285)
and
refraction
tively,
respec-
permittivities(relativeor absolute)
164
THE
of the
media.
two
ELECTRIC
similar law
the electric conducting

Circuit for the
flux is similar
student
and
will
flux.
direction
of the
normal
path of
the
way
shortened
in
the
than
necessary
medium
of
of
the
without
in the
When
of
the
(285)
out
be
must
while
the
at
the
in
in
conductivity.
in
the
In
this
is
given points
each
that
in
is
existence
of
that
case
condenser
the
of
approach
lengthened
larger
the
with
is
of refraction
of
least resistance,
field in
solid
of
will
thus
commercial
student
to
or
more
as
to
permittance
of
media
the
the
be
drawn
The
of
permittance
be
must
surfaces.
one
any
two
insulatingmaterial, partly
lines of force
It
of
the
for
field
the
and
so
that
easy
the
problem,
in
one
ical
numer-
his
eye
in
in
used
It
is
lines
of
high-tension apparatus.
train
combination
surfaces
of
be
will not
whole
seen
an
quite simple in theory, is by no means
applications,especiallywith the shapes
advisable
of current
permittivity
general law
dividing
maximum.
construction
force
the
although
maximum,
of
two
electrostatic
an
circuit in
of the
part
place
dividing surface.
amount
the
11, if the
in
the
between
Hence,
partly in air,the
satisfy eq.
the
Magnetic
in Art.
lines of force in it
an
it.
place
for
preceding article.
mapping
oil,and
in
composite
media, for instance, partly

in
density
56
of electrostatic
case
given
lower
lower,
such
consequence
mentioned
the
displacement
permittance
refraction
do
the
AîA''2at
higher permittivity, by
total
that
nearly
more
flux
above
11
of the
41a
in the
proof
permittivity
Equation (285) shows

dielectric the
The
flux and
density, and
current
in Art.
in Art.
in all respects to that
the words
use
is proved
circuit,and
magnetic
[Art.
CIRCUIT
sketching
adjoining media of different permittivities,conforming

be conat least approximately to eq. (285). This
can
veniently
done on available drawings of high-tensiontransformers,
switches, lightning arresters, etc.^

56.
Dielectric
The
proportionalitybetween
(273) and
eqs.
(274),
respect it is similar
strains in
flux
'
See
Franklin's
also
or
of
holds
on
Insulating
and
only
flux
to
up
After
voltage gradient has
"Dielectric
Electric
Materials.
certain
and
Stresses from
Review, Vol. 14, June,
certain
been
limit;
the
1911.
of
exceeded,
Mechanical
the
and
dielectric
material
in Professor
Point
by
in this
stresses
limit
experiments
The
indicated
density,
proportionalitybetween
the
interestingsketches
some
article
in the General
stress
elastic body.
an
density
to
of
Strength
of
W.
S.
View,"
Chai".
XV]
finallybreaks
and
weakens
electric
insulation
too well known

The
DIELECTRIC
THE
values
to
need
of
the
down.
the
and
The
of the
be
kept
well
below
upon
the
disruptive discharge
voltage gradient Gmaz and
critical
down,
In
which
at
critical
these
importance of
action, moisture,
of magnitude
design constants
should
columns
must
of
of the insulation
forth.
so
The
More
values
be based
idea
an
data
accurate
pocketbooks;
in
of the
order
will be found
important
test data
upon
by heat,
in the table
these
cases
obtained
the
on
in hand.
age
tivity, Rupturing voltpermitgradient,
specific
Relative
or
Substance.
inductive
mm.
natural
kinds
and
built up..
per
Glass, different
values
sq.
0.00265
3-8
9-11
0.024
-0.078
5-8
24-40
0.110
-0.280
4.4
13-22
0.050
-0.085
Rubber,
2.2
28-35
0.055
-0.068
2.7
21-28
0.050
-0.067
0.025
-0.027
Rubber,
vulcanized
oil
Transformer
Vacuum
It will be
2-2.2
from
seen
the
the
down
at
air.
a
This
lower
the third and
does
fourth
than
the air,in that they
displacement at
does
elastivityand
are
not
more
mean,
show
engineeringare
not
can
whicii
seem
Im
of the
liquid dielectrics
columns
in electrical
There
column
voltage gradient than
used
and
second
air; in other words, they
than
14
0.99
of solid and
permittivities
of
me.
cm.
Porcelain
pure
of
dielectric flux density,
/?,"aîn
per
"
Air
Rupturing
capac
ity K.
Mica,
portant
im-
pending
safety dethe apparatus, possibility
of over-
Dmax.
and
the
more
stresses
values, the factor
give the student
to
of Gmax and
in electrical handbooks
material
and
of
two
designing insulation, the
principallyintended
are
of the
some
given in the last
are
and the gradual deterioration

potentials,
chemical
are
description here.
break
below.
table
of failure of
phenomena
subsequent
corresponding flux density Dmaz,

materials
165
CIRCUIT
that
yielding to electric stress

however, that the}' break
the
air.
On
the
that the dielectrics
several
the air breaks

my
larger than
the
contrary,
commonly
considerablystronger electrically
stand
!m
are
table that
times
the electric stress
down.
relation between
critical voltage gradient.
One
the values
indicates
the
of
trical
elec-
of the material, the other

its ultimate
elasticity
strength.
They are analogous to the modulus of elasticity
and the rupturing
stress respectivelyin the mechanics
of mutciials.
Air, from an
166
THE
ELECTRIC
electrical
point of view,
which
stiffness,but one
On
the
much
higher
student
of
insulation
be
in
that,
so
likened
stand
can
make
to
spite
clear
dielectrics.
material
to
rational
depends essentiallyupon
mica
himself
to
elastivity,
than
these
air.
two
of
design
distinct
which
large elongation
smaller
tion.
elonga-
material
very
of
of great
small
comparatively
may
to
is required to rupture
stress
is advised
properties
at
yielding, but
before it is ruptured;
compared
breaks
contrary, mica
is comparatively
be
may
[Art. 57
CIRCUIT
The
separate
high-tension
understanding
of
them.
Dielectric
strength
density,Dmax,
it
express
but
for
dielectric is broken
in
radius
the
Gaveto
practicallyuniform
of curvature,
when
or
leads
E/l
this
case
it is
to
and
maximum,
value
from
determined
point
possibly
derived
Prob.
thick.
1.
from
2,
in
Show
the
those in the two
that
see
previous
What
the
in
only
compared
as
insulation
of
between
proper
in
way
place where
the
it does
not
exceed
tests.
breakdown
increase of
an
age
volt-
voltage gradient
average
The
the
tested
are
large
the
critical
in
one
gradient in others,
failure.
in the
values
last column
of the
table
are
preceding columns.
certain material
in
voltage gradient for
complete
how
for insulation
that Gmax
so
is thick
oil
or
of the
use
dielectric results
of the
Prob.
to
dielectric
results.
wrong
calculate the
is to
throughout,
air
the
comparatively
for instance
as
to
which
at
density, and, consequently,
spherical terminals, the
Gave
convenient
more
dielectric is used
having
however, the layer of
When,
its radius
two
sheets
flux
high-tension machines,
and
When
thin
of curvature, the
gradient, are
it is
the critical flux
as
voltage gradient, Gmax,
down.
of
form
properly given
practical purposes
critical
the
as
be
may
Ans.
Dmax
stood
about
voltage gradientcan
be allowed
KG"u,x X
0.08842
kv.
82
in
layer
in this material
Ans.
of safety of 2?
10" 2.
3.7
mm.
factor
at
1 1 kv.
per
mm.
Assuming the relative permittivityof the insulation in the

the
at which
preceding problem to be 2.5, what is the density of energy
Prob.
material
3.
is broken
down?
Ans.
57.
in view
electrical
of their
voltage at the terminals
Corona.
Electrostatic
The
the
mention
5.45
10~^
joulesper cubic centimeter.

The
breaking-down
phenomena
of
air
deserve
great practical importance.

of
an
air condenser
which
is raised
When
company
ac-
special
the
sufficiently
Chap.
XV]
THE
high, a pale
small radius
the
This
electrostatic
the
In
corona.
flux
regions
where
do\\Ti"
and
"broken
When
is formed
corona
discharge
at
the
and
in
appreciable loss
if allowed
to play on
There
it.
are
density
and
that
the
which
at
the
No
secondly,
insulation,will
in which
however,
is broken
air which
is
atmosphere;
thus
and
by
char
soon
corona
becomes
down
the
It is of
be made
that the line may
it may
some
reduces
uniform.
more
relieved
automatically
so
corona
the shape of the protruding
down
area,
is
the discharge,
because
operate certain parts of a very high-tensionline

the line due
critical voltage. Any voltage rise on
surges
tive
disrup-
devices
forms.
at
to
or
thickness
whole
sharp edges, the
or
corona
other
cases,
it
ductor
con-
the other.
to
some
makes
and
disruptive discharge, or
of power;
their
parts, increases
flux
it becomes
that
far below
part of the electrode,smoothes

metallic
trically
the air is elec-
appears,
operating voltage of such
The
is harmless.
formation
electrostatic
regular operation; first,because
an
destroy
the
to
voltage is raised still higher the
that at which
to
usually permissible
involve
is called
projecting parts
voltage
occurs;
generallylimited
is
air,due
corona
down,
have
electrodes
the
into
ionized, so
electrode
one
comparatively
discharge
density,
the
is broken
from
spark, jumps
the sharp points,
at
discharge takes place, until the
brush
dielectric
of the
edges,
silent
the
of electricity. When
so-called
the
at
protruding parts having
of curvature.
excessive
an
light appears
general at
in
and
violet
167
CIRCUIT
DIELECTRIC
advantage
nearly
the
lightning
to
loss
corona
ous
danger-
into
the
without
self-protected,
lightningarresters.
The
of
formation
of
be
must
corona
in
high-tension insulation, and
and
dielectric flux
parts which
of
combinations
densities
should
be
in the design
kept in mind
high-potentialtests. Shapes
lead to high or non-uniform
avoided.
Fig.
48
shows
the
why the dielectric flux density,or the potentialgradient,

is higher near
protruding parts. The equipotentialsurfaces, for
lie closer to each other
such
obvious
near
geometrical reasons,
reason
parts, while
shape
of the
at
It will l)e
per
of the metallic
shape
from
seen
down
millimeter.
when
Let
the
is not
this be
tlic
affected
tKctrodes
by small irregularities
pn^'ediiigarticle that the
voltage gradient exceeds

the
the
parts.
taliU' in the
the
from
distance
in the
air is broken
reasonable
case
at
the
point
3000
volts
(Fig. 48).
168
THE
The
voltage gradient
ELECTRIC
Thus, only
air.
down
becomes
and
then
further;
part
small
very
of the
part
the
ionized, a visual
actual
When
at that
gradient
volts per
millimeter.
gradient
as
point
around
student
higher
should
realitythe voltage gradient does
not
reality the phenomenon

is not
of the
some
peculiarway
layer
discussion
the
scope
to the
of air
exceed
3000, because
in this
case
of numerical
of this
Mr.
and
book;
one
High-voltage
as
Vol.
of the
This
to
pioneer
other
articles
on
F.
W.
Peek, Jr.,
Air," Trans. Amer.
the
is outside
mation
for infor-
is referred
appear
in the
neering
engi-
electrical
of the
by the General
to
described
been
his article
first few
pages
by
for numerical
of the
article,
Dry Transformer
Electr. Engrs.,
splendid exposition of the subject by
Open Atmosphere
the
a
investigatorsof the
investigationsare
2
is
paper
theories
example.
Insulators," in
30, Jan., 1911.
of the conductor.
physical
have
and
the
"
voltage gradient
performed
were
numerical
See, for instance,H. J. Ryan,
Oil
by
to be in
formation, critical voltage, and
is referred
on
physical
abroad.^
and
1910-11,
given
are
formation
seems
subject that
the
on
corona
student
illustrated
are
in
Company,
data; the results

and
on
of
student
the
loss of power
The
In
beyond
The
mm.
conductor
transactions
in the
tests
the diameter
and
articles
extensive
Peek.2
voltage
names.
of air and
the critical
upon
values
numerous
accompanying
Electric
3000
above, especiallyaround
the
to
by it,and
affected
societies in this country
the
age
volt-
in calculations.
less than
say
adjacent
and
leading periodicals,
Quite
ing
Consider-
P.
by these
of ionization
diameter,
apparently depends
A
air is thus
is called the visual
simple as described
as
of small
state
becomes
and
misled
visual voltage gradient is convenient
conductors
still
raised
part of the electrode; however, the concept of
this the air becomes
corona
visual
be higher than
to
out
the disruptivevoltage gradient of

be
of the
No
be
down
point
of
air is broken
starting point, the
seem
value
not
In
voltage
the
the
as
would
now
distinguishedfrom
The
3000.
spread
thick layer of
sufficiently
This
the
of air is broken
of the metal
surface
of the
57
surface
very
immediately
portion
now
is formed
corona
the
at
conducting electrode.
Let
layer
next
of the electrode.
the
formed, however.
is
corona
only
the lines of force
the conductor, because

in the
this value
has
[Art.
CIRCUIT
subject.
corona,
and
Inst.
Amer.
Trans.
and
Professor
contains
J. B.
numerous
Whitehead's
ences
refer-
mental
experi-
particularlynoteworthy.
"
The
Law
Inst. Electr.
of Corona
and
the
Dielectric
Strength of
Engrs., Vol. 30, July, 1911; also Vol. 31.
Chap.
XV]
Prob.
when
DIELECTRIC
THE
that
Assuming
1.
the dielectric flux
under
factor
of
for which
the charging current

of the conductors
being 12 mm.
0.01
of
amp.
second, and
cm.
sq.
kilometer,
per
safety
is 34/28.65
58.
per
is
applied
subjected
If the
material
during
one
has
to
the
elastic
in
overcome
and
phenomenon
therefore
The
is
is similar
called
are
There
fact that dielectrics

resistance
they
Thus, the observed
the familiar
to
of the
stress
ternatin
al-
an
displacements.
that
the
applied voltage
in addition
to
friction,
is often
circuit is concerned.
but
lost
energy
proportional
are
not
conduct
the
coronas
can
small
the
and
PR
platesof the condenser.
whether
of power
in
While
with
that
it
com-
to the
their ohmic
of
at
the
heating
metals,
of condensers
loss in the insulation.

the
loss is also due
in the metallic
exceedingly
at high voltages.
current, especially
loss of power
form
vcJtage.
mostly attributed
compared
operating voltage, and
Some
currents
as
both
limit of the material,
perfect insulators.
some
to
be
can
is
cycle
per
the
to
appreciable loss
this loss
The
and
magnetic hysteresis,
the ultimate
an
converted
applied voltage,because
are
well below
simply ascribed
small
or
and
against friction is
the
as
is exceedingly high,
nevertheless
eddy
of
condenser, the
of power
caused
by dielectric hysteresisis
Some
in doubt
to
investigatorsare even
as
condensers,
of loss.
factor
When
of
stresses
dielectric hysteresis. The
stresses
exists at all.
at
terminals
done
far
the
even
the
of molecular
work
lost, as
displacement and
be
Conductance.
perfect, so
kind
the
may
and
at
is not
square
merical
1080/377,000
the
be given up to the circuit when

of solid
reality,the electric elasticity
In
is proportional to the
small.
is 377,000
voltage would
some
forces.
heatj
loss
air is 1080
conductor
displacementis
0.108
would
be lost
perfectly elastic,no energy
stored during the
complete cycle,because the energy
voltage decreased.
and liquid dielectrics
the
in the
centimeter, and
periodic
to
the
When
charged during
is 0.12/1.11
surface of each
square
line
were
periods of increase
into
line is
The
densityof
Hysteresis
voltage
is
The
square
1.20.
Dielectric
dielectric
per
charging
electrostatic displacement
microcoulombs
0.002865
amp.
per
kilometer, the diameter
current
that the
so
is formed
corona
25-cycle transmission
Solution:
kilometer.
per
safety'of
is 0.12
microcoulombs
0.0034
average
maximum
the
hence,
microcoulombs
the
conditions
certain
densityexceeds
centimeter, calculate the
169
CIRCUIT
edges
thus
to
be
and
an
projecting parts,
additional
the ohmic
sheets which
over,
More-
compose
source
resistance
and
the electrodes
CHAPTER
ELASTANCE
PERMITTANCE
AND
The
of
single-core cable
the
in
for
surrounded
protected
such
other
pole
insulation, and
cable
for
be
the
to
lead
It
the
instance, let
the
to
is
is
to
and
core
of
pole
one
and
core
Let
sheathing.
the
be
it
re-
Pig.
IX
to.find
quired
of
ance
XL
the
For
of
reasons
the
elastances
of
the
metal
two
axial
these
cross-section
single-core
centric
of force
Consider
all in
are
are
con-
or
cable,
insulation
the
series, so
radial
straight
equipotential
the
infinitesimal
of
layers
layers
lines
surfaces, and
cylinders.
concentric
into
certain
49.
^^
symmetry,
concentric
are
for
or
cable.
the
between
lines
permittance
1
X
elast-
xu
the
xx
dielectric
the
I of
length
conductor
ing.
sheath-
subjected
between
connected
be
battery
of
round
(not
layer
by
cross-section
The
49.
solid
be
to
Fig.
simplicity.
sheathing;
in
of
potential
of
difference
is shown
outside
the
on
Let
the
Cable.
sake
the
by
LINES
Single-core
assumed
is
center
stranded)
of
Elastance
SINGLE-PHASE
OF
TRANSMISSION
AND
CABLES
59.
XVI
be
to
thickness.
that
faces
sur-
divided
subThe
it is sufficient
to
radius
'
analytically
express
and
thickness
limits
the
and
inner
question
and
dx,
b,
the
of
the
and
path
limits
of
expression
the
The
sheathing.
core,
elastance
and
between
the
b is that
of the
of
layer in
is
2 irxl
being
of
the
radial
and
abbreviation
dx/(2 irxl),
respectively the
flux.
length and
Integrating
this
(286)
cross-section
expression between
of the
the
gives
.S=
the
layer having
this
radius
is the
dS
dx
of
integrate
to
where
surface
elastance
Ln
(a/2irl)Ln{b/a),
^taIulillg for
171
natural
(287)
logarithm.
172
THE
For
[Art.
CIRCUIT
practicalcalculations it is convenient
in three
of
the
and
changes, we
to
use
(7-1
C/l
In
r'.
some
certain
(capacity) per kilometer
K/\og{b/a) microfarads
0.0241
it is necessary
cases
Applying formula
(287)
Ln {r'
(o'/27r)
/r).
"
this
elastance
centimeter
finds
formula
lines.
to
The
the
for Z
(288)
accordingly
voltage
between
this case,
kilometer.
across
1 cm.,
(289)
radii
the
voltage drop Err- from
cable.
of the
length
of the
these
S'rr' Q'
'
its
of
and
get
to r' is equal
per
Or
/2 t)
(t'/t).
Lh
important applicationbelow
permittance
we
multiplied by the electric displacement Q'
ErrThis
know
to
have
we
per
part of the insulation,for instance
S'rr
meters,
kilo-
Making
logarithms.
common
I in
express
{4.lAb/Kl)log (6/a)megadarafs.
the permittance
to
finallyobtain
^
For
(c)
relative permittivity
the
insulating material, (b)
59
modify this formula
to
(a) to introduce
respects; namely,
to
ELECTRIC
single-phaseand
(290)
in the
tion
calcula-
polyphase transmission
It is
absolutelyessential to agree in regard to the signs in

with
the
eq. (290). In the applicationsthat follow, Q' is taken
ductor,
plus sign when the positive displacement is directed from the conand
with
conductor.
the
It is also
order
changes
the minus
because
given,
the
If the
sign
the
materials,
permittance
resultant
shown
as
theory is
are
cable
This
formula
to
cable
The
rather
not
as
more
of
the
far
as
as
in Art.
stresses
simple derivation
concept of elastance.
63
difficult;as
of circular
demonstrates
in eq.
in
whole
layers
in
(290)
side
below.
is also
the formula
apply
case
Those
for the
particularly striking manner
in series.
the
the
is calculated
conductors
the
interested
capacity of
the
place
concerned.
are
elastance
when
this
concentric
taking
three
With
the
to
dielectric
side
calculated
are
reciprocal of
conductor
by
layers of
added
then
is the
in the
cross-section.
of
concentric
(288),and
formulae
same
cylindricalconductors
two
the
r' and
distances
r' and
or
sheathing, the outside
of the sheathing
With
elastances
of the
elastance.
cable without
the
interchanging
consists of two
separately,according
The
to write
towards
of Err'.
insulation
different
important
it is directed
when
sign
the
tors
conducwill find
single-core
usefulness
of
the
Chap.
XVI]
ELASTANCE
literature
extensive
and
magazines
the
of such
is of considerable
the
the
For
of
density
of radiu"
test.
single-core cable
layer of
is
practice,
by
total
The
stress
layer
D^'2Trxl
in
stresses
concentric
every
core.
In
is usually determined
consequently
inner
is the
Dx
societies.
electrical
electric
through
Q
where
of
electrical
European
the
practical importance.
same
of the
in
173
LINES
AND
subject
cables
of the
the flux density and

surface
the
on
distribution
Q being
CABLES
proceedings
permittance
The
OF
displacement
the
dielectric,
maximum
have
we
(291)
const.,
the
at
displacement
through
that
laj'er.
Hence,
DxX
which
that
means
to
the
the
proportional to
are
of
density
distance
from
displacement
the
a
is
Since
center.
(with
stresses
(292)
const.,
uniform
invorselj'proportional
displacements
also
insulation),we
have
GxX
A
useful
stress
Gx
at
We
(293).
eq.
between
relation
the
in the
given point
if
multiply both
we
total
applied voltage
dielectric
can
be
and
the
deduced
from
have
Gx
and
(293)
const
that
b, remembering
const./x;
sides by dx and
voltage
is the
line
integrate between
and
integral of intensity,we
obtain
i:Gxdx
Eliminating the
Gx
fully utilized
is
surface
of
the
periphery.
the
of
each
the
a
This
condition
could
Gx would
would
that
(294)
dielectric
homogeneous
strength only
at
the
the
gradually decreasing toward
could be helped by gradually increasing
an
toward
the
made
be the
be
(b/a)]
stress
material
be
Ln
equations, gives
its dielectric
to
voltage drop and
layer
stress
the
(b/a).
these two
'2\y.\ sliow
condition
the
E/[x
regard
core,
elastivityof
the
ami
with
(const.)Ln
between
constant
Equations (292)
"
the
stresses
sheathing,so
there.
If the
as
to
crease
in-
elastivity
exactly proportional to its radius,
same
ideal
throughout
one,
with
the
dielectric.
regard
to
economy
Such
in
174
THE
ELECTRIC
[Art.
CIRCUIT
material, provided that^the dielectric strength of

"
insulation
purely theoretical
of
practicalquestion
the
high-tension cables, in
it pays
provide
to
two
conclusion
which
or
the
the
near
inner
thickness
layers of
more
The
manner.
ultimate
and
of cables.
of insulation
different
is
important
the
to
strengths
problem
core,
leads
insulation
grading of
their permittivities and
stress
variable
constant.
were
This
"
the
59
is
large,
ing
materials, utilizin
primarily
this is done
With
the
vantageo
ad-
most
the
relieve]
to
by placing near
it
age
volta low
layer of insulation of high permittivity,so as to cause
where
the opposite arrangement
would
be
case
drop. One
advantageous is in a low-voltage cable in which it is desired to
keep the total permittance as low as possible (for example, to
obtain
small
In
high
capacity
this
elastance
an
design
it is this
the
of
principles,the
for
have
must
core
layer that
cable.
utes
contrib-
With
student
will
as
clear
be
able
given conditions, if he knows
to
the
materials.^
1.
Determine
is 5 mm.;
the insulation is 9.5 mm.
thick.
and
of the relative permittivity of the material of insulation,
diameter
of which
the value
values of the dielectric flux density.
the extreme
K
Ans.
2.78; Dmax
The
2.
down
at
in the
Prob.
is the
What
3.
in the
insulation
cable specifiedin the
flux density of 0.062
critical voltage for the cable
the
is about
ratio between
the
For
theoretical
bibliography of
(1910),
for the
^
There
is
the
a
to
stress
be
subject,
see
in
of
the
H.
S.
preceding
Show
cm.
sq.
alternatingkilovolts.
70
maximum
and
the
average
2.42.^
Ans.
the fact that the
voltage is the
grading of insulation,and
Osborne,
the
practice to
being uniform.
careful in using
is known.
per
Potential
Massachusetts
for the
Stresses
Institute
in
of
lectrics
Die-
nology
Tech-
of Engineering.
Doctor
tendency
the field is far from

has
treatment
thesis presented to
degree of
mc.
1?
in
problem
formula
Prob.
4. Deduce
(290) from
Une integralof the electric intensity.
stress
microcoulombs
0.00156
used
insulation
problem breaks
that
0.00750; """.""
cm.
sq.
Prob.
one
the
high frequencies).
at
single-corecable receives a charge of 1.18 millicoulorabs

continuous
kilometer when
a
voltage of 12 kv. is applied between
The
consists of a solid conductor
the
and the sheathing.
core
core
Prob.
per
these
available
properties of the
the
elastance
graded insulation
current
layer surrounding
total
of
understanding
charging
possible,because
as
the
to
most
per
the
case
low
or
an
The
average
deal
with
answer
average
to
this
stresses
even
shows
problem
value, imless its ratio
to
the
when
that
mum
maxi-
ELASTANCE
XVI]
Chap.
CABLES
OF
175
LINES
AND
by actual calculation that in the foregoing cable the

by increasingthe diameter of
stress in the dielectric is reduced
maximum
of the sheathing.
with
the
diameter
to 7.5 mm.,
same
the conductor
This
is in spite of the fact that the insulation becomes
thinner, and
Show
6.
Prob.
the
consequently
greater.
stress
average
Referring
6.
Prob.
show
preceding problem,
the
to
that
it is of advantage
2.71828
equal to t, where e
K
the
diameter
of the
is the base
logarithms.
system
less than
conductor
be further increased,so that the ratio b/a becomes
continue
stead.
but
does not
increases into decrease,
maximum
stress
", the
is Ga
Solution: The
stress at the core
E/[aLn (6/a)]according
its maximum
when
0.
to eq. (294). As
dGa/da
a varies,Ga reaches
we
Differentiating,
get
ratio b/a about
the
make
to
of
of the natural
dGjda
{b/a)]/[aLn (6/a)]^
E[l-Ln
whence,
0;
Ln
"
(b/a)
0, or b/a
".
stated in
Explain the following deduction from the theorem
the preceding problem. In a concentric cable subjected to an excessive
the inner core
is
voltage,if the insulation is quite thick,the layer around
first gradually destroyed or charred up to a certain thickness,and then
thin layer of
With
the rest of the insulation suddenly breaks down.
a
is observed.
insulation no such phenomenon
Prob.
8. A cable is provided with several concentric
tion,
layers of insulaand
the external radii of which
the
relative
are
6i,62,etc.,
tivities,
permitShow
that the elastance of the cable is expressed
Ki, K2, etc.
Prob.
by
S
7.
the formula
(41.45/0 [Kn
9.
Prob.
log (6./a)-|-AV
that in
Show
log (6,/60 -\-Kn
log (6,/6,)+ etc.].
single-corecable the densityof

the square
in the dielectric varies inversely as
energy
of the distance
stored
from
the
center.
Prob.
10.
conductor
cylinderof
metal
be allowed
can
26
between
Ans.
18.4a
flux density
(D,
in
is surrounded
inside diameter.
the
in diameter
cm.
cm.
against the formation
safety k
is the
2a
What
by
centric
con-
age
alternatingvolt-
cylinder and the conductor
factor of
at a
of corona?
10 V^*)
where
log (b/a) effective kilovolts,
microcoulombs
per
sq.
cm.,
at
which
Dc
is
corona
formed.
Prob.
11.
Show
spheres
that the elastance
of radii
and
6 is
of the dielectric between
equal
to
("to/4
x/C) (1/a
"
two
1/6)
centric
con-
mega-
darafs.
Prob.
12.
Show
that with
concentric
spheresthe equation
E/[x* (a"'
(294) is Gz
6-")l.
the
in
formula;
Prob.
13.
the text above
Apply
given
condenser-type terminal.'
to
two
"
See
Terminals."
A.
B.
Reynders, "Condenser
Trans.
Amcr.
sponding
corre-
Inst. Elcdr.
Type
of
Insulation
Engrs., Vol. 28
to the
for
theory of
IliKh-tension
(1909), p. 209.
176
THE
60.
Elastance
The
of
character
ELECTRIC
conductors
the
of
electrostatic
is shown
in
circles
extending from
potential surfaces are
the
conductors
the
elastance
axial
Fig.
Single-phase
Line.
field between
two
The
of
50.
metal
one
circular
Art.
(see
62
the
of the
line
its
elastance, or
line.
the
force
for
with
calculate
to
unit
charging
This
given frequency.
is used
in
transmission
respect to
elastance,the
a
of
arcs
other; the equi-
required
permittance,
regulation of
are
conductors, for
two
this
calculated
general
infinite parallel
to the
It is
below).
reciprocal, the
of the
The
cj'linderseccentric
Knowing
be
can
lines
surface
of the air between
length of
current
[Art. 60
CIRCUIT
the
line
determinat
pre-
(Art.
68
below).
which
the
the
radius
determine
of the
distance
interaxial
conductors
h.
elastance
the
this article the
in
shall consider
We
the
in Art.
with
compared
as
diameters
in
practicalcase
is small
It is shown
when
usual
below
63
of the
how
to
cylindersare
comparatively large.
For
of
purposes
in Fig. 50
shown
analysisit is convenient
the result of the
as
in
radial fields similar to that
A, together with
as
concentric
electric system.
one
cylinderform
B
E, the conductor
the
Let
to the
to the
superpositionof
Consider
49.
cylinderof
another
be connected
Fig.
consider
to
the
conductor
conductor
with
similar
the
cylindersat
two
In the
firstconcentric
the
middle
condenser
the
displacement of positiveelectricityis from
to the
infinite
centric
con-
ductor
independent system. Let the conpositivepole of a battery of voltage
infinityto
A
simple
two
infinitely
largeradius,
an
negative pole,and the
point of
the field
battery.
cylinder, while
in the
second
the
ductor
con-
the
system
ductor
positivedisplacement is from the infinite cylinder toward the conThe
B.
displacements due to the two systems are equal
selves
and the cylinders themand opposite at the two infinite cylinders,
coincide
axes
at
infinity,because
the
compared
with
small
is infinitely
as
distance
AB
their radii.
between
Hence,
their
the two
tion
displacements at the cylinderscancel each other, and the combinais electrically
identical with
condensers
of the two
cylindrical
given parallelconductors
the two
In
medium
of
two
sum
or
more
of the
independent
stresses
and
B.
permittivitythe resultant
constant
voltage gradient, produced
at
point by
the
electric systems, is
produced
at
the
same
combined
equal
to the
point by
stress
or
action
of
geometric
each
system.
Chap.
This
XVI]
ELASTANCE
medium
the
to
the
This
causes.
immediate
the
principle being
a
true
point
the
result of the
the
The
50.
Hence,
electrostatic
resultant
field
effects
are
an
perimental
ex-
that
fact
proportional
for electric intensities,

also combined
are
they
are
of the
produced by
ing
accord-
proportional
electrostatic flux
superposition
as
of the
consequence
permittivity
flux densities at
intensities.
Fia.
an
parallelogram law, because
the
as
as
of constant
the component
to
or
either
considered
be
177
LINES
AND
CABLES
principleof superposition can

fact
in
OF
fluxes
can
be
created
single-phase
to
garded
re-
by
mission
trans-
line.
the
tween
systems. Furthermore, the actual voltage beof the
points in the dielectric is the algebraicsum
component
any
two
voltages due
voltage is
the line integral of the corresponding voltage gradient,and the
principleof superpositionis valid for these gradients. This line
to
the
component
systems,
because
each
only of the positions of the two points,and

is independent of the path along which
the integration is performed.
This latter fact is very convenient
in applicationsof the
principleto the solution of problems.
integralis
function
Chap.
XVI]
ELASTANCE
CABLES
OF
using these
When
is
formulae,
the
proportiomilto
must
one
length
unit
length
between
the
two
kilometer.
per
(298)
not
forget that
the
mittance
per-
of the
line,while
the
elas-
varies inverselyas the length of the line.
tance
for
0.0241/log(6/a) microfarads
(S')-'
179
LINES
is
corresponding permittance
The
AND
conductors
The
is
total elastance
equal
to
S',the
corresponding permittance being \ C.

spacings and sizes of conductor, check
the values of permittance given by eq. (298) with those tabulated
in an
Prob.
For
1.
electrical
Prob.
pocketbook.
For
2.
some
actual transmission
an
along
standard
few
the average
values
line,plot a
a\B, and
hne
the
assumed
curve
also draw
of a, h, and
E,
of values of the
the horizontal
corresponding to
voltage gradient
straightline representing
gradient E/h.
the intensitydue to the system A is

sities
aQ' / (2 irx); that due to the system B is aQ' / [2 (6
x)], both intenbeing directed from left to right.
Prob. 3. In Fig. 50 let A and B be small spheres, instead of cylinders.
Hint:
At
distance
from
Show
that
the
elastance
between
one
of the
"
spheres and
the
neutral
plane 00' is equal to ("r/4x) (1/a

1/6). Hint: Apply the principleof
superposition,as in the text above, and utiUze the solutions of problems
"
1 1 and
12 of the
Prob.
4.
conductors
In
precedingarticle.
transmission
line the wire
is
splitinto two separate

parallel. The spacings A
Bi,
in
Bi, connected
Bi
B^ are equal to hi,hi,and hit respectively. Show
how
to calculate the total permittance per unit length of the line,using the
method
of superposition. Solution: Let Q',Qi, and Qt be the displacements
unit
of
the
conductors
and
issuingper
length
Bj respectively.
.4,Bi,
Resolve the given system into three systems, with the three given conductors
A
Bi and
Bi,and
"
"
"
each concentric
with
cylinderof
the followingthree conditions:
infinite radius.
Then
we
have
(a) Q' + Qi + Qt
0, because electricity
behaves
as
an
incompressiblefluid; (b) the given voltage E between
A
and Bi is the sum
of the partial voltages for the three component
is true
systems, each expressedaccording to eq. (290) ; and (c) the same
for the voltageE between
A and Bi}
From
these three equations the
quantitiesQ/ and Qi are eliminated, and the required elastance is determined
from the resultant equation, as the ratio of E to Q'.
Prob.
cyUnders
Prob.
lines of
Show
5.
how
to
calculate
the
elastance
between
two
small
spheres of unequal radii.

for which the elecAnalyze the formal mathematical
trostatic
reason
lines in Figs. 49 and 50 coincide with the magnetic
equipotential
force,and vice versa.
Compare Figs. 4G and 47, Arts. 59 and
or
6.
60, in the Magnetic Circuit.

'
Or else
between
we
Bi and
may
use
condition
as
Bi equals
zero.
(c) the fact that the resultant
voltage
180
THE
61.^
The
Influence
Line.
Single-phase
of
ELECTRIC
of the
Ground
the
When
in
the
upon
is used
ground
circuit,for instance
[Art. 61
CIRCUIT
Elastance
the
as
of
return
ductor
con-
single-phaserailways and
in
ing
telegraph lines,the elastance of the circuit is calculated by assumof electricity;
the ground to be a good conductor
in other
to be infinitely
words, its permittivity is assumed
large. This
than
gives a larger permittance

value
law
of refraction
field has
and
the
surface
the
between
such
of the
oi
thus
such
of
is removed,
The
part
and
ductor
con-
that the
so
of the
wires
represents the
case
Kelvin's
method
tric
of elec-
field between
A
if it
as
were
if
Furthermore,
A
and
B,
the
conducting plane
and
00'
and
is the electric
voltage between
located
surface
00', take the potential
that of
the
which
B,
00'.
mirror
00',
of
conducting
is located
is,B
plane
field between
and
metallic
one
infinite
an
A ; that
Having
the
the
simplest form only.

the elastance
the shape of the field,
or
A
that
sequently
con-
in its
use
volts above
and
of the
00'
leads to Lord
the
surface;
fictitious conductor
volts.
00'
between
in this
in the
below
volts
being
which
as
potentialof
as
between
conductor
opticalimage
has
Fig. 50,
find
requiredto
conductor
image
in
00',
shall
we
its
to
This
00', first locate
as
the
which
lines of force from
right angles
shown
ground.
it is
a
at
assumption, and
safe side.
According to
the
on
the
of symmetry
of the
When
ground
shape
plane
images,
is
(Art. 55)
the
enter
which
other
any
is determined.
real
has
existence,that
is fictitious.
becomes
validityof this principlein the case under consideration

evident
by the following reasoning: Let a voltage of
2 ^
maintained
The
be
Place
infinite
an
coincide
to
affected
sheet.
does
and
the
between
lines
thereby, the
in any
sheet
the
by
independently
its half of the
field between
^
The
to
rest
an
battery
A
and
by
of
sheet
the
may
00'.
of this chapter may
field.
by
The
that
to
if
so
so
of
the
is
this
to
battery
are
in
the conductor
librium
equiwith
disturbing
the
desired,as
of the book.
not
battery,that
halves
find
as
field between
without
Conversely,
understanding of the remainder
the
Both
removed
be omitted
normal
half of the
one
other, so
be
battery.
field
point
Now
half.
other
negligible thickness
middle
to the
the
of each
of
means
displacement being
is maintained
00'
and
of
disturb
way
00'
equipotentialplane 00'.
the
with
and
sheet
conducting
Connecting
not
between
the
field between
it is not
sary
neces-
Chap.
XVI]
and
B,
so
previous
electric
of
CABLES
conducting sheet 00',
conductor
in the
OF
ELASTANCE
reduce
to
as
article.
latter is
the
standard
any
return,
in the
2h,
ground.
Since
be
having
elevation
next
metallic
conductor
duced
de-
put
we
above
the
of
the
will
charging
metallic
circuit
the
is reduced
of the
proximity
compared
as
elastance
of
the
that
to
of
earth
in
Fig.
of finite
elastivity(air)is replaced
be of zero
or
a
elastivity,
to
will be
seen
toward
the
from
the figure that
ground, where
they
of less elastance.
path
total elastance
The
formulae
larger,and
case
by
deflected
are
the
is that
reduced
medium
of the
lines of force
find
the
with
spacing.
considered
elastance
part
of
the
is assumed
by the ground, which
of electricity.It
good conductor
the
mathematical
single-phaseline
all of
circuit is
to
small
line,as
(Fig.51). The
because
principle
usually quite considerable, it
of the
be
to
case
return
is
compared
as
comparatively
The
50
is the
this elevation
smaller
current
immediately that
see
that the elastance
seen
of
investigated
of the
the
on
fictitious
preceding article hold true, provided that
where
we
those
to
work
theory of electricityand magnetism.

Applj-ing this principleto the case
ground
replaced by
general discussion
181
LINES
the conditions
For
images, see
AND
using again
force meet
between
the
method
the
conductors
of electric
images.
and
The
culated,
is cal-
lines of
the
of
ground at right angles, and its surface is one
equal potential. The field above the ground would be the same
if the
ground
A' and
B' of
in
removed
sketch.
the
The
plane of symmetry.
indicated by the dotted
of
eq.
as
for each
and
to
the
lines.
and
the
now
ground is
cylinder at infinity. Applying

we
find that the
voltage
B,
to
t) Ln
system A, is -\-{"tQ'/2
due
to
system B,
due
to
system il',is
becomes
dielectric field may

be
now
consistsuperposition of four systems, each ing
due
2 d
ground
The
of these four systems,
due to system
where
of
fictitious field below
conductors
of the
one
(290)
between
if due
surface
The
considered
and
replaced by the electric images

the wires, the polarityof the images being that indicated
were
AB'
is
(b/a);
"{"tQ'/2 t)
Ln
(a/6);
("tQ'/2t)
Ln
(2 d/2 hi);
B', is -|-("rQV2x)
Ln
(2 hi/2 d) ;
A'B.
The
actual
voltage between
and
182
THE
being equal
to
One
{(tQ'/2tt)[2 Ln
Fig. 51.
the
i
=
The
proximity
This
E/Q'
(b/a)
between
and
ground.
A'
and
to
B'
which
represents the reduction
of the ground.
large as
littlefrom
compared
When
to
{dyh^h)].
are
i
-
the
Ln
correction
"
pressions,
ex-
(299)
(300)
(dyhh)].
as
affected
electric images of A
(296),except
in elastance
spacing b, the
four
is
the distances hi and
the
unity, and the
preceding
single-phaseline AB,
expressionis identical with formula
term,
the
Ln
("t/2t) [Ln (b/a)
electrostatic field due

of the
[Art. 61
CIRCUIT
have, by adding
we
half of the elastance

S'
by
E,
ELECTRIC
ratio
due
and
last
for the
to
the
ence
pres-
hi to the ground
d^/hihzdiffers
is small because
the
B.
are
but
logarithm
Chap.
of
a
XVI]
CABLES
OF
ELASTANCE
183
LINES
AND
Equation (300) can be written also in

equal to zero.
We
simpler form by combining the two logarithms into one.
unity
is
then
obtain
"S'
be stands
where
bc
arrived
have
thus
and
permittance of
considered, are
this
though
the
expressed by
to avoid
Applying
the
of the
use
ground
(298)
to
spacing
as
b is
spacing be given by formula (302) or (305).
the corrected
practice,the values of î,hi, and
In
the
effectof
that the actual
ignored, provided
elastance
The
formulce (296)
same
pression
ex-
(302)
the
single-phase line,with
the
(Vhih2/d)
followingsimple rule:
at the
effectwere
replacedby
from
spacing, determined
for the corrected
We
(301)
((r/27r)Ln(6,/a),
well-known
of
and
sirable
it is de-
foregoing formula.
in the
quantity d
theorem
known,
are
elementary geometry,
have
we
the triangle AA'B
from
A^^
AA'^ + AB^
IT
IP,
or
4 d2
4 /i,2_|_52 +
4 d2
62 -h 4 hih.
/j^(/j2 /j^)^
which
from
Hence
dyhih
Equation (300) becomes
S'
and
from
(302)
tables of
of
the
ground
Ln
(304)
have
we
reference
will
(1 -}-i b'/hA)],
b/VlTTWhJh-
be
books,
found
(305)
spacings
the
for the
correction
in
convenient
used,
are
the
form
lated
tabu-
as
influence
shown
in
2 below.
problem
Prob.
the per
i
-
capacity for standard
in various
(303)
then
6c
When
i b^hihi
1 +
{a/2 tt)[Ln (b/a)
eq.
1.
cent
line
cases.
For
error
various
usual
introduced
by neglectingthe
spacingsand
in
arrangement
conductor,calculate
computing the permittance of
influence of the earth in the most
Select the conductors
plane, whichever
ground.
sizes of
either in
in your
vertical
opinion is
more
or
in
mission
trans-
able
unfavorhorizontal
affected
by
the
184
THE
Prob.
When
2.
convenient
ELECTRIC
permittances
[Art.
CIRCUIT
taken
are
from
standard
62
tables,it is not
the corrected
lated
spacing be, because capacitiesare tabuIn
this
it
is
convenient
to reprecase
spacingsonly.
sent
the elastance given by eq. (304) in the form Sc
S'
where
S'
s,
of
is the reciprocal
of the value
and s is the
capacity found in the tables,
of the ground.
correction due to the presence
Deduce
of
a simple form
this correction,when
it is small.
Solution: Expanding the natural logarithm
^
Ln
series
the
to
-f ^ a;'
(1 + a;) x
according
etc.,we find
5 a;
9 Ln
that the corrections
9 [i byhihi
(1 + j byhihi)
Ki b^/hihy
S' must of course
-\-etc.]in megadarafs per kilometer of one conductor.
be taken also in megadarafs per kilometer of one
conductor.
formulae
for the influence of the ground in the case
Prob.
3. Deduce
of small spheres in place of the cylinders.
to
use
for standard
62.
Equations of
The
let P
be
desire to
we
which
find
the
and
the
by
the
on
surface
"
Lines
of force
Let
us
to B
of
force
Force
calculate
which
on
In
of which
the
the
and
Line.
AN'PB,
between
of
Single-phase
line
equation.
conductor
from
passes
AB,
point
"
Electrostatic
Produced
Equipotential Surfaces
Fig. 50,
the
"
total flux
plane of
the
metry
sym-
point
is
located.^
to
one
of the
centimeter.
This
due
to the
AB
and
fluxes
between
the
also directed
total
or
from
systems
equal
the
left to
to
and
the
B.
The
equal
having
from
surfaces
left to
and
Q'62/2 ir,
right,B being the negative

the
flux passing
system
to
equal
resultant
radial
is directed
is
be
the
as
component
system
actual flux between
the
considered
Q'9\I2-k,and
to
to
be
flux may
P, due
flux due
The
right.
is
A,
center
The
the flux is determined
the axial length for which
Let
is
conductor.
of force
AB
and
upon
equals (Q'/2 t) {di+ 62). Since this flux does not depend
the positionof the point P, provided that the point is taken
upon
the line of force under
AN'PB
01 +
for all
points on
of force.
In
direction
triangle APB,
the
speak of
to
other
(306)
const
This
is the
we
surface
shall
hand,
distinguish it from
in the sketch.
we
the
the plane of the
to
call
shall
equation
value
the angle
formed
instance,a line of force such
For
perpendicular
surface,which
On
the
It is convenient
of force.
different lines of force, the
For
different.
^2
line of force.
have
consideration, we
as
paper,
oj
of the
is
by
supplementary
AN'PB,
should
form
surface of force,by analogy with

call
line such
as
CPC
an
is
constant
lines of force
would
line
of the
it
as
move
to
face
sur-
in
cylindrical
line of force.
equipotentialline, to
correspondingequipotentialsurface
which
it represents
Chap.
XVI]
the
be
CABLES
This
represents the
which
is the
o)
force
are
also
inscribed
points
equal,
the
(Q'/2ir)(2 0i)
line 00'
the
the
sixth
of
degrees
180
at
To
again
that
P
point
(290)
If the
for the
draw
and
through
divided
and
B.
total permittance
number
into any
of
parallel.
lies
the
on
systems,
circles,take
also
are
Ti
and
and
from
r^
equipotential line,
same
is equal to zero,
that, applying
so
get
we
("rQV2x) Ln {n/BC)
its intersection
A
the
same,
One
from
circle passing
be
component
flux.
through
by the distances
point C
two
therefore
is the
in
instance,
the flux between

total
AB,
the
on
which
For
and
to
are
angle î
between
the
of
do
mark
to
us.
that
what
can
{cQ'/2t) Ln in/AC)
from
certain
of force
equipotential lines
the
between
voltage
eq.
B,
determined
respectively.
the
of
arc
and
we
degrees
unequal permittances
prove
an
to
permits
sixth
one
the total flux, or
way,
or
of 30
angles di and
total flux Q'.
degrees;
30
are
draw
00'
equal
B.
the
line of force such
angle
an
between
equal
fact
of the surfaces
shall
AB
plane
with
this
00'
definite fractions of the
straight line
In
This
Q'di/v.
let it be desired to draw

it and
and
B, of
the lines of
that
proved
corresponding
flux
total
intersections
included
are
It is thus
angle.
and
circle passing through
line of symmetry
the
on
that
so
of
arc
(307)
const
of circles passing through A
arcs
For
(306) may
written
u
is
185
LINES
AND
that condition
angles dx and 6^, so
of the
sum
OF
ELASTANCE
0,
which
Ln
(riMO
Ln
(rj/fiC),
or
n/n
This
equation of
is the
the
because
Equation (308)
an
origin,say
in terms
of
the
its
may
at
A,
own
and
lay
be
and
substitutingfor
rectangular coordinates
off PD
of
ratio
PB
leads to the
rj.
parallelto CP, and consequently PC
ri
bipolar
to
"
ordinates;
co-
remains
rj
equipotentialline,
ri
ing
circle,
by select-
and
and
r^ their
The
y.
to
bisects the
eq.
Produce
(308),
angle
values
following
result.
same
According
"
in
point C.
proved to represent
proof by elementary geometry

AP
the
that
is different for each
constant
line has
each
(308)
const
equipotentialline
an
is such
curve
This
constant.
AC/BC
APB
BD
"
is
w.
Chap.XVIJ
ELASTANCE
tween
each
of the
then
taking
either
depending
they lie
whether
the
sum
the
difference
the
the
on
or
that
given surfaces;
two
sides
different
on
symmetrj- 00\ and

of these elastances,
of
plane
the
or
positionsof
the
upon
and
surfaces
187
LINES
AND
CABLES
OF
side of
same
is,
the
plane 00'.
to divide
how
explained above
been
It has
field by surfaces
the
ing
permittances of desired values, these permittances beby the point N'
proportionalto the angles di or 62, determined
of force into
neutral
the
on
plane. Knowing
student
of
and
surfaces
Prob.
field between
in the
assumed
an
size of the conductors
lines (Fig. 50) such
to
as
cm.
=
between
centers.
25
NC
cm.;
32
a set of lines of force
electrostatic flux into 10 equal parts.

Prob.
2. Let A and B (Fig.50) be two
if NN'
and
spacing used in
and equipotential
divide the total voltage and the total
lines,draw
transmission
extra-high-tension
of 90
equipotential
two
surfaces of force.
two
For
1.
values
given slice
very
small wires at
is the permittance of the slice NN'PC
cm.;
and
the axial length is 180
but
circles,
not
Prob.
that the lines of force between
Show
3.
Show
4.
small spheres arc

Prob.
same
as
Draw
in
cos
how
a set
Fig. 50.
to draw
in
given
0.000861
î -|-cos
1/rj
are
const.
of two
case
const.
the field shown
case
mf.
in Fig. 51.
lines of force due to the system AB

alone, the
Let the flux Q' be divided into n equal parts, so that
of
the adjacent surfaces of force is Q'/n.
of lines of force for the system

is
ffj
in the
"
the flux between

set
is
m.?
small spheres
two
that the equipotentialsurfaces

representedby the equation 1/ri
Show
6.
Solution:
the equation of which
curves
distance
What
Ans.
Prob.
field
the
by equipotential surfaces, the

difficultycalculate the permittance or the
without
can
elastance
desired
of
elastances
into
to subdivide
how
now
A'B'.
The
Draw
equation of
similar
fine of force
that in the system A'B' is w'

const.
of superposition,
the equation of a line of force
According to the principle
w'
in the resultant field is w
const., the minus sign being due to the
in the system
AB
const.;
"
A' is negative if A
fact that
lines of force
two
a
of
is
and
positive. Let
"'
fines
C +
r/n
and
w'
the
be the
line of force in the resultant field.
the next
Then
C
because
line of force in the resultant field,
same
"
"
C.
In
diagonal curves
and
may
other
with
be drawn
holds
words,
the point of intersection

also belongs to
v/n
for both
lines of force in the
points w
resultant
"
the
w'
field
are
the lines of force in the component

fields,
intersection to intersection.
A similar construction
respect
from
the
point of intersection of
ing
starting point for draw-
to
for equipotentialsurfaces.
The
student
is strongly
urged
to
assumed
for some
the method
of
data, because
try this construction
is generallyappficablewhen
be resolved
diagonal curves
a given field can
into two
simplerfields.
188
THE
The
63.
ELECTRIC
Elastance
between
formulae
The
Cylinders.
[Art. 63
CIRCUIT
Two
derived
Large Parallel
in
Art.
for
60,
Circular
the
elastance
and
between
two parallel
permittance of a homogeneous medium
the diameters
of the cylinders are
cylinders,hold true only when
small as compared to the interaxial distance, for the reason
there
the
of the 'cylindersare
diameters
explained. When
tively
compara-
large,the elastance is derived

those
obtaining in Art.
A
Let
and
small
very
this
such
that
equal
Place
the
field either
volts.
inside
this
to
leaving
the
surface.
difference
the
battery between
field outside
of
to
the
so
CPC,
the
the
remove
conductor
age
voltCPC
stillremains
affect the
of 80
potential
volts
coincide
to
as
of
point of the battery
not
surface
Now
sheet
the conductor
changes do
the
battery. Let
metal
it and
outside
conductors
two
the equipotential surface
this sheet
connect
These
or
of
means
and
voltage between
being normal
by
by
thin
infinitely
an
before
as
difference of potential of 100
them
surface, and
to 20
let
the conductor
be 20 volts.
with
and
between
between
to
60.
(Fig.50) represent
diameter,
be maintained
by reducing the conditions
and
electrostatic
displacement
conductor
together
al-
volts maintained
the
cylinder CPC.
cylinderis not affected;that inside of it has

the cylinder
a field between
entirelydisappeared. We have now
small
diameter
of a comparaA of very
and the cylinder CPC
tively
The
for
so
so
the
Take
now
large diameter.
instance KMK',
symmetrical
to coincide
as
that
the
with
it,and
this cylinder and
by
Thus,
we
finallyobtain
large diameter.
cylindersis only
between
60
A.
difference
tap
20
The
conductor
field between
the
on
volts
remains
tween
be-
field is not altered
be
may
removed.
cylinders of
two
battery,
tively
compara-
of
the
potential between
volts,while the originaldifference of potential
the conductors
The
it to
potentialof
the
now
equipotentialsurface,
place a metal cylinder
CPC,
conductor
the
connection, and
this
with
connect
of
difference
same
another
and
was
Conversely, let the cylinders CPC

let it be required to find the shape of
100
volts.
and
the
KMK'
be
field between
given, and
them, and
to that of
problem is reduced
small eccentric conductors
finding the positionsof the infinitely
the given cylinders are
A
and B, with
potential
equirespect to which
surfaces.
Then
the field is mapped
out
according to
the
elastance
the formulae
of this field.
The
given in the preceding article,

leaving out
the
space
XVI]
Chap.
inside
cylindersand
the
method
This
radius
same
and
with
details of
The
first the
of
case
d; let
diameter
cylindersbe equal
necessary
to
d.
According
to
to
quantitieswhich
through
BC
is
(314)
equation
expressed
be
can
BC.
instance
AK
(313),it
eq.
have
(309),we
into this
length, for
unknown
one
use
and
AC'/BC
enter
to
centers
of
through the given quantitiesc
BC
(308) and
eqs.
order
In
c.
AC/BC
All the
lines A
KMK'
and
the
between
distance
and
AC
express
cylindersCPC
two
the
q of these
and
inside of the
or
given cylindersrepresent equithe calculation

are
given below.
the
which
to
respect
Consider
same
of the
cylindersare
two
is outside
one
large
(313).
always possibleto find the positionsof the
potentialsurfaces.
the
whether
not, and
or
It is
other.
the
of the
one
by using formula
is calculated
plane 00'
applicable whether
is
between
elastance
The
cylinders.
the
189
LINES
AND
CABLES
OF
ELASTANCE
We
put
x]
then
AC
CKÂK
AC
x^-c;
BC
quadratic equation
only,
BC
where
obtain,retainingthe positive value
we
\[-{c
a,
to
(316)
the
diameter
is denoted
c/d
into
(317)
the
expressionfor AC
eqs.
find
(315), we
so
d2]
or
By substitutingthis value of
Vc^
Va2_i],
AC
-d)
ratio of the interaxial distance
the
by
for x,
id[-(a-l)
^^^^^
"
"
(314),and solving the resulting
into eq.
AK==x
"
X.
values
these
Substituting
d-
{c-d)^x;\
H(c
^) +
Vc2
[(a
1) +
d'-]
=
hd[(a
1) +
Va^
1], (318)
that
AC/BC
This
expression
and
the
can
V^^Tri]/[-("-!)
Va^
be simplifiedby multiplying l)oth the
denominator
by
the
value
of
the
1].
ator
numer-
numerator,
so
190
THE
get rid of the
to
as
ELECTRIC
[Art.
CIRCUIT
in
root
square
denominator.
the
63
The
result is
AC/BC
Va2
The
expression(313) for the elastance between
and
the
of
plane
symmetry,
S'
of the
one
unit of axial
per
(319)
length,becomes
{a/27r)Ln[a-\-Va''~^].
Those
familiar with
hyperbolic functions
equation
be
can
tables
will notice
(320)
that the
ceding
pre-
simplifiedinto
S'
Since
cylinders
{a/27r)Cosh-â
(321)
of
are
hyperbolic functions
readily available, the
of elastance is simpler in this form than it is if eq. (320)
evaluation
is used.^
When
the diameter
the interaxial
radical
of
", the
is
distance, a
in eq.
sign
then
of the conductors
(320)
be
may
(1
neglected.
with
l/c^!^)^
obtained by
"
With
the
small
corrections
Let
("t/2t)Ln (2 a
exception of
to
In addition
the
of the
BK/AK
It is necessary
BC
and
All of the
X
and
and
AK
After
plane 00'
Dr.
then
A.
is
E.
Cylinders
these
Wires,"
.). (322)
parentheses are
also have
BK'/AK'
introduce
two
elastance
unknown
modified
are
(323) are
equations
two
(323)
between
expressed through
solved
are
quantities,
accordingly.
together
cylinder and
each
for
the
expressed by using eq. (313).

Kennelly,
in
the
Electrical
"
The
Medium
PhilosophicalSoc, Vol.
of
in
terms
the
given cylindersbe different.
(314) and
eqs.
this, the
large values
theorem,
yV a'^.-
Equations (315)
y.
the
two
to
case
quantitiesin
y, and
y.
in this
For
comes
be-
result.
relation (314), we
to
a-'
all of
a,
diameters
the
now
a-i
the
equation
binomial
the
convenientlyexpanded according to
result being
=
This
to
factoring in expression (320),
is
S'
unity under
(296).
eq.
compared
as
largequantity, and
practicallyidentical
term
is small
48
Linear
of
Linear
Resistance
Uniform
(1909),
p.
World, Vol.
56
of Hyperbolic Functions
Conductivity," Proceedings
also his article
142;
Electrostatic
Parallel Conducting
between
Capacity
(1910), p.
to Electrical
1000.
on
"Graphic
between
Equal
also
his book
See
Engineering (1912).
Amer.
resentatio
Rep-
Parallel
on
plication
Ap-
Chap.
XVI]
In
densityat
point
at
and
B.
flux
sum
density due
to 5
The
resultant
the
to
density
systems
is
QV(2Tr2).
densities
component
the flux
in the
Q7(2î),
D.
These
large;
or
point
face
sur-
sj^stem A is
the
to
be
(Fig. 52)
flux
at the
cylinders,or
the
dielectric
the
densities due
of the
D,
while that due
calculate
to
Let
cylinders.
geometric
The
required
191
LINES
AND
parallelcylinders,small
two
is the
CABLES
field between
in the
of the
one
field between
P
it is
cases
some
of
OF
ELASTANCE
directed
are
is directed
density D
along
in
shown
as
the
to
tangent
Fig.
52.
the
line
Dielectric
Fio. 52.
flux density at
point, determined
by
the method
of superposition.
of force
the
through
P.
the
From
preceding two
have
relation
I"i:A
so
equations, we
that
the
sides
trianglesAPB
marked
are
From
these
and
with
or,
Pmn
triangleswe
:
similar.
are
two, and
one,
r2:ri,
ing
correspond-
three short lines respectively.
write
can
Di
The
rj,
substitutingthe foregoingexpression for Di,

D
From
point
this expression, the

field or
in the
the
flux
on
centers
that
density by
b, ri, and
p and
flux
density can
the surface
dielectric stress
mind
Q'b/{2irTir,)
the
of
one
r^ refer
q of the actual
to
be
of the
of
elastivity
is obtained.
the
(324)
the
It must
points A and
cylinders.
calculated
at
any
tiplying
cylinders. Mulresponding
medium, the corbe kept well in
B, and
not
to the
192
Prob.
the
field
in
permittances
the
on
Prob.
as
the
Prob.
the
5.
elastance
Consult
mathematical
the
are
the
this
distances
between
pK
flux
length;
equal
10
tion
distribu-
density
metal
surface
flux
the
surface,
and
A,
surrounding
density
varies
equal
Extend
and
and
and
distances
between
permittance
large
der
cylin-
the
the
and
points
radius
and
qA,
pA
theory
density
on
of
inverse
are
qC
radius
the
This
pB.
is
is
with
respect
the
geometric
is
pK
the
any
mean
geometric
the
whether
true
to
radii
not.
or
flux
that
means
gB
chapters
theory
the
plane.
that
circle;
equipotential
and
equipotential
calculate
to
infinite
Show
4.
between
an
curve
the
axial
into
cylinders.
corresponding
how
given
on
the
of
the
and
series
distance
n^.
Show
3.
Prob.
mean
the
plot
of
one
in
short
of
meter
per
elastances
equal
(c)
comparatively
permittance
10
that
on
Prob.
and
of
Show
consequently
inversely
into
at
63
[Art.
CIRCUIT
cylinders
the
parallel;
surface
2.
equal
two
calculate
(a)
divide
(b)
Take
1.
and
apart,
qC
ELECTRIC
THE
given
in
this
distribution
electrostatics
electricity
in
and
article
between
some
magnetism.
the
to
two
standard
calculation
large
work
of
spheres.
on
the
XVII
CHAPTER
64.
Line
Three-phase
unloaded
an
denoted
and
voltages
three
pairs
three
sets
of
of
conductors
lines
from
density varies
reality
and
length
refer
provided
not
to
the
must
be
times
the
it
A,
the
they
The
is
displaced
displaced
into
at
the
following relation
three
symmetrical
forming
the
q's vary
values
are
q's
change
are
per
of
the
unit
in
be
To
of
out
be
order
in
is omitted
conductors,
two
subscripts 1, 2,
considered
are
into
lectric.
die-
the
fluid, as
incompressible
instant
of
unit
per
conductors
an
conductor
one
that
so
all
at
holds, namely,
92 +
9"
time
according
of
the
wires, and
and
time
the
phase
of
length
corresponding
i
by
120
conductor
dq/dt
193
the
to
law.
sine
s}Tnmetrical
effective
the
degrees.
is
equal
with
With
voltages
values
of
instantaneous
corresponding
displacement
=
(325)
the
equal,
displaced
current
of
spacing
sign
equilateral triangle (Fig. 53),
an
three
with
any
other
gi +
The
like
instantaneous
sjTnbols should
displacements
the
produced
respectively.
this
from
electricity behaves
as
the
before, these
directed
are
and
sign, but
formulfe.
where
qz,
flux
the
is
conductors
three
B,
used
"
prime
the
qi, g^, and
notation
"
the
Since
of
by
and
the
Let
The
diJETerent.
there
that
so
field.
from
conductors
the
with
instant,
the
between
relatively displaced
electrostatic
issue
denoted
positive when
much
to
be
obscure
to
instant
which
with
consistent
are
stantaneo
in-
three
the
since
also
are
of
displacement
displacements
instant
any
force
revolving
displacements
axial
at
of
the
different,
are
and
conductors,
of
pair
is
There
respectively.
be
conductors
three
the
let
Consider
Spacing.
Sjrmmetricai
line, and
each
electricity between
in
with
three-phase
by A, B,
LINES
THREE-PHASE
OF
CURRENT
CHARGING
AND
ELASTANCE
EQUIVALENT
the
The
to
ing
chargthe
time,
rate
or
(326)
Chap.
XVII]
Applying
and
B,
eq.
have,
we
en
where,
by
B.
Ln (6/a) + {"jqi/2
x) Ln (a/6).
{(^qi/2'ir)
The
a.
r',on
The
the
first term
of the
action
eq.
(290)
voUages and
for system
tial
"u
the
where
S'
Qi)S',
(296), that
is, the
is
system,
equal
to
that
symmetrical
lie
on
the
same
preceding equation
is
the
between
elastance
elastance
one
is
equipotensimplified to
expressed
of the
by
conductors
00', as if the third conductor

plane of symmetry
the other two equations are
exist. Owing to symmetry,
we
cause,
be-
zero,
spacing. In other words,
the
thus
that
term
it is observed
three-phase line with
and
conductors
The
"
second
the
symmetrical spacing.
cylindrical surface.
(qi
for this
Electric displacements in
A,
system
of the sjonmetrical
account
Fia. 53.
on
(330)
by 6, and the radii of the

the right-hand side of this
of system
action
values,
for instantaneous
applying
on
the conductors
(290) for the voltage between
equation represents
of system
196
LINES
THREE-PHASE
before, the spacing is denoted
as
conductors
OF
ELASTANCE
eq.
and
did
not
similar;
have
ew
(qj-93)S';
ea==
ezi
(qi-qi)S';
{qi-qi)S'.
(331)
196
THE
This
result is interpreted
that
relations
values
the
ELECTRIC
of
which
corresponding
in
this
with
phase
drawn
in
values
to
each
other
MNP.
is
We
the vectors
in
the
(Qi
thus
arrive
the
is
the
in the
equal
(331)
eqs.
E,
E2
E3
explained
to the
be
of the
sented
repre-
triangle;
angle
side of this trithe
point 0.
of the
Y-voltages
or
have
triangles,we
relations
for
reduced
the
E12/E1
other
simply
two
to
Q2S';\
(332)
QsS'.]
conclusion:
charging current)
and
symmetrical spacing
single-phase line
in
by taking
assuming
the
be
are
Q,S';]
the
that
the
with
placement
dis-
phase of
per
conductors
same
voltage of
and
The
symmetrical voltages
the
star
conductor
one
Qi)
"
displacements Qi, Q2, and
the
are
For
631.
must
from
following important
to that between
obtained
to
electric
qi)
"
the
and
three-phase
the neutral
plane 00'
single-phase line.
As
of the
{qz
phase relatively
each
vectors
corresponding
spacing, provided
same
line is
with
to that in
equal
of two
three
(and consequently
three-phase line
fulfilled that
similarityof
the
at
in
vertices
the corresponding star-
with
Qi)/Qh
the
to
eqs.
of symmetry,
reasons
displaced
center
to
"^31. In regard
that, for
are
is then
the
phase with
"
the
phases. Consequently,
We
"'12,
E23,and
difference
that
system; also,from
"
"
degrees. Therefore, they
120
from
to
now
93),and
^2),(52
"
know
Q3, we
condition
equal
see
are
by
vectors
The
{qi
"
equal numerically and
are
by
Qs
of
"
quantities Qi, Q2, and

they
quantities. According
corresponding voltages 612, 623, and

vectors
Q2), (Q2
{Qi
Qs), and (Q3
with
phase
of these
vectors
geometrically for
true
the
the
reason,
ous
algebraically for instantane-
true
quantities, hold
(331),the instantaneous
are
ing
graphicallyby Fig. 53, remember-
hold
sinusoidal
[Art. 64
CIRCUIT
actual
devoid
rule gives
Art.
one
the
as
equivalent single-phase line
an
conductor
of
transmission
voltage
transmission
line;the
of both
simple
method
for
the
if the third
conductor
three-phase line
equal
inductance.
finding
the
of the
one
between
did
to the
not
star
conductor
return
permittance of
between
plane of symmetry
the
be
to
and
resistance
equivalent line; namely,

phase line is equal to that
line and
36,
is
The
exist.
one
voltage
preceding
of the
equivalentsingle-
conductors
it and
and
supposed
permittance
the
is
of
of
the actual
the other
ductors,
con-
Chap.
XVII]
the
The
student
table
The
of
capacitiesor
reason
for this is
flux
is
charging
of the
small
is
but
and
conductor
size of
between
any
the
little,
spacing.
available
lines.
of transmission
charging currents
tween
bethat the principalpart of the elastance
conductors
density
explained in
current
easilyverify this fact by consulting
can
two
the
ratios
usual
unsymmetrical
an
involved, and
more
value
the
affects
conductors
with
current
Fortunately, however, the spacing between
article.
next
with
is much
of conductors
spacing
charging
197
LINES
THREE-PHASE
OF
of the
calculation
The
the
ELASTANCE
the
near
occurs
Consequentlj',it
comparatively high.
where
conductors,
is possible
permittance per phase of a threephase line v.'ith unsymmetrical spacing, by finding the limits of
the permittance with
symmetrical spacings. For instance, let
be placed on
and the third on top of
conductors
two
cross-arm
a
the
2
pole, forming
and
m.
1.6
in the
with
or
the
practice to estimate
in
isosceles
an
The
respectively.
m.
three
conductors,
but
the
Let
triangle.
charging
currents
value
the average
spacings
ent
differ-
are
is
be
largerthan
symmetrical spacing of 2 m., and smaller than with a symmetrical

the
of
1.6
found
charging currents
m.
spacing
Having
the
assume
intermediate
an
the two
value
limits,whichever
conditions
these
spacings,
two
else take
or
by interpolation,
the
gives
unfavorable
more
one
can
one
of
operating
of the line.
It is rather
ground
for
equivalent permittances
tedious
the
problem
the influence of the
estimate
to
in
three-phase line. The

theory is simple, the ground being replaced by the images of the
three conductors, as in Fig. 51; but the formula; are
volved,
long and inupon
because
See
Prob.
one
of its former
that when
of the conductors
one
in the other two
value.
Solution:
of the conductors
and
the
/. i-^ the
which
we
Vs)
2.
conductors
3.5
m.;
the
are
be superimposed.
be the permittance between

between
with
voltage,and
not
three-phaseline
drops to 86.6 per
A; is
concerned
is kC{\ E).
The
it and
one
of
the three phases
here.
coefficient
Operating
ratio of the
two
is
0.866.
line
in
conductors
C
charging current
the charging current

single-phase,
Prob.
Let
the plane of symmetry
Then
kC{E/Vz), when
of proportionality with
0.5/(1/
article.
current
the other conductors.

alive is
3 in the next
problem
the charging
fails,
cent
currents
the effects of six separate systems must
Show
1.
charging
140-kv.,25-cycletransmission
three-phase,
line consists of
in diameter; the spacing is symmetrical and equal to
What
length of the line is 250 km.
is the total reactive
cm.
198
THE
keep
to
necessary
power
ELECTRIC
the line alive,and
kilometer
permittanceper
of the
Ans.
Prob.
in
3.
of 2.4
m.
between
what
the
are
voltageand
equivalent single-phaseline?
kva.; 80.8 kv.; 0.00947 mf.
7270
three-phase transmission
diameter,suspended
[Art. 64
CIRCUIT
km.
per
line consists of conductors
all three in the
vertical
same
the adjacent conductors.
What
plane,at
the
are
the
18
mm.
distance
limits of the
elastance of the equivalent single-phaseline?

Ans.
Note:
proximity of
The
practicalpurposes
consider
to
the dielectric and
the
the
magnetic effects
has called the author's attention

the
assumptions, and when
spacing for inductance and
the three actual
Prob.
the
4.
Extend
three
km.
it is sufficient for
to the fact
that,with certain simplifying

are
transposed,the equivalent
of
equal to- the geometric mean
wires
capacityis
612623631.'
the equivalent spacingis 3.02 m., and

equals 105 mgd. per km.
consideration
corresponding elastance
which
megadarafs per
that
spacings,or
under
case
113
symmetrical spacing only, as far as

Mr. J. G. Pertsch,Jr.,
concerned.
arc
three
beq
In the
and
100
limits shows
two
the
given in this article to the case in

(Fig.54), and show that the
point 0 coincides with the center
treatment
delta voltages are
the
different
of
gravity of
the
triangle,a
spacing of
the
before.
beingpresupposed as
Equations (331) hold
before, and
AINP
but
parallelto
are
the
sides
the
point
in this
of
tion:
Solutrue
as
triangle
those
cannot
case
metrical
sym-
conductors
from
of 123,
be determined
the
metry
sym-
of the figure. Any

within
of
star
which
delta
Fig.
54.
Electric
displacements in
three-phase line with unsymmetrical

voltagesand symmetrical spacing.
one
*"
point 0
the triangle123 gives a set
voltages Ei, E2, and E3,
produce the given set of

voltages;but there is only
point 0 from which the rays
the
will
vertices
satisfy condition
of triangle MNP
(325).
Since
the
displacements in the equivalent

voltages, condition (325)
of Ei, E2, and
E3 shall equal zero.
geometric sum
The parallelogram021 '3 gives the geometric sum
of E2 and
E3 equal
If 0 is the correct point,01' must
to 01'.
be equal and opposite to
be fulfilled that
and
Om
the
condition
must
^01.
Similarly,
01,
It is known
from
On
03.
^ 02, and Op
elementary geometry that
5
of
each other in the ratio of 2 to 1,
the three bisectors
a triangledivide
and that the point of their intersection is the center of gravity of the
triangle. Hence the point 0 is the center of gravity of the triangle123.
single-phase lines
requires that the
must
be proportional to the
Chap.
199
LINES
THREE-PHASE
OF
ELASTANCE
XVII]
again derive eqs. (332), and finallyarrive at the

conclusion as that printed in itahcs after these equations. The
same
from
another, the three charging
one
three star voltages being different,
each leading the correspondingQ by 90 degrees.
also different,
currents
are
The
permittance and the voltage of the equivalentsingle-phaseline are
From
(331)
eqs.
we
phase,in spite of
also different for each
the
symmetrical spacing of
the
conductors.
Prob.
For
5.
voltages,draw
given three-phaseline
also make
delta voltages is equal to zero;

the ends of intervals yV, tV and
systems, A, B, and
Three-phase
is mentioned
much
three drawings of the field at
cycle later. Use the principleof

5, Art. 62, and apply it to the three
of
C, keeping
in
mind
the
relative
tudes
magni-
As
Spacing.'
Unsymmetrical
with
Line
preceding article,the calculation of charging

three-phase line with unsynunetrical spacing is
involved
more
than
with
practicalimportance
of much
of the
one
in the
in
currents
when
displacements.
of the instantaneous
65.
ys
Prob.
in
superpositionexplained
component
instant
electrostatic field for the
the
symmetrical spacing and
with
symmetrical spacing, and

at
An
present.
is not
of
outline
it is
firmly in the student's mind the

given here in order to fix more
by which the
general principleof superposition,and the method
fluence
derived in the preceding article. Moreover, the inresults are
and more
of the dielectric is becoming more
important, as
lines
lengths of transmission
when
the expositiongiven in
The
time may
increased.
come
are
lems.
this article will be of assistance in the solution of practicalprobthe
voltages
transmission
and
the
spacings be denoted by 612,623,and

Equations (325) to (329) inclusive hold true
"becomes
symmetrical spacing,but eq. (330) now
Let
612
effect of the system C is not
because
the
Similar
equations
equations
be
may
written
for
independent; the third
are
others, because
is determined
by
the
(325), and
equation
is
unknown
g's.
*
with
as
Ln (0/612)
Ln (612/a)
+
-f ("t92/2t)
("rgi/2ir)
("r53/2T)Ln(6o3/M,
the two
631 respectively.
the three
This
"
"
equal
eâ
and
these
article may
to
"
zero
en,
is obtained
the third voltage in
other
"'"
"
"
in this
but
only
(333)
case.
two
by combining
delta combination
voltages. The third independent

the three
three equations determine
two
be omitt"?d,if so
desired.
200
THE
The
the
ELECTRIC
followingsolution
of these
physical relations,and
in
numerical
that
it may
the
to
(330).
be
to
result
last term
(333) is usually much
eq.
equations gives
leads
The
work.
[Art.
CIRCUIT
smaller
the
on
than
other
two, thus preserving
Substitutingthe value
of qz from
is convenient
right-hand side
the
other
two
the
form
in
conveniently represented
insightinto
an
which
65
the
general
of
terms,
of
form
so
rection
cor-
of eq.
(325) into (333), we
eq.
obtain
ei2
where
the
(0-51/2
tt)Ln {hci/a)
since
eq.
they
(296).
of
are
the
spacings. The factors by

multiplied in eq. (334) are
are
form
same
recalled
and
of
which
familiar,
the
plane
of
elasof
symmetry
therefore
factors
single-phaselines
of
the
(296) expresses
eq.
the
having
the
member
right-hand
above-mentioned
The
elastances
the
as
that
conductor
one
single-phase line.
the
^2
It will be
between
tance
and
qi
(335)
J
"31"23/"12,
corrected
the
displacements
"23"12/"31,
1
"c3
called
"12"31/"23,
1
hc2
be
(334)
quantities,
hci
may
Ln {hd/a),
{(Tq2/2ir)
"
resent
rep-
corrected
spacings 6ciand bc2respectively. Denoting the reciprocalsof these

sponding
elastances,or the corrected
permittances, by C with the corresimilar equations for
subscripts,eq. (334) and the two
the other
On
phases
the
other
located, we
have
star
We
star
reduced
are
ei2
qi/Ci
623
qi/Cz
esi
qs/Cs
hand,
the
to the
for
"
"
form
52/^2,qs/Cs;
qi/Ci.
point 0,
star
any
relation
following
(336)
"
matter
no
the
between
where
delta
and
voltages:
again select
voltage
the
is in
phase quadrature
ei
"23
62
631
63
neutral
phase
with
en
the
62;
"
"
point
with
(337)
63;
the
ei.
in
such
corresponding
corresponding charging
the given three-phase system
is
single-phaselines,and
directly resolved
our
that
manner
problem
q;
that
current.
into
three
is solved.
each
is, in
Then
pendent
indeIf the
Chap.
XVII]
ELASTANCE
by comparing
point 0 is so selected,then
201
LINES
THREE-PHASE
OF
(336) and
eqs.
(337)
we
have
=
qi/Ci;
62
q2/C2;
63
93/C3.
(338)
these
q'sfrom
the
of
Substituting the values
ei
equations
into
eq.
(325) gives
hold
to
are
condition
is the
This
"262 +
which
the point 0
Eliminating
true.
C3e3
and
62
63
(339)
must
satisfy if
from
eq.
(337), and
the last of the eqs.
first and
of the
Ciei +
(338)
eqs.
(339) by
means
solving for
Ci,
we
obtain
61
ei2C2/C
(340)
eaiCa/C,
where
C
above, Ci, C2, and
mentioned
As
Ci -}- C2 +
length between
and
wire
one
spacings defined by
hold
also
values
simple method
point
E12, and
to
parallelto E31.
rected
cor-
true
instantaneous
of the
same
neutral
plot
direction
kO
Or
1 k
posite
op-
EniCs/C)
else,the problem
solved
be
may
for the
symmetry,
diagram
vector
in the
EuiCifC)
the
locate 0,
To
(Fig. 55).
=
the
of
finding graphically
positionof
in
plane
unit
permittances per
for
algebraically
geometrically for the vectors
true
for
the
are
(335).
eqs.
(340) suggests
quantities,eq.
the
the
hold
which
relations
Since
Cz
(341)
C3
analytically,
using either the orthogonal or

of comthe trigonometric form
plex
mined
quantities. Having deterthe
three star
position
of
voltages become
0,
FiG.
the
known,
55.
then
the
displacements in
three-pha.sesystem
melrical
and
Electric
placements
corresponding dis-
voltagesand
with
unsi/m-
unsj/mmetrical
spacing.
are
(338).
are
The
in
found
from
The
eqs.
charging currents
leading quadrature with
given system
is thus
determined
are
the
resolved
by
corresponding
into three
eq.
(329), and
star
voltages.
independent equiva-
"^PROrEFlTY
CF ELECTRICAL
L
CHAPTER
SUSCEPTANCE
AND
of
Dielectric
and
Reactance
permittance C,
line of
and
voltage E
the
ing-current
alternat-
an
Let
e, where
by
condenser
across
frequency /.
value of the voltage be denoted

then
Let
Susceptance.
elastance *S,be connected
or
IN
CIRCUITS
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
66.
_Qd2lJ9J3.
Da""..
XVIII
REACTANCE
DIELECTRIC
AfPLieO
OF
FACU'.TY
LABO:
SC'LN;
neous
instanta-
any
Em sin 2 wft;
tric
displacement in the dielec-
correspondinginstantaneous
is
q
eC
This
displacementvaries accordingto
with
the
The
voltage, because
charging
equal to the
i
is in
phase
instant proportionalto e.
seen
change of
irfCEm cos
q with
the time,
be
thus
this
of
source
said that
leads
Art. 48
(346)
permittance C
connected
voltage,of frequency/, is equivalent to
sign is necessary
minus
with
because
susceptance
sign in the
using the minus
plus sign
formulae
(347)
the current
it is lagging.
magnetic susceptance
In
is
leading,while
other words, by
of dielectric susceptance, and
case
magnetic susceptance, it is possible to extend
for
deduced
in
Chapters
8 and
across
b=-IJE"=-2irfC
The
or
(345)
ir/"
K^2irSCEm
It may
is
line into the condenser
equation that the charging current

the voltage by 90 degrees,as has alreadybeen explained in
The amplitude of the charging current is
above.
It will be
from
the
rate of
dq/dt
the sine law and
every
flowing from
current
instant
at any
q is at
(344)
e/S
9 to
the
the
cuits
ciralternating-current
containing dielectrics.
In
the
preceding formulae
coulombs, and
6 in mhos.
If C
farads,S in darafs, q in
expressed in microfarads and
is in
is
S in megadarafs, cq. (347) becomes

6
-2
tt/CX
10-"
-2
203
t/ X 10-*/S mhos.
(348)
204
THE
The
corresponding dielectric
x
resistance
connected
in series with
in
series
in
or
10"
equal
the
with
to
wfC only when
"
When
parallelwith
used,
are
here
in Art.
explained
as
would
simply be
they
currents
connected
They
in
to
applied when
only
For
with
dielectric susceptances
and
sideration
con-
instance, a magnetic susceptance

of 5 mhos
dielectric susceptance
is
difference
place of (107) and

magnetic reactance
in
of 2 mhos.
magnetic susceptance
net
already been
simply added, taking into
are
parallelwith
The
detailed
impressed voltage.
magnetic
opposite signs.
of 7 mhos
rule is
both
in parallel.
equivalent
to the
respect
circuits
some
their
is
in combination
give
has
repeat what
to
leading,while
are
lagging with
are
In
are
the
To
27.
article.
explained in the above-mentioned
that expressions (348) and
(349) are used
(86),and
is
resistance, the
inductance
magnetic
is
there
condenser
ohmic
an
(349)
binations
resistance;that is,equivalent series and parallelcom-
treatment
S/{2 Tf) ohms.
condenser.
is analogous to that of
treatment
66
is
reactance
is
[Abt.
CIRCUIT
10V(2 tt/C)
dielectric susceptance
The
no
ELECTRIC
magnetic and dielectric
reactances
lar
siminected
con-
are
in series.
in
explanations,the student
these
With
dealing with
coils in
inductance
Prob.
1.
an
difficulty
no
of resistances,condensers, and
combination
any
will have
circuit.
alternating-current
condenser
of 7.3 mf.
What
500-volt,60-cycle supply.
permittance
is connected
and
the susceptance
are
across
the
charging
current?
Ans.
"0.002754
mho;
j 1.377
the voltage
amp.,
being the
reference vector.
Prob.
resistance
non-inductive
Solution:
power-factor.
=
0.6667
condenser
The
2.
tan
amp.;
(leading). Total
Prob.
are
"i"=
750
the
is shunted
preceding problem
Find
ohms.
the
500/750
cent
per
by
and
the total current
current
condenser
in
in
through the resistance is

1.377/0.6667
2.065; cos "/, 43.58
1.53 amp.
0.6667/0.4358
The
current
The
3.
connected
of
and
instead
series,
the resistance in the

of in
parallel.What
precedingproblem
is the
equivalent
combination?
parallel
Ans.
Prob.
4.
transmission
The
The
voltage at
the
Cp
receiver
1.387
end
of
mf.;
a
Vp
926
ohms.
25-cycle,single-phase
line is 45 + j 57 kv. ; the load current is 178 -|-j 69 amp.

impedance of the line is 32 -|-j 68 ohms, and its
series magnetic
capacity is
purposes
4.24
mf.
Calculate
of calculation,one
the
generator current
half of this
capacitycan
and
voltage.
be assumed
For
to be
XVIII]
Chap.
connected
receiver
of
the
across
end.
205
REACTANCE
DIELECTRIC
the
the generator end of the line,the other half across
Solution: The
dielectric susceptance at the receiver end
line is -2
25
tt
2.12
correspondingcharging current
j 0.333
Consequently the
total hne
-0.333
KT^
mho.
The
is
(45000 + j 57000)
10-3
10-"
is 159
current
19 +
j 84
15 amp.
The
amp.
line
drop
is
age
The generator volt-624
(159 + j 84) (32 + j 68)
+ j 13500 volts.
is 44.38 + j 70.5 kv.
end
The charging current
is
at the generator
-23.5
The generator current
+ j 14.79 amp.
j 0.333 (44.38 + j 70.5)
is 135.5 + j 98.8 amp.
Prob.
creases
5. Explain the physicalreason
why a dielectric susceptance inwith the frequency, while a magnetic susceptance is inversely
proportional to it.
Prob.
6. Investigate the influence of a condenser
in a circuit to which
non-sinusoidal
similar to that in
a
voltage is applied; give a treatment
Art. 23.
Show
of an
that the presence
elastance accentuates
higher
=
harmonics
Make
in the
the
67.
current, wliile
physical reason
Current
connected
in
and
parallelwith
Then
the
total
diminish
them.
yourself.
condenser
coil,across
an
be
nating-curr
alter-
through the condenser
current
the
through
coil, 3
be
lagging.
amp,,
supplied from the generator is 2 amp.,

the paradox that the resultant current
is
have
we
the
to
Let
reactance
pure
that
current
leading. Thus,
Let
leading, and
amp.y
tends
Resonance.
Voltage
line.
5
inductance
an
for this difference clear to
smaller
than
either
of
its components.
adjust the permittance and

the
leading and
When
the
condition
is reduced
must
susceptance
Thus,
be
if there
no
from
what
7r/C
resonance.
ance
perfect reson-
to
same,
shall be
dielectric
the
the magnetic
in either
ance.
suscept-
circuit,
1/(2 tt/L),
which
2irfVCL=\
From
can
the generator
case
lagging current
is the
resistance
or
to make
as
is called partial. The
numerically equal
is
total
zero,
resonance
or,
values
is called current
is that the
leading current,
possible to
even
equal, in which
to
the
such
to
condition
place; otherwise
for perfectresonance
the
to
This
zero.
line current
takes
equal
lagging components
is
current
inductance
It is
this equation, any

be
(350)
determined,
may
be
when
one
the
fulfilled for the
of the
other
(350)
three
two
frequency
of
quantities/,C, and
are
otic
given.
""f the
Condition
higher
liar-
206
THE
monies
of
for the
e.m.f.
an
this
case
wave,
and
perfect
is the
case,
harmonic, although
in the
amount
From
in
If such
the
field into the

vice
the
at
When
versa.
this
the
moment
displacement, are
displacement
but
maximum,
At
zero.
in
the
to
is
(350)
electrical sense,
The
and
in
have
to
necessary
started, would
the
When
namely,
between
partial current
The
the
of
to
resonance
is to
replace
then
We
and
with
two
the
each
The
in either
best
be
not
frequency.
be
cyclic exchange
of the
branches;
must
one
energy,
at
the
branch.
other
ator
gener-
We
then
branch
obscures
two
its
acter
general char-
influence
of resistance
see
its
tion.
equivalent parallelcombina-
susceptances with reactive currents,

in phase
currents
through which
are
pure
the
line
The
voltage.
the
the effect
to
way
impedance by
have
into
would
proper
extent, leaving, however,
conductances,
is converted
once
oscillations,
at
of the
the
pendulum.
frequency,
necessary
loss, it
are
resonance.
some
unchanged.
the
When
freely in
of
to
partly
energies
"
equal
field.
swinging
generator and
that
of resistance
presence
to the
this
at
are
are
two
oscillates
equal, there
not
frequency, is largerthan
have
the
storage capacity for
whose
one
field
all; the
indefinitelyat the
are
cycle later,the
is contained
of
"
Without
generator
energies
of energy
the
the
continue
two
maxima
of the
energy
magnetic
maintains
t^r loss.
the
supphes
the
analogous
merely
generator
in
But
electrostatic
condenser
energy
system
manner
the
of
the
of
energy
maximum.
magnetic
the
partly
the
the
whole
quarter
trostatic
elec-
field,and
magnetic
the
in
consists
of the
maximum,
that
the
satisfied,the
its
energy
moments,
numerically equal, and
considerable
energy
of the
One
and
and
electrostatic,
condition
contain
not
consequently
so
field.
current
intermediate
of the
one
resonance
coil is also
zero,
stored
the
the
current
is at
voltage, and
magnetic
and
does
to
potential
reactance
equal
circuit is in the
of the
current
the
for
resonance
present
kinetic energy
the
magnetic field of
be
of energy,
periodic transformation
partial resonance
currents.
of view
point
have
we
line current
the
it may
branch
two
[Akt. 67
CIRCUIT
in which
wave,
fundamental
harmonics.
ELECTRIC
heat, and
energy
thus
supplied
does not
to
enter
the
conductances
into the
electrical
oscillations.
Let
now
magnetic
dielectric
reactance,
across
reactance
an
be
connected
in
series
line.
alternating-current
with
The
cur-
Chap.
XVIII]
reference
the
produce
the
by
line
and
1000
behind
the
voltage
will
student
voltage
the
line
degrees.
90
By
resonance,
and
condition
This
is
similarity and
the
eq.
effect
no
it to
is
resonance
In
this
the
partial.
case,
the
of
the
correctness
of
the
resonance,
between
have
age
complete volt-
for
the
voltage
equal, we
are
(350).
upon
voltage
differences
the
with
Thus,
is called
in series
expressed by
applying
the
by 90
equal to
current
reading again the foregoing discussion
equation.
to
as
across
voltage
that the condition
has
such
as
possibleto produce partial voltages
otherwise
readilysee
of resistance
presence
is
resonance;
is also
resonance
by
reactances
two
the
total
current
respectively.
When
complete
the
only 100, it
900
resonance.
The
of
voltage
Let
volts, leading
900
to
be
taken
volts, lagging behind
of 1000
drop
be
may
dielectric reactance
the
conditions, the
these
With
volts,lagging
100
of
equal
and
same,
electrical degrees.
90
coil be
degrees.
Let
condenser
the
current
is the
devices
two
vector.
across
reactance
the
through
rent
207
REACTANCE
DIELECTRIC
points
will
two
current
be
of
easily
seen.
One
has
rise in
dangerous
extended
and
be
to
potentialin
cable
systems,
inductance
and
produce large
currents
and
the
interrupt
the
above,
student
specialworks
1.
and
current
33.85
open
the
to
for surges
These
either
surges
devices
circuit-protecting
the potential is raised
be
of permittance
presence
conditions
is broken
to
down.
principle of interchange
ought
With
of energj-^
able to follow
value
at
clear
explained
without
difficulty
subject.^
See
W.
S.
Phenomena
and
will be
ing, Vol. II, Arts.
the condenser.
25.44
"
(lagging). This is a
8.41 amp.
the total current
resonance,
Waves,
resonance
the
lines
through
Ans.
favorable
of the system
the
on
there
transmission
of 65 ohms
is connected
in parallel
magnetic reactance
2200- volt,25-cycle circuit.
termine
Depermittance of 73.6 mf., across
a
the total current, and the component
ance
currents, through the react-
Prob.
with
which
of the
understanding
because
magnetic energies.
service,or
the insulation
which
operation of
the
offers
the dielectric and
between
and
guard against possible resonance
on
being
Franklin, Electric Waves;

and
Impulses;
Oscillations.
found
in V.
440
445.
to
also
Some
his
smaller
C.
P.
than
one
case
of
partial
of its
ponents.
com-
charges,
Steinmetz, Electric Dis-
larger work
on
Transient
Electric
of
elementary experiments and curves
Electrical
Karapetoflf'sExperimental
Engineer'
208
ELECTRIC
THE
Prob.
problem
Find
The
2.
permittorand
connected
are
the total current

Ans.
102.3
the reactance
the
across
and
amp.
the component
2200
of partial voltage resonance,
case
coil
line in
same
(leading)
;
[Art. 68
CIRCUIT
given in
instead
series,
equal
kilodarafs;at
11.5
to
the
volts.
6650
voltage drop
of the seventh
resonance
harmonic
of
Permittance
transmission
Art.
in
calculate
author's
determine, for
and
its
constants; viz.,the
reactance, and
Let
Circuit.
of
and
ohms,
its
conductance
magnetic
of the
reactance
the
obtain
of
be
changes
the
The
value
is due
to
of g
can
for Z
and
as
is
show
to
between
distributed
the
of
11
how
to
generator
resistance,
magnetic
ohms.
Then
the
be
series
(351)
line be h mhos, where
mhos.
to
take
general result,at
Chapter
and
Then
let the
the
cording
6, ac-
leakage
shunted
mittance
ad-
(352)
g-jb
more
Since
in
now
imperfect insulation
into account
the
the
same
time
here
of the
loss,
corona
only be estimated, and
be safely neglected. It is introduced
may
how
line is
leakage conductance
also be made
line,and may
cases
it is shown
equivalent single-phase line.
negative quantity;
ground
The
exists.
charging
r+jx
if any
line is
is
(347), is
to
effect of the
in
equivalent single-phaseline
of the
the dielectric susceptance

eq.
is treated
single-phase
17 the
relation
of the
values
to
Its
dielectric susceptance.
impedance of the line
Let
of
It remains
the
millihenry.
equivalent single-phase line,knowing
an
total resistance
the
permittance,
lines is treated
given load,
voltages
receiver
the
of transmission
Magnetic
is
system
voltage regulation
considered, and
of
permittance
inductance
The
the
the
of the
Line, Taking
The
its
Chapter
line is
three-phase
Account.
permittance
in
60, while
in Art.
current
into
of the
in the circuit is
1.65
Transmission
line,disregarding
value
The
33.
deduced
to
of
Voltage Regulation
Distributed
cable
is
to be feared?
Ans.
68.
This
each
across
value of the inductance
what
preceding
of in parallel.
voltages.
8850
devices being larger than the appliedvoltage.

elastance of a 60-cycle underground
Prob.
3. The
two
the
in most
in order
making
the
to
pressions
ex-
symmetrical.
uniformly distributed
the distance
from
along
the generator
the
line, the
current
increases;and there-
XVIII]
Chap.
it is necessary
fore
consider
to
length ds, at
point be E, and
dE
dl
the
be
he the
have
We
finitesi
in-
an
Let
line.
the
/.
line cmrent,
The
its shunted
(Z/7) ds, and
dE
total
is the
due
in the line current
corresponding increment
admittance.
shunted
in
length of the line.

the voltage in the length ds, and let
in
increment
point of
the
is
ds
impedance of the element

I
is (Y/l) ds, where
admittance
series
Let
the
intermediate
some
line voltage at this
the
209
REACTANCE
DIELECTRIC
to
the
then
=-I(Z/l)ds,
(353)
and
dl
sign is needed
minus
The
the
because
Likewise
in
drop
the
right-hand side of
the
on
(354)
ds
voltage I{Z/T)ds causes
charging
E{Y/l)ds
current
eq.
(353),
in E.
decrement
causes
in
decrement
line current.
the
(353) and
Equations
E
E{Y/l)
=-
/.
and
and
take
/, we
ToeUminate
derivative
the
dependent variables,
di\'ide both sides of eq. (353) by ds
contain
(354)
with
respect to
dÊ/ds"=
Substitutingthe value of dl /ds

d'Ê/ds^
=
This
is
omit
the
two
s.
The
{dl/ds) {Z/T).
from
eq.
of it and
because
first,
integration
students
most
EZY/r-
(355)
order for E.
give only the result,for

not
are
familiar
differential equations;
of
solution is most
obtain
(354),we
differential equation of the second

solution
result is
and
convenientl}'expressed in
with
two
We
shall
reasons:
the methods
of
secondly, because the

hjT"erbolicfunctions of
to most
students
complex variable,a form of function unknowTi
of engineering.' Fortunately, even
for the longest transmission
a
may
The
simple theory of hyperbolicfunctions and the solution of eq. (355)

others,in the followingworks and articles: McMahon,
be found, among
Hyperbolic Functions;
Dr.
Ekdiical
Dr.
and
Engineering;
Thomson,
Lines," Trans.
"
The
Amer.
Kcnnclly, Applications of Hyperbolic Functions to

Pender
Steinmetz, Transient Electric Phenomena;
Mechanical
Inst. Electr.
and
Electrical Characteristics
Engrs.,Vol.
of Transmission
(1911); W. E. Miller, bolic

HyperFunctions and Their Application to Transmission
Line Problems," General
Electric Review, Vol. 13 (1910), p. 177; M. W. Franklin, "Transmission
Line
74.
For
of
Calculations,"ibid.,p.
a
proof
expansion (356), see Blondel and
Le Roy, "Calcul des Lignes de Transport d'EIncrgieil Courants
Altematifs
en
tenant
compte
de
la Capacity
et
dc
30
la Pcrditance
"
Reparties,"La Lumikn
Chap.
the
of
XVIII]
values
extreme
varies
log (b/a)
second
In
practice, the
is
taken
limits
brackets
in eq.
advantage of
in numerical
and
0.48
calculations
that
so
in the
brackets
This
0.50.
in
fact
do not
which
the
small.
comparatively
expression
between
usually
1000, the value
of 1 to 3,
is
(360)
whole
of the
10 and
of say
b/a
narrow
value
(360)
ratio
^\T.thiiithe
in the
term
formula
of the
211
REACTANCE
DIELECTRIC
is
require
particularaccuracy.
at
Prob.
1.
Check
Prob.
2.
For
load
no
dimensions
given
and
receiver
are
taken
some
method
followingthe
indicated
the results with
two,
one,
in
69.
Transmission
One
or
transmission
points along
no
similar
the
simplicity of
the
formula?
for the
however,
for
obtained
himself
this
student
in
of
Chapters
to
deduce
that
the
form
of
is
gives
him
one
more
in the
such
9 to
of
one
or
more
then
is
in
There
13.
is
far
as
as
because
concerned,
It is
preceding
treatment
formulae
exercise
at
at
permittance
(356).
eq.
(356)
eq.
of
voltage regulation
approximate
similar
to
the
described
computations
are
of the series
Concentrated
be concentrated
to
in this
numerical
clear to
Voltage Regulation
manner
treatment
particularadvantage
footnote.
make
of accuracy,
treating
calculation
The
the
to
the
of
assumed
line.
the
in the
2, and
Its Permittance
line in the correct
article,it is sometimes
becomes
for
Instead
Points.
problem
the Umits
Line, Considering
More
in
used.
are
Formulae
Approximate
of the references
one
those obtained
three terms
or
line,the
Compare
yourself the relative simplicity,and
when
voltage,
long transmission
verj^
(361).
article.
descriptive
of
of
tables
use
hyperbolicfunctions,
from
Solve problem 2 by the
3.
(360) and
voltage,calculate the generator
full load, for
at
of which
Prob.
coefficients in formulae
the numerical
advisable,
in order
rational
one;
the
use
of
one
half
to
see
over,
more-
complex
quantities.
(a)
line
current
through
the
that
of the
line,the other
is in this
the
the
is to
simpler^tassumption
permittance (and leakage,

end
so
The
concentrated
any)
half
at
the
receiver
apparently increased by the
case
permittance
total receiver
generator
if
consider
voltage
connected
in
current is equal
at
the
end.
current
parallelwith
to 1 2 +
of
I E^Y.
the
ator
gener-
The
Eo
load
"
the load,
Hence,
is
E,
Ei
Z(I.:+
\E,y)
Ê,,
or
^2(1 -f i yZ) +
I.Z
(302)
212
THE
this formula
Comparing
terms
are
is
small, for
is
should
no
be
in
The
If the
in short
in all cases,
used
taking
principal
additional
influence
of the
each
the
the
in the
lines,the
differ from
however, why
that
see
being
of YZ.
formulae
reason,
not
(356),we
eq.
instance
[Art. 69
CIRCUIT
difference
powers
of both
means
There
with
identical,the
containing higher
by
ELECTRIC
results
other
terms
line permittance
calculated
but
little.
very
accurate
expansion
as
terms
many
as
(356)
are
quired
re-
given problem.
generator current, with
the
capacity concentrated
both
at
ends, is
/i
or,
This
formula
values
(b)
is similar
of the
coefficients
the
middle
is obtained
connections
the
line
the
eliminatingit
from
the
El
E,{1 +
line,in
as
it
only
in
also be
which
case
trated
concen-
diagram of
the
that
suscept-
unknown
quantity,
at
and
obtain
result,we
i
(363)
Introducing the voltage
auxiliary
an
from
may
Fig. 42, except
to
terms.
leakage
magnetic.
not
of
center
the
YZ).
differs
minor
and
similar
is dielectric and
ance
(357), and
of the
point of
E,Y{1 +
eq.
line permittance
The
at
to
YE,,
(362),
eq.
hXl -hhYZ)+
i Fô +
substitutingthe value of E, from

h
the
/2 +
hZ{l
yZ) +
i YZ),
(364)
and
h
A
(c)
closer
line permittance
rest
at
Simpson's
to this
of
three
the
In
given
2/4 +
into
yo, Vi,
the
curve
bj' assuming
middle
point,
points
and
the
total permittance
determined
are
of
part
from
approximate integration;namely, according

rule,
average
equal parts
division.
"
(^2 +
yavt is the
and
Let
these
[1/(3n)][yo+
+
where
assigned to
for
(365)
fractions of the
The
Rule
the
at
line.
"parabolic
Vave
concentrated
of the
ends
be
to
is obtained
approximation
the
both
/2(1 -i-hYZ)-j- E,Y
^3 +
of
ordinate
which
Vn-l)
the
given
(366)
actual
formula,
some
of the
be
an
even
ber
num-
divided,
is sub-
curve
at the
ordinates
must
is the
curve,
total width
the
represent
etc. +
T/n-o)+ Vn],
etc. +
etc., are
above
+
(t/i
points of
number.
arbitrary distribution
of the
line, and
the
along
permittance
213
REACTANCE
DIELECTRIC
XVIII]
Chap.
let
formula
foregoing
2.
The
C2'),
gives
C"^'
C's
the
where
the}' refer
is
CaJ
the
Ci
the
/ of
length
Ca'.
line,
This
that
means
to
the
introduce
The
quantity.
drop
voltage
E,
h(l
formulae
obtained
Prob.
algebraic
algebraic
closer
formuljc
Check
formulae
it be
If
si.xth of
one
twelfth
Current
sixth
one
it
load
at
each
end.^
line
auxiliary
an
and
the
by
manner,
hZa
-{- E.Yil
ator
gener-
adding
is
result
The
voltage.
+
as
voltage
centrated
con-
convenient
again
is
the
load
Y'Z')
be
i FZ)
(369)
-f- ^^ YZ
to
two
(356)
eqs.
and
(357)
those
than
approximations.
performing
the
by actually performing
the
(364) and
(365) by actually
(369) and
(370)
transformations.
3.
at
length
This
by
(370)
equidistant points along
the
must
permittance
of
jV Y^Z^)
to
of the
(367)
eq.
(368)
well-known
the
to
the
Rule
one
the
desired
Prob.
five
of
that
so
transformations.
2.
Prob.
between
in
preceding
Check
1.
center
hYZ-h:^s
come
the
in
line,
riUY^'Z')
+
These
sides
permittance
hYZ-{-
total
the
at
line
the
in
E,il +
of
relation
the
of
|C
line, and
the
of
voltage
tance
permit-
reality the
length
both
|C
of the
is calculated
voltage
the
|C
distribution
this
With
in
that
indicate
to
obtain
we
middle
the
at
But
the
over
sign
prime
line.
the
thirds
two
the
Multiplying
(367)
....
distributed
uniformly
Co'
of
length
4C/
with
marked
are
unit
to
HCo'
the
total
each
end,
the
line.
of
result
Phenomena,
has
been
in the
and
the
have
permittance
the
rest
first indicated
chi^ta:
"
on
that
one
by
Dr.
according
be
must
at
concentrated
permittance
line, show
placed
quarter
Steinmetz,
Distributed
and
the
three
in his
Capacity."
Simpson's
to
in
at
middle,
quarters
AUemating-
APPENDIX.
The
and
ampere
according
all
civilized
of
electric
and
do
temperature
contained
The
and
convenient
more
order
Besides,
we
know
the
other.
the
is that
For
the
direct
are
power
the
electromagnetic
has
ampere
well,
"
dimension
that
dimensions
of
let the
of
is, it
of
which,
with
cannot
be
length
recognized
and
dimensions
of
foui,
shown
see
Appendix
all other
in
of the
I to
the
by
author's
to
that
be
time
following
units
Magnetic
215
can
table.
in
those
but
of
the
to
one
or
ampere-ohm
one
The
dimension
the
resistance
as
is fundamental;
of
the
sion
dimen-
by
[R];
respectively by
The
magnitudes
expressed
For
the
through
ing
correspond-
ampere-ohm
Circuit.
of
electrostatic
Let
[T].
be
it is
Ail
power.
combination
of
[M].
mass
knowledge,
denoted
[L] and
units
ohm.
dimensions
physical
(or energy).
[I] and
electric
magnetic
present
mass
are
electromagnetic.
but
reduced
and
is but
nor
our
symbols
the
using the
there
magnitude,
commonly
expressions
him
of
but
equivalent
are
and
the
of
mechanical
power
of
fundamental,
as
physical
of
need
no
for
denoted
be
dimensions
as
is
length, time, and
current
of
meter
centi-
mass
PR,
dimension
the
those
of
per
values
and
of
the
electrostatic
the
these
that
kinds
units;
only
not
proof
as
two
neither
is
of
same
engineer there
systetn, which
use
the
through
equation
dimension
the
formulae,
ampere
practically
with
units
the
of
by
of
expressed
the
to
explicit
the
be
the
consider
no
of
can
according
the
is
there
electric
the
avoid
to
into
explicitly
enter
ment.
agree-
fraction
The
quantities.
magnetic
to
to
two
as
international
an
determination
the
resistance
current,
by
units, together
two
legal definition
of
considered
specifications adopted
permit
not
the
in
dimension
power
in
second,
the
UNITS.
now
reproduced
These
nations.
and
all other
detailed
to
be
can
be
can
OF
estabhshed
units
values
Their
ohm
the
fundamental
arbitrary
cent
SYSTEM
AMPERE-OHM
THE
system,
216
THE
TABLE
OF
ELECTRIC
These
are
also
theory
stresses
and
of
no
use
physics
electrostatics
can
electric pole strength.
in electrical
is
more
and
DIMENSIONS
IN
SYSTEM
of the
the dimensions
in
THEIR
AMPERE-OHM
of pole strength is of
opinion, its usefulness
AND
UNITS,
THE
CIRCUIT
ELECTRIC
than
ought
as
displacementsin the dielectric,
The
cept
con-
engineering,and, in the author's

doubtful.
to
be
is done
The
whole
the
built up on
in this work.
tary
elemenidea
of
units of
Other
by multiplying the tabulated

the
units
the
and
checked
be
can
dimensions
be
for energy
formula
sides of the
both
on
is
numerical
of all the
from
of
dimensions
below,
is
by the
of the
use
for
units
two
is
kilogram
and
energy
equal
will be
adds
fact
thing
do
to
is to
derive
unit
kg.,
10.2
of force
whole
the
to
gram,
this
units
other
which
electric
all
simple
simple and
and
be
magnetic
it leads
the
units
those
self-evident
to
to be measured
properly called
in
sight
the
gram
kilo-
prospect
The
use.
best
ne.xt
whenever
perform calculations,
to
the
convert
precedents and
and
magnetic
to
and
have
dimensions
the
manner,
tions,
justifica-
the
other
duced
re-
shown
mental
fundaAll
ampere.
and
fundamental
as
is
units
the centimeter, the
ohm
of
results into
9.806.
degree Centigrade, two
and
is caused
multiplier. Such
much
addition
In
recognized,
almost
odd
common
electric
are
with
above
ought
could
is not
in
scheme:
the
the
historical
of
system
connected
are
that
kilogram-meter and
Force
and
in
second, and
the
tion
equa-
of the
assurance
into practice, because
formula;
leaving aside
Thus,
be
to
force, because
avoid
joulecens,and
kilograms by multiplying them by gf
convenient,
outlined
as
joules.
established
well
mensions
physical di-
found
one's
to
torque, viz., the
length,to
of introducing this unit

is too
the
as
dynes). There
10^
joulecen (=
instance,
side of the
right-hand
result
9.80G
about
to
ical
phys-
correct.
theoretically
in joules per centimeter
the
the
the
This
the joule; 1 kg.-meter
unit
for
the
Substituting
slightirregularityin the system
mulae
for-
by comparing
equation. Let,
coefficient.
energy.
the given formula
better
aQDl/K,
quantities on
table
the
gives
and
given,
W
where
detected
errors
electric
the
quantities. Moreover,
these
of
nature
by adding
of 10, or
powers
interesting in itself,and
is
quantities
into
insight
by
easilycreated
are
prefixesmilli-,micro-, kilo-,mega-, etc.

of
A
study of the physical dimensions
magnetic
magnitude
convenient
more
217
SYSTEM
AMPERE-OHM
THE
values
six
in
the
in
table
above.
To
ohm
appreciate fully the advantages of the practical amperesystem
systems,
one
over
has
the
only
C.G.S.
to
electrostatic
coiniiarc
the
and
electromagnetic
dimensions, for instance,of
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Altebnating-Cukrent
Theoretical
Elements
Alternating
Currents,
Vectors
Vector
and
Revolving
Die
Electrical
by
Bedell
by
G.
Engineering,
W.
Modern
Electric
Elements
Kapazitat
by
Chas.
P.
Crehore.
and
by Cramp
and
Smith.
Patterson.
Elektrotechnik,
der
by E. Arnold.
Engineering,
Problems,
Elements
Principles
Steinmetz.
Engineering,
Grundlagen
Electrical
in
Electrical
The
P.
Benischke.
Wechselstromtechnik,
Problems
Chas.
Thomalen.
by
Wissenschaftlichen
by
Die
of
Diagrams,
Vectors,
Electrical
by
Phenomena,
of
of
of
Waves,
und
W.
V.
Lyon.
Wells.
by
Engineering,
Engineering,
Electricfty,
by
and
Hooper
Electrical
Electrical
Views
of
by
by Waldo
by
by Oliver
H.
Frankhn
Pender.
Lodge.
S. Franklin.
Electromagnetic
Induktivitat,
Theory,
by Ernst
210
by S. J. Bamett.
Orlich.
and
Esty.
metz.
Stein-
INDEX
PAGE
and
Addition
subtraction
Admittance,
of
expressed
as
Admittances
in
dielectric
when
voltage
in
are
phase
45
31
99
units
3, 215
of
51
inductive
an
hydraulic,
to
Ohm's
hydraulic,
to
the
dielectric
hydraulic,
to
the
flow
to
thermal,
to
thermal,
to
the
cireuit
65
law
of
circuit
145
electricity.-
.25
dielectric
charged
Ohm's
159
law
flow
definition
of
electricitj-
24
of
of alternating
56
current
voltage
or
50
of single-core
resistance
insulation
grading
see
polyphase
of
hydraulic,
insulation
Capacity,
of
to
power,
and
current
advantages
system
elastance
Cables,
operator
165
power
mechanical,
Average
.89
76
factor, definition
value
or
151
currents,
Apparent
quantity
of
currents,
Cable,
76
complex
of
permittivity
Analog^',
40
80
Alternating-current
AmpUtude
voltages
series
strength
Ampere-ohm
and
currents
parallel
in
Air,
sinusoidal
of
definition
Elastance
171
of
.26
of
174
and
Permittanci
electrostatic, definition
of..
147
.
specific inductive
Charging
.151
condenser
of
current
203
...
of transmission
current
Circle
currents
of
currents
of
sec
LLiitanco
193
three-phase
s^'mmetrical
three-phase
line
with
unsymme'trlcal
of induction
spacing
196
spacing
201
motor
motor
138
or
transformer
Circuit, altemating-"iirr."!it.
i:36
.31
dielectric.
dielectric,
also
with
induction
of
coeflicient
diagram
line,
Une
.143
hsmauuc
1 \n
aiunugiu-.
direct-current
polyphase
"
221
'
222
INDEX
PAQE
Coefficient,leakage, of induction
of self-induction
Inductance.
see
of electric
temperature
Complex
138
motor
resistivity
expression for admittance
89
expression for impedance
88
quantity, definition
85
Component,
of
of current
energy,
Condenser, charging
Conductance
and
56
voltage
or
56
of
current
definition
voltage
or
reactive,of current
203
of
143
resistance,how
related,in
an
A.C.
definition of
169
Conductances, addition
Conductor,
of
definition
definition
of
14
of
of variable
cross-section
unit, definition
Continuous
Core
current,
13
Current,
see
22
of
direct.
loss of transformer
Corona,
79
2
dielectric
Conductivity,
circuit
Ill
electrostatic
167
Current, alternating
31
density, definition of
15
direct
due
and
energy
of
71
alternating
48
reactive
of induction
primary,
radial
voltage
non-sinusoidal
to
effective value
flow
components
of
56
126
motor
of
26
refraction,law
28
of
205
resonance
transient,in opening
and
closing a
circuit
Currents, polyphase alternating

Cycle
of
alternating wave,
Cy finders,elastance
definition
between
two
71
99
of
large parallel
33
188
Daraf, definition
of
148
Delta-connected
three-phase system
105
143
Dielectric circuit
conductance
169
elastivityof
152
energy
stored in
flux,refraction
164
144
of
permittance
of
169
hysteresis
nature
158
154
flux density
of
147
223
INDEX
151
Dielectric,permittivity of
reactance
204
strength
164
stress
156
203
susceptance
of
Dimensions
Dispersion
216
units,table of
of induction
factor
138
motor
illustrated
Displacement, electric,
Dielectric
Disruptive voltage, see

Effective
strength.
of harmonics
value
in terms
value
of variable
values
Elastance
144
54
49
current
and
of alternating currents
between
concentric
between
small
between
two
voltages,definition of
48
spheres
175
spheres
179
large parallelcylinders
188
definition of
148
of
single-corecable
171
of
single-phaseUna
176
of
three-phase
sjTnmetrical spacing
line with
196
of
Elastances, addition
Elastivity,definition
149
of
152
Electric displacement illustrated
intensity,definition
intensity in
the
144
of
16
dielectric circuit
155
10
power
force,see
Electromotive
also
Electrostatic,see
Voltage.
Dielectric.
capacity, definition
of
147
167
corona
field,nature
converted
143
of current
Energy component
density
of
or
voltage
56
heat
into
10
of
158
stored
in dielectric
stored
magnetic
158
02
unit of electrical
Equipxjtentialsurfaces
11
defined
Equivalent resistance,definition
series and
parallelcircuits
sine-wave,
of
Exciting admittance
definition
78
of
.
53
transformer
Exponential expressions for

Farad, definition
22
of
vectors
Ill
and
operator?)
97
of
field.
Field,elect n)static,see Electrostatic
for calculatingthe effective
P'leming'smethod
117
value
of
,iii
irnixulur
curvt-.
52
224
Flux
INDEX
density, dielectric
Dielectric
see
dielectric,
Form
154
flux.
factor,definition of
Fourier
51
series
of
Frequency
43
alternatingcurrent
voltage,definition of
or
33
Gradient, voltage, in the dielectric circuit
155
voltage, definition of
Ground,
upon
the
influence upon
the
influence
Harmonics, definition
16
charging
currents
elastance
of
in
three-phase line
202
....
single-phaseline
180
of
41
and
effects of elastance
inductance
205
on
.
Heaviside, OUver,
nomenclature
Henry, definition
Heyland diagram
of
of
152
62
,
of induction
motor
or
136
transformer
31
machine
Homopolar
Horse-power, English, defined
10
10
metric, defined
analogue of inductive
Hydrauhc
analogue
65
circuit
145
dielectric circuit
of the
169
Hysteresis, dielectric
180
of electric
Images, Kelvin's method

Impedance, definition of
67
equivalent, of transformer
expressed
Impedances
Inductance,
as
116
complex quantity
88
operator
or
in parallel
80
in series
68
60
of
definition
69
voltage
of, with non-sinusoidal
motor, approximate analyticaltreatment
influence
Induction
characteristics
circle coefficient
circle
or
to
diagram
diagram
exact
analyticaltreatment
input
per
136
122
122
of
139
127
phase
magnetomotive
maximum
primary
138
of
polyphase transformer
electrical
equivalent
125
123
rotor
dispersionfactor
or
Heyland
equivalence
locked
with
forces
131
of
output
and
current
124
in
126
power-factor
130
pull-out torque of
secondary
sUp,
resistance
calculation
of
and
reactance
reduced
to
primary.
133
126
slip,defined
123
squirrel-cagerotor
134
225
INDEX
motor, starting torque of
Induction
129
torque of
Inductive
Inertia
reactance,
as
see
analogue
an
127
Reactance.
to
inductance
60
also Dielectric.
Insulation,see
condenser
175
type
grading of
174
definition of
Intensity,electric,
lî
electric
155
factor,illustrated
Irregularpaths,
resistance
Joule, definition
of
10
and
conductance
of
27
11
relation of, to thermal
units
11
of
Joulecen, definition
217
Joule's law
10
Kelvin's
law
Kelvin's
method
of economy
15
of electric
images
180
Ivirchhoflf'slaws
Law,
17
Joule's
10
Kirchhoff's
Kirchhoff's
of current
first
IS
second
19
refraction
28
of flux refraction
163
of economy,
Kelvin's
of minimum
resistance
Ohm's, synopsis
Ivcakage conductance
Mho,
of
mapping
irregularconductor
28
irregularfield
l-
of transforTnor
\\\
Average.
of polyphase sy;"iI
definition of
resistance, law
Motor, induction, see

Neutral
of
line.
connection
Minimum
138
metho"l
current
208
motor
finding resistance
Magnetizing
see
induction
of
Line, see Transmission
Me.sh
line
Dr., method
Ix^hmann, Dr.,
Mcnn,
of
of transmission
factor of the
Ix"hmann,
15
27, 160
Idl
111
_'
of
Induction
ItiO
motor.
points of polyphase 8y8t""m
104
Nomenclature
xii
.
Notation
Ohm's
law, for an infinitesimal conductor

hydraulicanalogy io
xiii
I'y
2
227
INDEX
PAGE
64
Reactance, definition of
204
dielectric
equivalent, of
118
transformer
63
inductive
110
leakage, of transformer
of induction
secondary,
Reactive
of current
component
Refraction
reduced
motor
to
133
primarj-
56
voltage
or
28
of current
164
of dielectric flux
Regulation,
also
see
speed,
Resistance
Voltage regulation.
of induction
voltage, of
the
transformer
voltage, of
the
transmission
in A.C.
and
conductance
and
temperature,
lOS
line
*M
circuits
relation between
'
.")
definition of
equivalent, definition of
transformer
equivalent, of
law
118
of minimum
Resistances, addition
160
of induction
secondary,
reduced
motor
to
133
primary-
of
definition
Plesistivity,
Resonance,
\2'S
motor
of
13
current
205
voltage
207
Series connection
of achnittancos
connection
of conductors
connection
of
SO
imf)edances
combination
Series-parallel
of
combination
68
permittances and
clastanccs.
150
.
of resistances.
'."
.
Sine-wave, definition of
:;_'
definition of equivalent
."):"
of current
or
voltage.
represented by a vector
Single-phase line,effect
elastance
and
currents
Slip,calculation
grounci
upon
the
cl;i^tanr.
of
equations
Sinusoidal
of the
of lines of force and
voltages,rule for addition
and
subtraction
of.
of
of induction
motor
defined.
.
Specificcapacity,
see
relative,
Permittivity,
resistance,see Resistivity.
concentric;
Spheres, elastance between
Square
elastance
between
equations
of lines of force and
root
of
Star connection
mean
square
"
small
17*j
surfaces
equip"otentiaI
value, defined
of polyphase system
between
187
.
!'"
UU
228
INDEX
PAGB
Steinmetz,
Stream
C. P., symbolic notation
Dr.
lines,definition
of
83
of
22
Superposition, principleof
177
Susceptance and reactance,
how
related,in
A.C.
an
circuit
79
definition of
75
dielectric
Susceptances
in
203
parallel
75
list of
Symbols,
xiii
System, four-wire,two-phase
99
three-wire,two-phase
polyphase,
definition
100
of
quarter-phase, star-
99
mesh-connected
and
101
three-phase, delta-connected
105
three-phase, V- and
107
T-connected
three-phase, Y-connected
T-connected
three-phase system
107
coefficient
Temperature
Thermal
103
resistance, definition
Three-phase line,influence
of
of the
ground
the charging currents.
upon
with
symmetrical
with
unsymmetrical spacing, charging
spacing, elastance
and
charging
currents
current
of
Time
constant
Torque
107
Y-connected
103
of electric circuit
72
of induction
127
motor
pull-out,of
induction
motor
130
starting, of induction
motor
129
constant-potential,definition
Transformer,
of
108
loss of
core
Ill
of
equivalent
resistance
exciting admittance
leakage
drop
reactive
vector
current
ratio
of
reactance
118
Ill
of
Ill
110
110
in
diagram
voltage
and
of
in
drop
116
of
reactance
magnetizing
ohmic
1 10
of
113
of
109
voltage regulation
Transient
196
.
105
T-connected
and
201
Three-phase system, delta-connected

V-
202
.
of
current
Transmission
in
fine,see
opening
also
and
108, 115, 120

71
closing a circuit
Three-phase
line and
leakage conductance
Single-phase fine.
208
of
94
voltage regulation of
voltage regulation,taking account
of distributed
mittance
per208
229
INDEX
PAGE
of current,
Tube
meaning
four-wire
Two-phase,
of
conductance
of
electrical
of
13
2
U
energj-
resistance
of
Units,
99
100
system
definition
conductor,
23
system
three-wire
Unit
of
C.
G.
and
S.
practical
the
of
Vector,
Vectors,
...
diagrams,
examples
represent
of
100,
and
subtraction
addition
and
subtraction
exponential
as
102,
37
of
of
projections
of
82
97
functions
93
polar coordinates
effective
and
energy
of
value
the
48
alternating
reactive
in
gradient
components
dielectric
gradient,
definition
of
gradient,
rupturing
values
of
57
155
circuit
16
of
regulation
of
the
transformer
regulation
of
the
transmission
regulation
of
transmission
regulation
of
165
10.S, 115,
line
hne,
with
line, with
transmission
permittance
permittance
211
concentrated.
distributed.
208
Watt,
definition
Wave
form
of
10
alternating
representation
Yrneh,
207
resonance
Y-connected,
120
94
of
113
36
sine-wave
addition
in
107
36
of
expressed
Voltage,
215
system
definition
to
216
of
system
three-phase
used
dimensions
and
names
ampere-ohm
V-connected,
systems
electrical
international
table
of irregular
three-phase
definition
of
current
83r8tem
or
voltage
51
41
103
148

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WORKS

its size had

its present edition,the book

Sibley College, who

author, particularlyin Arts.

line, the transformer,

equivalent electrical diagram

single-phase line. The

large parallelcircular cylinders.

permittance and elastance

flux density and

Energy in the electrostatic

secondary resistances and

Starting torque, pull-out torque, and

line,considering its permittance

analogous quantities in the

Voltage gradient (or

gradient (or magnetic

Magnetic flux density

difficultyin mastering the electrostatic

definite practical situation.

good electrical hand-books

cycle of alternating wave

present system of practicalelectrical

multipliers(powers of 10) with the absolute electromagneticunits

provided that there

forces in the circuit.

Let, however, the

let the terminal

battery l)e reversed, so

conductor, the terminal voltage et

foregoing numerical example the

of the originalunits certain

volts against the

the receiving end;

straightline through the origin.

practicallyall alloys increases with

be the voltage of the battery

the regulating mechanism

the resistance and

degree centigrade, considering

have, for any

increases by 31 per cent from

Let, for instance, the

actually varies according to this law at such

Denoting temperatures from

(Fig.1) holds for low temperatures,

division 248, and so on.

opposite the correspondingdivision

explanationof this method.

interval through all the cross-sections of

in its flow behaves

In the electric circuit,the

long rod offers

overcoming the resistance of the

proved by successively combining

equivalent resistance,Veq, is determined

Substituting the values

(9) into (10) and

1/ri + l/n + etc.,

the reciprocalof the equivalent resistance

rule is: Resistances

also in the form

that for two