Complete RDSO BS 14 Durability Guide

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
FOREWORD
Report titled as Durability of Concrete Structures ( Report No. BS-14 of March, 1999)
was discussed by Bridge and Structures Standards Committee during its Extra ordinary meeting
held in June, 99 at Pune. Based on Committees recommendations, approved by Railway Board
vide letter no. 99/CE-I/BR-II/10 dt. 24.3.2000, durability aspects like permeability test, minimum
clear cover to steel, protective coating over steel and concrete, minimum grade of concrete,
minimum cementitious material content, maximum water cement ratio, maximum limit of chloride
content for RCC/PSC works etc. have been included in IRS Concrete Bridge Code vide
Addendum & Corrigendum Slip No. 1 dated 26.4.2000. These aspects, as contained in this
report, hold good for structures other than bridges also. This report may be used by the
Railways as reference book for construction of durable concrete structures including buildings.
In addition to aspects included in Concrete Bridge Code, this report provides very useful
information on some other aspects also like mechanism of corrosion of steel embedded in
concrete, causes of corrosion, effect of corrosion on concrete, how to construct durable concrete
structures, hot weather and cold weather concrete, application procedure of protective coatings,
sample specification for concrete and steel etc. This information is very useful to the field
engineers who are associated with design/ construction of concrete structures. It is expected that
this report will also generate awareness about corrosion, its ill effects and importance of quality
construction.
While revising the report no. BS-14 of March, 1999, the suggestions made by Bridge &
Structures Standards Committee, agreed to by six member committee ( which prepared this
report ) and accepted by Railway Board have been included. In addition, Code of Practice for
Corrosion Protection of Reinforcing Steel using Cement Polymer Composite Coating System and
Inhibited Cement Slurry Coating System have also been annexed in the report, which may be
useful to field engineers.
It is expected that this report no. BS-14 (revised) of January, 2001 will provide suitable
guidelines to engineers / supervisors associated with design/ construction of concrete structures.
The contribution made by Shri B.M.Gupta, Director/B&S, in preparation and finalisation of
this report, is highly appreciated.
( A.K. Harit )
Executive Director/B&S

FOREWORD
Durability of concrete structure is one of the greatest challenges that Civil Engineers face
today. Corrosion of embedded reinforcement in concrete is a major factor causing premature
failures of concrete structures.
Railway Board, vide their letter No. 96/CE-I/RDSO/3 Dt. 29/9/97 (Annexure - I) nominated
a Committee comprising of Sh.S.C.Gupta, Divisional Railway Manager, C. Railway [earlier Chief
Engineer(Planning)Central Railway], Sh. P. Sriram, Chief Bridge Engineer, Southern Railway and
Sh. A.K.Harit, Executive Director (B&S), RDSO to prepare a report on Corrosion Protection of
Steel in Concrete Structure. The Committee deliberated on the subject and submitted its report
in March, 1998 covering all the aspects including suitability of corrosion resistant steel as desired
by Railway Board vide their letter No. 96/CE-I/RDSO/3 dated 9/1/98 (Annexure - II).
Further, vide letter No. 96/CE-I/RDSO/3 dt. 9/7/98 (Annexure - III), Railway Board desired
that composition of the committee had to be enlarged to include experts from outside Railways
and enlarged the term of reference also by including additional topics, corrosion in concrete
sleepers in coastal areas, corrosion of rails and box anchoring of bridges. Accordingly, vide
Railway Boards letter No. 96/CE-I/RDSO/3 dated 14/9/98 (Annuxure - IV), Dr. N.Rajgopalan,
Professor and Dean, IIT Chennai, Shri Krishan Kant, Chief Engineer (Bridges) S&R, MOST, New
Delhi and Shri S.Srinivasan, Scientist, CECRI, Karaikudi, were included in the committee as
members.
The enlarged Committee deliberated upon the subjects and prepared the report.
Committee did not discuss the subject of Corrosion of Rails as detailed instructions has already
been issued on this subject by RDSO. The topic of corrosion in concrete sleepers in coastal
areas has also not been specially dealt as all the clauses applicable for prestressed concrete
element are also applicable to prestress concrete sleepers. The corrosion aspects for structural
elements in various areas aggressive / non aggressive have been covered. This report has been
titled as Durability of Concrete Structures as the report covers all the aspects related to
durability including Corrosion Protection of Steel in Concrete Structures .
This report has been prepared in the form of a manual so that it could be straight away
circulated for use in the Railways.
The committee is pleased to submit its report for the kind consideration of Railway Board.
Sd.
(Dr. N. Rajgopalan)
Prof. & Dean,
IIT, Chennai.
Sd.
(S.C. Gupta )
Divisional Railway Manager
Central Railway, Mumbai.
Sd.
(Krishan Kant)
Chief Engineer (Bridges) S&R,
MOST, New Delhi.
Sd.
( P. Sriram )
Chief Bridge Engineer
Southern Railway, Chennai.
Sd.
(S. Srinivasan)
Scientist, CECRI,
Karaikudi.
Sd.
( A.K. Harit )
Executive Director (B&S)
RDSO/Lucknow.

CHAPTER - 1
Introduction
1.1
Reinforced concrete is one of the most versatile and widely used construction material for
buildings, bridges and other structures. There is a common belief that RCC/PSC are durable and
require very little maintenance. If properly prepared and placed in position, it has adequate
durability under normal conditions of exposure. This has been demonstrated by a large number of
concrete structures built over the last 100 years or so, in different parts of the world.
1.2
The RCC structures in India were built during the formative years of the 20th century. An
outstanding example of durable RCC is famous The Gate Way of India in Mumbai. The
structure has 13 m. long RCC piles and domes of reinforced construction. The structure is now
75 years old and stands as a monument of durable reinforced concrete exposed to severe
environment, as the structure is hugging the Arabian sea. This was followed by many RCC
buildings, tanks, towers and bridges.
1.3
Most of the structures built during the first half of the century have performed well.
However, quite a number of structures built during the last 30 years have suffered durability
problems resulting in premature deterioration. There have been a few cases of collapse Mandovi bridge in Goa (1986), Poonam chambers in Mumbai (1997). Some of the distressed
bridges are Thane creek Road bridge in Mumbai, Vasai creek Road bridge in Mumbai, Zuari
Bridge in Goa, Saravati Bridge in Karwar (Karnataka). In India alone, 700 Bridges, especially in
the coastal regions, are said to be in distress. The deterioration has been particularly noticed in
the structures in the region of severe exposure conditions such as coastal areas. The major
concern of the construction industry all over the world, for some time now, has been the structural
damage due to reinforcement corrosion, which adversely affect in a significant manner, the
strength, durability and stability of the structure.
1.4
Construction engineers often argue that poor quality of materials and workmanship is the
root cause of such failures and they tend to under- estimate the damaging effect, an environment,
surrounding the structure, can produce irrespective of the quality of construction. There is an
utmost necessity to educate the engineers in this regard. Most of the defects and deficiencies
are deficiencies in concept, design, detailing, and construction of structures in addition to
inadequate provision for durability in the national code of practice. Also, to avoid catastrophic
failures, it is necessary to conduct periodic condition surveys of all structures whether they are
bridges, buildings or industrial structures. The state of corrosion of rebar can be identified by
potential mapping, resistance survey, impedance analysis or ultrasonic and acoustic scanning.
This data can be continuously monitored and decision taken for preventive and protective
measures. There is an urgent need to experiment cathodic protection.
1.5
There is no code or literature for the guidance of railway engineers, as to how the durable
concrete structures should be designed and built. This report will fill this gap. Detailed study and
practical training of each aspect covered in brief under chapter 4 para 4.4 Good construction
Practices is necessary before embarking on constructing durable structures.
However this report can not be construed as all comprehensive on concrete. For
areas not covered in this report, users are requested to refer to relevant national codes
inclusive of Indian Railway Standards.

CHAPTER - 2
Mechanism Of Corrosion
2.1
Steel is used in concrete principally as reinforcement. Concrete
ordinarily provide an almost ideal environment for protecting steel from
corrosion. Its high alkalinity causes the formation of a thin invisible protective
passive film of Ferric Oxide (Fe 2O3) on the steel (thickness approx. 10000 A 0).
It is expected that when the embedded steel is protected from air by an
adequate thick cover of low permeability concrete, the corrosion of steel
would not arise. This expectation is not fully met in practice, as is evident from
the unusually high frequency with which the RCC & PSC structures suffer
damage due to steel corrosion. The magnitude of damage is especially large
in structures exposed to marine environments. The damage to concrete,
resulting from corrosion of embedded steel, manifests in the form of
expansion, cracking and eventually spalling of the cover concrete.
2.2
Mechanisms Involved in Concrete Deterioration by Corrosion of
Embedded Steel
2.2.1 Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process. The
electrochemical potentials, to form the corrosion cells, may be generated in
two ways:
(i)
Concentration cells may be formed due to differences in
concentration of dissolved ions in the vicinity of steel, such as,
chlorides and oxygen.
(ii)
Composition cells may be formed when two dissimilar metals

are embedded in concrete, such as steel rebars and aluminum
conduit pipes, or when significant variations exist in surface
characteristics of the steel.
2.2.2 As a result, one of the two metals (or some part of the metal when only
one metal is present ) becomes anodic and the other cathodic. The
fundamental chemical changes occurring at the anodic and cathodic areas
are as follows:
At anode surface
At cathode surface
At anode
Fe 2e- + Fe2+
(metallic iron)
1/2 O 2 + H2 O + 2e- 2(OH)(air) (water)
Fe++ + 2(OH)- FeO. (H2O) x (rust)
Fig 2.1 illustrate the electrochemical process of steel corrosion in moist and
permeable concrete. The galvanic cell constitutes an anode process and a
cathode process.

2.2.3 The transformation of metallic iron to rust is accompanied by an
increase in volume, which depending on the state of oxidation, may be as
large as 600 % of the original metal as shown in fig. 2.2. This volume
increase is believed to be the principal cause of concrete expansion and
cracking. It should be noted that the anodic reaction involving ionization of
metallic iron will not progress far unless the electron flow to the cathode is
maintained by consumption of the electrons at the cathode; for this the
presence of both air and water at the surface of the cathode is absolutely
necessary. Also, ordinary iron and steel products are covered by a thin ironoxide film which becomes impermeable and strongly adherent to the steel
surface in alkaline environments, thus making the steel passive to corrosion ;
that is, metallic iron will not be available for the anodic reaction until the
passivity of steel is destroyed.
2.2.4 The anode process cannot occur until the protective or the passive iron
oxide film is either removed in an acidic environment (e.g., carbonation of
concrete) or made permeable by the action of Cl - ions. The cathode process
can not occur until a sufficient supply of oxygen and water is available at the
steel surface. The electrical resistivity of concrete is also reduced in the
presence of moisture and salts.
2.2.5 Carbonation
The Carbon-di-oxide gas present in the
atmosphere combines with hydrated concrete (alkaline hydroxides) and partly
neutralize the alkaline nature of concrete. This process is known as
carbonation. Carbonation brings down the pH value of concrete from above
12-13 to less than 9. When depth of carbonation increases and becomes
equal or more than the depth of cover of reinforcement, it breaks down
passive film surrounding steel and make steel embedded in concrete more
active.
2.2.6 Chloride attack
Free chloride ions present in concrete, surrounding
reinforcement, react with alkaline solution at anode to form hydrochloric acid
which destroys the passive protective layer on the reinforcement steel. The
surface of steel then becomes activated locally to form the anode, with the
passive surface forming the cathode, setting the electrolytic process.
Presence of free chloride ions in concrete depends upon total chloride
contents of concrete. Chlorides are present in concrete due to ingredients,
mixing water and calcium chloride used as accelerating admixtures etc.
Chlorides enter concrete due to salt water spray in sea shore or through
atmosphere.
2.2.7 In the absence of chloride ions in the solution, the protective film on
steel is reported to be stable as long as the pH of the solution stays above
11.5. Since normally hydrated Portland cements contain alkalis approximately
20 percent by weight in the pore fluid, normally there is sufficient alkalinity in
the system to maintain the pH above 12. In exceptional conditions (e.g.,
when concrete has high permeability and alkalis and most of the hydroxide
are either carbonated or neutralized
by an acidic solution), the pH of concrete in the vicinity of steel may be

reduced to less than 11.5 , thus, destroying the passivity of steel and setting
the stage for the corrosion process.
2.2.8 In the presence of chloride ions, depending on the Cl - / OH- ratio, it is
reported that the protective film may be destroyed even at pH values
considerably above 11.5. When Cl - / OH- molecular ratio is higher than 0.6,
steel seems to be no longer protected against corrosion, probably because
the iron oxide film becomes either permeable or unstable under these
conditions. Further more, when large amounts of chloride are present,
concrete tends to hold more moisture, which also increases the risk of steel
corrosion by lowering the electrical resistivity of concrete. Once the passivity
of the embedded steel is destroyed, it is the electrical resistivity and the
availability of oxygen that control the rate of corrosion. In fact, significant
corrosion is not observed as long as the electrical resistivity of concrete is
above 50 to 70 x 10 3 cm. It should be noted that the common sources of
chloride in concrete are ingredients, admixtures, penetration of sea water and
atmospheric gases.
2.2.9 Due to similar mechanism bimettalic contact increases the risk of
corrosion of steel. Thus, bimettalic contact needs to be avoided as far as
possible. If, it is unavoidable like in case of buildings, approval should be
taken prior to execution of work.
cracking
10
12
13

CHAPTER - 4
How To Construct Durable Structures

4.1 Achieving durability: The durable structures are to be conceptualised,
specified, designed, contracted, constructed and maintained. To achieve the
design life of the structure at reasonable maintenance cost, the following
aspects are required to be taken care of:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
4.2
The structure should also be designed for environment loads and

detailing done.
Selection of proper construction materials.
The concrete should be impermeable, with designed crack width
due to shrinkage, thermal forces or loads.
The good construction practices should be followed.
Selection and application of correct coatings to reinforce bars and
concrete surface.
Planned maintenance.
Proper specifications.
Selection of durable construction materials:
4.2.1 Cementitious material : The cementitious material should be

properly selected depending upon nature of work, prevailing environment etc..
This has been dealt in greater detail in the Chapter No. 6. The terminology
cement, cementitious material, blended
cements, cement + mineral
admixtures have been used and can be used to mean one and the same
thing.
4.2.2 Aggregates: Aggregates should confirm to specification as laid down
in IS : 383 . The coarse aggregate should be well graded and free from Alkali
reactivity. The sand should be free from silt, salt, moisture and gravel and its
F.M. should be between 2.6 and 2.9. The sand dredged from sea bed may
contain large amount of chlorides and other impurities. Thus, it is preferable to
avoid use of sand dredged from sea bed. If at all it is used, it should be used
only after washing and drying. Washed sand should be tested for salt content,
silt, moisture etc. and conform to IS:383. The water used for washing of sand
also needs to be tested, prior to its use. The designer should take account of
grading after washing of sand.
4.2.3 Water : Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from
injurious amount of oils, acids, alkalis, salt, sugar, organic materials or other
substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel. Potable water is
generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete. However, it should be
tested for quantities of solids, which should not exceed value as laid down in
IS : 456 Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete.

4.2.4 Admixtures : Chloride free admixtures like super plasticizers etc. may
be used to improve the quality of fresh concrete to achieve desired workability
at low water cement ratio. Admixtures containing chlorides may increase total
chloride content in concrete, making it corrosion prone. Thus chloride free
admixtures only should be used.
4.2.5
Steel : Steel should confirm to IS 432/1786 for RCC work and IS
1785/6003/6006/14268 for PSC work. Increase in Carbon content in steel
increases corrosion proneness of steel. Therefore, it is necessary that the
steel supply is taken only from the reputed firms. The test certificate are
necessary for each lot. Independent test checks from each lot is essential to
ensure quality as per relevant IS Standard. It is harmful to use Corroded /
Pitted steel should never be used. The detailed sample specification for steel
are given in Chapter 13.
4.2.6 Welding of reinforcement steel : As far as possible, reinforcing steel
should not be welded, as welded joint may not have full strength as of
reinforcing steel. Welding may also affect strength of reinforcing steel. If at all
welding is done, it should be done after approval by the design engineer, who
should examine the weldable quality of steel.
4.3 Permeability :
4.3.1 The most important aspect to achieve durability is to produce
impermeable concrete. The fig 4.1 shows the factors affecting the
permeability and the strength of concrete. The 6 Cs are most important for
permeability .
i) Cementitious material :
Content & w/c ratio
ii) Cohesion
iii) Compaction
iv) Curing
v) Cover
vi) Crack Width
In addition, detailing is also one of the important factor to obtain
impermeable concrete. The distance between reinforcement bars should
permit flow of concrete.
4.3.2 Cementitious material content and water cement ratio
(w/c
ratio) : With higher level of cement content, the binding capacity of concrete
against attack by carbon dioxide and chlorides will be increased. Moreover, a
certain minimum cement content is necessary to get the necessary
workability, while maintaining low w/c ratios. Curing sensitivity is also affected
by the minimum cement content and is more sensitive at low cement
contents. Considering these factors, the present trend is to stipulate higher
minimum cement content, depending upon the type of environment. The
effect of cementitious material content and w/c ratio, compaction and curing
on permeability is indicated in fig 4.2. Good quality concrete means

1.CEMENTITIOUS
MATERIAL
Its content
W/C ratio
Heat of
hydration
C3A content
2.COHESIVE
CONCRETE
Cohesiv
e
Workabl
e
3.COMPACTION
m
Min
Voids
4. CURING
Gel
formation
5.COVER
Extent
Integrity
6.CRACK
WIDTH
( a) Factors affecting permeability
1 Cement
Quality
1 W/C
ratio
1 Air Voids
(b)
Factors affecting the strength
Fig. 4.1 Factors affecting permeability and strength of concrete
an adequate cement content and a low W/C ratio, full compaction and uniform
and thorough curing. The mixes on site must be consistent, not prone to
segregation and be easily placed. Concrete that contain slag or pozzolanic fly
ash (pfa) require longer curing than OPC concrete.
4.3.3 Effect of curing and w/c ratio on permeability: Concrete produced
with low water to cement ratio displays low coefficient of permeability of
concrete as compared to concrete produced with high water cement ratio.(Fig.
4.2)
Table - 4.1 gives the coefficient of permeability of concrete made using same
materials but with different W/C ratios.
Table 4.1
Coefficient of Permeability for different W/C ratio
Sr. No.
Water Cement Ratio
1
2
3
0.35
0.50
0.65
Coefficient
of
(Valenta)
1x 10 -3
10 x 10 -3
1000 x 10 . 3
Permeability
The above table clearly indicates that lower the W/C, lower is the
permeability. The coefficient of permeability increases about 1000 times with
the increase in w/c ratio from 0.35 to 0.65
Table 4.2
Effect of curing on permeability and porosity
Permeability ( m/sec unit X 10
-17
Porosity (%)
Curing
(days)/
W/C
0.32
28
90
28
90
5.60
0.30
0.12
19.7
14.4
9.80
5.90
18.70
214.00
0.59
14.70
0.07
2.35
very
low
20.80
0.40
0.50
very
low
0.07
0.19
33.30
43.50
28.6
37.8
20.9
32.2
16.80
20.80
11.10
14.50
From the table - 4.2, it is very clear that with w/c remaining constant,
permeability and porosity rapidly reduces with increase in curing period. At the
same time, with the increase of w/c the permeability and porosity also
increase at the same curing period.
4.3.4 Concrete cover: The quality of the concrete between the
reinforcement and the shuttering can be poorer than that in the main body of
the concrete, due to difficulties in the placement of the concrete and to the
segregation of coarse aggregates by the steel bars. This again emphasises
the need to select a mix that is suitable for the job, taking into account not
only the performance of the plain concrete but equally the quality that can be
achieved close to the surface of the concrete. The cohesivity of the mix and
aggregate sizes is of prime importance. It also emphasises the importance of
reinforcement detailing that will facilitate the placing of the concrete and the
achievement of impermeable concrete.
4.3.5 Cracks:
The cracks can be minimised by using low heat of
hydration blended cements, proper control of concrete temperature, wet
curing and well graded aggregate and air-entraining agents (if required).
4.3.6 Permeability test:
As durability of concrete depends upon permeability, it is necessary that
permeability test is made mandatory for all RCC / PSC works to control
permeability. Permeability test may be conducted as per specification laid
down in DIN-1048 PART I. The test is described briefly as given below.
Water permeability test (DIN-1048 PART I) : This test is used to measure
the penetration of water in the concrete test specimen under pressure. The
test is carried out as per the procedure given below :
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
A test specimen, cylindrical in shape, 200 mm dia and 120 mm

height is cast from the fresh concrete-like a test cube.
The test specimen is wet cured for 28 days.
After 28 days of curing, test specimen is fitted in the machine.
bar pressure for 48 hrs. then 3 bar pressure for 24 hrs. and then 7
bar pressure for 24 hrs. is applied.
The specimen is split into two halves.
Penetration of water is measure. The maximum value of water
penetration is the permeability of concrete.
Fig 4.3 Permeability Test

A permeability value of less than 25 mm indicates very impermeable
concrete. The equipments for testing permeability are readily available nowa-days or can be manufactured.
4.4
Good construction practices: A safe and substantial design may be
entirely ruined by careless and shoddy execution, and the failure of the
structure may very possible be the result. Careful attention to the details of
construction is ,therefore, as important as the preliminary investigation and
design.
The following finer details need meticulous attention and implementation at
site:
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
ix
x
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
Form work and false work- Layout, design and drawings.

Concrete laboratory- equipments, skilled lab technician, codes and
permeability equipment.
Sand dredged from sea bed.
Mock up:- Actual trial by casting one element, to verify cover,
space for compaction etc.
All- in- aggregate curve- To see the gradation.
Quality cover blocks and binding wire.
Concreting sequence
Cold joints- Concreting by Forward flowing method.
Construction joints- horizontal and vertical
Permit for pouring concrete.
Method statement.
Traffic over reinforcement- Platforms for traffic to be erected which
will not transfer load on rebars.
Grouting of cables.
Sealing ends of HTS wires/strands.
SQC- Statistical Quality Control charts to be plotted for all test
results, calculate mean value, Standard deviation and Co-efficient
of variation.
4.4.1 Form work and false work: Fig 4.4 (i, ii, iii) shows typical layout plan
of formwork for 12.5m span. No form work and false work should be erected
without proper layout plans, designs and drawings. The form work should be
leak proof. A sponge of 10mm thick should be pasted at the junction of two
shuttering plates and with other surface to prevent leakage of grout.
4.4.2 The concrete laboratory: Fig 4.5 shows typical concrete site lab. It
should be manned by a skilled technician. A well managed and modern lab is
a must for quality concrete.
4.4.3 Sand dredged from sea bed: It cannot be used without washing by
potable water. Sand should be silt free, salt free, moisture free, gravel free
and its FM would be between 2.6 and 2.9. Washed sand should be tested
before use for silt and chloride content.

4.4.4 Mock up: It is a good practice to do a full scale mock up trial to test the
cover, working of equipments, behaviour of plasticizers, workability and the
final product.
4.4.5 All-in-aggregate: It should be plotted before each pour, well graded
aggregate will give cohesive mix and impermeable concrete, Fig 4.6 gives a
typical all-in-aggregate curve.
4.4.6 Quality cover block & binding wires: Generally, the quality of
concrete of the cover block is of lower standard than that of the structure. Due
to the inferior quality of concrete cover blocks, concrete structures have weak
spots where the environmental failure do effect concrete / steel adversely. It is
therefore necessary that cover block concrete should be of same permeability
and strength as that of concrete. They should be cured for 28 days. Their
strength and permeability tested. The binding wires should be G.I or treated
by CECRI coating. Corroded binding wires are not permitted. Their ends
should be bent towards the centre of element. The shape of cover blocks can
be cubical, cylindrical or frustum of a cone.
4.4.7 Concrete sequence: Concreting sequence should be decided in
advance. The layer thickness should be decided, so as to ensure that
concrete will not set, before the next layer is placed and compacted. This
depends upon the capacity of mixers, initial setting time of concrete and man
power etc.
4.4.8 Cold joints: Fig 4.7 shows the forward flowing method of concreting.
This will provide homogeneous impermeable concrete.
4.4.9 Construction joints: On vibration, the slurry rich in cement and with
very high w/c ratio rises up. This is called laitance and is very permeable.
This thin layer is removed by wire brush and the aggregates are exposed
without dislodging them. 1/3 rd of aggregate should be visible on the surface.
This is called hacking of joints. The mortar around steel and from corners is
removed either by soaking or by compressed air, before placing the next layer
of concrete. Cement slurry should never be sprinkled before concreting. A
construction joint, if prepared as explained above, can be provided at any
location. Fig 4.8 shows the details.
4.4.10 Permit for pouring concrete: The contractor is responsible for
constructing the structure as per specifications. All big works are awarded to
them, after verifying their experience and skilled man power. The contractor
should certify that all aspects, before concreting are in order. The railway
engineer should test check and give permission for pouring the conrete. If
permission is not given the reasons should be recorded and permission
denied in writing within one hour. Sample pour card is enclosed as annexure
1 to the chapter.
4.4.11
Methods statement:
It is vital to have a detailed methods
statement prepared by the construction agency and approved by the owner's
Engineer. Such a statement will detail the method of construction, equipment
to be employed, the various durability requirements and the means to achieve
the same, and the quality assurance measures planned.
A greater degree of mechanisation should be insisted upon with a view
to obtaining the product of requisite quality. Engineers at various levels both
from the clients' as well as the contractors' side should be adequately trained
in various aspects of prestressed concrete construction as well as quality
assurance.
4.4.12 Traffic over reinforcement : Neither anybody should walk nor the
vibrators etc kept over reinforcement. Proper walking platforms should be
planned and laid in advance.
4.4.13 Grouting of cable ducts: The extra length of strands, leaving 20mm.
projection beyond the wedge, is cut by an electric cutter. The cable ends are
sealed by 1:3 cement : sand mortar. The ducts are washed fully and then
grouted by fresh Ordinary Portland Cement grout. OPC grout used shall not
be older than four weeks. The composition of the grout shall be
Strength
W/C ratio
Cement
Admixture
Pressure of grouting
As per specification
As per design
Ordinary Portland Cement
Conbex-100 at 227 gms. per bag of cement
5 bars
4.4.14 Sealing of anchor ends: After the grouting of cables, the anchor
plates wedges etc., are cleaned by sand blasting. Two coats of solvent-free
coal-tar epoxy (Araldite GYL 225- 100parts hardener XY 45-100 parts by
weight) should be applied on two successive days. On the third day, the
strand ends, bushes and wedges are covered by an epoxy putty (Araldite GY
255, hardener XY-45 and silica flour in the ratio of 100:100:200 respectively).
A third coat of coal-tar epoxy is applied over the putty and quartz sand mix
No. 10 is sprinkled with hand over the painted area to make it rough so that
concreting to be done over the anchor heads shall develop a good bond with
the strands and anchor plates. The anchor plates are covered by concrete, so
as to give strand ends a cover of 75mm. The concrete area covering strands
is also painted with 2 coats of coal-tar epoxy. These two items i.e. grouting of
cables and epoxy painting of anchor ends, will ensure that no ingress of
moisture take place.
4.4.15 SQC charts: Statistical Quality Control charts should be plotted to
monitor the deviations and to take corrective action, well before the values
are likely to exceed the acceptable limits. This is to be used for all tests,
dimensions etc.
4.4.16 Defect Survey: After each stripping of form work, a joint defect survey
should be conducted to note down defects, find out reasons, for corrective
action for future and decide about the repairs.
4.4.17 A work done which is not conforming to specifications should be
rejected. Any attempt to hide/repair or accept will aggravate the situation in
future.
4.5
Selection and application of correct coatings to steel and
concrete: The subject has been covered in chapter No.8.
4.6 Planned maintenance : The structures need proper maintenance and
monitoring .
4.7 Proper specifications: This subject is dealt with in chapter 12 and 13.
Proper and detailed specifications are required to be drawn for each work.
4.8 Other aspects: Though following aspect are not directly related to
construction of durable concrete, they will certainly help indirectly in obtaining
durable concrete structure.
4.8.1 Empowerment:
Permeability and diffusion are the 2 most important
properties which effect the corrosion process of steel in concrete. These
properties depends upon the total quality of concrete, which in turn depends
upon various parameters, as mentioned in para-4.3. Thus, in order to obtain
durable concrete total quality control is most important. Quality control needs
to be exercised right from planning/ design stage to construction stage to
ensure that all the material used in concrete are as per specification and
construction is done as per standard procedure with all precautions. Such
quality control can be achieved by training design engineer/ supervisors in
total quality control concept. Thus, in order to achieve total quality control, the
design engineers/supervisors detailed to execute work, should be trained in
durability and corrosion at IRICEN, Pune in association with research institute
such as CECRI, Karaikudi etc. They should be trained before they are allowed
to supervise any work on the project. They should be trained in following
topics.
i
Durability
ii Corrosion
iii Mix Design
iv Blended cement
v Concreting in Hot/ Cold weather
vi Quality control techniques
vii Permeability and how to achieve impermeable concrete - Good
construction practices.
viii High performance concrete.
After training, engineers/supervisors should be examined by a panel of

experts for knowledge, skills and aptitude for quality construction and if found
suitable, they should be issued a competency certificate. Engineers in
possession of competency certificate should only be allowed to execute the
work.
4.8.2 Adequate number of supervisors:
For effective supervision,
adequate number of supervisors/ technicians should be available at site of
construction depending upon works need. They should be trained in
construction techniques and possess competency certificates.
4.8.3 Quality control cell: Quality control cell under each Zonal Railway is
essential to carry out surprise checks to ensure quality construction. Quality
control cells which were created under the Zonal Railways have not proved to
be very effective in many cases. Thus, there is need to reactivate the quality
control cells with required expertise. Such cell should carry out surprise check
on construction site regarding quality control aspects and submit its report to
project incharge.
4.8.4 Specification: There have been considerable advances in concrete
technology in recent years. In order to take advantage of advances it is
necessary that Specification for each project are written afresh. The
specification must be drawn by an engineer of proven ability.
4.8.5 Contracting:
i)
Most of the civil engineering works are executed by private
agencies. Thus, the quality of work depends upon the quality of
agency who executes the work. Therefore, a system needs to be
evolved essentially so that only such agencies, who have excelled in
quality construction, gets the contract. The contractors should be asked
to obtain ISO- 9000 certificate.
ii)
In order to ensure quality of work, it is necessary that quality
control is inbuilt at each stage during construction. It is, therefore,
necessary that quality control manual is prepared in advance and
attached as a part of tender document. This manual should clearly
spelt out tests to be conducted at each stage.
iii)
There should be provision in tender document for establishment
of a site laboratory for checking quality of ingredients and concrete
parameter. It is suggested that :
For works costing more than Rs. 20 Lakh - There should be

provision of site lab in contract condition.
For works costing more than Rs. 50 lakh - There should be
provision of Site lab and Lab technician, in contract condition.
For works costing more than Rs. 5 crore - There should be
provision of Site lab., Lab technical and third quality audit in
contract condition.
4.8.6 Health Monitoring: Effect of corrosion of steel in PSC bridges/works

may be disastrous, as slight decrease in cross section of wire may lead to
collapse. Corrosion of reinforcement in RCC works gives prior indication. If
corrosion is detected in early stage, remedial measures may be taken to avoid
further deterioration of concrete structures. In normal course, Inspector of
Works can not inspect all the buildings/bridges in detailed with regards to
corrosion and other health aspects. Therefore, it is necessary that health
monitoring of all important structures i.e. bridges and high rise building is done
through reputed
agencies like
CECRI,
CBRI,
ACC etc. Health
monitoring
shall include corrosion monitoring, deterioration of material,
system damage and retrofitting. The frequency of health monitoring may be
as suggested in table - 4.3.
Table 4.3
Frequency for health monitoring
Aggressive environment
(Severe, Very severe &
Extreme)
First Survey
Subsequent
surveys interval
5th year
At 5 years interval
Non- Aggressive
environment
(Mild and Moderate)
5th year
At 10 years
4.8.7 Master Schedule of Rates: The master schedule of rates should be

updated to include items like - high performance concrete, coatings for steel
and concrete, testing of soils, monitoring of corrosion, non-destructive testing,
curing compounds, admixtures, diaphragm wall construction, sand washing,
fibre reinforcement, use of blended cement, coal tar epoxy coatings etc.
Inclusion of these items in schedule of rates will help field engineers in
maintenance of concrete structure.
4.8.8 Inspection of buildings and structures: All buildings and structures
need to be inspected as per the prescribed schedule. Periodic inspection will
help in detection of defects in early stage. Thus, remedial measures can be
taken up before the defects become critical.
The structures identified as distressed as a result of inspection may be
classified under two categories as under:
Category I - requiring urgent repair/ replacement
Category II - requiring planned repairs.
Distressed structures falling under Category -I should be replaced/
repaired urgently even on out of turn basis. Structures falling under CategoryII should be planned and programmed for execution in a specified time
schedule.

CHAPTER - 5
Design & Detailing For Durability

5.1 Design Engineers consider design of concrete structures to mean
assessing:
i) The size and strength of structural components and concrete
strength grade to meet safety and serviceability limits.
ii) The amount, size and distribution of reinforcements for strength
and control cracks to an acceptable size.
It is anticipated that with good site control and good workmanship, the
structure and its components shall last indefinitely. They have forgotten to
take into account the environmental loads while designing the structures
(Structures are designed adequately for DL & LL, and some times for
erection loads). Environmental factors affect durability of structures. Hundreds
of bridges and structures are collapsing or showing signs of deterioration with
corroding reinforcement all within 25 years of construction. It is, therefore,
necessary for the designer to develop a feel for the problem and design the
structures
to satisfy safety, serviceability and durability requirements
(structural and non-structural loads caused by environment).
5.2 Environmental factors : Critical environmental factors which affect
concrete are carbon dioxide, chlorides, water and temperature as shown in fig
5.1
5.3 Design for carbonation:
5.3.1 The rate of carbonation depends upon the integrates of concrete of the
cover zone. The penetration rate of carbonation in a good concrete structure
remote from the seacoast and not subjected to de-icing salt is given by:
D = k t0.5
k = 1 for M-35 & above (w/c= 0.40)
k = 2 for M-25 (w/c = 0.45)
k = 5 for M-15
D = Depth of carbonation in mm
k = Carbonation coefficient in mm/year depending upon quality of
concrete
t = time of exposure in years.
It is seen that by doubling the cover, quadruples the design life.
Similarly with good quality concrete ( M-35 concrete with w/c ratio 0.4 ) five
times design life can be achieved as compared to poor quality concrete
( M-15 concrete ).
5.3.2 The graph shown in fig. 5.2 can be used to select the cover and grade
to meet the required design life.
Example : For 100 years life, if the mix is M-35 or above the minimum cover
requirement is 20 mm. i.e. if the mix is M-15 the cover requirement shall be
between 40 and 60 (say 50 mm).
5.3.3 From the graph in fig. 5.2 it may be concluded that it is always better
to go for richer mixes from durability angle even if it is not required from
strength criteria. In the interior of the buildings the rate of carbonation can be
high and must be considered while designing. Carbonation effect can be
taken care by ensuring adequate cover of good quality concrete. This is
necessary for all the sites in India. It also presupposes that the integrity of
cover concrete (Concrete in cover portion) i.e. both quality and extent, is
assured. Thick cover is of no avail if the concrete is highly penetrable.
5.4 Design for chlorides induced corrosion: For the marine structures,
including buildings within 1 km of coast line, and for bridges exposed to deicing salt, the penetration of chloride is calculated from the following equation:
i)
K.C Clears Life Model:

Life of corrosion on set
(in years)
129 x ( cover-1.22 )
= -----------------------w/c x Cl-0.42
Where cover is in inches and w/c ratio and Cl are in %

ii)
The Chloride penetration curves in fig. 5.3 give a very simple

method for design.
Example : For 100 yrs. design life and 60 mm cover, the minimum conc mix
shall be M-50 or richer.
5.5 Design for sulphate exposure : This is dealt in detail under suitability
of various types of cement in para 6.6 (iv) of chapter 6.
5.6 Design for durability : As durability depends upon permeability. It is
important to control parameters affecting permeability. Therefore, it is
necessary to lay down permissible limits for parameters like minimum
cementitious material content, maximum water cement ratio, maximum crack
width and extent of cover to reinforcement etc. depending upon the exposure
condition. Following values for these parameter are recommended.
i) Minimum cementitious material content and maximum water cement

ratio: Recommended values are given in table-5.1
Table 5.1
Minimum cementitious material content and maximum w/c ratio
Exposure
Min.
grade
of
mix
PCC
Min.
cementitious*
material
content
Kg/m
Mild
Mod
Severe
Very severe
Extreme
M-20
M-25
M-25
M-30
M-30
300
350
380
400
400
Max
w/c
ratio
RCC
Min.
grade
of mix
Min.
cementitious*
material
content
Kg/m
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.45
0.40
M-25
M-30
M-35
M-40
M-45
380
400
400
430
430
Max
w/c
ratio
PSC
Min.
grade
of mix
Min.
Cementitious*
material
content
Kg/m
0.45
0.40
0.40
0.38
0.35
M-35**
M-35**
M-45
M-50
M-50
Max
w/c
ratio
400
400
430
440
440
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.35
The areas covered under different exposure conditions shall be as under:
Mild: Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions.

Moderate: Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing while
wet, concrete continuously under water.
Severe: Concrete surface exposed to severe rain , alternate wetting and
drying or occasional freezing or severe condensation. Concrete exposed to
aggressive sub soil / ground water or coastal environment.
Very severe: Concrete surface exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes,
severe freezing.
Extreme: Concrete surface exposed to abrasive action. Surface of members
in tidal zone.
* Min. cementitious material content is for 20mm Max. size aggregate (MSA)
Add extra cementitious material
for 10 mm MSA
= + 20 Kg/m3
for 40 mm MSA
= - 10 Kg/m3
** Minimum grade of concrete mix should be M-40 for pretensioned PSC
bridges.
Note:
The maximum content of cementitious material should be 500 Kg/m3
ii) Minimum clear cover : Recommended values are given in table-5.2. The
clear cover shall mean cover from the outer most metal /steel, binding wire or
its end.
Table 5.2
Minimum clear cover*
Sr.
No.
Structures
RCC/PSC
1
2
3
4
Slabs
Beams
Columns
Wells, piles
and footings
PSC girders
PSC girder
for
HTS
cables
5
6
Extreme
environment
Very
severe Severe
environment
environment
50
60
75
75
50
50
75
75
25
40
50
75
Mild and
Moderate
environment
25
35
50
50
50
75
50
75
50
75
50
50
*
While designing, it should be ensured that cover does not exceed 2.5
times dia of reinforcing bar. If cover is more, chicken mesh may be provided in
cover concrete to keep the concrete in position.
iii)
Flexural Crack Width : It is necessary to control the crack width to
protect steel rebar against corrosion. The crack width is controlled by reducing
shrinkage, and distributing the reinforcement over the zone of maximum
concrete tension, uniformly, and using smaller dia bars. Cement with low heat
of hydration and not too fine should be used.
Recommended value of
maximum crack width to be considered during design are given in table-5.3.
Design of crack width may be calculated as described in Appendix- I to this
chapter.
Table 5.3
Maximum crack width to be considered during design
Type of structure
Bridges
RCC beams, slabs
(Severe, Very severe and
Extreme)
Exposed
0.10mm
0.20mm
Unexposed
0.20mm
0.20mm
Non- aggressive
environment
(Mild and Moderate)
0.20mm
0.30mm
5.7 Admixtures : Chloride free water-reducing super plastisizers may be

used for RCC & PSC works. However creep effect of plastisizers need to be
considered in design. Air entraining agents may be used in upper Himalayan
regions.
5.8 Temperature: The concreting shall be done only when the temp is
between 5 0C & 32 0C. Preferably temperature variation of concrete during
concreting should be within 5 0C. The special precautions to be taken shall be
laid down by the designer.
5.9 Curing : All properties of concrete improve with extended wet curing.
This is particularly so for permeability, which strongly affects durability and
service life. A minimum wet curing for 7 days by ponding water/continuous
spraying, followed by 3 weeks curing by curing compounds is recommended.
5.10 The form work : The form work is removed too early after obtaining
cube test results to economise the cost of form work. It is not good from
durability point of view. The time recommended is as follows:
Columns
Beams
Slabs
3 days
10 days
14 days
5.11 Detailing : Normally the aspect of congestion of reinforcement at the

junction of beams & column is neglected by design engineer. The drawings
should be prepared by showing the full size of bars, laps, bends, distribution
bars, spacers, cover blocks etc. It should be possible to place & compact
concrete by a 50 mm. dia .needle vibrator. The corners & sharp edges should
be chamfered. Circular sections are preferred. The design detailing should
be such as to ensure effective drainage of water and to avoiding standing pool
or rundown of water towards the critical components. The criteria of
constructibility is of paramount importance. The layout and disposition of
prestressing tendons should be designed for easy placement and vibration of
concrete in the space between tendon ducts. When two or more rows of
ducts are used, the horizontal space between the ducts should be vertically in
line to facilitate proper flow of concrete as shown in Fig. 5.4.
5.12 Design of form work and false work : There is no practice of approval
of design and drawings for form work and false work. With the result, the
contractors use, whatever they like, risking the safety of workers and quality
of concrete. Thus, it is necessary that the design and drawing for these items
are also made, approved in advance and checked at site. For important
works forms of plywood / other similar product which can absorb water are
preferable as compared to steel forms. It is advisable to pay this item
separately.
5.13 Recommendation:
i Life of a structure may be different under different environmental region.
Hence structure have to be designed for a particular design life. The
structures may be designed for the service life as given in table 5.4.
Table 5.4
Sr. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Type of structure
Bridges in sea
Bridges within 1 km of coast line
Bridges in rest of India
Buildings in coastal areas
Buildings in rest of India
F.O.B.Slabs
Design life in years.

50
80
100
80
100
50
ii Each structure should be designed for durability and the design life should
be printed on each drawing, design sheet & method statements.
iii The soil where piles, footings etc. rest, and water in case of marine
structures, should be tested and used in design and selection of type of
cementitious material.
iv The form and false work should be designed in advance, drawings
prepared and paid for separately as an item.
v
The use of nominal mixes should be banned.
vi In place of cement, cementitious material has been used, to bring to focus

that blended cements are superior to pure cements and should be used in all
structures.
vii The specifications of cementitious material should be decided for each
work. Low heat blended cements are preferred for hot weather climate.

Appendix-I
(Chapter-5 Clause 5.6D)
Design Crack Width Calculation
(Extract of Clause 6.21.A.6 of IRS Concrete Bridge Code 1982)
The design crack width may be calculated by the following formula:
Design surface crack width =
3a cr m
a cmin
1 + 2 cr
h x
Where Cmin - is the minmum cover to the tension steel,

h
- is the overall depth of the member
x
- is the depth of the neutral axis found from analysis to
determine m (see below)
acr
- is the distance from the point considered to surface of the
nearest longitudinal bar.
m
- is the average strain at the level where cracking is being
considered, calculated allowing for the stiffening effect of the
concrete in the tension zone, and is obtained from equation
given below:
12
. bt h a ' x
m = 1
10 3 where f y is in N / mm2
A (h x ) f
y
s
and
12
. bt h a ' x
m = 1
10 2 where f y is in kg / cm2
A (h x ) f
y
s
Where
a' x f s
=
1 dx E
s
d
fs
Es
1
bt
a
As
fY
effective depth of tension reinforcement

actual stress in steel
modulus of elasticity of steel
is the strain at the level considered, calculated ignoring the
stiffening effect of the concrete in the tension zone.
is the width of the section of the centroid of tension steel.
is the distance from the compression face to the point at which
crack width is being calculated, and
is the area of tension reinforcement
is the yield strength of steel in N/mm2 (kg/cm2)

CHAPTER - 6
Selection Of Cement
6.1
It is necessary to use cement of appropriate grade and type for specific
applications and environment conditions. Various type of cement produced in
India are shown in table 6.1.
Table 6.1
Various type of cement produced in India
S
N
1
2
3
4
Cement Variety
As per code
OPC (Ordinary Portland

Cement)
Gd-33 IS:269-1989
Gd-43 IS:8112-1989
Gd-53 IS: 12269-1987
IS :1489-1991
Quantity in million tonnes.

(Yr : 1996-97)
48.4
70%
13.6
19%
IS: 455-1989
7.33
10%
0.60
1%
PPC(Portland Pozzolana
Cement)
PBFSC (Portland Blast
Furnace Slag Cement)
Others
Rapid Hardening Cement
Low Heat Cement
Sulphate Resisting Cement
Super sulphated Cement
IS:8041-1990
IS :12600-1989
IS :12330-1988
1S:6909-1990
TOTAL
70.00
6.2 Major Compounds in Cement: In all the Portland Cements, there are
four major compounds. The variation in percentage composition of
compounds influences the properties of cement. These compounds are given
in table 6.2 below:
Table 6.2
Composition of cement
SN
Name of
compound
Oxide
composition
Abbreviation
Approx.
Percentage
Function
Tricalcium
Silicate
3CaO.SiO2
C3S
45-55%
Dicalcium
Silicate
2CaO.SiO2
C2S
20-30%
Tricalcium
Aluminate
3CaO.AI2O3
C3A
6-10%
Tetracalcium
Aluminoferrite
4CaO.AI2O3Fe
2O3
C4AF
15-20%
Mainly responsible for

early strength (1 to 7
days)
Mainly responsible for
later strength (7 days
and beyond)
C3A increases rate of
hydration of C3S. C3A
gives flash set in
absence of gypsum
It hydrates rapidly but
its
contribution
to
strength is uncertain
and generally very
low.

6.3 The physical and chemical characteristics of various cements are given in
Table 6.3 & 6.4
Table 6.3
Physical characteristics of various types of cement
Sr.
No.
10
11
Type of
Cement
33 grade
OPC (IS:
269-1989)
43 grade
OPC (IS:
8112-1989)
53 grade
OPC (IS:
122691987)
Sulphate
Resisting
Cement
(IS : 123301988 )
Portland
Pozzolana
Cement (IS:
1489-1991)
Part I
Rapid
Hardening
Cement (IS:
8041-1990)
Slag
Cement (IS:
455-1989)
Super
Sulphated
Cement (IS:
6909-1990)
Low Head
Cement
(IS:126001989)
Masonry
Cement
(IS:34661988)
IRS-T40
(m2 /
Kg) Min
225
Soundness by
Le Cha- Auto
telier
Clave
(max.) max
mm
%
10
0.8
Setting time
(minutes)
Initial
Final
Min
Max
30
600
Compressive strength
1
3
7
28
day
days days days
Min. Min Min
Min
Mpa Mpa Mpa
Mpa
NS
16
22
33
225
10
0.8
30
600
NS
23
33
43
225
10
0.8
30
600
NS
27
37
53
225
10
0.8
30
600
NS
10
16
33
300
10
0.8
30
600
NS
16
22
33
325
10
0.8
30
600
16
27
NS
NS
225
10
0.8
30
600
NS
16
22
33
400
NS
30
600
NS
15
22
30
320
10
0.8
60
600
NS
10
16
35
10
90
1440
NS
NS
2.5
370
0.8
60
600
NS
NS
37.5
NS
Fineness
NS-Not specified.
* residue on 45 Micron IS sieve, Max, Percent (by wet sieving) is 15.

Table 6.4
Chemical characteristics of various types of cement
Sr.
No.
Type of
cement
Lime
saturation
factor
(%)
0.66Min
1.02Max
.
Alumina
Iron ratio
(%)Min
Insoluble
residue
(%) Max
0.66
Magnesi
a
(%)
Max
6
Sulphuric
anhydride
Loss
on
igniton
(%)
Max
5
33 grade
OPC
(IS:269-1989)
43 grade
OPC
(IS: 81121989)
0.66 Min
1.02Max
0.66
53 grade
OPC
(IS:122691987)
0.8 Min
1.02Max
0.66
Sulphate
Resisting
Cement
(IS:123301988)
Portland
Pozzolana
Cement (IS:
14891991)PartI
Rapid
Hardening
Cement (IS:
8041-1990)
0.66Min
1.02Max
NS
2.5%Max. When
C3A is 5 or less.
3% Max. when
C3A is greater
than 5
2.5%Max. When
C3A is 5 or less.
3% Max. when
C3A is greater
than 5
2.5%Max. When
C3A is 5 or less.
3% Max. when
C3A is greater
than 5
2.5%Max
NS
NS
X+4(
100 - X ) /
100
3% Max
0.66Min
1.02Max
0.66
NS
NS
2.5%Max. When
C3A is 5 or less.
3% Max. when
C3A is greater
than 5
3% Max
NS
NS
10
6%Min
NS
0.66
0.8 Min.
1.02Max
0.66
2.5% Max. When

C3A is 5 or less.
3% Max. when
C3A is greater
than 5
3.5% Max.
7
8
10
Slag Cement
(IS:455-1989)
Super
Sulphated
Cement
(IS:69091990)
Low Heat
Cement (IS:
12600-1989)
IRS-T40
X - Declared percentage of fly ash.
NS - Not specified.
5
NS

6.4 Important properties and draw backs in Indian specifications:
i)
Initial setting time: As per Indian standard, the minimum initial setting
time is 30 minutes. Considering the hot weather conditions prevailing in India,
it is all the more necessary to insist on a higher initial setting time for cement
e.g. at least 60 minutes.
ii)
Chemical properties: The chloride content is a very important
requirement affecting the durability of concrete and is missing in IS
specification.
iii)
Fineness of cement: IS code provides for a minimum specific surface
of 225M2/Kg except for Portland Pozzolana Cement. Most of the Indian
cement manufacturers resort to producing cement with increased fineness
even higher than 300 presumably to improve the compressive strength of
cement. This is not desirable in hot weather concreting. It is, therefore,
necessary to lay down upper limit of fineness while ordering cement or
framing contract conditions for concrete works. The upper limit should be
around 280.
iv)
When should a cement be rejected: The table 6.5 gives list of major
defects in cement in respect of various properties . IS does not specify.
Table 6.5
SN
1
2
3
4
5
6
Property
Strength lower limit
28 days
7 days
Strength- Upper limit 28 days
Setting time
Soundness
Sulphate Content
Chloride Content
Deviation from the requirements

- 2.5 N/sq.mm
- 2.0N/sq.mm
Not specified
-15 minutes
+1mm
+0.5%
+0.01%
v)
Heat of hydration: Heat of hydration should be specified for the
cements for hot weather concreting it should be (i) 7 days <270 Kj/Kg and for
28 days < 320Kj/Kg. For cold weather it should be more .
6.5 Factors affecting choice of cement: Following factors govern choice
of cement.
Durability Characteristics
Functional requirement - Deflection, crack width etc.
Design parameters- Strength, fineness, setting time requirement
etc.
Speed of construction- Time for construction etc.
Environmental Conditions- Ground conditions, soluble salts,
sulphates, Chemical plants etc.

6.6 Suitability of various types of cement:
i)
33 grade OPC: It is used for normal grade of concrete upto M-20,
plastering, flooring, grouting of cable ducts in PSC works etc. The fineness
should be between 225 and 280.
ii)
43 grade OPC:
It is the most widely used general purpose cement.
For concrete grades upto M-30, precast elements.
For marine structures but C 3A should be between 5 - 8%.
iii) 53 grade OPC:

For concrete grade higher than M-30, PSC works, bridge, roads,
multistoried buildings etc.
For use in cold weather concreting.
For marine structures but C 3A should be between 5 - 8%.
iv) Portland Slag Cement (PSC) i.e. OPC + granulated slag: It gives low
heat of hydration. The slag should be more than 50% and upto 70%. It is used
for ;
Marine and off shore structures- very high chloride and sulphate
resistant.
Sewage disposal treatments works
Water treatment plants
Constructions which are expected to be attacked by dissolved
chlorides and sulphate ions.
Should be mainly used for all future structures.
v)
Portland Pozzolana Cement: IS: 1489(part-I) - 1991 (using flyash):

It gives low heat of hydration and reduces the leaching of calcium
hydroxide. This cement
should be used only after proper
evaluation. This should be tested as per IS: 1489 (Pt I) 1991. It
is used for :
hydraulic structures- dams, retaining walls
Marine structures
Mass concrete works- like bridge footings
under aggressive conditions
Masonry mortar and plastering.
vi)
SRC- Sulphate Resisting Cement: (C3A < 3%) Sulphate Resisting
Portland Cement is a type of Portland Cement in which the amount of
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) is restricted to lower than 5% and 2C 3A + C4AF
lower than 25%. The SRC can be used for structural concrete wherever OPC
or PPC or Slag Cement are usable under normal conditions.
The use of SRC is particularly beneficial in such conditions where the
concrete is exposed to the risk of deterioration due to sulphate attack, for
example, in contact with soils and ground waters containing excessive
amounts of sulphates as well as for concrete in sea water or exposed directly

to sea coast . The IS 456 (revised draft code) has made elaborate provisions
for use of particular type of cement against different percentages of soluble
sulphate salts. These provisions are given in table 6.6 below:
Table 6.6
Class
In soil
1
2
<0.2
0.2-0.5
Concentration of Sulphates
expressed as SO3
In ground water
SO3 In 2:1
(g/L)
water : soil
extract (g/L)
<1.0
<0.3
1.0-1.9
0.3-1.2
0.5-1.0
1.9-3.1
1.2-2.5
4
5
1.0-2.0
>2
3.1-5.0
>5.0
2.5-5.0
>5.0
Total SO3
%
Type of cement
OPC,PSC or PPC
OPC,PSC or PPC
SSC or SRC
SSC or SRC
PSC or PPC
SSC or SRC
SRC or SSC with
protective coating.
The use of SRC is recommended for following applications:

Foundations, piles
Basement and underground structures
Sewage and water treatment plants
Chemical factories
Suitable for underground works where Sulphate is present in the
Soil and water.
Attention:
i)
Sulphate resisting cement is not suitable where there is danger of
chloride attack. This will cause corrosion of rebar.
ii) If both Chlorides and Sulphates are present, Ordinary Portland
Cement with C3A between 5& 8 should be used.
Sulphate resistance of cements : Chemical resistance of various types of
cement in different environmental conditions is given in table 6.7 .
Table 6.7
Type of
Cement
Ordinary Portland
Pozzolana
Slag
Chemicals resistance to sulphates

Moderate
High
Very High
C3A <8%
C3A <5%
C3A =0%
2C3A+C4AF<25% C4AF< 20%
or
or
C4AF +C2F<25% C4AF +C2F<20%
No special
C3A <6%
C3A < 3.5%
prescription
Slag > 36%
Slag > 70%
C 3A < 2%

vii)
Low heat portland cement :
Low Heat Portland Cement is
particularly suited for making concrete for dams and many other types of
water retaining structures, bridge abutments, massive retaining walls, piers
and slabs etc. In mass concreting, there is often considerable rise in
temperature because of the heat produced as the cement sets and hardens.
The shrinkage which occurs on subsequent cooling sets up tensile stresses in
the concrete, may result in cracking. The use of low heat cement is
advantageous since it evolves less heat than OPC. This cement is not
available in the market on regular basis and has to be obtained on specific
orders.
viii) Rapid hardening cement : The Rapid Hardening Cement is used for
repair and rehabilitation works and where speed of construction and early
completion is required due to limitations of time, space or other reasons. The
cement is to be used in cold weather concreting i.e. temp < 5 0C. Rapid
hardening cement is basically OPC but its fineness is 3250 cm 2/gm against
2250cm2/gm in case of OPC. The compressive strength after 1 day is 16
N/mm2 and that of 3 days 27N/mm 2. These days higher grade OPC are
available in the country to meet these requirements and therefore, this cement
is not being manufactured and marketed on regular basis. The characteristics
of this cement can be effectively met by only good quality 53 grade OPC.
ix) Hydrophobic portland cement : Hydrophobic Portland Cement is
manufactured on special requirement for high rainfall areas to improve the
shelf life of the cement. The cement particles are given a chemical coating
during manufacturing which provides water repelling property and the cement
is not affected due to high humidity and can be stored for a longer period .
This has to be obtained on special order from the cement manufactures.
x)
IRS-T 40 special grade cement : IRS-T 40 Special Grade Cement is
manufactured as per specification laid down by Ministry of Railways under
IRS-T 40:1985. It is a very finely ground cement with high C 3S content
designed to develop high early strength required for manufacture of concrete
sleeper for Indian Railways. This cement can also be used with advantage for
other applications where high strength concrete is required. This cement can
be used for prestressed concrete elements, high rise buildings, high strength
concrete etc.
7.
Summary
i
ii
iii
If both Cl - and SO3 are present ; use blended cement (OPC +

GGBFS)
If only Cl- like Sea water - never use Sulphate Resistant Cement .
Cl- diffusion is maximum in sulphate Resistant Cement. Use
blended Cement. The C 3A content should be between 5-8%. Use
low heat OPC. (OPC 30% +GGBFS 70%) is the best combination.
If SO3 present: C3A < 5. Use sulphate resistant cement (which is
equal to grade 33 OPC in strength). High strength and sulphate
resistance do not go together, or use blended cement with GGBFS
or fly ash.

iv
For high grade concrete > 100 Mpa, use OPC53 (30-40%)
+GGBFS (>50% ) + Silica fumes (10%), with w/c around 0.30.
Curing is very important. It must start within half an hour.
v For better plaster use OPC 33 : GGBFS as 1: 2. Plastering by
Grade 53 or OPC will cause shrinkage cracks.
vi The cement should not have very high fineness.
vii For grouting of cables use only Gd 33 cement with fineness less
than 260.
viii Ground soil and quality of water (especially in case of sea and
marine structures), should be examined and specifications for the
cement to be used for the structure should be decided at the
planning stage itself.
ix The percentage of mineral admixtures in blended cement should
be as under:
GGBFS
> 50% (upto 70%)
Fly Ash
> 10 % (upto 25%)
Silica Fumes = 8 to 10%.
Attention: The rate of development of strength is slow in case of
blended cement i.e. Portland pozzolana cement and Portland slag
cement etc., as compared to ordinary Portland cement. This aspect
should be taken care while planning to use blended cement.
Accordingly, stage of prestressing period of removal of form work and
period of curing etc. should be suitably increased.

CHAPTER - 7
Blended Cements (OPC + Mineral Admixtures)

7.1 Blended cement
7.1.1 The blended cements are manufactured by adding pozzolanic or
Cementitious materials like fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBFS) or condensed silica fumes (CSF) to portland cement clinker and
Gypsum. Alternatively, these pozzolanic and cementitious materials can be
introduced into Portland cement concrete during concrete making operations.
Table 7.1 gives the details of mineral admixtures, being used to make
blended cement.
Table 7.1
Classification, composition, and particle characteristics of mineral admixtures
for concrete.
Classification
Cement and pozzolanic
ground granulated blast furnace slag (cementitious)
GGBFS
High- calcium fly ash

(cementitious and
pozzolanic)
Highly active pozzolanas

condensed silical fume
Chemical and mineralogical

Composition
Mostly silicate glass
containing mainly calcium,
magnesium, aluminum and
silica. Crystalline compounds
of melilite group may be
present in small quantity
Mostly silicate glass

containing mainly calcium,
magnesium, aluminum and
alkalies. The small quantity
of crystalline matter present
generally consists of quartz
and C3A ; free lime and
periclase may be present; CS
and C4A3S may be present in
the case of high- sulfur coals.
Un-burnt carbon is usually
less than 2%.
Consists essentially of pure
silica in noncrystalline form.
Particle characteristics
Un processed material is of
sand size and contains 10 15% moisture. Before use it
is dried and ground to
particles less than 45 m
(usually about 500 m2 / kg
Blaine). Particles have rough
texture.
Powder corresponding to 1015% particles larger than 45
.m (usually 300-400 m2/kg
Blaine). Most particles are
solid spheres less than
20 .m in diameter. Particle
surface is generally smooth
but not as clean as in low
calcium fly ashes.
Extremely fine powder

consisting of solid spheres of
0.1 .m average diameter
(about 20m2/g surface area
by Nitrogen adsorption).
7.1.2 The beneficial effect of the various cementitious materials are so

significant that their use in reinforced concrete liable to corrosion in hot
climates (which is the condition prevailing in entire India during most part of
the year), is virtually necessary. Portland cement alone should not be used in
future marine structures and in coastal areas i.e. within 1 Km of coast line.
7.1.3 At present in India OPC is considered as the best, if not the sole,
cementitious material in the concrete. The other materials, primarily fly ash

and GGBFS are viewed as replacements or substitutes for cement, whereas
these cemetitious materials are today concrete ingredients in their own right.
7.2
General features of use of mineral admixtures: It is a fact that their
use save energy and conserve natural resources but their technical benefits
are the strongest. They affect the progress of hydration, reduces the water
demand and improves workability. The concrete containing GGBFS, on
vibration becomes mobile and compacts well. Silica fumes greatly reduces,
or even eliminates bleeding, The particles of Pozzolanic Fly Ash (PFA) are
spherical and thus improves the workability. Their inclusion has the physical
effect of modifying the flocculation of cement, with a resulting reduction in the
water demand. The pore size in concrete is smaller. The fine particles fit in
between cement particles, thereby reducing permeability.
7.3
Properties of concrete made from blended cement
i) Strength development: The 28 days and later, compressive strengths

are same as for OPC. However, the rate of gain of strength upto 7 days is
slower, due to heat of hydration being low. The drop in early strength should
not be considered as sign of poor quality as this is often accompanied by
enhancement of other properties.
ii) Curing: Curing is a very important stage in the life of a conventional
concrete, it becomes a critical factor in concrete containing blended cement. A
good curing method is essential, because blended cement hydrates slower
than OPC. It is potentially more vulnerable to drying conditions, thus the wet
curing requirements, which is the most neglected activity in the fields, is very
important. The curing method and period must be specified.
iii) Bleeding: The PFA, GGBFS, Silica fumes being finer than OPC, less
bleeding is observed. The freshly placed concrete is very stable, being very
cohesive and having strong internal cohesion. This has a negative effect in
the form of plastic shrinkage.
iv) Workability: The workability increases, and thus water content can be
reduced by about 3 %. The ball bearing action of cementitious particles
improves the workability. Silica fumes demand high water due to higher
fineness. The problem is circumvented by the addition of suitable super
plasticizers.
7.4 Advantages of using Blended Cement: The engineering benefits likely
to be derived from the use of mineral admixtures (blended cements and
cement + mineral admixtures can be used interchangingly ) in concrete are
improved resistance to thermal cracking because of lower heat of hydration,
enhancement of ultimate strength, reduction in permeability due to pore
refinement, and a better durability to chemical attacks such as chloride,
sulphate water, soil and alkali- aggregate expansion.

i) Temperature rise: In large concrete pours like bridges, foundations and
water retaining structures, it is vital to minimise the rise of early age thermal
cracking by controlling the temp rise caused by hydration. One method of
doing this is by use of concrete containing blended cements. Fig 7.1 shows
temp. rise due to cement hydration.
Example: Let the minimum dimension is 1.0m. Assuming 400kg of
cementitious material rising temperature shall be as under:
for 100% OPC
rise in temp = 48 degree centigrade
50% GGBFS +50% OPC
rise in temp = 28 -do70% GGBFS +30%OPC
rise in temp = 16 -doii) Chloride resistance: Blended cement concrete have a higher resistance
to the penetration of chlorides. The table below shows typical diffusivity.
Table 7.2
Diffusion of chloride at 25 0c in cement paste of w/c 0.5
S.N.
1.
2.
3.
4.
DIFFUSIVITY (X 10-9 cm2/s)

100.0
TYPE OF CEMENT
Sulphate Resistant
Portland Cement
OPC
70% OPC + 25% Flyash
30% OPC + 70% GGBFS
44.7
14.7
4.1
iii) The diffusivity is substantially reduced in case of blended cement. This is

due to two mechanisms. Firstly, the incorporation of slag reduces the
permeability of the concrete and secondly the hardened paste of slag cement
bind greater amounts of chlorides than that of OPC, resulting in much lower
portion of free chlorides in the pore solution. The effect of GGBFS in regard to
Cl- penetration is shown in fig. 7.2.
Age
Depth(mm)
OPC concrete
6
12
24
36
( months)
70% GGBFS + 30% OPC
Concrete
6
12
24
36
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
Symbol
Chloride by wt. Of
Concrete %
0.005%
0.05 to 0.10%
0.10 to 0.25%
0.25 to 0.50%
No penetration
Fig 7.2 Chloride penetration in concrete
It may be observed from Fig 7.2 that in the first 10mm layer there no
difference. However, in 10-20 mm and 20-30 mm depth Zone in case of
blended Cement Concrete Chloride penetration is significantly less (about 1/2
of OPC). In 30-40 mm depth zone, chloride penetration is much less as
compared to OPC. It also shows that first 10mm of concrete provides little
barrier to chloride ion penetration. It also brings out that cover should be in the
range of 40-50 mm so that the free chlorides shall be less than 0.1% i.e. the
threshold value for steel corrosion.
iv) Protection to steel corrosion: The blended cement concrete is more
resistant to Chloride penetration and thus provides protection in coastal areas
against corrosion many more times than OPC concrete.
v) Sulphate resistance: Blended cement with slag content more than 50%,
exhibits better sulphate resisting properties. Depending upon the severity of
the exposure to sulphate, limitations are placed on C 3A content in cement.
This is dealt under the chapter 6 Para 6.6 (vi) - Selection of cement.
vi) Alkali-silica reaction: Blended cement with high slag is a safe cement
system for the use with reactive aggregate . A comparison of expansion for
various concrete is given in table 7.3.
Table 7.3
Age
OPC
28 days
0.64%
The expansion
50%OPC+ 50%
25%OPC+75%
GGBFS
GGBFS
0.09%
0.04%
vii) Resistance to sea water: In marine exposures, concrete containing

blended cements exhibit enhanced durability. The studies done in Belgium,
Norway, Germany, England and France have found that blended cements
with more than 50% GGBFS, have a better durability.
7.5 Suggested blends : Various blends for concrete are suggested in table
7.4.
Table 7.4
Suggested blends for concrete
1.
2.
3.
Hot weather conditions (In

most parts of India except
during winter).
In cold weather concrete
Silica fumes
OPC (with revised specifications)

Gd 43 + 50% to 70% GGBFS*
or OPC Gd 43+10-25% fly ash**
Gd 53 OPC quick setting cement
8-10% Cementitious material, if the
concrete grade is above M-60. The
cost is above Rs. 30/kg. It should be
used in high rise buildings. It is an
imported material.
*
GGBFS- It is being manufactured and packed in 50kg bags. The exfactory rate is about Rs 60/bag of 50 Kg. To be taken from reputed
manufacturers.
** Fly ash: Should be processed and quality product. The quality of material
needs to be ascertained.
7.6 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) :
7.6.1 Blast furnace slag is produced as a by-product in the manufacture of
pig iron from iron ore in the blast furnace. The molten slag is tapped from the
blast furnace and quenched by pouring it over high pressure jets of water.
During this process slag is fragmented into small granules and hence called
granulated blast furnace slag. Granulated slag is a latent hydraulic material
which is ground into a superfine state under controlled conditions. The end
product is called ground granulated blast furnace slag which when blended
with ordinary portland cement gives extraordinary properties to concrete as
well as mortar. The use of GGBFS started abroad in late 50s but in India it
started in 1996 on Mumbai Municipal Corporation project of 3.5 Km long
tunnel under sea to discharge sewerage, being constructed by M/S AFCONS.
Now GGBFS is being used in many important projects.
Example : The mix being used at the Mumbai Sewerage Project is :
i)
ii)
M-45
OPC T-40(30%) + GGBFS (from Andhra Cement Ltd) 70%
= 450 Kg/Cu.m.
iii) Sand (washed ) Zone II grading = 47%
iv) Crushed aggregate
= 20% agg.No.1+ 33% agg.No. 2
v) w/c ratio
= 0.33
vi) Super plasticizer
= 1% by weight of cement
vii) Workability
= 90mm.
The average compressive strength achieved is
1 day = 10.0 N/mm 2
3 days = 32.0
7 days = 38.0
28 days = 59.0
7.6.2 There is no IS: specification for GGBFS for use with OPC. BS : 6699
may be referred. Broad specification are given in table 7.5.
Table 7.5
Specification for GGBFS
S.
N.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
7.7
Property
Unit
Requirement
Heat of Hydration (measured after 10 hrs.)

Glass content
Initial setting time
Final setting time
Fineness
Soundness ( 70% of GGBFS +30% OPC)
Compressive strength - (70% GGBFS +
30% OPC)
7 days
28 days
Chlorides
CaOSiO2
Manganese
Loss of ignition
Sulphur trioxide
Magnesia
Sulphur sulphide
Insoluble Residue
Sulphate expansion
Cl-diffusion Coeff n
J/gm
180 (max m )
%
70 (min m )
Minutes 180 (minm)
Minutes 230 (minm )
M2 /kg
400 (minm)
mm
5 (max m)
N/mm2 20 (minm)
N/mm2 40 (minm)
%
0.05% (max)
%
1.4% (max)
%
1%(max)
%
2%(max)
%
1.5%(max)
%
14%(max)
%
1.5%(max)
%
1.5%(max)
%
0.01(max m
X10 -12
4
2
m /Sec.
Fly Ash :
7.7.1
Fly ash is the ash precipitated electro-statically from the exhaust
fumes of coal fired power station. In India nearly 70 million tons of fly ash is
being produced every year while a very small quantity is used in
manufacturing of cement. It is an eco-friendly product. The fly ash particles
are spherical and are generally of higher fineness than cement so that the
silica is readily available for reaction. As per IS 3812 : 1981, the percentage of
silica and alumina should be minimum 70% and maximum loss on ignition 12
%. Much superior quality fly ash is available from thermal power plants than
specified in IS code.
The Portland Pozzolana Cement makes concrete more impermeable
and denser as compared to Portland Cement. The long term strength (90
days and above) of cement blended with flyash (>25%) is better compared to
OPC. The pozzolanic material reacts with calcium hydroxide liberated by the
hydrating Portland Cement and forms cementitious compounds generally
known as C-S-H gel. The reaction can be given as under:
C3S + 6H C3S2H3+ 3Ca(OH)2
3C3S + 4H C3S2H3+3Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 +(SiO2 +Al2 O3) C3S2H3+ other components
The flyash converts Ca(OH) 2 into useful cementitious compounds

(C3S2H3), there by increasing the properties of hardened concrete. The
blended Cement with flyash produces less heat of hydration and offers great
resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than normal Portland Cement.
Moreover it reduces the leaching of calcium hydroxide liberated during the
setting and hydration of cement.
7.7.2
The blended cement with flyash is ideally suited for the following
constructions;
Hydraulic structures
Mass concreting works
Marine structures
Masonry mortars and plastering
Under aggressive conditions.

7.7.3 Though blended cement with fly ash is ideally suitable under
aggressive
condition , it is necessary that quality of fly ash is properly
evaluated , as quality of Fly ash available at most of the places is doubtful.
Use of inferior quality of Fly ash with cement, may affect corrosion resistant
properties adversely. Thus, it is necessary that quality of Fly ash is evaluated
by reputed laboratory. It should be tested for chlorides, sulphate, alkalinity and
heat of hydration as per IS : 3812. The quality of fly ash to be blended with
cement and the concrete made out of it should be approved for corrosion
resistant properties by reputed organisation like CECRI, CBRI, CRRI etc. Fly
ash should be purchased from standard firms along with test certificates.
Attention:
The rate of development of strength is slow in case of blended

cement i.e. Portland pozzolana cement and Portland slag
cement etc., as compared to ordinary Portland cement. This
aspect should be taken care while planning to use blended
cement. Accordingly, stage of prestressing period of removal of
form work and period of curing etc. should be suitably increased.

CHAPTER - 8
Coatings For Steel And Concrete

8.1 Concrete structures in aggressive environment (Marine / Industrial area)
are subjected to chloride attack . In order to protect concrete structures from
chloride attack in aggressive environment, it is necessary that protective
coatings are applied to concrete and steel both to prevent ingress of
chlorides.
8.2 Selection and coating for steel: The metallurgists and electrochemical
engineers have developed several methods for protection of steel from
corrosion in concrete. The most commonly known systems of protection of
steel from corrosion in concrete are :
i)
ii)
i
ii
iii
iv
Use of Corrosion Resistance Steel Reinforcement Bars

Methods developed by Central Electro-Chemical Research Institute
(CECRI), Karaikudi - Tamilnadu.
Inhibited Cement Slurry Coating System (Old Method)
Cement-Polymer-Composite Coating System(New Method)
Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Rebars (FBECR)
Hot dip Galvanizing
Epoxy Phenolic Interpenetrating Polymer Network (IPN) Coating
for reinforcing steel developed by CBRI, Roorkee.
Truncated inhabited slurry cement base coating as used in
Konkan Railway
8.2.1 Corrosion Resistant Steel Reinforcement Bars: A number of

manufacturers have come up with a new type of higher strength re-bars which
are claimed to be corrosion resistant. These products are as given in table
8.1
Table 8.1
Manufacturer
SAIL
TISCO
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd.

Vizag Steel
Product
HCR Rebars
Grade A and Grade M
TISCON- CRS
TISCON- 50 CRS
TISCON- 50 TMT
TEMP CORE REBARS
High Strength Corrosion Resistant A-1
Rebar
These bars have dual micro structures i.e. the surface layer is tempered
martensite while the inner shell is ductile ferrite-pearlite. To increase
corrosion resistance of these bars certain elements like nickel, chromium,
copper and phosphorus are also added. These bars form a protective layers

on the surface when they come in contact with atmospheric oxygen and
moisture. This layer is formed over a period of time. In concrete oxygen is
not available. Hence, the protective coating may not form when such bars
are used as reinforcement in concrete. Obviously, there appears to be no
advantage in using such bars in place of mild steel. Even, when exposed to
atmosphere in marine environment the chlorides present in the air break the
protective layer thereby reducing corrosion resistance. Therefore, in marine
atmosphere these bars do not give good resistance to corrosion as in normal
atmosphere. Secondly, their chemical composition is such that it may lead to
pitting corrosion which is highly undesirable. In mild steel bars conforming to
IS:1786, although is less corrosion resistance, but corrosion occurs all over
the surface without pitting.
8.2.2
Inhibited Cement Slurry Coating System:-
8.2.2.1
This method was developed by CECRI, Karaikudi. This is their
older system. It consists of application of cement based inhibited and sealed
reinforcement bars. The entire process of coating is based on following
system :
i
De-rusting : Removal of rust, dirt and oil from steel surface
ii Phosphating: Phosphatisation of steel surface(by Phosphating
Jelly) offers temporary protection during time lag between
derusting and application of first coat of inhibited cement slurry.
iii Cement slurry:
Two coats of cement slurry made by OPC
cement and Inhibitor solution to protect steel surface from the
attack of Sulphate and Chloride ions and to keep the steel surface
in high pH environment.
iv Sealing: Two coats of Sealing solution to increase the adhesion
between steel and cement coating and to seal the surface and
make it impermeable for gaseous and water molecules.
8.2.2.2
i
Briefly following steps are involved in this process
Derusting by dipping the rebars in pickling solution (patent

no.465/CAL/75) for 30 minutes (pH of the solution is 1.04)
ii Removal from acid tank and dipping in alkaline tank to neutralize
and cleaning with potable water for 2 minutes.
iii Application of phosphate jelly coat (Patent no.109897) and drying
for 45-60 minutes (pH of the jelly is 2.5).
iv Application of inhibitor solution A (patent no.109784/67) for 2
minutes.
v Application of first coat of cement slurry coating with inhibitor
solution A
vi Air drying for 24 hours.
vii Application of first coat of sealing solution B (Patent no.112440/67)
for 2 minutes.
viii Application of 2nd coat of cement slurry solution A for 2 minutes.
ix Air drying for 24 hours
x Another coat of sealing solution B and drying for 4 hours.

xi Application of 3rd coat of sealing solution B for 2 minutes
xii Air drying for 4 hours.
Detailed specification regarding quality control aspect and
chemicals/solution used in the process may be obtained from Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI) Karaikudi-623 006 (Tamilnadu). Code of
Practice for this system, as received from CECRI is annexed with the report
as Appendix-I.
8.2.2.3
Merits & demerits of system:
Merits
This is an in situ process

Easy to patch repair
There is adequate tolerance to defects
This is passivating type of system
It is cost effective and
It is based on logical sequences
Demerits:
This is a multi step field process

Bending operations have to be completed prior to coating.
No well-established criteria/specifications
The process is labour intensive and needs close monitoring
8.2.2.4 Performance : This coating has been used in many prestigious

structures, built in the East and the West coast of India as enumerated below.
Nothing adverse has been noticed so far from these structures.
i
New thane Creek Railway bridge, Mumbai-The work started in

1987 and there is not a trace of any corrosion, upto 1998.
ii New Thane Creek Road bridge, Mumbai
iii Kalwa and Kasheli bridges, Mumbai
iv Konkan Railway bridges, West Coast
v New and old Mandavi bridges, Goa
vi Pamban bridge, Tamilnadu and
vii Television tower, Rameshwaram
viii Dr.M.G.Ramachandran Memorial, Chennai
8.2.2.5
8.2.3
The cost of the coating system is about Rs.2000 to 3000/MT.

Cement-polymer composite coating system (CPCC):
8.2.3.1 This is a new method developed by CECRI. This system has been
developed to overcome demerits of inhibited cement slurry coating system.

8.2.3.2 This system consists application of one coat of rapid setting primer
followed by a coat of cement polymer sealing product. The primer and
sealing products have thermoplastic acrylic resin as basic raw material.
Sealing product is formulated with resin mixed with cement as a pigments.
Rapid setting primer and sealing coats both are patented item. This system
has been developed mainly as a factory / shop process. The approach
behind development of this system is that the base metal of rebars, contains
electrons which get readily released in corrosive environment leading to
oxidation of iron and thereby formation of Fe 2O3 (rust) as principal deterrent.
In order to prevent this oxidation a surface coating capable of
interacting/nullifying the released electrons is provided. Further prestressing
and reinforcing steel, in concrete during service life, are exposed to an
alkaline environment and this necessitates introductions of a top coat which
should be compatible to primer and alkaline environment. To meet these two
contingencies, suitable polymers are carefully tailored through the formation
of a single phase in the polyblend which provides the necessary mechanical
and physical properties.
8.2.3.3
Briefly the following steps are involved in the process:
a Surface preparation : The surface of the steel reinforcing bars to be

coated is cleaned by abrasive (dry sand) blast cleaning to the near white
metal in accordance with SSPC-SP10/NAC No.2-1994. It includes the
following procedures.
i
ii
iii
iv
v
b
Prior to blast cleaning visible deposits of oil or grease are removed

by suitable cleaning method.
Clean dry compressed air is used for nozzle blasting.
Dry uniformly graded silica sand is used for blast cleaning which
should be free from contaminants.
Dust and residues are removed from prepared surface by brushing,
blowing off with clean, dry air, vacuum cleaning.
The prepared surface shall meet the visual standards of
comparisons as in SSPC-VIS 1 of SSPC-VIS 2.
Application of the coating:

i
ii
iii
iv
The coating is applied to the cleaned surface as soon as after

cleaning and before oxidation of the surface discernible to the
unaided eye occurs. However, the application of the coating
should not be delayed more than 4 hr. after cleaning.
A rapid setting primer shall be applied over the prepared surface of
the reinforcing steel either by brushing or dipping.
After 30 minutes of application of the primer a cement polymer
sealing coat shall be applied either by brushing or dipping.
The coated rods shall be handled after 6 hours.
c) Inspection and testing : Coated rebars shall be checked for minimum

average dry film thickness, uniformity of thickness, defects such as cracks,
peeling, bulging and uncoated areas etc. Coating shall be tested for adhesion,

bond strength, abrasion resistance, chemical resistance . as per specifications
laid down by the manufacturer.
d)
Detailed specification of chemicals/solutions and quality control
aspects, if required, may be obtained from CECRI, Karaikudi. Code of
Practice for this system, as received from CECRI is annexed with the report
as Appendix-II.
8.2.3.4
Merits & Demerits of the System:
Merits :
The composition has corrosion resistance, making it suitable for

corrosion protection of steel in concrete structures in marine and
industrial environments.
Being cement based composition, it is more compatible in concrete
medium.
It is a passivating-cum-barrier type of coating and hence any
localized defect in the coating may not lead to severe undercutting.
It can be brush applied or sprayed and hence defects in the coating
can be easily patch repaired.
It has good bond strength and hence bond between coated rod and
concrete is not affected.
This system is suitable for the protection of prestressing steel
strands also.
The system can be adopted as in situ process also. The shelf life of
treated bars is 6 months.
Considerable reduction in process time as compared to inhibited
cement slurry system.
Demerits :
This system is newly developed system and the long term results
are not known.
8.2.3.5
Performance : This system is now being used on three fly over
bridges in Mumbai at Goregaon, Andheri and Mankhurd. As the system is a
newly developed system, hence field performance is not known. However
laboratory performance of the system, as reported by CECRI, is very good.
The system has passed bondability test, chemical resistance test, salt spray
test, impressed voltage test and abrasion resistance test as per test
procedure described in ASTM A77/775M-94. From structural point of view,
the coated bars have shown greater bond strength as compared to uncoated
bars.. This coating is superior to old CECRI coating and can be used
effectively in marine structures in future.
8.2.3.6 The cost of the coating is about 3200-8000/MT.

8.2.4
Fusion bonded epoxy coating (FBEC):
8.2.4.1
The Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating is a process where epoxy
powder is applied by electrostatic spray on hot steel at pre-set temperature
level. The powder, when in contact with the hot bar, melts, flows, gels, cures
cools and produces a well-adhered continuous corrosion resistant protective
coating. This thermosetting is an irreversible process and provides the best
protection to rebar against corrosion. It prevents attack of chloride ion on the
metallic surface and occurrence of electro-chemical reaction initiating
corrosion of steel. The epoxy coated rebars were first tried in Pennsylvania
State in 1973 and commercially produced in the USA
since 1976.
Subsequently this system is introduced in Western Europe and Japan. In
India M/s PSL Holdings Ltd, 386, Veer Savarkar Marg, Prabhadevi, Mumbai400 025, are producing Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Rebar (FBECR) at their
plant at Wapi ( Daman ) near Mumbai .
8.2.4.2 The process involves following steps to be performed in a plant
controlled by automatic quality control system.
i
ii
iii
iv
v
Degreasing : Bars are first cleaned from surface contamination

such as oil, grease etc. by chemical process before shot blasting.
Cleaning : The reinforcement bars are cleaned by shot blasting or
grit blasting to white or near white stage.
Heating : The blast cleaned bars are then heated through
induction heaters at preset temperature level around 230 0C.
Coating : Hot bars are then fed to the coating booth, where the
epoxy powder is sprayed electrostatically.
Curing and cooling : Coated bars are then cured and forced
cooled by water spraying to enable handling and testing.
8.2.4.3 Inspection and testing : Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Rebars are
tested at the coating plant to the codal requirements as specified in IS:136201993. On line and off line holiday checks, thickness checks are carried out.
The adhesion of the coated bars are also tested frequently by bending of the
bar. Beside this, various other tests are performed in laboratory like chemical
resistance, short spray, resistance in continuance boiling water, abrasion
resistance and impact resistance etc. These are conducted on every batch
of production.
8.2.4.4
Handling transportation and working : FBECR bars are required
to be handled with extreme care so that coating is not damaged during
transportation. handling/concreting. Thus, Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Bars
require padded contacts during transportation, stacking, handling and till the
concreting is done. The cut ends, welded spots and handling damages are
required to be repaired with special liquid epoxy compatible with the coating
material as per specification of the coating agency.

8.2.4.5
Merits & demerits :
Merits :
As the technique is factory based, better quality control is

achieved. It gives uniform thickness of coating.
The bonding of coating with steel rebars is high as it has excellent
adhesives property.
It is flexible to allow straight bars to be bend during fabrication on a
special mandrill to protect the coating from damage.
The Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating acts as insulator for electrochemical cells and offer barrier protection to steel which prevents
entry of chloride ions through it.
There are well established criteria for acceptance for this coating
(IS :13620-1993 and ASTM 775/A 775M-1992)
Demerits :
8.2.4.6
There is a reduction in bond strength between coated rebars &

concrete (Clause A.5 of IS:13620).
As the technique is plant based, double transportation/handling is
involved.
It requires careful handling as coating may get damaged.
Performance of the system depends upon least defect in the
coating.
Patching may not always be effective.
Even the smallest damage in coating can initiate corrosion in
severe environment.
Performance:
8.2.4.6.1
In US Pennsylvania Department of Transportation had
undertaken a project to evaluate and compare the effectiveness and cost of
various bridge deck protective systems. Evaluation was done by conducting
field survey. The protective systems evaluated in this study included epoxy
coated reinforcing steel, galvanized reinforcing steel, water proofing
membranes, latex modified concrete of salt contaminated decks and low
slump dense concrete. This field evaluation was carried out after 9 years of
construction. Field survey revealed that :i
ii
iii
Rebar coating provide the most effective corrosion protection to the

rebar.
Epoxy coated rebar has been generally rated in excellent condition,
despite high chloride contents in surrounding concrete.
Based on the deterioration rate and life expectancy, epoxy coated
rebar decks have performed better than calculated rates.

8.2.4.6.2 However, during 1986 to 1990 in Florida severe corrosion of epoxy
coated reinforcing bars has been recorded at major construction project in
subtropical marine environments. The Florida key bridge has been put out of
commission.
8.2.4.6.3 A study has been conducted by the Canadian Strategic Highway
Research Programme (C-SHRP). It included extensive testing of epoxy
coated rebar (ECR) from coaters as well as from 19 field structures in
Canada and the United States. This study showed that epoxy-coated rebar
technology is flawed (as practiced in North America) and, as a result, epoxy
coated rebar will not provide long-term protection to reinforcement in salt
contaminated concrete. The study found that this was the case even in
perfect-coated rebars, namely coated bars which have zero holidays, zero
bare areas and comply with all other aspects of specifications. The reason for
these failures are not understood.
8.2.4.6.4 As far as lab performance is concerned, this coating has performed
well in all the test. But patching is found not always effective.
8.2.4.6.5
The cost of treatment is about Rs.4500 to Rs 13,000/MT.
8.2.5 Hot Dip Galvanizing:

8.2.5.1 Galvanizing is the process of deposition of zinc over the surface of
rebars. One of the methods to prevent the steel from under going corrosion is
to galvanized rebars as reinforcement material.. Zinc coating offers protection
in more than one way. Firstly, intermetallic and metallic layers of zinc act as
a physical barrier between the steel material and corrosion environment. In
this case, corrosion resistance of the steel owes to the corrosion resistance of
zinc. Further, wherever steel is exposed to the corrosive environment due to
the break down of the protective coating, steel is still protected by the
selective dissolution of zinc. Further investigations carried out by various
researchers have shown that normally zinc is able to absorb hydrogen within
its interstitial space and therefore prevents steel from undergoing hydrogen
embrittlement. Galvanizing or the method of zinc coating can be achieved
principally by electro-galvanizing and hot dip galvanizing method. Hot dip
galvanizing process is most widely used.
8.2.5.2 Hot dip galvanizing method involves the following steps :
i
ii
iii
Organic contaminates such as dirt, paint markings, grease and oil

on the surface of rebars are removed in a shed by dipping in
caustic solution and cleans by water rinsing.
After caustic cleanings, scale and rust on rebars, are removed by
pickling in hot sulphuric acid on hydrochloric acid at room
temperature and then cleansed by rinsing in water.
In conjunction with chemical cleaning or alternative to it sand
blasting/shot blasting can also be undertaken for surface
preparation.
iv
The cleaned rebars are the fluxed to protect from surface

degradation. This is achieved by dipping the rebars in zinc
ammonium chloride solution and thoroughly dried.
v Then the rebars are immersed in a bath of molten zinc (98.5%pure)
at specified temperature of about 45 0C.
vi The time of immersion which is variable with the size and chemical
composition of rebars should be such that the thickness of coating
achieved should be at least 610 gm/m 2 (84 micron)
vii Then the rebars are air dried completely to be ready for use.
8.2.5.3
Merits & demerits
Merits:
Galvanized bars are successfully used in structure where

carbonation is a risk.
Galvanized rebars have no problems in rough handling,
transportation and in concreting.
Galvanizing can be easily done.
Demerits:
8.2.5.4
If galvanized bars are mixed with ungalvanized bars for use in the
same structure, accelerated depletion of the galvanizing occurs.
Electrochemical treatment to galvanized bar is fraught with danger
as it can result in severe pitting due to formation of galvanic cells.
It is not suitable for protection against chloride attack.
Performance :
In USA, observations of performance by different construction

authorities are as follows.
Galvanizing does not provide long term protection
Galvanizing delays the onset of corrosion process but does not
prevent it.
Service life of rebars does not extend more than 5 years.
Galvanized rebars show better performance in sub-tropical marine
environment when compared to uncoated bars.
In Japan, from long-term field performance the galvanized rebars have
performed well in comparatively low chloride content.
In UK, as a result of extensive field studies it is concluded that
chromated galvanized rebars have excellent corrosion resistance.
In Germany, the use of hot dip galvanized rebars has shown protection
of rebars in uncracked carbonated concrete. Sufficient protection is achieved
if the concrete cover is 50 mm and a crack width upto 0.5 mm.
In India, there is no feed back on performance. In the late eighties, the
Bahai temple in New Delhi was constructed with galvanized rebars and still
the temple is reported to be in sound condition.

8.2.6
Epoxy-phenolic IPN coating :
8.2.6.1 Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee has developed

an Epoxy-Phenolic Interpenetrating Polymer Network (IPN) system for
protection of structural steels and now extended to rebar. It is a polymer
formulation consisting of more than two polymer crosslinked in the network
form by synthesis. Polymer are interwoven to each other and continue to link
together by permanent entanglements devoid of chemical linking.
8.2.6.2 The method of application is as follows :
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
For cleansing the surfaces of rebars sand blasting/shot blasting is

done to remove rust and other deleterious material in a shed
provided with proper ventilation.
The first coat of Epoxy phenolic-IPN is applied by means of
brush/spray within 4 hours of sand blasting/shot blasting.
The application of coat should be done on a high platform of wood
or steel where the rebars can be kept at ease.
For effective
polymerisation within 4 to 8 hours after the
application of first coat. Part A (Resin component) and part B
(Hardner component) of Epoxy phenolic IPN coating are mixed in
plastic container in 1:1 proportion by volume and vigorously stirred
for 5-10 minutes and then the mixture is allowed to remain in the
container for another 5-10 minutes. Then, it is ready for use the
plastic container should be clean and free from moisture, grease
oil, etc.
The mixture is applied by means of brush/spray.
The treated rebar should be cured for 48 hours after the application
of first coat.
Detailed specifications of chemicals and quality control aspect

required may be obtained from CBRI, Roorkee.
if
8.2.6.3 Merits & demerits :

Merits :
The method is very simple.

The method is site based hence chances of damage during
transportation are reduced.
Rebars have excellent corrosion resistance.
No pitting, spalling, scaling are formed.
Demerits:
Field performance is not known.

No well laid acceptance criteria/specification.
System is under development stage.

8.2.6.4
Performance : As the system is under developmental stage, field
performance is not known. However the coating has passed through
adhesion test, pull out test, search resistance test, salt spray test, elongation
test, scanning electron microscopy and differential scanning calorimetric test.
8.2.7 Truncated inhibited cement slurry coating for dry climate as used
for Konkan Railway bridges and structures: In dry climate, it is not
necessary to use the full CECRI system. The following procedure was
adopted in Konkan Railway for structures away from coastal area.
i
ii
iii
Cleaning of steel by wire brush, for removal of dust and rust.

Apply one coat of cement slurry {1 kg cement + 600 c.c of inhibitor
solution (Patent No.109784/67)} by dipping or brushing. The cost
of inhibitor for solution is Rs.6.0 per litre. Allow it to dry for 24
hours in shade. The water is not to be used. The inhibitor solution
is prepared in ionised water.
Apply second coat of cement slurry (same as above). Allow it to
dry in shade.
The coating is purely cement based with inhibitor solution and is

passivating in nature. The cost of the application is negligible and shall be
about Rs.500/MT. The coating has been used in all the bridges and buildings
in Konkan Railway very effectively where bridges are more than 1 km away
from the coast line.
8.2.8 Cathodic protection : This subject is dealt with in the chapter 9.
8.2.9 Selection of coating for steel Recommendation: The following is
recommended.
( Severe, Very severe & Extreme )
Important and major
bridges and buildings
Cement
Polymer
Composite coating
or
Fusion Bonded Epoxy
coating
Non-aggressive
environment
(Mild and Moderate)
All structures
Minor bridges and

structures
Cement
Polymer Truncated
Inhibited
Composite coating
cement slurry coating
or
Inhibited cement slurry
coating
8.3 Coatings for concrete : The protective surface coating, as the name
implies, protects the concrete surface from aggressive chemical attack.
Surface coating of the concrete reduces the ingress of oxygen, water gases
and chemicals present in the industrial and other aggressive environment. So
surface coating for concrete is an effective method of protecting life of
reinforcement steel. The coating on concrete should be breathing type.

8.3.1 Epoxy-phenolic IPN coating:
8.3.1.1 Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee has developed
an Interpenetrating Polymer Network System (IPN Polymer) as coating for
concrete for the protection of concrete structures exposed to aggressive
environments. The corrosion protection efficacy for protection of concrete is
the hall mark of this two component coating system.
8.3.1.2 Preparation of IPN polymers: Two different resins a medium viscosity epoxy resin based on epichlorohydrin and bisphenol as base and an
aromatic amine adduct as the crosslinker and a phenolic resin obtained from
an indigenous phenol with its crosslinker were mixed in different ratios and
cross linked simultaneously by a separate non interfering mechanism. The
IPN polymeric systems thus obtained where evaluated for various physicomechanical properties, using standard methods of testing. It was found that
elongation of IPN polymer (epoxy in combination with phenolic resin), film
increases to 17.5% as against 5% in case of neat epoxy system. This is the
most important property which could enable the coating to retain the adhesion
even at higher fatigue limits.
8.3.1.3 The Vicat softening point, the indicator of thermal stability of polymer
system is much higher in IPN polymer system. It has low moisture vapour
transmission and excellent adhesion with substrate. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of the IPN polymer film is nearly equal to that of concrete
signifying non development of thermal stresses in concrete and coating.
8.3.1.4
Coupled with excellent chemical resistance along with above
mentioned properties, IPN polymers is an excellent protective coating for
concrete structures and can be used for the protection of various structures.
This system has been used on Vasai creek bridge in Mumbai.
8.3.2. Integrated four coat system developed by CECRI, Karaikudi:
i
ii
iii
It consists of epoxy polyamide iron oxide, epoxy polyamide MiO

undercoat, epoxy polyamide. T iO2 top coat and aliphatic. It has high
alkali resistance and good adhesive.
The second coat consist of MiO which is porous material and is
therefore very good. The final cost i.e. aliphatic is a tough polymer
which can stand ultraviolet rays.
The cost treatment is about Rs. 320/m 2.
8.3.3 Epoxy coating: They are well proven for concrete surfaces. When
formulated with liquid epoxy resin, liquid curing agents and highly penetrating
solvents, they give good performance. They are classified as under:
i
ii
iii
Solvent base epoxy with relatively high molecular weight

Thin thrixotropic liquid epoxy based primer.
Thick epoxy coating applied by trawl or by spray.

Epoxy coating is cured either by amines or by polyamides. The
thickness of coating ranges between 8 to 15 microns.
8.3.4
Coaltar epoxy: They have both properties of coaltar and epoxy.
They have good adhesion to concrete and chemical resistance. They are
applied by roller, conventional means or by airless spray. They are applied in
two coats having total thickness of 15 to 20 microns. These have been used
in 1987 to 1991 in Thane Creek Rly. bridge on the piers in the tidal & splash
zones. The coatings are intact as seen in 1998. This is the cheapest and best
coating for substructure and coating over liner plates provided in the tidal &
splash zones.
8.3.5
i
ii
Selection for concrete coating Recommendation:
In Aggressive
environment):
environment
(Severe,
Very
severe
and
Extreme
Sub-structures of bridges
(In affected parts only)
- Coaltar epoxy
- Epoxy-Phenolic IPN coating

or
CECRI Integrated four coat system
Super structures of bridges
In non-aggressive environment ( Mild and Moderate environment):
No coating is necessary.
Good dense cover-concrete with good cement content with low w/c
and extra depth of cover is enough,
Use blended cement to make the concrete impermeable
Use clean reinforcing bars.

CHAPTER - 9
Cathodic Protection
9.1
It is important to note that among the various protective schemes
available to control the corrosion of the reinforcing steel in concrete, cathodic
protection is the only technique which can stop the corrosion of the
reinforcing steel. In addition, on application of cathodic protection, the species
which corrode the steel (such as chloride) will be repelled away, since the
steel is made as the negative electrode .
9.2
Mechanism :
Cathodic protection controls corrosion of steel in
concrete by applying an external source of direct current to the surfaces of the
embedded steel. Cathodic protection supplies an external energy to the steel
surface to prevent the formation of ferrous ions by forcing all reinforcing steel
to function as a current receiving cathode.
9.3
Types :
Among the two types of cathodic protection systems
available, the impressed current system is the most widely employed one.
The sacrificial anode systems have had limited applications, where studies
are still required.
9.3.1 Impressed current cathodic protection system :
9.3.1.1 This system requires the following components:
i) External DC power source (Rectifier )
ii) Current distribution Hardware (Anode)
iii) Conducting Electrolyte (Moist Concrete)
iv) Protected Metal (Rebar)
v) Completed Circuit (Wiring )
vi) Evaluation and control devices ( Probes, Reference
Controllers )
Cells,
Of these various items, numbers (i) and (v) are in common use in
other fields of cathodic protection application and do not require much
modification for use on concrete structures . Items (iii) & (iv) are inherent in
the structure. The items which required the most adaptation or modifications
are the current distribution hardware (item ii) and the evaluation and control
devices (item vi).
9.3.1.2 Anode systems : The anode used to distribute cathodic protection
current to the rebar must have the following properties:
i) Ability to withstand loads and environmental influences,
ii) Design life equal to or greater than the wearing surface life ,
iii) Sufficient electronically conductive surface area such that
premature deterioration of the surrounding concrete does not
occur(as a result of the anodic chemical reactions) and
iv) Economically justifiable .

9.3.1.3
Probes, reference cells and rectifier control:
i) Instrumentation consist of corrosion rate measuring probes and current

pickup probes as the various projects progressed in the last decade. The
instrumentation has remained relatively constant but the method of
installation has evolved. In the early installation data obtained was often of
minor value because of the placement procedures used with the various
probes . Instances in which measured corrosion rates or corrosion current of
the probes in salty concrete were zero regardless of whether or not the
cathodic protection system was on , were not uncommon. The installation
procedure in current specifications helps ensure that the probes will be
strongly anodic to the surrounding rebar .
ii) Reference electrodes of various types are used. Some are ;
Saturated Calomel Electrode

Copper-Copper Sulphate Electrode
Silver - Silver Chloride Electrode etc.
Of these, none has remained completely stable. The Silver-Silver Chloride

Electrode has exhibited the steadiest record to date.
iii Potential Measurements between the rebar and a reference electrode are
invaluable in evaluating a structure. Embedded cells are particularly valuable
in this regard (if stable) to obtain data. Both initial data and post cathodic
protection installation data are required. Long range evaluation of the cathodic
protection system requires consistent and accurate data.
iv Controllers for regulating cathodic protection current have ranged from
simple register circuit to sophisticated microprocessor based control of the
rectifiers. Because of the reference cell instability situation , potential control
has given over to constant current control. Presently multi-functional
controllers which can operate in either constant potential or constant current
modes are often utilised. Potential control and measurement require the
inclusion of circuitry to eliminate extraneous voltage drops caused by the flow
of current through the concrete to the rebar. It is paramount that all potential
measurements on reinforced concrete structures be made using procedures
which eliminate IR error . This can be accomplished using the special
rectifier/controller discussed above, or by using on unfiltered rectifier and
oscilloscope operating in the nulling mode. The micro-processor based
controller are the highest of individual cost item in a bridge deck cathodic
protection system.
Improvements in the reference cell technology and CP System
performance criteria are required before a controller
type can be
standardised and multi-functional units eliminated. Presently, most CP
systems utilize computer control devices and with complete automation.

9.4
Alternate cathodic protection power sources : The impressed
current cathodic protection systems discussed above require a source of
commercial AC power to operate the rectifier and controllers. Many bridge
decks which might benefit from cathodic protection do not have commercial
AC power within the vicinity . Alternate cathodic protection power sources
have been evaluated .
A variable voltage source for cathodic protection which does not
require commercial power is a solar photo-electric panel used in conjunction
which DC batteries . The cost per Watt of power is high, but this can be offset
by the zero power and AC line in installation costs. A solar electric unit was
installed to power a conductive over lay anode system . Solar power could be
the solution to providing an economical power source for remote bridge
locations.
9.5 Criteria for cathodic protection : Cathodic protection of above ground
reinforced concrete structures is quite different from underground
applications. Attempts to achieve and maintain specific polarized potential ,
such as 850 or 770mV vs. SCE on bridge deck , cathodic protection
systems have been made . However, in bridge deck where much of the steel
is naturally cathodic and thus in a passive state, and the dissolved oxygen
content is for higher than in most buried structures, the application of such
criterion has generally been found to result in very high un-needed power
requirements, which cause premature deterioration of the anode and
surrounding concrete, and raise concerns about the long term effect of CP
current on the reinforcing steel bond . Also half cell potentials of the rebar
have been found to be highly variable with changing moisture and oxygen
content. As a result, use of specific half cell potential criterion has decreased
(especially in light of the reference cell stability problem discussed above).
Rather, the use of E vs. log l testing , a procedure in which increments of
current are applied and the half cell potential response monitored, and then
plotted as the potential vs. the log of current and / or otherwise analysed to
define the cathodic protection current requirements on each specific structure,
(or portion of a structure) has become common. Recently, however, much
discussion concerning the use of short term potential shift criteria in lieu of E
vs. log l testing (because of the complexity of E vs. log l testing ) has
occurred. In general, most discussion centres on criterion of 100 to 150 mV
polarization or depolarization in periods from 4 hours to several days.
9.6 Sacrificial system : Sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems
which utilised zinc anodes placed in saw cut slots in the decks or on the
deck and followed by an overlay, have been studied . A natural galvanic
potential exists between the zinc and steel rebar. Although limited to about 0.5
volts driving voltage, cathodic protection current using this natural voltage will
flow from zinc to the rebar. No external power is needed. Several evaluation
projects have met with only limited success . The effective spread of the
cathodic protection current was limited to a few inches from the anode. The
fixed natural voltage is too low to throw the current through the concrete for

greater distances. This coupled with the problem generated by the expensive
corrosion products of the zinc, have led to minimal use of sacrificial anode
system on bridge deck.
9.7 Summary :
In India, Cathodic protection for concrete structures is only
at research stage. There is need for more study in this field, considering
advantages of the system. It is worth while to try Cathodic protection in one or
two distressed bridges under marine environment on experimental bases.
Central Electro-chemical Research Institute (CECRI) Karaikudi provides
services in the field of Cathodic protection.

CHAPTER - 10
Hot Weather Concrete
10.1 Hot weather concrete means concreting when ambient temperature is
about 300C.
10.2 Hot weather conditions prevail in major parts of India except during
winter months. Concrete constructions under hot weather conditions require
special considerations arising both from a higher temperature of concrete and
increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. The good practices involve:
Choice of appropriate materials

Special precautions concerning temperature of concrete
Making and placement of concrete
Vibration
Curing and finishing
Protection against wind and sun
Reinforcement
10.3 Cement: The cement should have a minimum initial setting time of 60
minutes as against 30 minutes as specifies in IS specifications. The final
setting time specified is not more than 600 minutes but in reality it is varying
from 100 to 200 minutes. The final setting time should be between 300 to 400
minutes.
The total Cl - content in cement < 0.05% for PSC
and 0.10% for RCC
SO 3
< 3.5%
C 3A
depending upon requirement
(see under selection of cement)
The fineness should not be more than 280 m 2/kg. Heat of hydration at
7 and 28 days shall be less than 270 and 320 KJ/kg to prevent thermal
cracking Blended cement is to be used. The temperature of cement should
not be more than 75 0C.
10.4 Aggregate: An increase in the maximum size of aggregate is
preferred. The aggregate should be stock piled on a clean base, preferably
surfaced with concrete. Besides, the bottom layer of aggregate in the pile
should not be used, because contaminated substances are liable to
accumulate there. The aggregate should be pre-cooled.
10.5
Sand : It should be:

Salt free- should be washed in potable water in a sand washing
plant.
Silt free - should be washed.
Moisture free- Take into account while designing the mix.

Its F.M. should be between 2.6 and 2.9 - The sand should be well
graded. It is advisable to use crushed sand, since good quality sand is not
available particularly in coastal and hilly areas.
10.6
Water :
For RCC
Cl < 600 mg/litre

SO 3 < 500 mg/litre
For PSC Concrete and grout:
Cl < 300 mg/litre
SO3 < 500 mg/litre
10.7 Admixtures: To keep the w/c ratio low without making the cement
content excessively high (>500 Kg/m3 ), the water reducing superplasticizer
should always be used, so that the period of adequate workability is extended
and the time factor is less critical. Suitability tests under practical conditions
are essential to successful construction in concrete.
10.8 Concrete composition: In view of the very problems liable to arise in
connection with the durability of concrete in a hot salt-laden environment , it is
imperative to take all possible advantage of what can be achieved. The
recommended requirements are:
w/c ratio
= 0.40 (max.)
Cementitious material content
= 400 kg/ m 3 (min.)
= 500 kg/ m 3 (max.)
Cl content
< 0.06% Cl - (by wt of cement) for PSC
and 0.15% for RCC works
SO3 (including SO3 in cement) < 4.0% SO 3 (by wt of cement)
Alkali content: (i) The total mass of reactive alkali in the concrete mix shall
not exceed 3 Kg per m3 of Concrete (ii) The Cementitious material shall
have a reactive alkali content not exceeding a max. value of 0.6% by mass.
Temperature: Temperature of the fresh concrete 30 0C. The optimum temp.
is 15.5 0C or even lower would be desirable. There are several methods of
cooling the fresh concrete. The most effective is the addition of ice as part of
the water to the mix. It is a good practice to concrete in the night.
10.9 Placing of concrete: A concrete sequence should be planned in
advance to avoid formation of cold joints.
10.10 Curing: The importance of curing is even greater in hot season. The
evaporation of water from the concrete surface must be prevented. The
following measures are recommended.
i
Protect the reinforcement and form work from the sun, as much as
possible.

ii Horizontal (top) surfaces should be shaded during concrete placing. After
placing and compacting , they should be covered with light weight
impermeable light coloured plastic sheeting or with wet hessian. Circulation
of air between the concrete surface and the plastic should be prevented. Any
shrinkage crack that may have formed before the covering is applied, should
be closed up.
iii The concrete should be covered for 7 days. If hessian is used, it should
be kept wet. Parts of concrete which cannot be covered by hessian, shall be
sprayed directly with water, though it is some thing to be avoided as much as
possible in view of temp. shock effects. The sprayed water should be of
mixing quality.
iv For vertical surfaces after form work removal the procedure is similar to
that for horizontal surfaces.
v After 7 days, the hessian covering should be removed and curing
compound applied. The later should preferably contain white or light coloured
pigments so as to reflect as much sunlight as possible. The curing compound
should not allow to lose water at a rate of more than 0.55 kg/ m 3 over a period
of 72 hrs. If it is decided not to apply curing compound then wet curing should
be continued for another 21 days.
(Thumb Rule: Wet curing upto 70% of the specified concrete 28 days strength
and then curing compound)
vi It is desirable to screen the concrete and the form work from direct solar
radiation for some time after the concrete has been placed.
10.11 Reinforcement :
i The rebars should be clean ( contamination free ) at the time of concrete
placement. If reinforcing bars left protruding from the concrete ( so - called
starter bars, etc.) unavoidably, have to remain exposed to the outdoor air for
some considerable time, they should be provided with temporary or
permanent protection.
ii Prestressing steel should remain in air tight packaging until just before its
insertion into the tendon ducts or sheaths and should then be tensioned as
soon as possible. Directly after tensioning, the tendons should be grouted
using grade 33 cement with low fineness and using expanding admixtures, to
take care of bleeding ( 4 % expansion required).
iii Protection to rebar should be given, as specified in the chapter 8 on steel
coatings.
10.12 Spacers and cover blocks: The spacers and cover blocks constitute
weak elements in the protection of reinforcement against corrosion. They
should be of high quality, at least the same quality, as that of surrounding
concrete. Cover blocks should be manufactured in quality moulds, compacted

on vibrating table and cured for 28 days.
preferred in exposed atmospheric surfaces.
Plastic spacers are not to be
10.13 Form work: The form work shall be fully designed and structural
drawings prepared. The bearing capacity of ground supporting the false work,
shall be ascertained in advance. Proper bracings for wind loads etc. shall be
provided. Foam of 10mm thickness, to prevent leakage of grout, shall be
provided at the junction of two shuttering plates and at the junction of
shuttering plates with any other surface. The deflection of shuttering at any
point should not be more than 2mm.
10.14 Detailing:
The thermal expansion, contraction, shrinkage and creep are more in

India. The joints should be so located that contamination by water and
dust are avoided. Construction of inverted beams in buildings should be
avoided.
Tie bolt holes should be protected by plastic sleeve pipes and cover to
rebar should be ensured.
No fixtures should be allowed on the concrete surface.
10.15 Water discharge: Pipes etc. discharging water should be so

designed that water will not come in contact with concrete. The down take
pipes should be kept 50 mm away from concrete.
10.16 Summary of specifications :
Cement :
i Cement for concrete structures in contact with chloride-bearing
water hot
areas.
Blended Cement + Coated rebar
(OPC + Slag > 65% by Wt.)
C3 A > 5%
Temp. < 70 0C
ii Additional requirement if there is also Sulphate attack
C3 A < 5% (preferably < 3%)
Coarse aggregate:
i Cl- < 0.02% by wt.
ii SO3 < 0.4% by wt.
iii Particle < 75 micron < 1% by wt.
iv Water absorption < 3% by wt
v Alkali-Silica reaction < 0.1% expansion

Fine aggregate:
Alkali-Silica reaction < 0.1% expansion
Cl< 0.04% by wt.
SO3
< 0.4% by wt.
mica
< 1%
soundness < 10% loss of wt. at 5 cycles.
For concrete:
Chloride content
<0.06% for PSC works (by wt of cement)

< 0.15% for RCC works (by wt of cement)
SO3
<4.0% (by weight of cement)
Temperature (fresh concrete) 30 0C
Concrete cover: Both, the quality of concrete in cover and the depth of
cover, are very important in hot climate. Refer chapter 4 for cover
requirements.

CHAPTER - 11
Concrete In Cold Weather

11.1 Concrete in cold weather means concreting when ambient
temperature is less than 5 0C. Provision of this chapter are applicable for upper
Himalayan regions & during winter season in the country except the coastal
areas.
11.2 It is better to avoid concreting when the atmospheric temperature is
below 50C. When the temperature is continuously below 5 0 C, the weather is
described as cold. If the concrete which has not yet set is allowed to freeze,
the mixing water freezes, with a consequent increase in the overall volume of
concrete. Further more because no water is available for chemical reaction,
the setting and hardening of concrete are delayed. If freezing takes place
after the concrete has set but before it has developed an appreciable
strength, the expansion associated with the formation of ice causes disruption
and an irreparable loss of strength. So, it is necessary that concrete acquires
sufficient strength before it is subjected to freezing temperature, to resist the
freezing without any damage. The table 11.1 may be used as guide.
Table 11.1
Age of concrete at which exposure to frost does not cause damage.
Age(hours) of concrete
Type of
cement
W/C ratio
preceding curing temperature
5C
100C
150C
200C
30
25
15
12
50
35
25
17
70
40
35
25
20
15
10
7
30
20
15
10
40
30
20
15
0
OPC
Rapid
Hardening
Cement
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.6
11.3 The following aspects are to be taken care of during cold weather
concreting.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Rapid hardening cement or grade53 cement with high cement content

and low w/c ratio should be used.
The C3S and C3A content should be higher. Pozzolana portland cement
as per IS:1489 is also permitted.
Hot water should be used for mixing, but the temperature should not be
more than 60 0C.
If water heating is not sufficient, the aggregate should also be heated but
not more than 52 0C by passing steam through coils and not by passing
steam.
The temperature of the resultant concrete should be calculated in
advance and. The temperature of the mixed concrete when discharged
should be about (40 +50C). The concrete should set between 7 to 21 0C.
vi
vii
viii
ix
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
70C when air temp is no lower than 1 0C and concrete element is

thick.
210C when air temp is cooler than 18 0C and the concrete section
is less than 300 mm thick.
Placement of concrete against the frozen ground should not be

permitted and the formwork be pre- heated.
After the placement of concrete, it should be protected immediately from
freezing for at least 24 hours. Drying of surface is to be prevented.
No active wet curing is to be done. No curing is required below 5 0C
atmospheric temperature.
Anti-freeze admixtures (Sodium and Calcium nitrites) depress the
freezing point of the mix water and are non-corrosive to steel. Hence,
they should be used. Calcium chloride though good but causes steel
corrosion and its use should be avoided. Air-entraining ad-mixtures to
give air-entrainment of air upto 8% are also used to improve the
workability of fresh concrete.
Use insulated form-work covers. The heat of mix constituents and
liberated from hydration of cement is allowed to dissipate so slowly
(cooling 10C/hr) that by the time freezing begins the concrete has
achieved the necessary strength required at the end of pre-hardening
period. 25 mm thick commercial blankets, saw dust, timber can be used.
Other methods for heating are by passing hot air or steam curing etc.
Mixing of concrete in cold weather is to be done for a longer time than
normal.
Never heat the cement.
Do not allow hot water to come in direct contact with cement to avoid
flash set.
Fuel burning heaters (as is done in all sites in India- burning firewood for
warming-up in winter seasons), which produce Carbon-di-oxide gas
should not be used. The CO 2 will react with Calcium- Oxide of fresh
concrete and form a weak layer of Calcium Carbonate.
Due to slower rate of gain of strength, the form-work and props are to be
kept in place for a longer time than normal. The minimum period is
recommended as under:
Beams, wall columns
-05 days
Slabs (props left under)
-07 days
Beam soffit (props left under)
-14 days
Slabs- props
-14 days
Beam- props
-28 days

CHAPTER - 12
Sample Specification For Concrete

12.1 The specification given in the chapter are sample specification only and
shall not be used as such. Fresh specifications should be drawn for each
work depending upon the type and requirements of structure, environmental
conditions prevailing etc.
12.2
Sample specification for inclusion in tender document
12.2.1.0
Scope
12.2.1.01
This part contains requirements which, where relevant to this
contract, shall apply to the supply of materials for concrete; design of mixes;
quality control; mixing, transporting and placing and curing of concrete.
12.2.2.0
Reference standards
12.2.2.01
Unless otherwise specified, materials for concrete, concrete
products and testing procedures shall comply with the following reference
standards where relevant.
Code standards
(Give Code Nos.)
Subject
i) Different types of Cements
ii) Methods of testing cements
iii) Different types of mineral
admixtures
iv) Testing methods of mineral
admixtures
v) Testing of water, aggregate,
sand admixtures
vi) Testing of plastic & hardened
concrete
vii) Others.
12.2.3.0
Submissions by contractor
12.2.3.01 Submissions generally : Submissions by the Contractor are

summarised here under.
12.2.3.02
Manufacturers and suppliers certificates of compliance with
relevant standards in respect of the following materials:
Cementitious materials
Aggregates coarse & fine
Admixtures super plastisizers, retarders, curing compounds,
expanding agents.
Jointing materials
Ready mixed concrete
Calibration certificates furnished by an approved person for :
Weighing devices
Dispensing devices
Batching plant
The results certified by an approved person for the tests carried out
subsequently on:
Aggregates
Moisture content of aggregates
Fresh concrete
Concrete test cubes
Hardened concrete
Permeability tests
12.2.3.03 Samples : Samples of all the foregoing materials except concrete
and water shall be submitted, and those approved shall be kept in suitable
containers, properly labeled and stored on Site for reference.
12.2.3.04
Concrete mixes : Details of designed mixes for all grades of
concrete required for the works, together with proposed methods of
transportation, handling, placing and compaction shall be submitted.
12.2.3.05
Other submissions : Proposals for the following, where
relevant to the works :
Details of design mixes for concrete, grouts and cover blocks
Construction joints both horizontal and vertical & preparation
method
Construction sequence to avoid cold joints
Special measures for dealing with particular circumstances (e.g.
concreting in hot/cold weather)
Methods for precast work
Methods for prestressed work
Methods of curing
Methods of stressing
Methods of Grouting
12.2.3.06
Records of concreting : Daily returns in respect of all concrete
placed during the previous day.

The returns shall detail :
a)
in respect of each grade of concrete

the number of batches mixed
the number of batches and the total volume of concrete placed
the number of batches wasted or rejected
the weight of cement used
b)
in respect of each location in the works

the position of the pour (e.g. bay or lift reference number)
the grade of the concrete placed
the total volume of concrete placed and the number of batches
used.
In addition, the Contractor shall maintain an accurate and up to date

record showing dates, times, weather and temperature conditions when each
part of the works was concreted. The record shall be available for inspection
by the Engineer at all times. Results of all tests on concrete shall be recorded
and identified with the parts of the Works to which they are related.
12.2.4.0
Materials
12.2.4.01 Cement : The work cement, cementitious material or blended

cement shall mean one and the same thing. The cement used for any
particular mix shall comply with relevant standards.
Cement used in the Works shall conform to the requirements. (Give
the details regarding type of cement to be used, depending upon the
requirement for the job).
The contractor shall provide from each consignment of cement
delivered to the site such samples as the Engineer may require for testing.
Any cement which is, in the opinion of the Engineer, lumpy or partially set
shall be rejected and the Contractor shall promptly remove such cement from
the Site. Cement which has been stored on the Site for more than forty days
and which in the opinion of the Engineer is of doubtful quality, shall not be
used in the Works unless it is retested and the test results show that it
complies with the relevant Standard.
12.2.4.02 Storage of Cement : Immediately upon arrival at the Site, cement
shall be stored in silos designed for the purpose or in dry weather-tight and
properly ventilated structures with floors raised 500 mm above ground level
with adequate provision to prevent absorption of moisture. All storage
facilities shall be subject to approval by the Engineer and shall be such as to
permit easy access for inspection and identification. Each consignment of
cement shall be kept separately and the Contractor shall use the
consignments in the order in which they are received.

Cement of different types and from different sources shall be kept in
clearly marked separate storage facilities. Cement delivered to Site in drums
or bags provided by the supplier or manufacturer shall be stored in the
unopened drums or bags until used in the Works. Any cement in drums or
bags which have been opened on the Site shall be used immediately or shall
be removed from the site.
12.2.4.03 Aggregates : Aggregates for concrete shall be obtained from an
approved source, shall conform to the grading and other requirements of the
Indian Standards, and shall be washed clean.
Water absorption of aggregates when tested in accordance with the
standard procedure prescribed, shall not exceed 3%.
Alkali-silica reaction
The fine and coarse aggregates shall each consist of at least 95% of
one or more of the rock types of any one of the following type:
Basalt, Feldspar, Quartz, Gneiss, Schist, Dolerite, Granite,
Sand stone, Dolomite, Limestone, Trachyte, Marble
Aggregates shall not contain opaline silica or quantities of flint, chart or
chalcedony that could cause damage from alkali-silica reaction.
If the Contractor wishes to use aggregates other than those listed, he
shall submit evidence to the satisfaction of the Engineer from the previous
performance of the coarse and fine aggregates which he proposes to use.
When used with the proposed cementitious constituents of the concrete mix in
the proportions proposed, there will be no cracking or expansion due to alkalisilica reaction during the life of the structure.
If this requirement cannot be met the Contractor shall adopt
constituents for his concrete such that either:
a
The cementitious material shall have a reactive alkali content

not exceeding a maximum value of 0.6% by mass when defined
and tested in accordance with the method prescribed,
Or
The total mass of reactive alkali in the concrete mix shall not
exceed 3 kg per m3 of concrete when defined, tested and
calculated in accordance with the method prescribed.
The Contractor shall notify the Engineer of his proposals for complying
with this requirement at the time of tendering.
Soluble chlorides : Chlorides content, by mass of cement ion, shall be such
that the concrete mix as a whole complies with the limit of total chlorides
specified in Clause 12.2.5.03.

Soluble sulphates : Water-soluble sulphate contents of the aggregates shall
be such that the concrete mix as a whole complies with the limit of total
water soluble sulphates specified in Clause 12.2.5.03 . If necessary the tests
described for acid-soluble sulphates shall be used to ensure compliance with
this requirement.
Coarse and fine low-shrinkage aggregates : The coarse aggregates shall
be capable of producing concrete having a drying shrinkage of not more than
0.065 per cent when tested in accordance with the method given in IS code.
The Contractor shall produce test sheets from the supplier certifying
compliance with the stipulated requirement. Where such test sheets are not
available, tests shall be carried out by the Contractor to establish the
suitability of the proposed source of supply.
Sand dredged from sea bed, shall be washed in potable water and
tested for silt and salt content before use.
Where a source of supply produces coarse aggregates which do not
satisfy the stipulated shrinkage requirement, such a source shall not be used
for the supply of fine aggregates.
12.2.4.04 Storage of aggregates : The Contractor shall provide means of
storing the aggregates at each point where concrete is made such that (i)
each nominal size of coarse aggregate and the fine aggregate shall be kept
separated at all times, (ii) contamination of the aggregates by the ground or
other foreign matter shall be prevented at all times, and (iii) each heap of
aggregate shall be capable of draining freely.
The Contractor shall ensure that graded coarse aggregates are tipped,
stored and removed from store in a manner that does not cause segregation.
Wet fine aggregate shall not be used until in the opinion of the
Engineer it has drained to a constant and uniform moisture content, unless
the Contractor measures the moisture content of the fine aggregate
continuously and adjusts the amounts of fine aggregate and added water in
each batch of concrete mixed to allow for the water contained in the fine
aggregate. If necessary to meet the requirements of this clause, the
Contractor shall protect the heaps of fine aggregate against inclement
weather.
12.2.4.05 Water : Water for washing aggregates, for mixing concrete and
for curing shall be clean and free from harmful matter and shall satisfy the
specifications. The concentration of sulphates and chlorides shall be such
that the concrete mix as a whole complies with the specified limits of salts
content.
12.2.4.06
Admixtures : Admixtures shall mean material added to the
concrete during mixing for the purpose of altering the properties of the
concrete mix. Admixtures containing calcium chloride shall not be used. The

chloride content of admixtures shall not exceed ___ (The values to be
specified) provided that the total chloride content of whole mix complies with
the limit specified in clause 12.2.5.03.
Admixtures shall be used only if the Engineer has given his prior
approval in writing, and with due regard to the manufacturers instructions.
Both the amount added and the method of use shall be to the approval of the
Engineer who shall also be provided in good time with the following
information :
i
ii
iii
The typical amount added and any detrimental effects due to

adding greater or smaller amounts.
The chemical name(s) of the main active ingredient(s) in the
admixture.
Whether or not the admixture leads to the entrainment of air when
used at the proposed rates of dosage.
Any approved admixture shall conform to the relevant standards.

Admixtures may be :
water reducing admixtures

retarding admixtures
air entraining admixtures
superplasticising admixtures
When more than one admixture is used in a concrete mix the

compatibility of the various admixtures shall be established to the satisfaction
of the Engineer.
12.2.4.07
Joint materials : Jointing materials shall include water stops,
fillers, paints, caulking compounds, sealants, adhesives and other such
materials required for the making of joints in concrete.
Jointing materials shall be obtained from approved manufacturers.
They shall be handled and stored in accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations.
Where there is no appropriate standard to which reference may be
made in respect of any proprietary jointing material , the Contractor shall
prove by demonstration, tests or otherwise the suitability of the material under
Site conditions. In other instances the Contractor shall supply manufacturers
test sheets as evidence of compliance with relevant quality standards. Only
such materials as have been approved by the Engineer shall be used in the
Works.

12.2.5.0 Workmanship
12.2.5.01
Grades of concrete : The contractor shall design mixes for any
or all of the grades of concrete as required for the Works, including for cover
blocks.
Maximum cement content should not exceed 500 kg/m 3 , (including
GGBFS or any mineral admixture if specified). The minimum cement content
and the maximum water/cement ratio shall comply requirements as specified.
Concrete grade is that number which represents its characteristic
strength at 28 days expressed in N/mm 2 [e.g.M-45]
Characteristic strength is that value of cube crushing strength below
which not more than 5 percent of all test results fall. This condition shall, be
deemed to be satisfied when the results comply with the specified test
requirements.
12.2.5.02
Water/cement ratio : In designing and establishing approved
mixes of concrete for any part of the Works , the Contractor shall keep within
any limitations on water/cement ratios which may be expressly stated in the
specification, or shown on the drawings as applying to concrete for particular
parts of the Works.
12.2.5.03 Limits of salts content of mix : No concrete shall contain more
than the specified total
quantities of the substances expressed as
percentages by weight of cement :
The total chlorides by mass of cement shall be calculated whenever
possible from the mix proportions and the total chloride contents shall not
exceed the following values:
a
b
For mixes use for RCC works, the total chloride content shall not
exceed 1.5% by mass of cement.
For mixes used for prestressed concrete or heat-cured concrete
containing embedded metal (all types of cement), the total
chlorides shall not exceed 0.06% by mass of cement.
For all mixes except where supersulphated

water-soluble sulphates: 4.0% (as SO 3 ions).
cement is used, total
Tests shall be carried out in accordance with the standards : Calcium

chloride or chloride-based admixtures shall not be added to mixes intended
to contain reinforcement, pre-stressing tendons or other embedded metal.
Where it is required to verify the salt content of hardened concrete,
tests shall be carried out in accordance with the relevant IS Code/BS
Code/ASTM/DIN(Specify).

12.2.5.04
Workability : The workability of the concrete mixes shall be
defined by their compacting factors or slump determined by the method
described in IS Code. The workability of each concrete mix shall be such that
satisfactory compaction can be obtained when the concrete is placed and
vibrated in the work and that there is no tendency to segregate when it is
handled, transported and compacted by the methods which the Contractor
proposes to use in the Works. When, by trial mixes according to Clause
12.2.5.08 or otherwise, a mix has been verified as complying with these
requirements, its workability shall be measured and, within the limits given
below, confirmed or amended as considered necessary by the Engineer.
For reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete, the compacting
factor shall lie between 0.85 and 0.92, For unreinforced concrete the
compacting factor shall lie between 0.75 and 0.80. For concrete which is to
be pumped, the compacting factor may be increased to 0.95.
12.2.5.05 Design of concrete mixes : Each mix design shall be such that :i
ii
iii
iv
The aggregate shall comprise both fine aggregate and coarse

aggregate. The maximum size of coarse aggregate shall be 20
mm or 40 mm as directed by the Engineer. A separate mix shall
be designed for each maximum aggregate size for any grade of
concrete.
The maximum
water/cement ratio shall be the maximum
water/cement ratio when the aggregate is saturated but surface
dry.
The mixes shall be designed to produce a target mean concrete
cube strength at 28 days after manufacture greater than the
characteristic strength at 28 days by a margin of at least to be
3
N/mm2 for grades M-20, M-25, M-30,M-35, M-40 and M-45.
Where sufficient data demonstrate that a different margin is
acceptable or necessary, in order to maintain the standard of
acceptance for characteristic strength, the mix shall be redesigned
to have such different margin. Sufficient data shall mean cube test
results from at least 40 separate batches of concrete produced
over a period exceeding 5 days but not exceeding 6 months by the
same plant under similar supervision. The different margin shall be
1.64 times the standard deviation of the test results considered, but
not less than 3 N/mm2 for grades M-20, M-25, M- 30 and M-40.
For any concrete containing admixtures, the strengths shall ,be not less
than those specified , but the mixes shall be separately designed to take
account of the effects of the admixtures, and shall have separate trial mixes
made and tested.

12.2.5.06
Trial mixes
a) Laboratory trials: As soon as the Engineer has agreed for the trial mix
proportions for each grade of concrete, the Contractor shall produce in the
concrete-testing laboratory on Site two batches from a trial mix for each
grade using cement and surface dry aggregates, known to be typical of the
proposed source of supply. Each batch shall contain the correct amount of
cement and have a free water cement ratio at below the maximum value
given in the Table of concrete grades and workability of each batch shall be
determined. Provided that the compacting factors so obtained fall within the
specified limits and the requirements regarding cement content and free water
cement ratio have been met, the Contractor may proceed to carry out Site
trials.
As an alternative to producing trial mixes in a laboratory as described
above, the Contractor may submit recent existing laboratory test reports from
elsewhere. Such reports shall be acceptable only if the Engineer is satisfied
with the laboratorys test procedures and that the materials used were typical
of the proposed source of supply.
b) Site trials: Trial mixes shall be made at the site of the proposed
concreting under full scale production conditions.
The proportions of
materials used, including the mixing water, shall agree with the mix
proportions determined by the laboratory trial mixes.
Three batches of
concrete for each grade shall be produced, using the same plant and mixing
time proposed by the Contractor for use in the Works.
For each grade of concrete the following shall be carried out :
a
The workability of each of the three batches shall be determined

immediately after mixing by the compacting factor method or
slump cone.
Three 150 mm test cubes from each of the three batches shall be
made by the contractor in the presence of the Engineer., The
cubes shall be made cured, stored and tested at 28 days after
manufacture in accordance with the method described.
The permeability test shall be carried out on 3 test cylinders as per
the DIN specification.
A site trial mix for a particular grade of concrete shall be considered

satisfactory provided that:
i
ii
iii
the compacting factors or slump as under (a) above fall within the
specified limits:
the average value of the compressive strength of the cubes taken
from the trial mix is greater than the target mean strength used in
the mix design; and
the maximum permeability values of the 3 samples is less than the
prescribed limit.
If the requirements under i) to iii) above are not met for any mix the
Contractor shall re-design that mix and shall make further site trials as above.
Where re-design of any concrete mix becomes necessary, the making and
testing of the trial mix shall be repeated until the trial mix satisfies all three
requirements i), (ii) & (iii) above. Final approval will not be given to any trial
mix which does not comply with the specified requirements appropriate to that
grade of concrete.
12.2.5.07
Workability trial : A full scale trial of the workability of each
grade of concrete shall be made by the contractor in the presence of the
Engineer,. The trial mix of each grade of concrete shall be batched, mixed
and then transported to a representative distance in the manner that the
Contractor proposes to batch, mix and transport the concrete to be placed in
the Works. After discarding the first batch so made, the concrete from later
batches shall be placed and compacted in trial moulds both for reinforced and
mass concrete with dimensions typical of the Works, the sides of the moulds
being capable of being stripped without undue disturbance of the concrete
plated therein.
The placing and compaction of the concrete shall be carried out in
accordance with the specified procedures. The sides of the mould s shall be
stripped after the concrete has set and the workability judged by the surface
appearance and compaction obtained. If the workability test shows that the
workability required is not attained for any trial mix for any grade of concrete,
the trial mix shall be re-designed by the Contractor and a further full scale
workability trial undertaken for that trial mix.
12.2.5.08
Mixes not approved: Approval of a mix may be withheld or
withdrawn if ( interalia) the grading of the aggregate changes such that the
fraction of aggregate retained on any sieve differs from the corresponding
fraction of aggregate in the approved mix more than 2% of the total quantity of
fine and coarse aggregate; or
The approval of a mix for any grade of concrete is withdrawn for any
reason the Contractor shall carry out such further trials as are necessary to
achieve a satisfactory mix for that grade of concrete.
12.2.5.09
Batching of materials : Cement used in the production of
concrete shall be measured by weight either with an approved weighing
machine or by making the size of each batch of concrete such as to require
an integral number of complete bags or drums of cement.
For concrete of grades 20,25,30,35,40 and 45 the fine aggregate and
the several nominal sizes of coarse aggregate shall be measured singly or
cumulatively by weight using weigh-batching machines.
For concrete of grades 20 and 25 in small unimportant works the fine
and coarse aggregate can be measured separately either by volume in gauge
boxes (properly calibrated).
Weigh-batching machines shall provide facilities for the accurate

control and measurement of the aggregates either singly or cumulatively and
shall be capable of immediate adjustment by semi-skilled operators in order to
permit variations to be made to the mix. All weigh dials shall be easily visible
from the place at which filling and emptying of the hoppers is controlled.
Every concrete mixing machine shall be fitted with a device to measure
added water by weight or volume and shall be so constructed that the water
inlet and outlet valves are interlocked so that neither one of them can be
opened unless the other is fully closed. The water-measuring device shall be
provided with an overflow with a cross-sectional area at least four times that
of the inlet pipe and with its discharge point clear of the mixing plant. The
entire water system shall be maintained free of leaks at all times and the
measuring device shall be fitted with a drain pipe which allows the full quantity
of water being measured to be drained off for checking the measurement.
The outlet arrangement of the measuring device shall be such that between
five and ten percent of the water enters the mixer before the other materials
and a further five to ten percent of the water enters the mixer after the other
materials. The remainder of the water shall be added at a uniform rate with
the other materials. The water measuring device shall be readily adjustable
so that the quantity of water added to the mixer can, if necessary, be varied
for each batch.
Gauge boxes for use in volume batching shall be soundly constructed
of timber or steel, with closed bottoms. Each box shall be sized to contain
exactly the volume of aggregate required for one batch of any particular mix.
In sizing up gauge boxes for fine aggregates, the Contractor shall make an
allowance for bulking due to moisture contained in the aggregate stockpiles
on Site. Each box shall be suitably identified by reference to the aggregate
and the mix for which it has been made.
Any admixture which may be used shall be measured separately in
calibrated dispensers.
All mixing and batching plants shall be maintained free of set concrete
or cement and shall be clean before commencing mixing. The accuracy of
calibration of any weighing plant, water measuring device and admixture
dispenser shall be checked before carrying out trial mixes, before the first
mixing of concrete for inclusion in the Works, after each service or adjustment
to the mixing plant, and in any case at least once per week.
12.2.5.10
Mixing concrete: Concrete shall be mixed in batches in plant
capable of combing the aggregates, cement and water (including admixtures
if any) into a mixture uniform in colour and consistency, and of discharging the
mixture without segregation.

On commencing work with a clean mixer the first batch shall contain
only half the normal quantity of aggregate to compensate for the adhesion of
the other materials to the drum.
The moisture contents of the aggregates shall be determined before
the commencement of each days concreting at such intervals during each
day as may be necessary. The Contractor shall make due allowance for
water contained in the aggregates when determining the quantity of water to
be added to each mix, and shall adjust the amount of water added to each
mix to maintain approved free water/cement ratio of the mixed concrete.
12.2.5.11
Ready-mixed concrete : Any concrete which is not prepared
under the direct control of the Contractor and by plant situated on or
reasonably adjacent to the Site shall be classed as ready-mixed concrete.
Ready mixed concrete shall not be used in any part of the Works
without the written approval of the Engineer, which may be withdrawn at any
time.
The Contractor shall satisfy the Engineer that ready-mixed concrete
complies with the specification for concrete, and that the manufacturing and
delivery resources of the proposed supplier are adequate to ensure proper
and timely completion of each concreting operation. The proposed supply
depot shall be open to inspection by the Engineer at all times.
The specified requirements as to the sampling, trial-mixing, testing and
quality of concrete of various grades shall apply equally to ready-mixed
concrete which shall be made and delivered in accordance with relevant code.
The Contractor shall provide every additional facility which the Engineer may
require for the supervision and inspection of the batching, mixing and
transporting of ready-mixed concrete.
12.2.5.12
Reparing for concreting : Before placing concrete, the
Contractor shall remove all oil, loose fragments of earth, mud, timber or other
debris from the surface of the foundations or previously placed concrete.
Where specified, and elsewhere as ordered by the Engineer, excavated
surfaces on which concrete is to be placed shall be covered with either
waterproof building paper, or polythene sheeting 0.1 mm in thickness
immediately after completion of the final trimming of the excavation.
12.2.5.13 Transporting concrete : Concrete shall be conveyed from the
mixer to its place in the works as rapidly as possible by methods which will
prevent segregation or drying out and ensure that the concrete is of the
required workability at the time of placing. If segregation has nevertheless
occurred in any instance, the materials shall be remixed or rejected.
12.2.5.14 Placing concrete : Before placing concrete in any part of the
Works the Contractor shall satisfy himself by inspection that part is in all
respects ready for the reception of concrete. He shall also notify the Engineer
so as to enable him to inspect the location if so required.

The temperature of concrete at placing shall be between 5 and 30 0C.
The temperature should be around 15 0C for better performances.
Concrete shall be placed & compacted before initial set has occurred
and, in any event, not later than forty-five minutes from the time of mixing.
Concrete shall be carefully placed as stated in construction sequence
in horizontal layers which shall be kept at an even height throughout the work.
Concrete shall not be allowed to slide or flow down sloping surfaces into its
final position but shall be placed directly in its final position from skip, truck,
barrow, down pipe or other placing machine or device or, if this is impossible,
it shall be shoveled into position with care being taken to avoid segregation.
Concrete placed in horizontal slabs from barrows or other tipping vehicles
shall be tipped into the face of previously placed concrete.
Concrete, proposed to be dropped into the place of the work, shall be
dropped vertically. It shall not strike the formwork between the point of its
discharge and its final place in the work. Concrete shall not be dropped
freely through a height greater than 1 1/2 metres. Chutes and conveyor bolts
shall be so designed that there is no segregation or loss of mortar and shall
be provided with a vertical pipe, or other device, which ensures that concrete
is discharged vertically into place.
Where a lift of concrete is built up in layers, each layer shall be properly
merged into the preceding layer before initial set of the previous layer takes
place. If necessary the area of the pour will be restricted to ensure that this is
achieved. .This is to avoid formation of cold joints.
When pneumatic placers are used, if the end of the placer pipe is not
equipped with an energy absorbing device, it shall be kept as close to the
work as practicable. Mortar or water used at the beginning or end of a run
shall be discharged outside the formwork.
When pumps are used, the end of the supply pipe shall be kept
immersed in the concrete during placing to assist compaction. Mortar or
water used at the beginning or end of a run shall be discharged outside the
formwork.
Where concrete butts against earth or other materials liable to become
loose or to slip, the Contractor shall take steps to prevent any such loose
material falling on to the surface of the concrete. Subject to the approval of
the Engineer such steps may include leaving timbering in place or cutting and
removing. Timbering should be in small lengths or depths at a time.
12.2.5.15 Concreting in hot weather : Hot weather is defined as any
combination of high air temperature, low relative humidity, and wind velocity
tending to impair the quality and properties of fresh or hardened concrete.
In hot weather, the Contractor shall ensure that the temperature of the
concrete at the time of placing does not exceed 30 0C and that the maximum
internal temperature attained during setting does not exceed 75 0C.
To that end, the contractor shall provide sun shades over stockpiles of
aggregates, cement silos, mixing water tanks and pipelines, and in addition
shall carry out one or more of the following procedures which shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval.
i
Cool the mixing water and/or replace part of the water by chipped
ice. The ice shall be completely melted by the time mixing is
completed.
ii Spray clean cool water over the aggregate stockpiles. The
contractor shall carry out regular tests on the aggregates to ensure
that concentrations of sulphates or chlorides do not rise to
unacceptable levels, and to ensure that moisture content
determinations allow for such spraying.
iii Shade or wet the outside of the form work.
iv Apply a fine moisture (fog) spray of clean cool water in order to
cool and moisten the surrounding air and the surface, to cool
formwork and reinforcement, and to lessen rapid evaporation from
unformed concrete surfaces.
v Pour concrete at night
vi Change the mix to include retarding/plasticising admixtures,
cement with a lower rate of hydration .
vii The contractor shall provide the Engineer with details of the
precautions he proposes to take to protect the concrete from the
effects of high temperatures. No concreting in hot weather shall be
put in hand until the proposed measures have been approved by
the Engineer.
12.2.5.16 Concreting in cold weather : Cold weather is defined as the
situation existing at the Works, where either or both of the following
conditions exist:
i
ii
The air temperature at the time considered is below 5 0C.

The mean daily air temperature over three or more successive
days has dropped below 5 0C.
On no account may concrete be placed in contact with frozen ground

or formwork, or in contact with ice, snow or frost on the ground or on formwork
or reinforcement. Concrete shall not be made with frozen materials.
Concreting may proceed in cold weather provided special precautions
are taken to ensure that the surface temperature of the concrete at the time of
placing is not less than 5 0C, and that the surface temperature is maintained

above 50C for a succeeding period of at least:
4 days when the cement used in the concrete is ordinary Portland
cement:
2 days when the cement used in the concrete is rapid hardening
Portland cement.
Special precautions may include the following :
i
ii
iii
iv
Warming the aggregates and heating the mixing water, provided

that the temperature of either does not exceed 60 0C. The water
and aggregates shall be mixed for a period sufficiently long for
them to acquire a uniform temperature before cement is added.
Completely surrounding the freshly placed concrete with a cover
and heating the enclosed air, which shall also be kept moist.
Draughts of hot or dry air shall not be directed at concrete
surfaces.
Insulating the formwork and finished concrete surfaces.
Providing screens to protect the concrete from air currents.
The contractor shall provide the Engineer with details of the

precautions he proposes to take to protect the concrete from the effects of low
temperatures and with details of the methods he proposes to use to assess
the correct timing at which such protection may be re moved. No concreting
in cold weather shall be put in hand until the proposed measures have been
approved by the Engineer.
12.2.5.17 Concrete in large pours : A large pour is defined as a pour where
the least dimension is greater than 1.5 metres. Subject to the requirements for
construction and movement joint locations and the requirements for the test
blocks detailed in the following clause, the Contractor will not be limited as to
the size of a large pour, provided that adequate measures are taken to
control temperature differentials. Such measures will be evaluated with
reference to the following:
a
Temperatures :
i
ii
The temperature of the concrete at the time of placing shall not

exceed 150C and the peak hydration temperature shall not exceed
600C, except under hot conditions, when the requirements in hot
weather shall apply.
The difference in temperature between thermometers in the
concrete near any concrete face and the interior of the concrete at
a distance of 1 m from that face shall not exceed 20 0C at any stage
after placing.
Monitoring of temperature changes :
Sets of thermometers for recording concrete temperatures shall be

placed at positions in the concrete near to each exposed face at spacings not
exceeding 5 m. Further sets shall be placed at corresponding positions

within the concrete at a distance of 1m from each face. The concrete
temperatures shall be recorded at intervals not exceeding 6 hrs. or such
other intervals as required by the Engineer, for a period of at least 7 days.
Where the minimum dimension of a pour is between 1.5 m and 2.0 m the
internal temperatures shall be recorded by thermometers placed at mid depth
of the least thickness.
c
Insulation and protection of concrete surfaces :

i
ii
Formwork shall be plywood 20 mm thick, or such other

combination of materials having an equivalent insulation value.
The formwork shall remain in position for a sufficient time to ensure
that the temperature control requirement in (a) (ii) above can be
maintained after its removal.
Form surfaces shall be protected, as soon as practicable after the
initial set has taken place, by either of the following means :
by ponding the surface with at least 100 mm depth of water;
by covering the surface with a layer of polythene sheet upon
which shall be placed a layer of sand of at least 50 mm thick.
When the latter method of protection is adopted, the Contractor shall

take appropriate steps to ensure that no loss of sand is suffered through the
action of wind; the thickness of the sand layers shall be maintained at the
specified minimum of 50 mm at all times. Whichever method of protection is
adopted, the protection itself shall be kept shaded from direct sunlight.
The contractor shall provide the Engineer with details of the
precautions he proposes to take to protect the concrete from the effects of
temperature build-up and with details of the methods he proposes to use to
assess the correct timing at which such protection may be removed. No
concreting in large pours shall be put in hand until the proposed measures
have been approved by the Engineer.
12.2.5.18 Test blocks : Before commencing any large pour (as defined in
the preceding clause) for a particular mix of concrete, the Contractor shall
construct three test blocks 2.0 m cube in size. The temperature of the
concrete at time casting the blocks shall not exceed 15 0C except under hot
conditions. The materials used in making concrete for the test blocks,
together with the reinforcement, formwork and materials used for protecting
the top surfaces, shall be of the same type and from the same source as
those intended for the large pour.
Two of the blocks shall be reinforced on two opposing sides and on the
top face by 32 mm diameter high yield reinforcing bars at 250 mm spacing in
each direction. The cover to the outer bars shall be 60 mm.

The contractor shall ascertain the thermal characteristics of the cement
and aggregates to be used, from which he shall calculate the likely maximum
rise in temperature of the concrete. The data used shall be clearly indicated
in the calculations which the Contractor shall give to the Engineer before
casting the blocks.
Thermometers shall be installed in the concrete near to the surface at
the centre of each face, with one placed centrally in the block. Temperatures
shall be recorded at 6 hourly intervals for a period at least 7 days for each of
the blocks.
Six 150 mm test cubes shall be taken during placement of concrete for
each block, two for testing at 7 days and four for testing at 28 days.
The test blocks shall be considered satisfactory if, for each of the
blocks, all the following conditions are met:
i
ii
iii
The average strength of the four 28 days test cubes exceeds the
specified 28 day characteristic strength by at least 3 N/mm 2;
The rise in temperature during hydration does not exceed 45 0C
and the difference in temperature between any face and the centre
of the block does not at any stage exceed 20 0C;
The nature of any cracks appearing is such that, in the opinion of
the Engineer, the cracks would not constitute a potential source of
harm if they were to occur in the permanent Works.
If condition (i) above is not fulfilled than Contractor shall redesign the
concrete mix, construct further test blocks, and repeat the tests as specified.
If condition (ii) is not fulfilled or under (iii) the Engineer is of the opinion
that the cracks as noted are potentially harmful, the contractor may proceed
with the casting of a large pour only if he incorporates one or more of the
following procedures in the concreting operation:
cool the mixing water/aggregate as set out in Clause 12.2.5.15.

replace the 20 mm thick plywood formwork to formed faces with
material having better insulating properties ;
increase the surface protection to unformed faces.
If the Engineer so requires, the contractor shall construct further test

blocks to demonstrate the efficacy of the measures which are being
incorporated in the casting of the large pour.
12.2.5.19 Concrete placed in water : Where any concrete is to be placed in
water, the Contractor shall submit detailed proposals to the Engineer and
shall obtain his approval before commencing the work.
The quantity of cement in any concrete placed in water, shall, if
necessary be increased so that the free water/cement ratio of the mix is not
more than the specified (e.g.0.45).
Concrete shall not be placed in running water or be allowed to fall

through water.
Concrete shall be placed in water only by means of a bottom-opening
watertight box or a tremie of a type approved by the Engineer. Bottomopening boxes shall not be opened until they are resting on the work, and the
lower ends of tremies shall always be kept below the surface of freshly placed
concrete.
12.2.5.20 Compaction : Except as otherwise approved by the Engineer,
concrete placed in situ shall be compacted with power driven internal type
vibrators supplemented by hand spading and tamping, and shall be
thoroughly worked around the reinforcement, tendons, duct formers and
embedded items, and into the corners of the formwork, so as to form a solid
mass free of voids. The vibrators shall at all times be adequate in number,
amplitude and power to compact the concrete properly and quickly throughout
the whole of the volume being compacted. Spare vibrators shall be readily on
hand in case of breakdown.
Vibrators shall be inserted into the uncompacted concrete vertically
and at regular intervals. Where the uncompacted concrete is in a layer above
freshly compacted concrete the vibrator shall be allowed to penetrate
vertically for about 100 mm into the previous layer. In no circumstances shall
vibrators be allowed to come into contact with the reinforcement or formwork
nor shall they be withdrawn quickly from the mass of concrete but shall be
drawn back slowly so as to leave no voids. Internal type vibrators shall not be
placed in the concrete in a random or haphazard manner nor shall concrete
be moved from one part of the work to another by means of the vibrators.
The duration of vibration shall be limited to that required to produce
satisfactory compaction without causing segregation. Vibration shall on no
account be continued after water of excess grout has appeared on the
surface.
12.2.5.21 Attendance of steel fixer and carpenter : The contractor shall
take adequate steps to ensure that reinforcement, ducts or duct forming
devices to house prestressing tendons, formwork and all embedded items are
kept in their correct position as concreting proceeds.
The contractors arrangements for concreting shall include for a
competent steel fixer and a carpenter to be in attendance on the concreting
gang as and when required.
12.2.5.22 Curing of concrete : Concrete shall be cured by being kept
continuously moist throughout the curing period and by protecting the newly
cast surface from the effects of sunshine, drying winds, frost, rain, running
water or mechanical damage.
The wet curing shall be maintained for a continuous period of at least
7 days when the cement used in the concrete is ordinary Portland

cement;
3 days when the cement used in the concrete is rapid hardening
cement and followed by curing by curing compound or wet curing
for 3 weeks.
If, during the specified minimum period of curing, the average

temperature of the concrete falls below 10 0C, the period of curing shall be
extended to allow for the concrete to reach sufficient maturity. The period of
extension shall be as directed by the Engineer.
When a low-heat or supersulphated cement is used, or with any type of
GGBFS or pozzolana, the above wet curing periods shall be increased to at
least 2 weeks or as approved by the Engineer, followed with application of
curing compound.
The protection shall be applied as soon as practicable after completion
of placing and shall include one or more of the following methods as may best
suit the circumstances:i
ii
iii
iv
by water sprays in continuous operation;

by covering with hessian or similar absorbent material, or sand,
kept constantly wet;
after thorough wetting, by covering with a layer of waterproof fabric
kept in contact with the concrete surface;
by the application of an approved coloured non-staining liquid
curing membrane which is either self removing or easily removed
following the curing period and which has a 75% moisture retention
standard.
The liquid shall be applied to formed surfaces
immediately after stripping the formwork.
Liquid curing membranes shall not be used on surfaces where laitance

is to be removed and aggregate exposed to provide a satisfactory bond for
placing further concrete or mortar screeds, or where in the opinion of the
Engineer the use of a such a membrane is likely to spoil the finished
appearance of an exposed surface.
The Engineer may also prohibit the use of liquid curing membranes
where their effect on any retained liquid would make them unsuitable as
curing agents.
Any concrete which, due to the Contractors failure to comply with
requirements for curing, is in the opinion of the Engineer likely to have been
impaired shall forthwith be removed from the site and replaced.
12.2.5.23
Construction joints : A construction joint is defined as a joint in
the concrete introduced for convenience in construction at which special

measures are taken to achieve subsequent continuity without provision for
relative movement. (Hacking of laitance, air jetting and wetting)
Construction joints shall be located so as not to impair the strength of
the concrete. The position of construction joints and the size of the formwork
panels shall be so co-ordinated that where possible the line of any
construction joint coincides with the line of a formwork joint and that in any
case all construction joint lines and formwork joint lines appear as a regular
and uniform series.
For all exposed horizontal joints and purposely inclined joints, a
uniform joint shall be formed with a batten of approved dimensions to give a
straight and neat joint line.
Concrete placed to form the face of a construction joint shall have all
laitance removed and the large aggregate exposed prior to the placing of
fresh concrete. The laitance shall wherever practicable be removed when the
concrete has set but not hardened by spraying the concrete surface with
water under pressure or brushing with a wire brush sufficient to remove the
outer mortar skin and expose the large aggregate without disturbing it.
Where the laitance cannot be removed due to hardening of the concrete, the
whole of the concrete surface forming the joint shall be treated by high
pressure water jet, sand blasting, use of a needle gun or a scaling hammer to
remove the surface laitance. The other alternative but effective method is:
apply retarder by brush on the concrete surface and wash it by

water jet. The laitance at top does not get set and is easily
removed by washing. Before concreting is resumed, all loose
matter on the existing concrete surface shall be removed by
compressed air and the surface slightly wetted, but excess water
removed by soaking or air jet(Never spray cement slurry).
Concrete shall not be allowed to run to a feather-edge and any vertical

joints shall be formed against a stop-end. If a kicker or stub-end is used it
shall be at least 70 mm high. Removal of laitance from vertical face, wetting
etc. shall be same as for horizontal joint as explained in the above para. No
concreting shall be started until the Engineer has approved the positions and
form of the construction joints (both horizontal & vertical).
12.2.5.24
Movement/expansion joints : Movement joints are defined as
all joints intended to accommodate relative movement between adjoining
parts of a structure, special provision being made where necessary for
maintaining the water tightness of the joint. The contractor shall pay due
regard to the instructions of manufacturers of proprietary jointing materials
and shall, if required by the Engineer, demonstrate that the jointing materials
can be applied satisfactorily.
As far as possible jointing of waterstops on Site shall be confined to
the making of butt joints in straight runs. Where it is necessary for an
intersection, or change of direction, or any joint other than a butt joint in a

straight run, to be made on Site, a preliminary joint, intersection or change of
direction piece shall be made and submitted to such tests as the Engineer
may require.
Flexible waterstops shall be fully supported in the formwork, free of
nails and clear of reinforcement and other fixtures. Any waterstop which after
installation is found to be damaged shall be removed and replaced.
Concreting in the vicinity of waterstops shall be carried out with care to ensure
that the waterstops do not bend or distort while the concrete is being placed
and compacted in position.
The surface of set concrete in a movement joint shall, where specified
on the drawing, be painted two coats of bituminous paint and new concrete
shall be placed against it only when the paint is dry. Expansion joints shall be
formed by a separating strip of approved preformed joint filler.
Caulking grooves shall be provided as shown on the Drawings. At all
joints where a caulking groove is formed, the groove shall be wire brushed
and loose material removed and blown out by compressed air immediately
prior to caulking. After the groove has dried, it shall be primed and caulked
with approved jointing compound. At all caulked joints, the face of the
caulking strip and 50 mm width of concrete on either side shall be painted with
two coats of paint having the same base as the caulking compound.
12.2.5.25 Dimensions and surfaces of finished concrete : Workmanship
of concreting in formwork shall be such that concrete shall normally require no
making up of surfaces being properly compacted and smooth. Concrete
surfaces for the various classes of unformed and formed finishes shall in any
event never exceed the maximum permitted tolerances stated in the
specification or drawings, where not so stated, shown in the Table below.
In the Table line and level and dimension shall mean the lines, levels
and cross-sectional dimensions shown on the Drawings.
Surface irregularities shall be classified as abrupt or gradual. Abrupt
irregularities include, but shall not be limited to offsets and fins caused by
displaced or misplaced formwork, loose knots and other defects in formwork
materials, and shall be tested by direct measurement. Gradual irregularities
shall be tested by means of a straight template for plain surfaces or its
suitable equivalent for curved surfaces, the template being 3.0 m long for
unformed surfaces and 1.5 m long for formed surfaces.

Maximum tolerance(mm)
Abrupt
irregularity
Gradual
irregularity
Dimension
Type of work
Line and level
Wells, Piles,
footings
Abutments
Piers
Columns,
beams, slab,
bridge decks
12
12
12
6
3
6
6
3
6
6
3
+12, -6
+12, -6
6
12.2.5.26
Building in pipes and other items : Pipes and other items
passing through concrete structures shall wherever practicable be built into
the structure as work proceeds, having been installed and connected to the
remainder of the system to ensure proper fit before the start of any concreting.
Where this procedure cannot be adopted, holes shall be formed to
allow such items to be built in later, along with or after installation of the
remainder of the system . Such holes shall be of size and shape sufficient to
permit proper placing and compaction of concrete or grout. The surfaces of
the holes shall be treated so as to bond with the later concrete.
All items to be built in shall be securely supported in their correct
position so as to prevent movement or damage during building-in. No pipe
with flanged joints shall be concreted in until its accurate fit with other
pipework has been checked and it has been secured in position.
Concrete used for building in pipes and other items shall be of the
same grade as the surrounding concrete, except that the mix shall incorporate
an approved expanding agent used in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions. Cement/sand mortar or cement grout used for building in shall
also incorporate an expanding additive. Concrete, mortar and grout shall be
placed and compacted by methods which will avoid moving or damaging builtin-items.
12.2.5.27
Structural precast concrete : Structural units of precast
concrete shall be manufactured in the grade of concrete and to the sizes and
details shown on the Drawings. The concrete shall comply with the provisions
of the Specification whether such units are manufactured on the Site or
obtained from manufacturers approved by the Engineer.
Where the installation of precast concrete units in any structure is such
that the faces of the units are to be left exposed either internally or externally,
the exposed surfaces of the units as finished shall be uniform in colour and in
texture. All cement, aggregates and other materials used in the manufacture
of the units shall be obtained from the approved sources throughout the
period of manufacture.

The contractor shall submit full details of his proposed method of
carrying out all operations connected with the manufacture and assembly of
precast concrete structural members, including :
a description of the types of casting bed, mould and formwork for

the various types of members;
the procedure for concrete casting and the method of curing the
concrete;
the procedure for transporting, handling, hoisting and placing of
each type of precast structural member;
particulars of the temporary supports deemed necessary to ensure
adequate stability during erection and fully proof against the effects
of construction loads, wind load and other transient loads.
12.2.5.28
Dimensional tolerances : Dimensions and shapes of precast
concrete structural members shall comply with tolerances given on the
Drawings or, when not so given, with those stated hereunder :
Length
Not exceeding 3 m
Exc. 3 m not exc.4.5 m
Exc. 4.5 m not exc.6 m
Additional for every subsequent 6 m
6 mm
9 mm
12 mm
+ 6 mm
Cross section (each direction)

Not exceeding 500 mm
Exc. 500 mm not exc. 750 mm
Additional for every subsequent 250 mm
6 mm
9 mm
3 mm
Straightness or bow (deviation from intended line)

Not exceeding 3 m
Exc. 3 m not exc. 6 m
Exc. 6 m not exc. 12 m
Additional for every subsequent 6 m
6 mm
9 mm
12 mm
6 mm
Squareness
When considering the squareness of a corner the longer of the two
adjacent sides being checked shall be taken as the baseline, and a line
perpendicular to the baseline shall be taken as the checkline. The shorter
side shall not vary in its distance from the checkline so that the difference
between the greatest and the shortest side is not more than the distance
specified as under:
Length of shorter side

Not exceeding 1.2 m
Exc.1.2 m not exc.1.8 m
Exceeding 1.8 m
6 mm
9 mm
12 mm
For the purpose of this requirement, any error due to lack of

straightness shall be ignored; squareness shall be measured with respect to
the straight lines which are most nearly parallel with the features being
checked.
When the nominal angle is other than 90 0 the included angle
between the baseline and the checkline shall be varied accordingly.
Twist
No corner of a nominally plane surface shall deviate from the plane
containing the other three corners by more than:
Surface dimensions
Not exc. 600 mm wide and
Not exc. 6 m long
Exceeding 600 mm wide and for any length
6mm
12 mm
Flatness
The deviation from a 1.5 m straight edge placed in any position on a
nominally plane surface shall not exceed 6 mm.
12.2.5.29
Installation of precast concrete structural members : At all
stages and until completion of the Works, precast members shall be
adequately protected to preserve all permanently exposed surfaces and
architectural features. The protection shall not mark or otherwise disfigure the
concrete.
All units shall be laid, bedded, jointed and fixed in accordance with the
lines, levels and other details shown on the Drawings.
Dry-pack mortar for packing shall consist of one part by volume of
ordinary Portland cement and two parts by volume of fine aggregate passing
a 1 mm sieve. The matter shall be mixed with only sufficient water to make
the materials stick together when being moulded in the hands. The mortar
shall be placed and packed in stages, where possible from both sides of the
space being filled, using a hardwood stick hammered until the mortar is
thoroughly compacted.
Any precast concrete structural member which is found to be cracked
damaged or otherwise inferior in quality, either before or after erection, shall
be rejected and replaced by the Contractor.
The Contractor shall submit for approval his proposals for the following:
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
ix
x
xi
xii
xiii
Minimum ages for handling and transportation

Position and design of lifting point
Method of lifting and lifting equipment
methods of supporting and stacking
methods of assembly and erection
accuracy of assembly and erection
temporary support
Final structural connections
Method of protecting units from damage
Marking for identification
Protection from frost/heat etc..
Preparation of contact surfaces
Removal of locating devices after erection.
12.2.5.30
Prestressed concrete : Prestressed concrete work, whether
precast or cast in situ, shall be as detailed on the Drawings and contractor
shall provide full details of his proposals for carrying out all operations
connected with prestressing including :
i
ii
iii
iv
v
Design of concrete mix;

Description or concrete casting and curing operations;
Procedure for prestressing, a method of checking and recording
the prestress, wire extension and anchorage slip;
Procedure for handling, hoisting and placing of any precast units;
Grouting of ducts.
All tendons, duct forming devices, anchorages and other components

shall be kept clean, dry and free of oil (except for water soluble oil applied for
protection). They shall be placed with a tolerance of 3 mm in concrete
dimensions of 300 mm or less or 5 mm in concrete dimensions over 300
mm.
The bearing surfaces between anchorages and concrete shall be
perpendicular to and concentric with the tendons and the line of action of the
prestressing force.
No grouting of ducts shall take place when the surface temperature of
the member is below 5 0C, or is likely to fall below 50C during the 48 hours
following placement.
12.2.6.0
Testing
12.2.6.01
Sampling and testing of aggregates : The contractor shall
take samples of all aggregates and test them for grading at least once in each
week when concreting is in progress and additionally as the Engineer may
require.

Whenever the source of aggregate is changed and in any case at least
once per month the Contractor shall carry out tests on aggregates relating to
water absorption, potential alkali reaction, chloride content, sulphate content
and shrinkage characteristics, all as specified.
12.2.6.02
Sampling and testing of concrete : The Contractor shall
provide the necessary equipment and shall determine the slump and
compacting factor of the freshly mixed concrete.
For each grade of concrete works test cubes shall be made whenever
required by the Engineer but not less frequently than as follows unless
otherwise particularly specified:
For concrete of grade > M-40
one set of cubes per 25 m3,or

part thereof, concreted per day
For concrete of grade M 20 to M35
one set of cubes per 50 m3, or part

thereof, concreted per day.
Each set of cubes (three cubes per set) shall be made from a single
sample taken from a randomly selected batch of concrete. All the three cubes
shall be tested after 28 days after manufacture. The average of the three 28
day results shall be taken as the test result. Where concrete of a particular
grade is likely to be placed infrequently and the above rates of sampling might
not produce sufficient representative test cubes to enable the concrete quality
to be monitored properly, the contractor shall increase the number of standard
samples taken during each day when concrete of that grade is being placed
so as to ensure that enough representative test cubes are obtained
12.2.6.03
Compliance with specified requirements : The concrete shall
be deemed satisfactory if the conditions given in both (i) & (ii) are met:
i
The average 28 day strength determined from any group of three

consecutive test cubes exceeds the specified characteristic
strength by not less than 3N/mm 2 for grades 20 above
ii
The strength determined from any test result does not fall short of
the specified characteristic strength by more than 3 N/mm 2 for
grades 20 and above
If only one cube result fails to meet the second requirement, that result
may be considered to represent only the particular batch of concrete from
which the cube was taken, provided that the average strength of the group
satisfies the first requirement.
If more than one cube in a group fails to meet the second requirement,
or if the average strength of any group of four consecutive test cubes fails to
meet the second requirement, or if the average strength of any group of four
consecutive test cubes fails to meet the first requirement, then all the
concrete in all the batches represented by such cubes shall be deemed not to
meet the strength requirements.
12.2.6.04
Action in the event of failure to meet requirements : When
concrete of a particular design of mix does not meet the strength
requirements set out in clause 1.6.03 no further concrete from that mix shall
be placed in the work and the contractor shall establish the cause of the
failure and apply such remedies as are necessary. The contractor shall revise
the mix accordingly and demonstrate by trial mixes and test cube results that
the revised mix meet specified requirements.
The contractor shall, within 24 hours of the date of test, make
proposals for approval by the Engineer for action to be taken in respect of any
concrete represented by test cubes which fail to meet the foregoing
requirements. These proposals may include, but shall not be limited to,
cutting and testing cores. In the absence of such approved proposals the
Engineer will instruct the contractor regarding the action to be taken.
12.2.6.05
Cutting and testing of core samples : For the examination
and testing of hardened concrete, cylindrical core specimens of 100 mm
nominal diameter shall be cut from it as and where directed by the Engineer.
They shall be cut perpendicular to the face. The preferred ratio of length to
diameter shall be 2. Before preparation for testing, the specimen shall be
made available for examination by the Engineer. If the estimated in-situ cube
strength of the specimen determined is less than the specified characteristic
strength at 28 days, or if in the opinion of the Engineer the concrete fails to
meet the specifications in other respects, the concrete in that part of the works
of which it is a sample shall be deemed not to comply with the specification.
12.2.6.06
Action in the event of concrete not complying : Concrete
which is found not to comply with the Specification shall be rejected and shall
be broken out and replaced or otherwise dealt with as directed by the
Engineer.
12.2.6.07
Contractor responsible for testing : In addition to any
specific obligations for sampling and testing, the contractor shall be
responsible for routine inspection sampling and testing of concrete, materials,
measuring devices and plant, in order to control the quality of work and to
ensure compliance with the specification including conformity with approved
samples.
If the contract provides for a laboratory and testing equipment for the
use of the Engineers staff, the contractor shall be allowed reasonable
opportunity to use them for quality control. In the absence of such provision
the contractor shall himself provide all necessary test equipment.

CHAPTER - 13
Sample Specification For - Formwork &

Reinforcement For Concrete
13.1 The specification given in the chapter are sample specification only and
shall not be used as such. Fresh specifications should be drawn for each
work depending upon the type and requirements of structure, environmental
conditions prevailing etc.
13.2.0 Sample specification for Formwork for inclusion in tender document.
13.2.1 Scope : This Part contains requirements which, where relevant to
this Contract, shall apply to formwork and reinforcement for concrete.
13.2.2 Reference standards : Unless otherwise specified, formwork and
reinforcement shall comply with the relevant IS Codes and in absence of IS
Codes ASTM/BS/DIN Codes.
13.2.3 Submissions by the contractor : Submissions required from the
contractor in relation to formwork and reinforcement shall include the
following where relevant:
13.2.4
calculations for design of formwork

drawings of formwork
manufacturers data on accessories and mechanical couplings.
manufacturers test certificates for each delivery of steel
reinforcement and prestressing steel tendons, as required by the
relevant quality standard
details of proposed welding procedures and welders qualifications
test certificates for mechanical couplings
samples of steel reinforcement for testing.
Formwork
13.2.4.1. Materials for formwork : Formwork shall be constructed of timber,

sheet metal or other approved material. Ties shall be of the rod and cone or
other approved proprietary type. Ties for use in water-retaining structures
300mm thick or less shall incorporate a diaphragm not less than 50mm dia.
welded to the mid point of the tie, designed to prevent water passing along the
tie.
13.2.4.2 Design and layout of formwork : The design and construction of
formwork shall take account of safety and of the surface finish required. The
formwork shall be sufficiently rigid and tight to prevent loss of grout or mortar
from the fresh concrete or the formation of fins or other blemishes on the
concrete. The contractor shall appoint a Falsework Coordinator to carry out
work on behalf of the contractor.
Formwork and its supports shall maintain their correct shapes and
profile so that the final concrete structure is within the limits of the specified
dimensional tolerances. They shall be designed to withstand the worst
combination of self-weight, reinforcement weight, wet concrete weight,
concrete pressure, construction and weather loads, together with all incidental
dynamic effects caused by placing, vibrating and compacting the concrete.
Formwork shall not be tied to or supported by the reinforcement.
On formwork to external faces which will be permanently exposed, all
horizontal and vertical formwork joints shall be so arranged that joint lines will
form a uniform pattern on the face of the concrete. Where the contractor
proposes to make up the formwork from standard sized manufactured
formwork panels, the size of such panels shall be approved by the Engineer
before they are used in the construction of the works.
The finished
appearance of the entire elevation of the structure and adjoining structures
shall be considered when planning the pattern of joint lines caused by
formwork and by construction joints to ensure continuity of horizontal and
vertical lines.
13.2.4.3 Erection of formwork : Faces of formwork in contact with concrete
shall be free from adhering foreign matter, projecting nails and the like, splits
or other defects, and all formwork shall be clean and free from water, dirt, or
other foreign matter.
Except where the surface is subsequently to be rendered, formwork in
contact with the concrete shall be treated with a suitable non-staining release
agent before the steel is fixed or the concrete placed to prevent the concrete
adhering to it. Care shall be taken to prevent the release agent from touching
the reinforcement or concrete at construction joints. Surface retarding agents
shall not be used unless specified.
All exposed exterior angles on the finished concrete of 90 degree or
less shall be given 20mm by 20mm chamfers.
Formwork shall be provided for the top surfaces of sloping work where
the slope exceeds fifteen degrees from the horizontal unless otherwise
specified, and shall be anchored so that the concrete can be properly
compacted and to prevent flotation. Care shall be taken to prevent air being
trapped.
Where ties are built into the concrete for the purpose of supporting
formwork, part of any such supports shall be capable of removal so that no
part remaining embedded in the concrete shall be within 50mm of the surface
in the case of reinforced concrete or 150mm in the case of unreinforced
concrete. Holes left after removal of such supports shall be neatly filled with
epoxy or well rammed dry-pack mortar.

Openings for inspection of the inside of the formwork, for the removal
of water used for washing down and for placing concrete shall be provided
and so formed as to be easily closed before or during placing concrete.
Before placing concrete all bolts, pipes or conduits or any other fixtures which
are to be built in shall be fixed in their correct positions, and cores and other
devices for forming holes shall be held fast by fixing to the formwork or
otherwise. Holes shall not be cut in any concrete without prior approval of the
Engineer.
13.2.4.4 Removal of formwork : Formwork shall be so designed as to
permit easy removal without resorting to hammering or levering against the
surface of the concrete.
The periods of time elapsing between the placing of the concrete and the
striking of the formwork shall have regard to the following factors:
i
ii
iii
iv
v
concrete strength;
stresses in the concrete during construction including for precast
units any disturbance and handling stresses;
curing;
subsequent surface treatment requirements:
the presence of re-entrant angles requiring early removal of
formwork to avoid thermal cracking.
The time shall be as approved by the Engineer after consideration of

the loads likely to be imposed on the concrete and shall in any case be not
less than the periods specified in the Code.
Notwithstanding the foregoing the Contractor shall he held responsible

for any damage arising from removal of formwork before the structure is
capable of carrying its own weight and any incidental loading.
13.2.5 Defects in formed surfaces : Workmanship in formwork and
concreting shall be such that concrete shall normally require no making good,
surfaces being perfectly compacted and smooth.
Any minor surface blemishes shall be repaired to the satisfaction of
the Engineer immediately after removal of formwork. Remedial measures may
include, but shall not be limited to, the following:
Holes left by formwork supports shall be thoroughly cleaned out
to remove all loose material and the sides shall be roughened, if
necessary, to ensure a satisfactory bond. They shall then be filled with
epoxy or dry-pack mortar.
Fins, pinhole bubbles, surface discolouration and minor defects
may be rubbed down with sacking and cement immediately the
formwork is removed.
Abrupt and gradual irregularities may be rubbed down with

carborundum and water after the concrete has been fully cured.
Small defects and minor honeycombing shall be chipped out
perpendicular to the face of the concrete to a depth of at least 25mm
and filled with epoxy or dry-pack mortar.
Where deeper or more extensive defects occur, the Contractor
shall obtain the approval of the Engineer to the methods of repair
proposed which may include, but shall not be limited to, cutting out to a
depth of at least 25mm with a diamond saw to give a regular edge to
the repair and further chipping to form a hole with undercut edges to
sound concrete or to a total depth of 75mm whichever is the greater.
If reinforcing steel is exposed the concrete shall be removed to a depth
of 25mm beyond the back side of the reinforcement.
Steel mesh
reinforcement shall then be sprung into the hole, which shall be refilled
with concrete or suitable epoxy resin mortar.
The contractor shall thoroughly clean any hole or defective area
that is to be filled and break out any loose, broken or cracked concrete
or aggregate.
Where the remedial work is to be carried out using dry-pack
mortar or concrete, the concrete surrounding the hole shall be
thoroughly soaked after which the surfaces shall be dried so as to
leave a small amount of free water on the surface. The surface shall
then be dusted lightly with cement by means of a small dry brush until
the whole surface that will come into contact with the dry-pack mortar
has been covered and darkened by absorption of the free water by the
cement. Any dry cement in the hole shall be removed.
Dry-pack mortar shall be mixed and placed as specified.
Where concrete is to be used, the concrete mix shall be as
approved by the Engineer and shall be placed and compacted into the
hole, using formwork as necessary.
Where the remedial work is to be carried out using epoxy resin
mortar or other special material, the surface of the cleaned hole shall
be prepared and primed and the repair material placed, compacted and
finished in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Where, in the opinion of the Engineer the defect is too extensive
to permit satisfactory repair, either from the point of view of structural
integrity or appearance, the concrete containing the defect shall be
broken out and replaced.

13.2.6
Dry-pack mortar : Dry-pack mortar for filling holes and repairing
surface blemishes shall be made from one part by weight of cement and three
parts fine aggregate passing a 1mm sieve. The colour of the mortar shall
match that of the surrounding concrete. The mortar shall be mixed with just
sufficient water to make the materials stick together when being moulded in
the hands.
The dry-pack material shall be placed and packed in layers having a
thickness not greater than 15mm. The compaction shall be carried out by
use of hardwood stick and hammer and shall extend over the full area of the
layer, particular care being taken to compact the dry-pack against the sides of
the hole. After compaction the surface of each layer shall be scratched before
further loose material is added. Holes shall not be over filled and the surface
shall be finished by laying a hardwood block against the dry-pack fill and
striking the block several times. Steel finishing tools shall not be used and
water shall not be added to facilitate finishing.
13.3.0
Sample specification for reinforcement :
13.3.1
Steel for reinforcement shall confirm to any one of the following:

i
ii
iii
Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars conforming to IS:432 (Pt.I)
High strength deformed steel bars confirming to IS: 1786
Structural steel confirming to grade A and B of IS:2062
13.3.2
Accessories : Spacer blocks for maintaining concrete cover to
reinforcement shall be of concrete of the same strength, durability, porosity
and appearance as the in-situ concrete. They shall be cast in the form of a
truncated cone or pyramid with the smaller face having a minimum dimension
of 50mm.
Chairs and other accessories for maintaining reinforcement and
prestressing tendons in position shall be of steel. Binding wire shall be No.16
gauge (1.60mm) galvanised iron wire free from corrosion.
13.3.3
Cutting and bending of reinforcement : Bars shall be bent in
accordance with the provisions of IS Code. Bending shall be carried out
slowly, at a steady even pressure, without jerk or impact. The temperature of
the steel at the time of bending shall be not less than 5 0C. If necessary
reinforcement maybe warmed to a temperature not exceeding 100 0C to
facilitate bending, after which it shall be allowed to cool slowly in air. Hot bars
shall not be cooled by quenching with water. Bent bars shall not be re-bent
unless permitted by the Engineer.
13.3.4 Storage of reinforcing bars and steel fabric : The contractor shall
stack separately and label different types of reinforcement for positive
identification. Reinforcement shall not be subjected to mechanical damage
or shock loading prior to embedment.
Steel reinforcing bars shall be kept clean and shall be free from pitting,
loose rust, mill scale, oil, grease, earth, paint, or any other material which may
impair the bond between the concrete and the reinforcement .
All materials shall be stored under cover on wooden or concrete
supports at least 150mm clear of the ground.
13.3.5 Fixing of reinforcement : All reinforcement shall be securely and
accurately fixed in positions shown on the Drawings using approved concrete
spacers, spacer blocks or chairs. These shall be not more than 1m apart and
at closer intervals if necessary. All intersections of bars shall be secured with
soft iron wire, the ends being turned into the body of the concrete. The
contractor shall ensure that all reinforcement is maintained in correct position
at all times, particular care being taken during placing of the concrete.
Concrete cover to reinforcement shall be as detailed on the drawings
and shall be maintained in accordance
with the tolerance.
Top
reinforcement in slabs shall be maintained in position by chairs, sized and
spaced to provide adequate support and fixity for the reinforcement.
No part of the reinforcement shall be used to support formwork,
access ways, working platforms or placing equipment, or for the conducting of
an electric current other than as pole of an earthing system during the site
welding of reinforcement.
13.3.6
Welding of reinforcement : The contractor shall not weld any
reinforcement on site except where this has been specified in the contract or
is permitted by the Design Engineer in writing who will examine the weldable
quality of steel.
Reinforcement which is to be welded shall be welded in accordance
with the recommendations of the manufacturer.
The contractor shall
demonstrate by bend and tensile tests on specimen welds that the strength of
the parent metal is not reduced and that the weld possesses a strength not
less than that specified for the parent metal. The welding procedure
established by successful test welds shall be maintained and no departure
from this procedure shall be permitted.
Following the establishment of a satisfactory welding procedure, each
welder to be employed on the works shall carry out welder performance
qualification tests on reinforcing bars of the same metal and size as those on
the works.
Details of welding procedure and welder qualification tests shall be
submitted for the approval of the Engineer before welding of reinforcement.
Tack or other welds in positions other than those shown on the drawings shall
not be permitted, unless specifically authorised by the Engineer.
13.3.7 Mechanical couplings : Mechanical couplings shall be used where

shown on the Drawings, and shall be obtained from an approved
manufacturer. The contractor shall demonstrate by tensile tests on sample
joints of all sizes required for use in the works,
Equipment used for making the couplings shall be supplied by the
coupling manufacturer and shall be operated in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions.
13.3.8
Drilled and grouted reinforcement bars : Reinforcing bars for
drilling and grouting into existing concrete shall be deformed high yield steel
bars. The depth of the holes shall be at least 45 times the diameter of the bar
to be grouted except where otherwise approved by the Engineer. The
diameter of the hole shall be 7mm larger than the nominal bar diameter.
The hole shall be thoroughly cleaned and the surface wetted before
introducing 1:3 cement/sand grout into the hole. The bar shall be pushed into
the grout and held in position to maintain a uniform annulus of grout all around
the bar until the grout has set. The grouted bars shall not be disturbed for a
period of at least 7 days before building them in concrete.
13.3.9 Coated reinforcement : Where shown on the Drawing the reinforcing
bars shall be coated. The coating of the reinforcement shall comply with the
specifications. Repairs to minor damage to coatings shall be carried out in
accordance with the recommendations of the coating manufacturer. Copies
of the manufacturer's test certificate shall be provided to the Engineer.
13.3.10
Testing of samples of reinforcement : The Engineer may
require to witness routine testing of steel reinforcement at the manufacturers
works. When required by the Engineer the contractor shall take samples
from reinforcement delivered to site and shall arrange for the samples to be
tested by an approved testing agency. Test certificates from that agency shall
be submitted to the Engineer.
13. 3.11 Bar schedules : Any bar schedules the contractor shall be entirely
responsible for checking the correctness of such schedules before arranging
for the supply cutting and bending of steel reinforcement. In the event of any
information being apparently missing or incorrect in the drawing the contractor
shall promptly refer to the Engineer.
13.4.0
Sample specifications for prestressing steel and sheathing :
13.4.1 The Prestressing steel shall be any of the following.

i
ii
iii
iv
Plain hard - drawn steel wire conforming to IS: 1785 )Part I).
Indented wire for prestressed concrete conforming to IS: 6003.
Uncoated stress - relieved strand conforming to IS: 6006.
Uncoated stress - relieved low relaxation seven - ply stand for
prestressed concrete conforming to IS: 14268.
13.4.2 Specification for sheathing: Sheathing

Unless
otherwise
specified, the material shall be Cold Rolled Cold Annealed (CRCA) mild steel
intended for mechanical treatment and surface refining but not for quench
hardening of tempering.
The material shall normally be bright finished, however, in case of use
in aggressive environment, galvanised or lead coated mild steel strips may be
adopted.
Sheathings shall be preferably machine manufactured and of large
enough bore to allow being easily threaded on to the cable or bar in long
lengths.
The thickness of the strips shall be a minimum of 0.24 mm + 0.02 mm
for internal diameter of sheathing ducts upto and including 51mm and shall be
0.30 mm + 0.02 mm for diameters beyond 51 mm and upto 91 mm.
The sheaths shall be of such strength as not to be dented or deformed
during handling or concreting. They shall conform to the requirements as per
tests specified below and a test certificate to this effect shall be furnished by
the manufacturer.
13.4.2.1 Tests on sheathing ducts : All tests specified below shall be
carried out on the same sample in the order given below. At least 3 samples
for one lot supply (not exceeding 7000 m length) shall be tested. The tests are
applicable for sheathing transported to site in straight lengths where the
prestressing tendon is threaded inside the sheathing prior to concreting.
These tests are not applicable for sheathing ducts placed in position without
threading of prestressing cable prior to concreting.
i)
Workability test : A test sample of 1100 mm long is soldered to a

fixed base plate with a soft solder (Fig. 13.1). The sample is then
bent to a radius of 1800mm alternately on either side to complete
3 cycles. Thereafter, the sealing joints will be visually inspected to
verify that no failure or opening has taken place.
ii)
Transverse load rating test : The test ensures that stiffness of

the sheathing is sufficient to prevent permanent distortion during
site handling. The sample is placed on a horizontal support 500
mm long so that the sample is supported at all points of outward
corrugations. A load as specified in Table-13.1 is applied
gradually in increments at the centre of the supported portion
through a circular contact surface of 12mm dia. Couplers shall
be placed so that the load is applied approximately at the centre
of two corrugations (Fig. 13.2). The sample is considered
acceptable if the permanent deformation is less than 5 percent.
Table 13.1
TRANSVERSE LOAD RATING TEST
Diameter of sheathing
(mm)
25-35
35-45
45-55
55-65
65-75
75-85
85-90
iii)
Load
(N)
250
400
500
600
700
800
1000
Tension load test : The test specimen is subjected to a tensile

load. The hollow core is filled with a wooden circular piece having
a diameter of 95 percent of the inner diameter of the sample to
ensure circular profile during test loading (Fig. 13.3). A coupler is
screwed on and the sample is loaded in increments, till load
specified in Table-13.2. If no deformation of the joints nor
slippage of couplers is noticed, the test shall be considered
satisfactory.
Table 13.2
TENSION LOAD TEST
Diameter of sheathing
(mm)
25-35
35-45
45-55
55-65
65-75
75-85
85-90
iv)
Load
(N)
300
500
800
1100
1400
1600
1800
Water loss test : The sample is sealed at one end. It is then

filled with water. After the other end is also sealed as shown in
Fig. B-4, it is connected to a system capable of applying a
pressure of 0.05 N/mm2 and kept constant for 5 minutes. The
sample is acceptable if the loss of water does not exceed 1.5
percent of the volume.
For working out the volume, another sample 500mm long
is sealed at one end and the column of hollow space is arrived at

by pouring water from a measuring cylinder. The computation of
relative profile volume is worked out as follows:
L
Va
Vb
= length of the specimen

= nominal internal diameter of the sheathing
= pre-measured quantity of water in a measuring cylinder
= balance quantity of water left in the cylinder after
completely filling of the test sample.
Actual volume Vp = Va - Vb
Relative profile volume
Vp 2 L / 4
L
****
cm2 / cm

CHAPTER - 14
Conclusion
14.1
Durability:
14.1.1 Concrete structures are presently designed to satisfy structural

requirement i.e. various loads/ forces encountered during service life and
checked for serviceability. But designs are not done for durability
requirements caused by environmental factors like atmospheric gases,
chemicals, humidity, temperature etc. It is therefore necessary that all
concrete structures are designed for safety, serviceability and durability
requirement ( structural and non-structural loads caused by environment).
( Chapter 5 Para 5.1 )
14.1.2 Durability of concrete structures depends upon permeability and
exposure conditions. Permeability of concrete depends upon water cement
ratio, cement content, compaction, curing, cover to reinforcement and crack
width etc. Thus, durability requirement consist of maximum water cement
ratio, minimum cement content, maximum crack width and extent of cover to
reinforcement etc, depending upon the exposure condition. Therefore, it is
necessary to lay down parameters for durability requirement and the
recommended values of these parameters need to be rigidly followed during
design / construction stage
( Chapter 4 Para 4.3, Chapter 5 Para 5.6 )
14.1.3 As the durability of concrete structure largely depends upon
permeability , it is necessary that Permeability Test is made mandatory for all
RCC/PSC works alongwith other stipulated tests.
( Chapter 4 Para 4.3.6 )
14.1.4 Generally, the quality of concrete of the cover blocks is of lower
standard than that of the structure. Due to the inferior quality of concrete
cover blocks, concrete structures have weak spots where the environment of
factors do effect concrete/steel adversely. It is, therefore, necessary that
cover block concrete should be of same permeability and strength as that of
surrounding concrete. The binding wire should be G.I.
14.1.5 The form work and false work should be designed and approved in
advance. Work should be executed as per the approved design and drawings.
For important works, forms of plywood / other similar product which can
absorb water are preferable as compared to steel forms.
14.2 Corrosion Protection:
14.2.1 Corrosion mechanism: Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process. Corrosion of steel embedded in concrete takes place
because of difference in the elctro-chemical potential on the steel surface,

which acts as anodic and cathodic regions connected by electrolyte in the
form of salt solution in the hydrated concrete. The positively charged Ferrous
ions i.e. Fe++ at the anode pass into the solution while the negatively charged
free electrons (e-) pass along the steel into cathode, where they are absorbed
by the constituents of the electrolyte and combined with water and oxygen to
form hydroxide ions (OH). The hydroxide ions when combine with the ferrous
ions, forms ferric hydroxide. This is converted by further oxidation to rust
which may have volume 3 to 6 times to original volume which leads to spalling
of concrete.
Following conditions occurring simultaneously leads to corrosion of
steel in concrete structure.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Presence of anodic and cathodic regions

Presence of an electric circuits.
Presence of moisture
Presence of Oxygen
Hence concrete structures need to be designed in such a way that

ingress of oxygen and other atmospheric gases are minimum and it has high
electrical resistivity to resist flow of electric current.
14.2.2 Main causes of corrosion: Concrete ordinarily provides an almost
ideal environment for protecting steel against corrosion. Its high alkalinity
causes the formation of thin protective passive film of ferric oxide surrounding
embedded steel. This passive film gets broken during service due to ingress
of chlorides, gases and water, which leads to carbonation and chloride
attack, which makes the steel prone to corrosion. Thus, carbonation and
chloride attack are the main causes of corrosion. Therefore, it is necessary
that concrete structures are designed to withstand carbonation and chloride
attack.
14.2.3 Carbonation: Carbon-di-oxide gas, present in atmosphere, combines
with hydrated concrete (alkaline hydroxides) and partly neutralize the alkaline
nature of concrete. This process is known as carbonation. Carbonation
brings down the pH value of concrete from above 12-13 to less than 9. When
depth of carbonation increases and becomes equal or more than the depth of
cover to reinforcement, it breaks down passive film surrounding steel and
make steel embedded in concrete more active.
Rate of carbonation depends upon the integrity of concrete of the
cover zone. The carbonation effect, can be taken care of by ensuring
adequate cover with good quality concrete.
( Chapter 2 Para 2.2.5 & Chapter 5 Para 5.3.3 )
14.2.4 Chloride attack: Free Chloride ions present in concrete,

surrounding reinforcement, react with alkaline solution at anode to form
hydrochloric acid which destroys the passive protective film existing on the
reinforcing steel. The surface of steel then becomes activated locally to form
the anode, with the passive surface forming the cathode, setting the
electrolytic process. Presence of free chloride ions in concrete depends
upon total chloride content of concrete. Chlorides are present in concrete due
to ingredients, mixing water and calcium chloride used as accelerating
admixtures etc. Chlorides enter concrete due to salt water spray in sea shore
or through atmosphere. Thus, in order to withstand chloride attack, following
measures are necessary in design and construction stage for concrete
structures:
14.3
i)
The total chloride content by weight of cement in concrete needs to

be controlled.
(Chapter 3 Para 3.2.5)
ii)
Structures in aggressive environment ( i.e. Severe, Very severe, &

Extreme environment ) are subjected to chloride attack. Therefore,
provision of protective coating to concrete and steel is essential in
aggressive environment.
(Chapter 8 Para 8.1)
Protective coatings:
14.3.1 Provision of protective coatings can be on the following lines:

I)
For aggressive environment (i.e. Severe, Very severe, &

Extreme environment ):
a) Steel:
Cement Polymer Composite Coating (CPCC)
or
Inhibited cement slurry coating system
or
Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating (FBEC)
( Chapter 8 Para 8.2.2, 8.2.3, 8.2.4, 8.2.9 )
b) Concrete :
i) Substructure:
Coaltar epoxy.
( Chapter 8 Para 8.3.4 & 8.3.5)
ii) Super structure: i) Epoxy phenolic IPN
or
ii) CECRI integrated four coat system.
( Chapter 8 Para 8.3.1,8.3.2 & 8.3.5 )

II)
Non-aggressive environment (i.e. Mild and Moderate

environment):
a) Steel:
b) Concrete :
i) Substructure:
ii) Super structure:
Truncated inhibited cement slurry coating

No coating
No coating
14.3.2 Corrosion resistance steel being produced at present by various

manufacturers do not give any additional protection against corrosion.
14.4 Cathodic protection: Cathodic protection for concrete structures is
only at the research stage in our country. Therefore, it is worthwhile to try
Cathodic protection in one or two
distressed bridge under
marine
environment on experimental basis. CECRI, Karaikudi provides services in
providing Cathodic Protection. There is a need for more study in this field.
14.5 Materials:
14.5.1 Blended Cement: When materials like Fly ash or ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBFS) or silica fumes are mixed with portland cement in
pre determined portion during concreting, they improve concrete resistance
to chemical attack. It reduces permeability due to pore refinement which
inturn reduces ingress of atmospheric gases.
It improves resistance to
cracking because of lower heat of hydration and enhance ultimate durability.
Considering the advantage of blending of cement, practice world over is to
use blended cement in place of cement alone. Thus, it is essential that the
use of blended cement is made necessary.
14.5.2 Selection of cement depends upon nature of work, prevailing
environment etc. For substructure surrounding soil characteristics also affect
the selection of cement.
( Chapter 4 Para 4.2.1& Chapter 6 )
14.5.3 Coarse and fine aggregate should conform to specification as laid
down in IS:383. It is preferable to avoid use of sand dredged from sea bed. If
at all it is unavoidable, it should be used only after washing and drying. After
washing and drying, it should conform to IS:383 . The designer should take
account of grading after washing of sand.
14.5.4 Water used for mixing of concrete should be potable water. It should
be tested for quantity of solid contents.
14.5.5 Only Chloride free admixtures should be used for RCC and PSC
work to modify properties of concrete.
14.5.6 Steel:
Steel should conform to IS 432/1786 for RCC work and
IS: 1785/ 6003/ 6006/ 14268 for PSC work. Increase in Carbon content in
steel increases corrosion proneness of steel. Therefore, it is necessary that
the steel supply is taken only from the reputed firms. The test certificate are
necessary for each lot. Independent test checks from each lot is essential to
ensure quality as per relevant IS Standard. It is harmful to use Corroded/
Pitted steel.
( Chapter 4 Para 4.2.5)
14.5.7 Welding of reinforcement: As far as possible reinforcing steel should
not be welded at site unless it is permitted by design engineer, who will
examine the weldable quality of steel.
14.6 General:
14.6.1 Empowerment: In order to obtain durable concrete, it is necessary
that all engineers and supervisors detailed to execute/ design concrete
structure are trained by competent agencies in aspects of (i) Durability (ii)
corrosion (iii) Mix Design (iv) Blended cement (v) Concreting in Hot/ Cold
weather (vi) Quality control techniques (vii) Permeability (viii) High
performance concrete. After training Engineers/Supervisors should be
examined by a panel of experts for knowledge, skills and aptitudes for quality
construction and if found suitable, they should be issued a Competency
Certificate. Engineers in possession of competency certificate, should only be
allowed to execute the work.
14.6.2
Supervisors: For effective supervision adequate number of
supervisors / technicians should be available at site of construction depending
upon the work need.
14.6.3 Quality control cell: There is need to reactivate quality control cells
which were created under the Zonal Railways. Officers and staff posted in
these cells should have required expertise.
14.6.4 Specification: It is necessary to write afresh specification for each

major project.
14.6.5 Contracting:
i)
The quality of work depends upon the quality of agency who

executes the work. A system needs to be evolved essentially so
that only such contractors who have excelled in quality
construction, gets the contract. The contractors should be asked to
obtain ISO- 9000 certificate.
ii)
Quality control manual should be prepared, which should form part

of tender document.
iii) To ensure quality control it is necessary to establish a site lab from

beginning for checking the quality of ingredients and concrete
parameters.
14.6.6 Health monitoring: Total health monitoring of a structure by an
independent agency is necessary periodically. Health monitoring should
include corrosion monitoring, deterioration of material, system damage and
retrofitting.
14.6.7 Design life: Life of structures may be different under different
environmental regions, hence structures have to be designed for a particular
design life.
14.6.8 Master schedule of rates: It is necessary to update the master
schedule of rates to include items like - high performance concrete, coatings
for steel and concrete, testing of solid monitoring of corrosion, non-destructive
testing, curing compounds, admixtures, diaphragm wall construction, sand
washing, fiber reinforcement, use of blended cement, coal tar epoxy coatings
etc.
14.6.9 Inspection of buildings & structures: All buildings and structures
should be inspected as per the prescribed schedule. The structures identified
as distressed as a result of inspection may be classified under two
categories. Category I - requiring urgent repair/ replacement and category IIrequiring planned repairs. Distressed structures falling under category no. I
should be replaced/ repaired urgently even on out of turn basis. Works falling
under category- II should be planned and programmed for execution in a
specified time schedule.

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DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Composition cells may be formed when two dissimilar metals

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

by an acidic solution), the pH of concrete in the vicinity of steel may be

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

How To Construct Durable Structures

The structure should also be designed for environment loads and

Selection of durable construction materials:

4.2.1 Cementitious material : The cementitious material should be

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

( a) Factors affecting permeability

Factors affecting the strength

Fig. 4.1 Factors affecting permeability and strength of concrete

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Water Cement Ratio

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

A test specimen, cylindrical in shape, 200 mm dia and 120 mm

Fig 4.3 Permeability Test

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Form work and false work- Layout, design and drawings.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

For works costing more than Rs. 20 Lakh - There should be

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

4.8.6 Health Monitoring: Effect of corrosion of steel in PSC bridges/works

4.8.7 Master Schedule of Rates: The master schedule of rates should be

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Design & Detailing For Durability

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

K.C Clears Life Model:

Where cover is in inches and w/c ratio and Cl are in %

The Chloride penetration curves in fig. 5.3 give a very simple

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

i) Minimum cementitious material content and maximum water cement

The areas covered under different exposure conditions shall be as under:

Mild: Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions.

The maximum content of cementitious material should be 500 Kg/m3

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

5.7 Admixtures : Chloride free water-reducing super plastisizers may be

5.11 Detailing : Normally the aspect of congestion of reinforcement at the

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Design life in years.

The use of nominal mixes should be banned.

vi In place of cement, cementitious material has been used, to bring to focus