Earth System Science

In the phrase "Earth system science (ESS)," the key term is "system." A system is a
collection of interdependent parts enclosed within a defined boundary. Within the
boundary of the earth is a collection of four interdependent parts called "spheres."
Earth's spheres include:
the lithosphere, which contains all of the cold, hard, solid rock of the planet's crust
(surface), the hot semi-solid rock that lies underneath the crust, the hot liquid rock near
the center of the planet, and the solid iron core (center) of the planet
the hydrosphere, which contains all of the planet's solid, liquid, and gaseous water,
the biosphere, which contains all of the planet's living organisms, and
the atmosphere, which contains all of the planet's air.

Earth System Science

In the phrase "Earth system science (ESS)," the key term is "system." A
system is a collection of interdependent parts enclosed within a defined
boundary. Within the boundary of the earth is a collection of four
interdependent parts called "spheres." Earth's spheres include:
the lithosphere, which contains all of the cold, hard, solid rock of the planet's
crust (surface), the hot semi-solid rock that lies underneath the crust, the hot
liquid rock near the center of the planet, and the solid iron core (center) of the
planet
the hydrosphere, which contains all of the planet's solid, liquid, and gaseous
water,
the biosphere, which contains all of the planet's living organisms, and
the atmosphere, which contains all of the planet's air.
These spheres are closely connected. For example, many birds (biosphere)
fly through the air (atmosphere), while water (hydrosphere) often flows
through the soil (lithosphere). In fact, the spheres are so closely connected
that a change in one sphere often results in a change in one or more of the
other spheres. Such changes that take place within an ecosystem are
referred to as events.
Events can occur naturally, such as an earthquake or a hurricane, or they

can be caused by humans, such as an oil spill or air pollution. An event

cancause changes to occur in one or more of the spheres, and/or an event
can be the effect of changes in one or more of Earth's four spheres. This
two-way cause and effect relationship between an event and a sphere is
called an interaction. Interactions also occur among the spheres; for
example, a change in the atmosphere can cause a change in the
hydrosphere, and vice versa.
Interactions that occur as the result of events such as floods and forest fires
impact only a local region, meaning the flood waters can only travel so many
miles from the original stream, and only the trees that lie within the area on
fire will be burned. On the other hand, the effects of events such as El Nino
or ozone depletion may cause interactions that can be observed worldwide.
For example, the El Nino event--a change in the ocean currents off the coast
of Peru-- can cause changes in weather patterns all the way across North
America, while ozone depletion above Antarctica may result in increased
levels of ultra-violet B radiation around the world. Understanding the
interactions among the earth's spheres and the events that occur within the
ecosystem allows people to predict the outcomes of events. Being able to
predict outcomes is useful when, for example, developers wish to know the
environmental effects of a project such as building an airport before they
begin construction.
Understanding the interactions that occur in the earth system also helps
people to prepare for the effects of natural disasters such as volcanic
eruptions; this understanding allows people to predict things like how far and
in what direction the lava will flow. This relatively new field of studying the
interactions between and among events and the earth's spheres is
calledEarth system science (ESS). There are ten possible types of
interactions that could occur within the earth system. Four of these
interactions are between the event and each of the earth's spheres:
event
event
event
event

lithosphere
hydrosphere
biosphere
atmosphere

The double-headed arrows (

) indicate that the cause and effect
relationships of these interactions go in both directions; for example,
"event
hydrosphere" refers to the effects of the event on the
hydrosphere, as well as the effects of the hydrosphere on the event. These
four types of interactions can be illustrated in the Earth System
Diagram below:

In addition to the above four event

sphere interactions, there are six
interactions that occur among the earth's spheres:
lithosphere
lithosphere
lithosphere
hydrosphere
hydrosphere
biosphere

hydrosphere
biosphere
atmosphere
biosphere
atmosphere
atmosphere

Again, the double-headed arrows (

) indicate that the cause and effect
relationships of the interactions go in both directions; for example,
"lithosphere hydrosphere" refers to the effects of the lithosphere on the
hydrosphere, as well as the effects of the hydrosphere on the lithosphere.
These six types of interactions can be illustrated in gray in the Earth System
Diagram below (note the four event
sphere interactions are also
included in this diagram, they are depicted in gold):

The ten types of interactions that can occur within the earth system often
occur as a series of chain reactions. This means one interaction leads to
another interaction, which leads to yet another interaction--it is a ripple effect
through the earth's spheres. For example, a forest fire may destroy all the
plants in an area (event
biosphere). The absence of plants could lead
to an increase in erosion--washing away--of soil (biosphere
lithosphere). Increased amounts of soil entering streams can lead to
increased turbidity, or muddiness, of the water (lithosphere
hydrosphere). Increased turbidity of stream water can have negative impacts
on the plants and animals that live in it (hydrosphere
biosphere).
How Is Earth System Science Conducted?
Earth system science is conducted by examining each event
sphere
and sphere
sphere interaction; this approach is referred to as an "Earth
system science analysis" or an "ESS analysis." The examination of the
interactions is accomplished by asking oneself the following questions:
1. How may each of the earth's four spheres (hydrosphere, atmosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere) have caused the event to occur? (The answers
to this question are the sphere
event impacts.)
2. What are the effects of the event on each of the earth's four spheres
(hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere)? (The answers to this
question are the event
sphere impacts.)
Note: When you do an ESS analysis, you will list the answers to Questions 1
and 2 together under event
sphere interactions.
3. What are the effects of changes in one of earth's four spheres

(hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, or biosphere) on each of the other

spheres (hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, or biosphere)? (The
answers to this question are the sphere
sphere interactions.)
This approach of answering the questions above is performed during every
ESS analysis; simply replace the term "event" with the event you wish to
investigate.
An Example of an Earth System Science Analysis.
An ESS analysis was performed on the forest fires event that occurred in
Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. This forest fires event occurred in 1988
and destroyed tremendous areas of the park.
Below are some of the event
sphere interactions discovered during an
ESS analysis of the Yellowstone forest fires event:

Event

Hydrosphere

A lack of moisture in the soil and in vegetation may have provided a dry
environment in which the fires, once burning, could continue to burn.
Heat from the fire may have further removed moisture from the air, soil, and
vegetation through the process of evaporation.
Event

Atmosphere

A lightning strike from the air may have started the fires by igniting the dry
vegetation.
Gaseous pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2) may have been produced
during the burning of the vegetation and carried into the air by the wind.
Event

Lithosphere

The intense heat from the fires may have caused some rocks to break apart.
Event

Biosphere

Dead branches and pine needles on the ground may have provided fuel for the
fires.
The seeds of some plants may have required that their outer shells be burned
before they could germinate; therefore they benefited from the forest fires.

Below are some of the sphere

sphere interactions discovered during
the ESS analysis of the Yellowstone forest fires event:
Lithosphere

Hydrosphere

Increased erosion of loose soil (see "Lithosphere

Biosphere," below)
may have led to increased sediments (i.e. soil particles) in streamwater,
making the water "muddier."
Lithosphere

Biosphere

A decrease in vegetation may have resulted in increased soil erosion

because there were fewer roots to hold the soil in place.
Lithosphere

Atmosphere

Ash particles in the air may have been carried by the wind and dropped
on the ground miles away from the forest fires; the ash particles--which
have a high pH--may have changed the pH of the soil. .
Hydrosphere

Biosphere

Ash particles in the water may have clogged the gills of fish and other
aquatic organisms and choked them.
Hydrosphere

Atmosphere

There may have been more precipitation in neighboring areas because

ash particles in the air may have become condensation centers upon
which raindrops could form.
Very dry, windy air may have drawn moisture out of the living grasses and
trees through the process of evaporation.
Biosphere

Atmosphere

Smoke in the air may have coated the lungs of animals--including

people--and affected their ability to breathe.
Remember, these are NOT all the possible event
sphere and
sphere
sphere interactions that could have occurred as a result of the
Yellowstone forest fires. These are merely a few examples of what seem to
be some reasonable causes and effects. There are many other possibilities.

Also keep in mind that as you list event

sphere and sphere
sphere interactions, it is important that you be able to explain why or how the
interactions occur. For example, the above lithosphere
biosphere
interaction does not merely state "a decrease in vegetation may have
resulted in increased erodibility of soil." It gives the reason "because there
were fewer roots to hold it in place." Such explanations display your
understanding of the science behind the interactions. These explanations are
valuable for you and others because they make your "Why?" or "How?"
thinking visible and they often lead to the discovery of additional ESS
interactions.

Earth-Venus-Mars Comparison
This material (and images) is copyrighted! See my copyright notice for fair use
practices.
This is a flowchart summary of the histories of the terrestrial planet atmospheres
(Venus, Earth, and Mars). It shows the histories side-by-side so it is easier to compare
the planet histories.
The chart for Venus up to the dashed arrow describes the runaway greenhouse process
that happened several hundred million to a few billion years ago. The bottom diamond
describes the current condition. The chart for Mars up to the dashed arrow describes
the runaway refrigerator process that happened a LONG time ago. The bottom
rectangle describes the current condition. The chart for the Earth describes the carbon
dioxide cycle as it currently operates. The Earth exists balanced between the two
extremes of Venus and Mars.

Planetary Temperature Factors

Many students confuse the causes of temperature variations on the planets. In particul
orbital eccentricity is often given far too important a role, and the way in which seasons oc
is often ascribed to what are more properly called day/night or climatic zone effects. Here i
summary of various factors, in their approximate order of importance for the Earth, wi

links to more detailed discussions of some of the topics:

Distance from the Sun the average distance of a planet from the Sun (th
semi-major axis of its orbit) is overwhelmingly the most important factor in determining i
average temperature. Other than Venus, every planet is cooler than the next closest planet
the Sun, and even Venus would be much cooler if it were further from the Sun.

Atmospheric effects caused by winds and greenhouse gas

and to a lesser extent, clouds extremely variable, since some planets have

atmospheres, and others have dense atmospheres. In general, the denser the atmosphere t
more important its effects are. For the Earth, daytime temperatures are reduced more than
hundred degrees and nighttime temperatures increased by more than a hundred degrees
compared with the temperature we would have if we had no atmosphere (like the Moon); a
on Venus and the Jovian planets, atmospheric effects can rival (though they do not surpas
the effects of orbital size.
Latitude (climatic zones) on every planet the average path of the Sun is
same as the path that planet's Celestial Equator follows. At the Equator of a planet the Celes
Equator is vertical, passes through the zenith, and on those days when the Sun is on the
Celestial Equator (on the Earth these are the Vernal and Autumnal Equinoxes) the Sun pas
directly overhead, heating the surface more than when at lower altitudes (one square foot
sunlight hits one square foot of ground). At the Poles of a planet the Celestial Equator follo
the Horizon, and when the Sun is on the Celestial Equator its light is greatly spread out. As
move from the Equator toward one of the poles of a planet, temperatures generally get low
and lower. For most planets this climatic zone effect (tropics versus temperate versus arct
zones) is substantially larger than seasonal effects, so that even during the polar summer i
colder than at the Equator; and depending upon how well winds distribute heat, climatic zo
effects can be larger than day/night effects.
Rotation of the planet: day and night every planet rotates relative
the stars and relative to the Sun (we used to think that Mercury always kept the same face
the Sun, but that turned out to be wrong). The side of the planet which is facing the Sun h
day, and the other side has night. If atmospheric effects are small, day/night changes are la
but if atmospheric effects are large, day/night changes are small or nonexistent (as on Venu
Rotation of the planet: seasons Seasons are a variation in the heat
received at a given location on a planet caused by the tilt of the planet's axis of rotation rela
to its orbital motion. Any temperature change not caused by the tilt of the axis of rotation
not a seasonal variation.
The way in which seasons occur is that the Sun has a north/south motion relative to th
planet's Celestial Equator which is equal to the tilt of the axis of rotation. If there is no tilt,
Sun has no north/south motion, always lies on the Celestial Equator, and follows the same p
across the sky (at a given location) every day of the year. There may still be variations in
weather such as those which occur on the Earth from day to day and week to week, but th

large temperature variations from June to December which we refer to as seasons would n
occur at all under those circumstances.
If a planet has a tilt, the Sun will move north and south during the year, causing warme
weather in the northern hemisphere and cooler weather in the southern hemisphere when
north of the Celestial Equator, and cooler weather in the northern hemisphere and warm
weather in the southern hemisphere when it is south of the Celestial Equator. Summer an
winter are always reversed in the two hemispheres, being summer in the hemisphere tha
corresponds to the Sun's position, and winter in the opposite hemisphere, so that the over
heating of the planet is unchanged (ignoring other factors). Spring and autumn are also alw
reversed, the temperatures being about the same, but the direction of temperature chang
being opposite.
Note that at the Equator of a planet there are usually no seasons in the sense being
discussed here, for being in between hemispheres with opposing seasons, the Equator shou
also be in between in terms of temperature; and on the Earth, equatorial seasons are typica
called "wet" and "dry" or some such description, rather than "summer" and "winter".
For planets with a moderate tilt such as the Earth, the north/south motion of the Sun
moderate, and although the poles are much warmer during summer than during winter (wh
they may have nearly half a year of night), they are still much colder than regions closer to
equator; and near the Equator there are no seasons, as already noted, because the Sun is up
about half a day every day of the year and is always high in the sky near "noon". But for plan
with large tilts, such as Uranus and Pluto, the seasons can reverse the usual climatic zone
with the poles becoming warmer than the Equator ever does, as the Sun circles higher an
higher, nearly to the zenith. Even in those cases, however, the effect is small compared to t
orbital size effect, and the warmest temperatures on Pluto never exceed 350 degrees below
Fahrenheit.
Final note about seasons: There are TWO reasons that it becomes warmer in the northe
hemisphere as the Sun moves northward. (1) It is up longer, because stars closer to the po
stay up longer than stars closer to the equator; and (2) it is up higher. The latter effect mim
climatic zone effects, so that it is sometimes confused with those; but the former only occur
a result of seasonal effects.
Geographic differences on the Earth (and only on the Earth), which has b
liquid (ocean/lake) and solid (continent/land) surfaces, temperatures vary less closer to wa
and more further from water, so that near the coast temperatures are lower during the da
than inland, and higher at night than inland. No other planet has such effects, because no o
planet has both liquid and solid surfaces.
Orbital eccentricity for most planets, the change in distance caused by the
orbital eccentricity is too small to have any noticeable effect, and even for the three with
relatively large eccentricities, the orbital effects are minor compared to the effects at the top
this list. On Mars, orbital effects are large enough to notice, but are still smaller than
everything listed above, down to and including atmospheric effects. Only internal heating a

geographical effects are smaller for Mars than the effect of its eccentricity. For Mercury, wi
larger orbital eccentricity and no seasonal effects, there is an even more noticeable change
temperature due to its changing distance from the Sun; but day/night and climatic zone eff
are still much larger than the effect of eccentricity. And on Pluto, even though its eccentricit
even larger, its large tilt produces seasonal effects much larger than the orbital effects.
Internal heat (from the deep interior, not heat stored near the surface by recen
absorption of sunlight) some of the Jovian planets have considerable internal heat, whi
can affect temperatures even more than the distance from the Sun; but on non-Jovian plan
internal heat is a relatively minor affair, and even for Neptune and Uranus internal heat is
important than many other factors listed above.

Summary for each planet of temperature factors in approximate order o

importance:
Mercury distance from Sun, day/night, climatic zone, eccentricity (no seasons)
Venus distance from Sun, atmospheric effects
Earth distance from Sun, atmospheric effects, climatic zone, day/night, seasons,
geographical effects, eccentricity
Mars distance from Sun, climatic zone, seasons, day/night, atmospheric effects,
eccentricity
Jupiter distance from Sun, atmospheric effects, internal heat, (no seasons)
Saturn distance from Sun, atmospheric effects, internal heat, seasons
Uranus distance from Sun, atmospheric effects, seasons
Neptune distance from Sun, atmospheric effects, seasons, internal heat
Pluto distance from Sun, seasons, day/night, climatic zones, eccentricity
Water in liquid form is thought to be a necessity for life on Earth.
Naturally, some say that life may flourish under other conditions, and perhaps even in
the absence of water.
While that may be true, take a look around - life seems to do quite well here on Earth
and we've yet to find it elsewhere in our Solar System.
Based on this, let's look at the classical definition for the habitable zone as the region
around a star, such as our own Sun, where the temperature of any orbiting planet
permits water in liquid form.

Astrophysicists are extremely good at calculating the temperature of a star and then,
taking into account the distance of a planet from its host star, it is easy to work out the
planet's "equilibrium temperature".
The starlight (in our case, sunlight) that falls onto the planet is reradiated as heat and,
hey presto, we have our actual planet temperature - simple. Except it isn't.

Greenhouse gases
What if the planet sports a blanket of white clouds? Clouds are reflective and therefore
will cool the planet, acting to push the habitable zone closer to the star.
Amusingly, if we calculate this "equilibrium temperature" for the Earth, taking into
account its beautifully reflective clouds, then it turns out that we live outside the classical
habitable zone!
The same calculation for Venus gives an expected equilibrium temperature of about
-10C, but in reality it is more like 450C.
What happened?

Image copyrightEYEWIREImage captionClouds' reflective qualities cool the planet and

mean the habitable zone can be closer to a star

Both these planets have greenhouse gases present in their atmospheres, warming the
planet up and driving the outer boundary of the habitable zone further away from the
star (while clouds drive the inner boundary closer to the star).
The very latest habitable zone definitions use simulations of these cloud and
greenhouse effects - widening and blurring the crude classical definition.
Throw into the mix that we currently can't study the atmospheres of rocky terrestrial
exoplanets (and therefore have no idea whether they have clouds, greenhouse gases,
or even an atmosphere at all!) - then to say "that planet is habitable" is impossible, for
the time-being at least.

Directly or indirectly, water affects all facets of life. Without it, there would be no vegetation on land, no
oxygen for animals to breathe and the planet would look entirely different than it does today. Water is
necessary keep people's bodies and the environment healthy and should be valued and protected as the
precious resource it is.

Oxygen
Plants deserve appreciation for producing breathable air and for what they are able to do with water. Through a
series of biochemical reactions, plants are able to convert two water molecules (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom in each molecule) into oxygen. On land, this process is almost entirely counteracted by decomposition, through
which soil microorganisms consume oxygen and return dead organic matter back to the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide. However, oxygen is also produced by algae in the ocean, and as they die and sink to the bottom of the
ocean, their biomass is not decomposed through an oxygen-consuming process. This burial of ocean algae is what is
thought to have lead to the original oxygenation of our atmosphere.

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Weather
Global patterns of weather and precipitation are dictated by the movement, quantity and temperature of water, both
in the ocean and in the atmosphere. As water vapor circulates through the atmosphere and into the oceans, it alters
the temperature and pressure, resulting in wind and currents. As ocean currents move from the equator north and
south to the poles, the water cools. The distribution in ocean temperature directly affects regional climate patterns.
Because plants and animals have specific environmental requirements, temperature and rainfall determine that
species are able to survive in a given location.

Agriculture
Americans depend on farmers to produce enough food to feed our increasing population. Aside from the vegetables
on our plates, corn products are used in a variety of foods common to every supermarket. Ethanol extracted from
corn has even been used as an alternative fuel. All of these everyday items rely directly on the amount of water they
receive. Water is responsible for photosynthesis, which produces breathable oxygen, and also gives plants the vigor
required to sustain their weight. Not enough water and the plants become stressed and eventually die. Too much
water and the plants drown in the soil.

Fisheries
Just as humans require clean drinking water to maintain our health, fish and other aquatic organisms need clean
water to survive. Water contaminated with mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs, and other toxins can
accumulate in the tissue of fish, which then gets transferred to humans during consumption. In September 2009, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency released its Report on Fish Contamination in U.S. Lakes and Reservoirs.
Their study found that nearly half of the sample lakes and reservoirs contained fish with mercury levels considered
toxic to humans.

Sustainability
Because of the reliance on water to provide so many basic needs, water sustainability and conservation have been
becoming increasingly important. Government bodies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the
U.S. Geological Survey are continuously monitoring streams, lakes, rivers and groundwater to ensure the highest
quality drinking water for public health, to minimize environmental degradation and to improve efficiency in wastewater treatment.