PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

LAB MANUAL
PHY193

BASIC PHYSICS
FOR
ENGINEERING II

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

INTRODUCTION
The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor
to construct an accurate representation of what is happening in this world. There are four
main steps in scientific method:
1. Observation and description of a phenomena or group phenomena.
2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena.
3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence tests of the predictions by several
independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.
Hence laboratory experiments play an important role in the learning of science. It helps
students to understand existing theories or to understand new concepts. The main objectives
of laboratory experiments are:
a. To study the phenomena explained only through theories that are read from books or
heard in lectures.
b. To learn methods those are used in researches. Students will learn how to identify
errors or mistakes made during experiments and how to rectify the mistakes in order
to obtain maximum result.
c. Able to record in writing the results and make conclusions.
d. Expand the students ability to organize, analyze, produce ideas and relate the
theories learned in lectures to everyday life.
Laboratory experiments also help to instill in the students good characteristics such as,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Self-inquiry
Self-confidence and independent
Cooperative
Ability to organize
Precision

which are essentials to becoming a good researcher at the highest level.

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Laboratory Physics

LAB REPORT FORMAT

A laboratory report should be communicate, as clearly and concisely as possible, the rationale
for the experiment, what was done, what the results were and what the results mean. On the
basis of a report on an experiment a reader should, basically, be able to repeat it and get
similar results. The report should be as short and simple as possible to accomplish these ends;
it takes practice to learn how to write a technical report that does this well. Each lab report
should contain the following:
1. Heading (Cover Page):
The cover page should contain the following,
Title of experiment
Experiment no.
Students name
Program
ID number
Lab partners name
Date
Instructors name
2. Objective:
A simple explanation on the objective/objectives or purpose/purposes of the experiments.
3. Theory
Write down the theory related to the experiment.
4. Apparatus
List down all the apparatus used.
5. Method/Procedure
Write down the procedure not exactly the words in the lab manual write in passive
sentence.
Example:
Procedure in lab manual: Record the data of spring extension.
Write in passive sentence: The data of spring extension was recorded.
Diagrams and illustrations can also be included.
6. Results and Analysis:
This section includes raw data and analysis of the raw data. You may include data tables
where you have recorded your measurements and calculations using your data including error
calculations.

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Laboratory Physics

If you have to plot graphs, the graphs should be drawn to a large scale, preferably covering
the whole graph paper. Make sure your graphs is complete with title, scale of x and y axis,
and the units and symbols of each axis.
7. Discussion
A qualitative and quantitative discussion on the results obtained such as comparing the
experimental value with the standard/read value, discussion on the errors involved etc. As a
guideline, questions you should answer in your conclusion must include, but are not limited
to the following:
i.
ii.
iii.

What are the main results in your experiments? How do you compare or contrast
with the theory?
Has your initial understanding of the situation or concepts changed? How?
If you were to repeat the experiment, how would you change it, if at all?

8. Conclusions:
Conclusion will be just answering the objective of the experiment. It will be short and
precise.
Graph Analysis
If the result of an experiment is a straight line graph, then the quantities that were plotted
have a linear relationship. The equation y = mx + c represents the linear relationship between
two quantities whereby m is the slope of the graph and c is the intercept on the y-axis.
The slope should be measured by drawing a big right-triangle. Again the point or points
selected to draw the slope do not have to be the points that were plotted. They can be any
points selected on the line (Figure 1).

V
. The line drawn in a
t
graph may not be the best-drawn line. Hence the value of the slope or gradient m would have
some range of errors. The errors can be calculated using two simple methods.
The slope measured in the graph from Figure 1 would be m=

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Laboratory Physics

1. If the experiment is done in group, then each member of the group can plot his/her
own graph and get his/her value of the gradient m. Suppose there are four members
of the group and the value of m obtained are:
9.72, 9.85, 9.97, 9.88 ms-2

'

T h e meanof t h e four m s would be=

9.72+9.85+ 9.79+ 9.88

2
=9.81 ms
4

|9.729.81|+|9.859.81|+|9.979.81|+ 9.889.81
4

T h e mean of t h e differences would be=

T h e meanof t h e differences would be=

0.09+0.04 +0.02+0.07
4

= 0.055 = 0.06 ms-2

Percentage Difference
The easiest way to determine if your result is acceptable is by comparing your result with the
standard value and calculating the percentage difference.

x 100
Standard value
Percentage difference=

Experimental valueStandard value

Example: Standard gravitational acceleration, g = 9.8 ms-2

Experimental value of g,
gex = 9.72 ms-2

9.729.8 x 100 =0.6

9.8
Percentage difference=

If the percentage difference is small, < 0.5%, then the experimental result is acceptable. If the
percentage difference is big, > 10%, then one has to carefully consider the experimental
method or calculations. However, one has to remember that there are limitations to the ability
of the apparatus used.

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Lab Report Rubrics

Lab Report Rubrics (LRR) 16 marks
Section
1
2
Format/
None of the
Some parts are
components of required
missing
the reports
elements are
presented

3
Minor parts
are missing

Procedures

Inadequate
procedures.

Some parts are

missing

Minor parts
are missing

Results &
Analysis

Inadequate
data &
analysis

Some parts are

missing

Minor parts
are missing

Discussion &
Conclusions

Inadequate
conclusion

Some parts are

missing

Minor parts
are missing

4
All the
required
elements &
related
equations are
present and
clearly
explained as
basis to
account for the
experiments
All the
procedures
necessary to
successfully
execute the
experiment are
clearly written
and ordered in
logical
sequence
The data:
make sense,
appropriate
significant
figures,
suitably
tabulated,
correctly
analysed and
accompanied
by uncertainty
analysis.
Appropriately
addressed the
objective,
results &
analysis with
stated final
uncertainty.
Significant
sources of
uncertainty are
adequately

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Laboratory Physics

described.

LABORATORY REPORT EXPERIMENT 1

Name

Partner/s

Title

Objective:

Date

Lecturer

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE IN SERIES

MARKING SCHEME AND EVALUATION

Format/Components of
the report
Procedure
Results & Analysis
Discussion & Conclusion
Total

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Experiment 1
Electrical Resistance In Series
1. Objective
To determine the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in series
2. Theory
A resistor is an Ohmic conducting device that offers a specific electrical to the flow of
charges in an electrical circuit. Resistors are used to control currents and voltages and
are very highly used in electrical instruments. There are many types of resistors and
the carbon resistor is a very common type used. Carbon resistors come in many
ranges and are usually manufactured using the colour-coded circular bands.
In an electrical circuit, resistor can be connected in series as shown in Figure 1. The
resistors can be replaced with an equivalent resistor R eq that could maintain the same
current in the circuit.

Figure 1
The series circuit connection in Figure 1 shows the same amount of charges flow
through the resistor R1, R2, R3. Thus, the current through each resistor is the same
and is equal to the total current It in the circuit. The potential difference of the voltage
supply is Vt is the sum of drops across R1, R2, R3. These quantities can be
mathematically expressed as
It = IR1 = IR2 = IR3
Vt = VR1 +VR2+VR3

(1)
(2)

From Ohms Law, V = IR thus it follows that

Vt = It Req , VR1 = IR1R1 , VR2=IR2R2 and VR3 = IR3R3
Thus, equation 2 can be written as
Vt = IR1 R1 + IR2 R2 + IR3 R3 = It ( R1 + R2+ R3) = It Req
Therefore, for resistors connected in series, the equivalent resistor is
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
3. Apparatus
(a) Batter y or DC power supply B
(b) Ammeter A
(c) Voltmeter V
(d) Carbon resistors, R1,R2 and R3 (100 ohm 1000 ohm)
8

(3)
(4)
(5)

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Laboratory Physics

(e) Connecting wires

4. Procedure
voltmeter

ammeter
Figure 2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Assemble the apparatus according to Figure 2

Set the voltage of power supply to 2 Vdc
Record the voltage on the voltmeter V as Vt
Record the current on the ammeter A as It
Increase the voltage reading of the power supply and repeat steps (c ) and ( d)
and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Get five sets of data and tabulate
in Table 1.
(f) Find the experimental value of Req using data in Table 1 and equation 3. Tabulate
it in Table 1.
Table 1
Voltage of power
supply (V)

Voltage Vt (V)

Current It (Ma)

Req

Average value of equivalent resistance in series connection Req

g) Convert the colour coding on the resistor R1, R2 and R3 into their actual values and
fill them in the following tables.
Table 3a : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour

Value

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Resistance of R1 (ohm)
Table 3b : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour
Value

Resistance of R2 (ohm)
Table 3c : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour

Value

Resistance of R3 (ohm)
h) Calculate the theoretical values of Req for the series connection.
i) Calculate the percentage difference and compare the experimental and the
theoretical resistance Req for series connection
6. Discussion of Results
(a) Briefly discuss on the values of the currents, voltages and equivalent resistances of the
resistors in when they are connected in series.
(b) Discuss the percentage difference value and discuss the source of error and
suggestions to improve your result.

MARKING SCHEME AND EVALUATION

Format/Components of
the report
Procedure
Results & Analysis
Discussion & Conclusion
Total

10

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

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PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Experiment 2
Electrical Resistance In Parallel
1. Objective
To determine the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in parallel
2. Theory
A resistor is an Ohmic conducting device that offers a specific electrical to the flow of
charges in an electrical circuit. Resistors are used to control currents and voltages and
are very highly used in electrical instruments. There are many types of resistors and
the carbon resistor is a very common type used. Carbon resistors come in many
ranges and are usually manufactured using the colour-coded circular bands.
In an electrical circuit, resistor can be connected in parallel as shown in Figure 1. The
resistors can be replaced with an equivalent resistor R eq that could maintain the same
current in the circuit.

It
IR1
IR2

IR3
3

Figure 1

The parallel circuit in Figure 1 shows that the potential drop across each resistor R 1,
R2, R3 is the same because each resistor is similarly connected across the same voltage
supply Vt. The total current It branches out at the junction whereby the sum of currents
entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction.
Thus, the total current It in the circuit is the sum of the currents flowing through each
resistor. These quantities can be mathematically expressed as
Vt = VR1 - VR2 = VR3
It = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

(1)
(2)

From Ohms Law, I = V/R thus it follows that

It = Vt/Req , IR1 = VR1/R1 , IR2 = VR2/R2 , IR3 = VR3/R3

12

(3)

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Thus equation 2 can be written as

It = VR1/R1 + VR2/R2 + VR3/R3 = Vt ( 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3) = Vt/Req
(4)
Therefore, for resistors connected in parallel, the equivalent resistor is
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3

(5)

3. Apparatus
(f) Batter y or DC power supply B
(g) Ammeter A
(h) Voltmeter V
(i) Carbon resistors, R1,R2 and R3 (100 ohm 1000 ohm)
(j) Connecting wires
4. Procedure
voltmeter

ammeter

Figure 2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Assemble the apparatus according to Figure 2

Set the voltage of power supply to 2 Vdc
Record the voltage on the voltmeter V as Vt
Record the current on the ammeter A as It
Increase the voltage reading of the power supply and repeat steps (c ) and ( d)
and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Get five sets of data and tabulate
in Table 1.
(f) Find the experimental value of Req using data in Table 1 and equation 3. Tabulate
it in Table 1.

Table 1 : Voltage V and current I readings for resistors in parallel

Voltage of power
Voltage Vt (V)
Current It (ma)
supply (V)

13

Req

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Average value of equivalent resistance in series connection Req

g) Convert the colour coding on the resistor R1, R2 and R3 into their actual values and
fill them in the following tables.
Table 3a : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour

Value

Resistance of R1 (ohm)
Table 3b : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour

Value

Resistance of R2 (ohm)
Table 3c : Conversion of the colour coding into actual resistance values
Colour

Value

Resistance of R3 (ohm)
h) Calculate the theoretical values of Req for the parallel connection.
i) Calculate the percentage difference and compare the experimental and the
theoretical resistance Req for parallel connection

6. Discussion of Results
(a) Briefly discuss on the values of the currents, voltages and equivalent resistances of the
resistors in when they are connected in series.
(b) Discuss the percentage difference value and discuss the source of error and
suggestions to improve your result.

14

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

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PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

LABORATORY REPORT EXPERIMENT 3

Name

Partner/s

Title

Objective:

Date

Lecturer

OPTIC REFRACTION

MARKING SCHEME AND EVALUATION

Format/Components of
the report
Procedure
Results & Analysis
Discussion & Conclusion
Total

16

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Experiment 3
Optic Refraction
1. Objective
To determine the index of refraction of a glass.
2. Apparatus
Semi-circle or glass or glass plate, soft board, pins, Ruler A sheet of white paper
protector.
3. Theory
Incident ray
Medium 1 (n1 )
Medium 2 (n2 )

Refracted ray

Figure 1
When a light ray is incident on a surface of a transparent medium, part of transmitted ray
is bent as shown in Figure 1. The bending of a light ray as it passes from one medium to
another is called refraction. The angle i is the angle of incidence and r , is the angle of
refraction.
The relation between is given by Snelis law and is written
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Where n1 and n2 are respective indices of refraction of the media
If the first medium is air, which the refractive index of air is 1.0, so we can write the
refractive index of the second medium as
n =sin i / sin r
4. Procedure

Figure 2
17

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

1. Lay the glass plate in the center of a sheet of paper, and outline its shape with a pencil
(Figure 2). Draw a normal line at the center of the plates side (ON). Then place a pin
R at the intersection of this line and face of the plate.
2. Measure an angle i of 20 relative to this normal line, and place a pin A about 3 to 4
cm from the plate of this angle.
3. Then sighting through the edge of the plate from the eye position shown in Figure 2,
place pin A adjacent to the face of the plate so that it is aligned with R and A. Mark
and label the locations of the pin.
4. Repeat procedures (2) and (3) until 10 angles reading ( i=25,35)
5. Removes the glass plate from the paper and trace the various rays. Measure and
record i and r for each cases in the following table.
6. According to the theory, determine the refractive index of the glass using formula.
7. Next, plot a suitable graph of sin i versus sin r and then calculate the average of
refractive index from the slope of the graph.
No

Incidence
angle,i

Refractive
angle,r

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

18

Sin i

Sin r

n = sin i
sin r

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

LABORATORY REPORT EXPERIMENT 4

Name

Partner/s

Title

Objective:

Date

Lecturer

THE LAW OF REFLECTION

MARKING SCHEME AND EVALUATION

Format/Components of
the report
Procedure
Results & Analysis
Discussion & Conclusion
Total

19

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

Experiment 4
The Law of Reflection
1. Objective
To verify the Law of Reflection.
2. Apparatus
Optics bench, ray table and base, slit plate, ray optics mirror, light source, component
holder and slit mask.
3. Theory
The law of reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
surface of the mirror all lie in the same plane. Furthermore, the angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence. ( i = r)

The Law of Reflection

4. Procedure

20

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

(a) Set up equipment as shown in Figure above.

(b) Adjust the components so a single ray of light is aligned with the bold arrow labeled
Normal on the Ray Table Degree Scale.
(c) Carefully align the flat reflecting surface of the mirror with the bold line labeled
Component on the Ray Table.
(d) With the mirror properly aligned, the bold arrow on the Ray Table is normal to the
plane of the reflecting surface.
(e) Rotate the Ray Table and observe the light ray. Set the angle of incidence to 10o, 20o,
30o, 40o, 50o, 60o, 70o, 80o and 90o. For each angle of incidence, record the angle of
incidence.

21

PHY 143

Laboratory Physics

LABORATORY REPORT EXPERIMENT 5

Name

Partner/s

Title

Objective:

Date

Lecturer

MAGNETISM - MAGNET BAR

MARKING SCHEME AND EVALUATION

Format/Components of
the report
Procedure
Results & Analysis
Discussion & Conclusion
Total

1. Objective

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Laboratory Physics

To observe and sketch the magnetic field lines.

2. Apparatus
Magnet bar, iron powder and a piece of paper.
3. Theory
Magnetism is the phenomenon related to magnet. A magnet comes in pair, north pole and
south pole. This magnetic field line pattern can be observed to see the attraction and repellent
force.
4. Procedure
(a) Place a magnet bar at the center of a paper.
(b) Spread the iron powder around the magnet bar.
(c) Observe and record the pattern of the magnetic field lines.
(d) Next, place two magnet bars at the center of paper with the same pole heads on.
Observe and record the pattern.
(e) Next, place two magnet bars at the center of paper with the different pole heads on.
Observe and record the pattern.

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