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Abstract
We study properties of coninvolutory matrices (EE = I), and derive a
canonical form for them under similarity and under unitary consimilarity.
We show that any complex matrix has a coninvolutory dilation and we characterize the minimum size of a coninvolutory dilation of a square matrix.
We characterize those A Mm,n (the m-by-n complex matrices) that can
be factored as A = RE with R real and E coninvolutory, and we discuss
the uniqueness of this factorization when A is square and nonsingular. Let
A, C Mm,n and B, D Mn,m . The pair (A, B) is contragrediently equivalent to the pair (C, D) if there are nonsingular complex matrices X Mm
and Y Mn such that XAY 1 = C and Y BX 1 = D. We develop a
complete set of invariants and an explicit canonical form for this equivalence
relation. We consider a generalization of the transpose operator to a general
linear operator : Mn Mn that satisfies the following properties: for every
A, B Mn , (a) preserves the spectrum of A, (b) ((A)) = A, and (c)
(AB) = (B)(A). We show that (A, (A)) is contragrediently equivalent
to (B, (B)) if and only if A = X1 BX2 for some X1 , X2 Mn such that
Xi (Xi ) = I. We also consider a generalized polar factorization A = XY ,
where X, Y Mn satisfy and X(X) = I and Y = (Y ). We study the
nilpotent part of the Jordan canonical forms of the products AB and BA
and present a canonical form for the complex orthogonal equivalence. We
characterize the linear operators on Mm,n that preserve complex orthogonal equivalence and the linear operators on Mn (IF) that preserve unitary
t-congruence when IF = IR and IF = C.
Dedication
ii
Contents
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Vita
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iv
Preface
I came to America because it was a cool thing to do. And I was expected
to do so. It was the natural order of things back at the University of the
Philippines. You graduate with honors, you teach for a year or two, and
then you go to your Uncle Sam. I arrived at The Johns Hopkins University
without a clear objective (even though my application letter would tell you
otherwise). I did not know what to do. I guess I was lucky in that every
course I took was a palatable dish tasted for the first time. I was also given
choices I did not know I had.
In my second semester, I took Dr. Roger A. Horns class in Matrix Analysis. One thing I noticed was that he was far from ordinary. He was (and
still is) a performer. An artist. And our classroom was his stage. I looked
forward to, and was swept away by, each and every performance. I knew
then what I wanted to do.
The notation in this work is standard, as in [HJ1] (except for the transpose used in Chapter 4), and is explained at the beginning of each chapter.
Each chapter addresses a dierent topic and has its own set of notations and
definitions. Each chapter can be read independently of the others.
In Chapter 1, we study properties of coninvolutory matrices (EE = I),
and derive a canonical form under similarity as well as a canonical form under unitary consimilarity for them. We show that any complex matrix has
a coninvolutory dilation and we characterize the minimum size of a coninvolutory dilation of a square matrix. We characterize those A Mm,n (the
m-by-n complex matrices) that can be factored as A = RE with R real and
E coninvolutory, and we discuss the uniqueness of this factorization when A
is square and nonsingular.
Let A, C Mm,n and B, D Mn,m . The pair (A, B) is contragrediently
equivalent to the pair (C, D) if there are nonsingular complex matrices X
v
Chapter 1
A Real-Coninvolutory Analog
of the Polar Decomposition
2
The classical polar decomposition A = P U , where P is positive semidefinite and U is unitary, can be viewed as a generalization to matrices of the
polar representation of a complex number z = rei , where r, IR. Another,
perhaps more natural, generalization would be A = R1 eiR2 , where R1 and R2
are matrices with real entries. We study this factorization and related ones.
We also investigate the matrices that can be written as E = eiR for some
real matrix R.
We denote the set of m-by-n complex matrices by Mm,n , and write Mn
Mn,n . The set of m-by-n matrices with real entries is denoted by Mm,n (IR),
and we write Mn (IR) Mn,n (IR). A matrix E Mn is said to be coninvolutory if EE = I, that is, E is nonsingular and E = E 1 . We denote the set
of coninvolutory matrices in Mn by Cn . For A, B Mn , A is similar to B
if there exists a nonsingular matrix S Mn such that A = SBS 1 and we
write A B; A and B are said to be consimilar if there exists a nonsingular
1
S Mn such that A = SBS . Given a scalar C, the n-by-n upper
triangular Jordan block corresponding to (having on the main diagonal,
1 on the super diagonal, and all other entries are 0) is denoted by Jn ().
Topological and metric properties of subsets of Mm,n (compact, bounded,
etc.) are always with respect to the topology generated by some (any) norm
on Mm,n .
1.1
Coninvolutory Matrices
3
(b) Cn is closed under general similarity if and only if n = 1.
(c) Cn is closed.
(d) Cn is bounded if and only if n = 1.
(e) Cn is closed under products if and only if n = 1. If E1 , E2 Cn , then
E1 E2 Cn if and only if E1 commutes with E2 .
(f) |det E| = 1 for every E Cn .
(g) Cn Cm Cn+m for any positive integer m. In particular, E Im is
coninvolutory for any E Cn and any positive integer m.
(h) eiR is coninvolutory for any R Mn (IR).
1
"
1 0
0 1
In2 Cn and S =
shows that
SES
"
1 2i
0 1
"
1 i
0 1
) = I.
In2
In2
1 t
0 1
In2
"
1 1
0 1
#"
1 1
0 1
"
1 2
0 1
6 C2 .
4
Therefore, a product of two coninvolutory matrices is not necessarily
coninvolutory. If E1 , E2 Cn and E1 E2 Cn , then E1 E2 = (E1 E2 )1 =
1
1
E2 E1 = E2 E1 , so E1 commutes with E2 . Conversely, if E1 and E2
are commuting coninvolutories, then E1 E2 (E1 E2 ) = E2 E1 (E1 E2 ) = I.
The assertions in (f), (g), and (h) are easily verified.
1.1.1
Real Similarity
In Theorem (69) of [K2], Kaplansky used the QS decomposition of a nonsingular matrix (A = QS with Q orthogonal and S symmetric) to prove that
there exists an orthogonal matrix Q such that A = QBQT if and only if there
exists a nonsingular S such that A = SBS 1 and AT = SB T S 1 . An analogous result about real similarity may be obtained by following the steps in
Kaplanskys proof and using the RE decomposition (see Section 1.2). Here,
we present a proof that does not make use of the RE decomposition; later,
we shall use this result in our proof of the RE decomposition.
Theorem 1.1.3 Let A, B Mn be given. There exists a nonsingular real
R Mn such that A = RBR1 if and only if there exists a nonsingular
S Mn such that A = SBS 1 and A = SBS 1 .
Proof The forward implication is easily verified. For the converse, the condi1
tions are equivalent to A = SBS 1 and A = SBS . Hence, AS = SB
and AS = SB. Let S = R1 + iR2 with R1 , R2 Mn (IR). Then
R1 = (S +S)/2 and R2 = (S S)/2i, so A(R1 +R2 ) = (R1 +R2 )B
for all , IR. Let p(z) det(R1 + zR2 ). Then p(z) is a polynomial
of degree at most n and p(z) 6 0 since p(i) 6= 0. Hence, p(0 ) 6= 0
for some 0 IR. Thus, R R1 + 0 R2 Mn (IR) is nonsingular,
AR = RB, and A = RBR1 .
Corollary (6.4.18) in [HJ2] uses the QS decomposition to prove the following: Suppose that A = SBS 1 and suppose there exists a polynomial
p(t) such that AT = p(A) and B T = p(B). Then there exists an orthogonal
Q such that A = QBQT . The following is an analog of this result for real
similarity.
5
Corollary 1.1.4 Let A, B Mn be given, suppose that A = SBS 1 , and
suppose there exists a polynomial p(t) such that A = p(A) and B = p(B).
Then there exists a nonsingular real R Mn such that A = RBR1 .
Proof This follows directly from the theorem since q(A) = Sq(B)S 1 for
any polynomial q(t).
It is known that two symmetric matrices are similar if and only if they
are orthogonally similar and two Hermitian (even normal) matrices are similar if and only if they are unitarily similar. An analogous result holds for
coninvolutory matrices.
Corollary 1.1.5 Two coninvolutory matrices are similar if and only if they
are real similar (that is, the similarity can be achieved via a nonsingular real
matrix).
Proof If A and B are coninvolutory and similar, say A = SBS 1 , we have
A = A1 = SB 1 S 1 = SBS 1 . Theorem 1.1.3 ensures that A =
RBR1 for some nonsingular real R. Conversely, if two matrices are
real similar, then they are similar.
Corollary 1.1.4 remains true if the polynomial p(t) is replaced by any
primary matrix function (see Chapter 6 of [HJ2]). Corollary 1.1.5 then follows
from Corollary 1.1.4 by taking p(t) = t1 .
1.1.2
Canonical Form
6
(a) E2k (A, B)E2k (C, D) = E2k (AC, BD).
(b) E2k (A, B)E2k (C, D) = E2k (AD, BC).
(c) f (E2k (A, B)) = E2k (f (A), f (B)) for any entire analytic function f (z).
1
"
Ik iIk
iIk Ik
1
E (J (), Jk ())
i 2k k
Thus, the eigenvalues of E2k (A, B) are the union of the eigenvalues of A
and B. In particular, for 6= 0 the coninvolutory matrix E2k () is unitarily
similar to Jk () Jk ()1 and the eigenvalues of E2k () are and 1/, each
of multiplicity k.
Theorem 1.1.8 Let 0 6= C be given and let k be a given positive integer.
Then E2k () = eiR where R M2k (IR) is a polynomial in E2k () and R is
similar to 1i E2k (Jk (), Jk ()), with ln (principal branch).
Proof Let ln (principal branch) and notice that Jk () eJk () and
Jk ()1 eJk () . Lemma 1.1.7(h) ensures that
1
B E2k (Jk (), Jk ()) M2k (IR).
i
Thus,
E2k ()
=
=
Jk () Jk ()1
eJk () eJk ()
E2k (eJk () , eJk () )
eE2k (Jk (),Jk ())
eiB
7
by Lemma 1.1.7(g, c). Since E2k () and eiB are similar coninvolutory matrices, Corollary 1.1.5 ensures that they are real similar, so
there is some nonsingular C M2k (IR) such that E2k () = CeiB C 1 =
1
eiCBC = eiR with R CBC 1 M2k (IR). Since the spectrum
of iR Jk () Jk () is confined to the horizontal line {z C :
Im z = arg }, basic facts about primary matrix functions (see Example (6.2.16) in [HJ2]) ensure that there is a polynomial p(t) (which
may depend on ) such that iR = p(E2k ()).
Proposition 1.1.9 (a) Let E Cn be given, and suppose Jk () is a Jordan
block of E with multiplicity l. Then Jk (1/) is a Jordan block of E with
multiplicity l.
(b) Let be a given nonzero complex number and let k and l be given positive
integers. Then there exists an E C2kl such that Jk () is a Jordan block of
E with multiplicity l; if k = 1 and || = 1, there is such an E Cl .
1
8
(b) E is real similar to the coninvolutory matrix
eiJl1 (1 ) eiJlr (r ) E2k1 (1 ) E2ks (s )
(c) E is real similar to the coninvolutory matrix
ei[Jl1 (1 )Jlr (r )R1 Rs ]
where each Rj 1i E2kj (Jkj (j ), Jkj (j )) M2kj (IR) and j ln j (principal branch) for j = 1, . . . , s.
If C Mn (IR) gives the real similarity asserted in Theorem 1.1.10(c), we
have E = eiR , where R C[Jl1 (1 ) Jlr (r ) R1 Rs ]C 1 . Since
the spectrum of R is confined to an open horizontal strip containing the real
axis and having height 2, Example (6.2.16) in [HJ2] ensures that there is a
polynomial p(t) (which may depend on E) such that R = p(E). We can also
i
i
write E = (e 2 R )2 , where e 2 R is coninvolutory and 12 R is also a polynomial
in E. These observations give the following result, which was proved in a
dierent way in Corollary (6.4.22) of [HJ2].
Theorem 1.1.11 Let E Mn be given. The following are equivalent:
(a) EE = I, that is, E is coninvolutory.
(b) E = eiS , where S Mn (IR) is real.
(c) E = F 2 , where F Mn is coninvolutory.
For a coninvolutory E, the real matrix S in (b) and the coninvolutory matrix
F in (c) may be taken to be polynomials in E.
For a given E Cn , the real matrix S in Theorem 1.1.11(b) and the
coninvolutory matrix F in Theorem 1.1.11(c) are not uniquely determined.
However, the general theory of primary matrix functions ensures that there
is a unique real S with spectrum in the half-open strip {z C : 2 <
Im z 2 } such that E = eiS and there is a unique coninvolutory F with
spectrum in the wedge {z C : 2 < arg z 2 } such that E = F 2 ( see
Theorem (6.2.9) of [HJ2]). For another approach to this uniqueness result,
see Theorem (2.3) of [DBS].
1.1.3
Singular Values
(d) If > 0 is given and if k is a given positive integer, then there exists
a coninvolutory matrix E such that is a singular value of E with
multiplicity k.
Proof The first three assertions follow directly from the singular value de1
composition of E and the equation E = E . If > 0 and 6= 1,
then
"
#
0
E2 () = U
U
0 1/
has singular values and 1/. Hence, we may take E = E2 ()
E2 () (k copies). If = 1, then we may take E = Ik .
Let E Cn . Proposition 1.1.13(a) shows that the singular value decomposition of E has the form E = U V , where U and V are unitary and
1
1
= [1 In1 In1 ] [k Ink Ink ] In2j
(1.1.2)
1
k
with 1 > > k > 1 and j =
Pk
X11
X21
..
.
X12
X22
..
.
Xl1
Xl2,2
Xl1,2
Xl2
VU =
X
l2,1
Xl1,1
i=1
X1,l2
X2,l2
. . . ..
.
Xl2,l2
Xl1,l2
Xl,l2
X1,l1
X2,l1
..
.
X1l
X2l
..
.
Xl2,l1 Xl2,l
Xl1,l1 Xl1,l
Xl,l1
Xll
10
conformal to , with X11 , X22 Mn1 , . . . , Xl2,l2 , Xl1,l1 Mnk , Xll
1
Mn2j , and l = 2k + 1. Since U V = E = E = V T 1 U T , we have
(V U ) = 1 U T V = 1 (V U )T and hence
1 X11
1 X21
..
.
1 Xl2,1
1 Xl1,1
1 Xl1
1
XT
1 11
T
1 X12
.
.
.
1
T
k X1,l2
T
k X1,l1
X1lT
1
X
1 12
1
X
1 22
..
.
1
X
1 l2,2
1
X
1 l1,2
1
X
1 l2
1
XT
1 21
T
1 X22
..
.
1
XT
k 2,l2
T
k X2,l1
T
X2l
k X1,l2
k X2,l2
. . . ..
.
k Xl2,l2
k Xl1,l2
k Xl,l2
1
X
k 1,l1
1
X
k 2,l1
..
.
1
X
k l2,l1
1
X
k l1,l1
1
X
k l,l1
X1l
X2l
..
.
Xl2,l
Xl1,l
Xll
1
1
1
T
XT
XT
1 Xl2,1
1 l1,1
1 l1
T
T
1 Xl1,2
1 Xl2T
1 Xl2,2
..
..
..
...
.
.
.
1
1
1
T
T
T
k Xl2,l2 k Xl1,l2 k Xl,l2
T
T
T
k Xl2,l1
k Xl1,l1
k Xl,l1
T
T
T
Xl2,l
Xl1,l
Xll
(1.1.3)
Let k kF denote the Frobenius norm (square root of the sum of squares
of moduli of entries). Since all the columns and rows of V U are unit vectors,
we have
T
T
X21
Xl1T ]k2F .
k[ X11 X12 X1l ]k2F = n1 = k[ X11
(1.1.4)
T
T
Equating the first rows of (1.1.3) gives X21
= X12 and X11
= 12 X11 , . . .,
T
T
T
T
Xl2,1 = 1 k X1,l2 , Xl1,1 = (1 /k )X1,l1 , Xl1 = 1 X1l . Since all of the
coecients 12 , . . . , 1 k , 1 /k , and 1 are greater than one, substituting
these identities in (1.1.4) shows that X1i = Xi1 = 0 for all i 6= 2, and hence
T 2
kF = kX21 k2F .
kX12 k2F = n1 = kX21
Again using the fact that the rows of V U are unit vectors, we also have
n1 = k[ X21 X22 X2l ]k2F ,
and hence X2i = 0 for all i 2. Similarly, Xi2 = 0 for all i 2. Thus
0 X12 0
T
0
0
V U = X12
0
0 V1
11
T
where V1 is unitary and satisfies V1 1 = 1
1 V1 with 1 [2 In2
[k Ink 1k Ink ] In2j .
Iteration of this argument shows that
X VU =
"
0 X1
X1T 0
"
0 Xk
XkT 0
Xk+1 ,
1
I ]
2 n2
(1.1.5)
"
1
I
i ni
0
i Ini
Then
Yi i =
"
and Yi =
0 Xi
XiT 0
#"
"
Xi 0
0 XiT
i Ini
0
0
1
I
i ni
for 1 i k.
= i YiT .
"
0
1 In1
1
I
1 n1
"
0
k Ink
1
I
k nk
In2j ,
(1.1.6)
12
Corollary 1.1.15 Let a nonsingular A Mn be given. The following are
equivalent:
(a) A and A1 have the same singular values, that is, A and A1 are
unitarily equivalent.
(b) A = EW for some E Cn and unitary W Mn .
(c) A = V E for some E Cn and unitary V Mn .
(d) A = V EW for some E Cn and unitary V, W Mn .
Proof If A and A1 have the same singular values, then A = V1 V2 , where
has the form (1.1.6) and V1 , V2 Mn are unitary. The converse
assertion in Theorem 1.1.14 ensures that A = (V1 V1T )(V 1 V2 ) is a
factorization of the form asserted in (b). If A = EW as in (b), then
A = W (W T EW ) is a factorization of the form asserted in (c). If
A = V E as in (c), then one may take W = I in (d). If A = V EW as
in (d), then A1 = W EV . Thus, the singular values of A and A1
are those of E and E, which by Proposition 1.1.13(b) are the same.
Corollary (4.6.12) of [HJ1] guarantees that a positive definite A Mn and
a Hermitian or symmetric B Mn can be simultaneously diagonalized by
an appropriate nonsingular congruence. The following is an analog of these
results in the coninvolutory case.
Theorem 1.1.16 Let A Mn be positive definite and let E Mn be coninvolutory. Then there exists a nonsingular S Mn such that SAS = I and
1
SES = has the form (1.1.6).
Proof Let P be the unique positive definite square root of A. Notice that
P 1 EP Cn , hence Theorem 1.1.14 ensures that there exists a unitary
U and a of the form (1.1.6) such that P 1 EP = U U T . Let S
1
U P 1 , so that S = P 1 U . Then SAS = I and SES = , as
desired.
13
1.1.4
Coninvolutory Dilation
"
A X1
X2 Y
Cn+k1 .
"
A
i(I + A)
i(I A)
A
14
Lemma 1.1.21 Suppose that A1 Mn1 has a coninvolutory dilation of size
n1 + k1 , and suppose that A2 Mn2 has a coninvolutory dilation of size
n2 + k2 . Then A1 A2 has a coninvolutory dilation of size n1 + n2 + k1 + k2 .
Proof Let
B1 =
"
A1 X1
Y1 Z1
Cn1 +k1
B2 =
"
A2 X2
Y2 Z2
Cn2 +k2 .
and let
A1 0 X1 0
0 A2 0 X2
15
under consimilarity,
"
X 0
0 I
"
X
0
0
I
"
"
"
X 0
0 I
#"
JR (A)
XJR (A)X
#"
X
0
0
I
is a coninvolutory dilation of A of size n + k. Lemma 1.1.20 guarantees that Cnt (at , bt ) has a coninvolutory dilation of size 2nt . Moreover, Jmt (t ) has a coninvolutory dilation of size 2mt , and if t = 1
then Jmt (1) has a coninvolutory dilation of size 2mt 1. Thus,
Lemma 1.1.21 ensures that JR (A) has a coninvolutory dilation of size
2n l, where l is the number of Jordan blocks in JR (A) with t = 1.
Now, nl = rank(I [JR (A)]2 ) = rank(I X[JR (A)]2 X 1 ) = rank(I
AA) = k0 . Therefore, A has a coninvolutory dilation of size n + k0 .
Lemma 1.1.18 guarantees that A has a coninvolutory dilation of size
n + k if and only if k k0 .
In [TK] several power dilation problems are considered: when does a given
square matrix A have a dilation
B=
in a given class such that
k
B =
"
Ak
"
for k = 1, . . . , N ?
Theorem 1.1.22 solves the power dilation problem for N = 1 in the class of
coninvolutory matrices; the situation for N > 1 is an open problem.
1.2
The RE Decomposition
1
16
this way. Theorem 1.1.11 therefore ensures that there is a coninvolutory E
1
such that E 2 = A A, and there exists such an E that is a polynomial in
1
A A. An immediate consequence of this observation is the following RE decomposition for square nonsingular complex matrices, which is an elaboration
of Theorem (6.4.23) in [HJ2].
1.2.1
1.2.2
17
in an RE decomposition? One can always write A = RE = (R)(E). More
generally, if R1 is a real matrix such that R12 = I and R1 commutes with E,
then A = RE = (RR1 )(R1 E), RR1 is real, and (R1 E)1 = ER11 = ER1 =
ER1 = R1 E so R1 E is coninvolutory. The following results show that this is
the only non-uniqueness in the factors of a nonsingular RE decomposition.
Lemma 1.2.2 Let G Mn be a given coninvolutory matrix, and let E0 be
a given coninvolutory matrix such that E02 = G and E0 is a polynomial in
G. If R Mn has real entries, R2 = I, and R commutes with E0 , then
F RE0 is coninvolutory and F 2 = G. Conversely, if F is a coninvolutory
matrix such that F 2 = G, then R(F, E0 ) F E0 is a real matrix such that
F = R(F, E0 )E0 , R(F, E0 )2 = I, and R(F, E0 ) commutes with E0 .
Proof The forward assertion has already been established. For the con1
verse, let F be coninvolutory and satisfy F 2 = G = F F . Then
Theorem 1.2.1 ensures that R(F, E0 ) F E0 has real entries and F =
R(F, E0 )E0 . Since E0 is a polynomial in G = F 2 , both E01 = E0 and
R(F, E0 ) are polynomials in F . It follows that both F and R(F, E0 )
commute with E0 . Thus, R(F, E0 )2 = F E0 F E0 = F 2 (E0 )2 = GG = I,
as desired.
Theorem 1.2.3 Let A Mn be nonsingular, let E0 Mn be a given conin1
1
volutory matrix such that E02 = A A and E0 is a polynomial in A A, and
let R(A, E0 ) AE0 . Then R(A, E0 ) has real entries and A = R(A, E0 )E0 .
If R Mn has real entries, R2 = I, and RE0 = E0 R, then RE0 is coninvolutory, R(A, E0 )R is real, and A = (R(A, E0 )R)(RE0 ). Suppose E1 ,
R1 Mn are given with E1 coninvolutory, R1 real, and A = R1 E1 , and
define R(E1 , E0 ) E1 E0 . Then R(E1 , E0 ) is real and commutes with E0 ,
R(E1 , E0 )2 = I, R1 = R(A, E0 )R(E1 , E0 ), and E1 = R(E1 , E0 )E0 .
Proof Theorem 1.2.1 ensures that R(A, E0 ) is real and A = R(A, E0 )E0 .
Moreover, Lemma 1.2.2 ensures that RE0 is coninvolutory and A =
(R(A, E0 )R)(RE0 ) is an RE decomposition if R2 = I and R is real and
commutes with E0 . For the last assertions, apply Lemma 1.2.2 to the
1
coninvolutory matrix E1 , for which E12 = A A = E02 , and conclude
that R(E1 , E0 ) E1 E0 is real, E1 = R(E1 , E0 )E0 , R(E1 , E0 ) commutes
18
with E0 , and R(E1 , E0 )2 = I. Then
R1 =
=
=
=
AE1
AR(E1 , E0 )E0
AE0 R(E1 , E0 )
R(A, E0 )R(E1 , E0 ).
1.2.3
"
1 i
i 1
"
1 0
0 0
#"
1 i
0 1
19
T
"
Ir B
0 Inr
"
S11 S12
S21 S22
20
S11 = E 2 for some coninvolutory E. Taking R A1 E = (A1 S11 )E =
A1 E 2 E = A1 E = A1 E = R, we see that R is real and A1 = RE.
Finally, we have
A = [ A1 0 ] = [ RE 0 ] = [ R 0 ]
"
E
0
0 Inr
1.2.4
Chapter 2
The Contragredient
Equivalence Relation
21
22
2.1
Introduction
We denote the set of m-by-n matrices by Mm,n and write Mn Mn,n . Given
a scalar C, the n-by-n upper triangular Jordan block corresponding to
is denoted by Jn (). We say that A, B Mm,n are equivalent if there are
nonsingular matrices X Mm and Y Mn such that A = XBY .
Definition 2.1.1 Let A, C Mm,n and B, D Mn,m . We say that (A, B)
is contragrediently equivalent to (C, D), and we write (A, B) (C, D), if
there are nonsingular X Mm and Y Mn such that XAY 1 = C and
Y BX 1 = D.
It can be useful to know that contragredient equivalence of two pairs of
matrices can be expressed as a block diagonal similarity of two block matrices:
"
X 0
0 Y
#"
0 A
B 0
#"
X 0
0 Y
#1
"
0 C
D 0
rank
rank
rank
rank
Conversely, we shall show that these rank identities, together with either
of the similarity conditions (1) or (2), are sucient for the contragredient
23
equivalence of (A, B) and (C, D). We obtain a canonical form for this relation and use it to study a variety of matrix factorizations involving complex
orthogonal factors.
2.2
For a given A Mm,n and B Mn,m , it is our goal to find a canonical pair
Mn,m such that (A, B) (A,
B).
Our first step is to
A Mm,n and B
describe a reduction that shows there are only two essential cases to consider:
AB nonsingular and AB nilpotent.
Lemma 2.2.1 Let positive integers k, n be given with k < n. Let Y1 Mn,k
and P Mk,n be given with P Y1 nonsingular. Then there exists a Y2
Mn,nk such that P Y2 = 0 and [Y1 Y2 ] Mn is nonsingular.
Proof Since P has full (row) rank, we may let {1 , . . . , nk } be a basis for
the orthogonal complement of the span of the columns of P in Cn ,
and set Y2 [1 . . . nk ]. Then P Y2 = 0 and Y2 has full (column)
rank. Let Ck and Cnk and suppose
[Y1 Y2 ]
"
= Y1 + Y2 = 0.
24
(b) If 1 k < n, there exist nonsingular X Mm and Y Mn such that
XAY
"
Ik 0
0 A
and Y BX
"
J(AB) 0
0
B
"
Ik
0
"
J(AB) 0
0
N
"
C1
C2
(2.2.1)
and partition BX 1 as
BX 1 = [D1 D2 ] with D1 Mn,k and D2 Mn,mk .
(2.2.2)
Compute
"
J(AB) 0
0
N
= XABX 1 =
"
C1
C2
[D1 D2 ] =
"
C1 D1 C1 D2
C2 D1 C2 D2
25
Thus, C1 D2 = 0, C2 D1 = 0, and C1 D1 = J(AB) is nonsingular, as is
D1T C1T .
Now suppose 1 k < n. Two applications of Lemma 2.2.1 (with
P = D1T and P = C1 , respectively) ensure that there are C3 Mnk,n
and D3 Mn,nk such that
Y
"
C1
C3
Mn and F
"
D1T
D3T
Mn
"
C1
C3
[D1 D3 ] =
"
C1 D1 C1 D3
C3 D1 C3 D3
"
J(AB)
0
0
C3 D3
"
C1
C2
[D1 D3 ] =
"
C1 D1 C1 D3
C2 D1 C2 D3
"
J(AB)
0
0
C2 D3
Now compute
XAY 1 = XAF F 1 Y 1 = (XAF )(Y F )1
=
"
J(AB)
0
0
C2 D3
#"
"
Ik
0
0 C2 D3 (C3 D3 )1
0
J(AB)1
0
(C3 D3 )1
#
"
Ik 0
0 A
and
Y BX
= Y (BX
"
)=
"
C1
C3
J(AB)
0
0
C3 D2
[D1 D2 ] =
"
"
C1 D1 C1 D2
C3 D1 C3 D2
J(AB) 0
0
B
26
where we set A C2 D3 (C3 D3 )1 and B C3 D2 . Since
"
J(AB) 0
0
N
"
"
Ik 0
0 A
#"
J(AB) 0
0
B
#
J(AB) 0
0
AB
"
C1
0
D1 =
"
C1 D1
0
"
J(AB)
0
Thus,
XAY 1 = XAF F 1 Y 1 = (XAF )(Y F )1
=
"
J(AB)
0
J(AB)
"
Ik
0
and
Y BX 1 = C1 [D1 D2 ] = [C1 D1 C1 D2 ] = [J(AB) 0],
which is the assertion in (c).
Finally, suppose k = n = m. Then XA = C1 and BX 1 = D1 are
nonsingular. For Y C1 , we have XAY 1 = Im and Y BX 1 =
C1 D1 = J(AB), which is case (d).
For a given A Mm,n and B Mn,m , the four cases (a)(d) in Lemma
2.2.2 are exhaustive and mutually exclusive. The special forms achieved by
27
the contragredient equivalences in (c) and (d) are the canonical forms we
seek, but more work is required to achieve a canonical form in (a). Once
that is achieved, however, the special form of the reduction in (b) shows that
a canonical form in this case can be expressed as a direct sum of the canonical
forms for cases (a) and (d): If
XAY
"
Ik 0
0 A
and Y BX
"
J(AB) 0
0
B
"
(X1 X)A(Y1 Y )
and
1
(Y1 Y )B(X1 X)
"
Ik
0
0 F1 AG1
1
J(AB)
0
0
G1 BF11
1
1
and (F1 AG1
is nilpotent. Thus, if F1 and G1 are
1 )(G1 BF1 ) = F1 (AB)F1
chosen to put (A, B) into canonical form, we shall have achieved a canonical
form for (A, B).
In order to achieve a canonical form for (A, B) under contragredient equivalence, we see that there are only two essential cases: AB is nonsingular or
AB is nilpotent. Before attacking the second case, it is convenient to summarize what we have learned about the first.
28
With the nonsingular case disposed of, we now begin a discussion of the
nilpotent case. Let m n, A Mm,n , and B Mn,m be given and suppose
AB (and hence also BA) is nilpotent. Then among all the nonzero finite
alternating products of the form
Type I:
Type II:
ABA
BAB
(ending in A)
(ending in B)
there is a longest one (possibly two, one of each type). Suppose that a longest
one is of Type I. There are two possibilities, depending on the parity of a
longest product.
Case 1. Odd parity, k 1, A(BA)k1 6= 0, (BA)k = 0.
Since we assumed that a longest product was of type I, we must
have (AB)k = 0 in this case.
Case 2. Even parity, k 2, (BA)k1 6= 0, A(BA)k1 = 0.
Again, since a longest nonzero product was assumed to be of type I,
we must have B(AB)k1 = 0.
We now consider these two cases in turn.
Type I, Case 1. If k = 1, we set (AB)k1 Im , even if A = 0. Let x Cn
and y Cm be such that y A(BA)k1 x 6= 0, and define
Z1 [x BAx . . . (BA)k1 x] Mn,k
Y1 AZ1 = [Ax A(BA)x . . . A(BA)k1 x] Mm,k
and
y
y AB
..
.
y (AB)k1
Q PA =
Mk,m
yA
y (AB)A
..
.
y (AB)k1 A
Mk,n .
29
Then
P Y1 = QZ1 =
is nonsingular since
identities:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
y A(BA)k1 x
y A(BA)k1 x
Mk
(2.2.3)
Suppose k < n. Then Lemma 2.2.1 ensures that there exist Y2 Mm,mk
and Z2 Mn,nk such that
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(2.2.4)
"
C1
A2
Then
AZ2 = Y C = [Y1 Y2 ]
"
C1
A2
= Y1 C1 + Y2 A2 .
(2.2.5)
Now, use (2.2.5) and the identities (2.2.4b), (2.2.3b) and (2.2.4d) to compute
P AZ2 = P (AZ2 ) = P Y1 C1 + (P Y2 )A2 = (P Y1 )C1
and
P AZ2 = (P A)Z2 = QZ2 = 0.
Since P Y1 is nonsingular, we conclude that C1 = 0. Thus, (2.2.5) simplifies
to
AZ2 = Y2 A2
(2.2.6)
30
and we can use (2.2.3a) and (2.2.6) to compute
"
AZ =
"
Ik 0
0 A2
Ik 0
0 A2
(2.2.7)
"
D1
B2
"
D1
B2
= Z1 D1 + Z2 B2 .
(2.2.8)
Now use (2.2.8) and the identities (2.2.4d), (2.2.3d) and (2.2.4b) to compute
QBY2 = Q(BY2 ) = QZ1 D1 + (QZ2 )B2 = (QZ1 )D1
and
QBY2 = (QB)Y2 = Jk (0)(P Y2 ) = 0.
Since QZ1 is nonsingular, we conclude that D1 = 0. Hence, (2.2.8) simplifies
to
(2.2.9)
BY2 = Z2 B2 ,
and we can use (2.2.3c) and (2.2.9) to compute
B[Y1 Y2 ] = [BY1 BY2 ] = [Z1 Z2 ]
and we have
Z
BY =
"
"
JkT (0) 0
0
B2
JkT (0) 0
0
B2
#
(2.2.10)
31
If k = n < m, then Z2 is absent in (2.2.4c) and Z = Z1 is nonsingular; Q
is also nonsingular since QZ1 is nonsingular. The identities (2.2.3), (2.2.4a),
and (2.2.4b) still hold. Now,
AZ = Y1 = [Y1 Y2 ]
"
Ik
0
=Y
"
Ik
0
AZ =
"
Ik
0
(2.2.11)
(2.2.12)
(2.2.13)
32
and
yB
y BAB
..
.
y B(AB)k2
y BA
..
.
y (BA)k2
y (BA)k1
We define
Mk1,m
Mk,n .
(2.2.14)
AZ1 = Y1 Hk
P A = Kk Q
BY1 = Z1 KkT
QB = HkT P.
(2.2.15)
(2.2.16)
"
0
A2
with A2 Mmk+1,nk ,
and
AZ2 = Y2 A2 .
(2.2.17)
33
Using the identities (2.2.15a) and (2.2.17) we have
A[Z1 Z2 ] = [AZ1 AZ2 ] = [Y1 Hk Y2 A2 ] = [Y1 Y2 ]
so that
Y 1 AZ =
"
Hk 0
0 C2
"
Hk 0
0 C2
(2.2.18)
(2.2.19)
[Z1 KkT
and hence
Z
BY =
"
Z2 B2 ] = [Z1 Z2 ]
KkT 0
0 B2
"
KkT 0
0 B2
(2.2.20)
In this case, notice that A2 Mmk+1,nk and B Mnk,mk+1 . Moreover, B2 (A2 B2 )k1 = 0 and A2 (B2 A2 )k1 = 0.
If k = n m, then Z2 is absent and Z = Z1 Mn is nonsingular. Since
QZ1 is nonsingular, Q is also nonsingular. The identities (2.2.15), (2.2.16a),
and (2.2.16b) still hold. Hence,
AZ = AZ1 = Y1 Hk = [Y1 Y2 ]
"
Hk
0
AZ =
"
Hk
0
(2.2.21)
34
Hence, BY2 = 0 since Q is nonsingular. Using this and (2.2.15c), we have
BY = B[Y1 Y2 ] = [BY1 BY2 ] = [Z1 KkT 0] = Z1 [KkT 0]
so that (2.2.20) becomes
Z 1 BY = [KkT 0].
(2.2.22)
BY =
and
Y
AZ =
"
"
Ik 0
0 B2
JkT (0) 0
0
A2
(2.2.23)
(2.2.24)
BY =
and
Y
AZ =
"
"
Hk 0
0 B2
(2.2.25)
KkT 0
0 A2
(2.2.26)
35
(b) if k = n m, then we may take B2 = 0 in (2.2.25) and A2 = 0 in
(2.2.26).
In all four possible combinations of types and cases, our analysis can be
applied again to the matrices A2 and B2 . Iteration of this process leads to
the following result.
Theorem 2.2.4 Let positive integers m, n be given with m n, let A
Mm,n and B Mn,m be given, and let k rank (AB)m . Then there exist
nonsingular X Mm and Y Mn such that
XAY 1
and
Y BX 1
where
JA 0
0 A1
..
..
.
.
0 0
0 0
...
JB 0
0 B1
..
..
.
.
0 0
0 0
...
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
(2.2.27)
Ap
0
0 0
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
(2.2.28)
Bp
0 0
(a) JA , JB Mk are nonsingular and JA JB is similar to J(AB), the nonsingular part of the Jordan canonical form of AB,
(b) Ai , Bi Mmi ,ni for all i = 1, . . . , p,
(c) max {mi , ni } max {mi+1 , ni+1 } for all i = 1, . . . , p 1,
(d) |mi ni | 1 for all i = 1, . . . , p,
T
T
T
T
(e) each (Ai , Bi ) {(Imi , Jm
(0)), (Jm
(0), Imi ), (Hmi , Km
), (Km
, Hmi )},
i
i
i
i
36
When m = n, A = In , and B Mn is nilpotent, the canonical contragredient equivalence guaranteed by Theorem 2.2.4 gives XY 1 = XAY 1 = In
(so that X = Y ), and XBY 1 = Y BY 1 reduces to the Jordan canonical
form of B. This result, together with Theorem (2.4.8) of [HJ1], leads to a
proof of the Jordan canonical form of a square matrix. For a more direct
exposition of this idea, see the Appendix.
Definition 2.2.5 Let positive integers m, n be given with m n, and let
A Mm,n and B Mn,m be given. Define
(A, B)
{rank A, rank BA, rank ABA, . . . , rank (AB)m1 A, rank (BA)m ,
rank B, rank AB, rank BAB, . . . , rank (BA)m1 B, rank (AB)m }.
The reason for introducing (A, B) is that the parts of the canonical form
in Theorem 2.2.4 that contribute to the nilpotent part of AB are completely
determined by the sequence (A, B).
Consider first what happens if A and B consist of only one canonical
block. For each choice of the possible pairs of canonical blocks, Table 1 gives
the ranks of the indicated products.
A
B
(AB)k
(BA)k
A(BA)k1
B(AB)k1
(AB)k1
(BA)k1
(Type, Case)
(I, 1) (I, 2) (II, 1) (II, 2)
Ik
Hk
JkT (0)
KkT
T
T
Jk (0) Kk
Ik
Hk
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
Table 1
Ranks of Products by Type and Case
Suppose AB is nilpotent and we are given the sequence (A, B). How can
we use (A, B) to determine the Ai in (2.2.27) and the Bi in (2.2.28)? Now
consider the general case of nilpotent AB. Let k be the smallest integer such
37
that (AB)k = 0 and (BA)k = 0. Then l1 rank A(BA)k1 is the number of
Ik s in the canonical form for A, and hence is also the number of JkT (0)s in
the canonical form for B, since only (Type I, Case 1) has a nonzero entry in
the row corresponding to A(BA)k1 . In particular, l1 of the Ai s are Ik and
each of the l1 corresponding Bi s are JkT (0). Similarly, l2 rank B(AB)k1
is the number of Ai s equal to JkT (0), and also the number of corresponding
Bi s equal to Ik (Type II, Case 1). Notice that the row corresponding to
(AB)k1 has three nonzero entries: (Type I, Case 1), (Type II, Case 1), and
(Type II, Case 2). Hence, if l3 rank (AB)k1 , then l3 l1 l2 of the Ai s
are KkT and the same number of Bi s are Hk , corresponding to (Type II,
Case 2). Similarly, if l4 rank (BA)k1 , then l4 l1 l2 of the Ai s are
Hk and the same number of corresponding Bi s are KkT (Type I, Case 2).
If k > 1, the minimality of k implies that (AB)k1 6= 0 or (BA)k1 6= 0.
Hence, one of l1 , l2 , l3 , l4 must be a positive integer. The only case in which
l1 = l2 = l3 = l4 = 0 is when k = 1, A = 0, and B = 0.
Let A1 be a matrix of the form (2.2.27) having the first l1 of the Ai s
equal to Ik , the next l2 of the Ai s equal to JkT (0), the next l3 l1 l2 of
the Ai s equal to KkT , and l4 l1 l2 of the Ai s equal to Hk . Let B1 be
a corresponding matrix of the form (2.2.28), that is, the first l1 of the Bi s
are JkT (0), the next l2 of the Bi s are Ik , the next l3 l1 l2 of the Bi s
are Hk , and the next l4 l1 l2 of Bi s are KkT . Subtracting the entries
of the sequence (A1 , B1 ) from corresponding entries of (A, B) gives a new
sequence of ranks corresponding to the remaining part of the canonical forms,
whereupon we can repeat the foregoing construction.
The following procedure summarizes a way of determining a canonical
form of (A, B) under the contragredient equivalence when AB is nilpotent:
Compute the sequence (A, B) and examine it to determine the smallest integer k such that (AB)k = 0 and (BA)k = 0.
Let A1 have the form (2.2.27), with l1 of the Ai s equal to Ik , l2 of the
Ai s equal to JkT (0), l3 l1 l2 of the Ai s equal to Hk , and l4 l1 l2 of
the Ai s equal to KkT . Let B1 be the corresponding matrix of the form
(2.2.28). Compute (A1 , B1 ).
Replace (A, B) by the sequence formed by the dierences of corresponding entries of the sequences (A, B) and (A1 , B1 ).
38
Repeat the preceding three steps until the all the entries in the sequence
are 0.
The following result is immediate.
Lemma 2.2.6 Let integers m, n be given with m n, and suppose A, C
Mm,n and B, D Mn,m . Suppose that AB is nilpotent. Then (A, B) (C, D)
if and only if (A, B) = (C, D).
Corollary 2.2.7 Let integers m, n be given and suppose A, C Mm,n and
B, D Mn,m . Then (A, B) (C, D) if and only if the following conditions
are satisfied:
(1) AB is similar to CD, and
(2) for all l = 0, 1, . . . , max {m, n},
(a) rank (BA)l = rank (DC)l ,
(b) rank A(BA)l = rank C(DC)l , and
(c) rank B(AB)l = rank D(CD)l .
Proof The forward implication is easily verified and was noted in the Introduction. For the converse, we may assume without loss of generality that m n. Theorem 2.2.4 guarantees that there exist nonsingular X1 , X2 Mm , Y1 , Y2 Mn , and a nonnegative integer k =
rank (AB)m = rank (CD)m such that
X1 AY11
"
"
and
X2 CY21
A1 0
0 A
C1 0
0 C
and
and
Y1 BX11
Y2 DX21
"
"
B1 0
0 B
D1 0
0 D
#
#
where A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 Mk are nonsingular and AB and CD are nilpotent. Since AB is similar to CD, the nonsingular parts of their respective Jordan canonical forms are the same. Therefore, A1 B1 is similar
to C1 D1 and hence Lemma 2.2.3 guarantees that (A1 , B1 ) (C1 , D1 ).
Moreover, (1) also ensures that rank (AB)l = rank (CD)l for all integers l = 0, 1, . . . , m. These identities and the rank identities (2) ensure
that (A, B) = (C, D), so (A, B) (C, D) by Lemma 2.2.6.
39
Corollary 2.2.8 Let positive integers m, n be given with m n, and let
A Mm,n and B Mn,m be given. Then (A, B) (C, D), where
and
JA
0
0 A(1)
..
..
.
.
0
0
0
0
...
JB
0
0 B(1)
..
..
.
.
0
0
0
0
...
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
(2.2.29)
A(p)
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
(2.2.30)
B(p)
0
0
"
0 A
B 0
(2.2.31)
(2.2.32)
and
If AB is similar to CD, (A, B) is similar to (C, D), and rank A(BA)l =
rank C(DC)l for all integers l 0, then the conditions of Corollary 2.2.7 are
satisfied, and hence (A, B) (C, D). Conversely, all of these conditions are
satisfied if (A, B) (C, D).
40
Corollary 2.2.10 Let integers m, n be given and suppose A, C Mm,n and
B, D Mn,m . Then (A, B) (C, D) if and only if the following conditions
are satisfied:
(1) AB is similar to CD,
(2) (A, B) is similar to (C, D), and
(3) rank A(BA)l = rank C(DC)l for all l = 0, 1, . . . , max {m, n}.
2.3
"
1 i
0 0
M2 , AA =
"
0 0
0 0
, A A=
"
1 i
i 1
"
0 A
AT 0
is similar to
"
0 C
.
CT 0
41
Proof Suppose (A, AT ) (C, C T ). Then there exist nonsingular X Mm
and Y Mn such that C = XAY 1 and C T = Y AT X 1 . Hence,
XAY 1 = C = (C T )T = (X 1 )T AY T , so X T XA = AY T Y . From
this it follows that p(X T X)A = Ap(Y T Y ) for any polynomial p(t).
42
(5) A = QAT Q for some orthogonal Q Mn .
Proof Notice that for any A, B Mn , (A, B) = (In , In )(B, A)(In , In )
and (In , In )1 = (In , In ); we conclude that (A, B) is similar to
(B, A). In particular, (A, AT ) is similar to (AT , A). Lemma 2.3.1
now guarantees the equivalence of (1), (2) and (3). Now suppose A =
Q1 AT Q2 for some orthogonal Q1 , Q2 Mn . Then
B AQT1 = Q1 AT Q2 QT1 = (AQT1 )T (Q2 QT1 ) = B T Q,
where Q Q2 QT1 . Now, BQT = B T = (B T Q)T = QT B, so QT = Q1
commutes with B, and hence Q (which is a polynomial in Q1 ) commutes with B. Since QB = BQ implies QB T = B T Q, Q also commutes
with B T . Let R be any polynomial square root of Q, so that R commutes with B and with B T . Moreover, B = B T Q = B T R2 . Thus,
BR1 = B T R = RB T . Hence, (BR1 )2 = (BR1 )(RB T ) = BB T ,
so BB T has a square root. Theorem (4) of [CH2] (see also Problem
23 in Section (6.3) of [HJ2]) guarantees that BB T has a symmetric
square root S that is similar to BR1 , say S = Y (BR1 )Y 1 . Thus,
S 2 = Y (BB T )Y 1 and
(S, S) = Z(BR1 , BR1 )Z 1
= Z(BR1 , RB T )Z 1
= Z1 (B, B T )Z11 ,
where Z Y Y and Z1 Z(In R). Hence, S 2 is similar to
BB T and (S, S) is similar to (B, B T ). Lemma 2.3.1 guarantees
that AQT1 = B = Q3 SQ4 for some orthogonal Q3 , Q4 Mn . Thus,
A = Q3 SQ4 Q1 = QS1 , where Q Q3 Q4 Q1 is orthogonal and S1
QT1 QT4 SQ4 Q1 is symmetric, so we have shown that (3) implies (4).
Now suppose A = QS for some orthogonal Q and symmetric S Mn .
Then S = QT A and AT = SQT = QT AQT so that A = QAT Q and (4)
implies (5). Since (5) trivially implies (3), our proof is complete.
2.4
43
Mn that could be written as A = XY , where X Mn is nonsingular and
X 1 = (X), and Y Mn satisfies Y = (Y ). In this section we consider
a factorization of the same form for a general linear operator : Mn Mn
that shares some basic properties of the transpose operator.
Definition 2.4.1 Let Sn+ denote the set of nonsingular symmetric (AT = A)
matrices in Mn , let Sn denote the set of all nonsingular skew-symmetric
(AT = A) matrices in Mn , and set Sn Sn+ Sn . The spectrum of
A Mn , the set of eigenvalues of A, will be denoted by (A).
Since the rank of a skew-symmetric matrix is even, Sn is empty if n is
odd.
Lemma 2.4.2 Let : Mn Mn be a given linear operator. There exists
an S Sn such that (X) = SX T S 1 for all X Mn if and only if the
following three conditions hold for all A, B Mn :
(1) ((A)) = (A),
(2) ((A)) = A, and
(3) (AB) = (B)(A).
Proof The forward implication can be verified easily. Conversely, suppose
: Mn Mn is a linear operator satisfying the three given conditions. Under assumption (1), results about linear preservers (see
Theorem (4.5.7) of [HJ2]) guarantee that there exists a nonsingular
S Mn such that either (X) = SXS 1 for all X Mn or (X) =
SX T S 1 for all X Mn . Since (AB) = (B)(A) for any A, B
Mn , it must be that (X) = SX T S 1 . For all A Mn , we have
A = ((A)) = (SAT S 1 ) = S(SAT S 1 )T S 1 = SS T AS T S 1 =
(SS T )A(SS T )1 . Hence, SS T = I, and S = S T . Thus, S =
(S T )T = 2 S. Since S is nonsingular, = 1, that is, either
S = S T (S Sn+ ) or S = S T (S Sn ). Hence, S Sn , as asserted.
Definition 2.4.3 Let S Sn be given. We define the linear operator S :
Mn Mn by
S (A) SAT S 1 for all A Mn .
44
For a given S Sn , we say that A is S symmetric if S (A) = A; A is S
skew-symmetric if S (A) = A; A is S orthogonal if AS (A) = I (that is,
A is nonsingular and A1 = S (A)). Finally, we say that A has a S polar
decomposition if A = XY for some S orthogonal X and S symmetric Y .
If S = I, then S is ordinary transposition and the S polar decomposition is the QS decomposition (algebraic polar decomposition). If S =
[ sij ] Sn has si,ni+1 = 1 for i = 1, . . . , n and all other sij = 0, then S is
anti-transposition (see [Ho]).
The following assertions are easily verified.
Lemma 2.4.4 Let S Sn be given, and define S as in Definition 2.4.3.
Then
(1) S (A1 ) = S (A)1 for all nonsingular A Mn .
(2) AS (A) and S (A)A are S symmetric for all A Mn .
(3) p(S (A)) = S (p(A)) for all A Mn and all polynomials p(t).
(4) If A Mn is S symmetric, then p(A) is S symmetric for every
polynomial p(t).
(5) If A, B Mn are S orthogonal, then AB is S orthogonal.
(6) Suppose that S Sn+ and let S1 Sn+ be such that S12 = S. Then
S1 AS11 is S symmetric if and only if A is symmetric.
It is natural to ask if Theorem 2.3.2 can be generalized to the S polar
decomposition. In particular, is it true that a given A Mn has a S polar
decomposition if and only if AS (A) is similar to S (A)A?
2.4.1
45
(a) There exists a S symmetric Y0 Mn such that Y02 = S (A)A and Y0
is a polynomial in S (A)A.
(b) If Y is a given S symmetric matrix such that Y 2 = S (A)A, then
X(A, Y ) AY 1 is S orthogonal and A = X(A, Y )Y .
(c) A commutes with S (A) if and only if there exist commuting X and Y
Mn such that A = XY , X is S orthogonal, and Y is S symmetric.
Proof We may take Y0 to be any polynomial square root of S (A)A.
For the second assertion, suppose Y 2 = S (A)A. Then
I = Y 1 Y 2 Y 1 = Y 1 S (A)AY 1 = S (AY 1 )(AY 1 ),
so X(A, Y ) AY 1 is S orthogonal and A = AY 1 Y = X(A, Y )Y .
46
Moreover,
S (X)X = S ((X(A, Y0 )X1 )X(A, Y0 )X1
= S (X1 )S (X(A, Y0 ))X(A, Y0 )X1
= S (X1 )X1 = I,
so X is S orthogonal.
As an immediate application of the S polar decomposition, we have the
following generalizations of the well-known fact that two complex symmetric
matrices are similar if and only they are complex orthogonally similar; see
Section 1.1.1 for analogs of the following three results involving real similarity.
Theorem 2.4.7 Let A, B Mn and S Sn be given. There exists a S
orthogonal X Mn such that A = XBX 1 if and only if there exists a
nonsingular Z Mn such that A = ZBZ 1 and S (A) = ZS (B)Z 1 .
Proof The forward implication is easily verified. For the converse, we have
ZBZ 1 = A = S (S (A)) = S (ZS (B)Z 1 ) = S (Z)1 BS (Z),
so (S (Z)Z)B = B(S (Z)Z). Theorem 2.4.5 guarantees that there
exists a S symmetric Y Mn that is a polynomial in S (Z)Z, as
well as a S orthogonal X Mn such that Z = XY . Since S (Z)Z
commutes with B, Y also commutes with B. Thus, A = ZBZ 1 =
(XY )B(Y 1 X 1 ) = XBX 1 .
The following immediate consequences of Theorem 2.4.7 generalize Corollaries (6.4.1819) of [HJ2], which correspond to S = I.
Corollary 2.4.8 Let A, B Mn and S Sn be given, and suppose there
exists a polynomial p(t) such that S (A) = p(A) and S (B) = p(B). Then A
is similar to B if and only if there exists a S orthogonal X Mn such that
A = XBX 1 .
Corollary 2.4.9 Let S Sn be given and suppose both A, B Mn are S
symmetric, both are S skew-symmetric, or both are S orthogonal. Then A
is similar to B if and only if A is S orthogonally similar to B.
47
2.4.2
0
A
S (A) 0
is similar to
"
0
B
S (B) 0
48
Suppose R is a given square root of X that commutes with B. For
example, R may be taken to be any polynomial square root of X.
(c) BS (B) = (BR1 )2 .
(d) R commutes with S (B) because RS (B) = RBX 1 = BRX 1 =
S (B)XRX 1 = S (B)R. It follows that BR1 = RS (B).
Suppose W Mn is a given S symmetric matrix that is similar to BR1 .
49
2.4.3
50
2.4.4
XSX =
"
0 1
1 0
S2 ,
AS (A) =
=
=
=
=
(X 1 BX)S(X 1 BX)T S 1
X 1 B(XSX T )B T X T S 1 (X 1 X)
X 1 B[(XSX T )B T (XSX T )1 ]X
X 1 (J2 (0) 0n2 )(J2 (0) 0n2 )X
0.
2.5
A and A
It is natural to ask what the analogs of Lemma 2.3.1 are for the mappings
A A or A A . Although these mappings satisfy some of the conditions
2.4.2, they are not linear and do not preserve the spectrum. For a given
A, C Mm,n , when is (A, A ) (C, C )? If m = n, when is (A, A) (C, C)?
The first case is immediate, and we present it without proof.
Theorem 2.5.1 Let A, C Mm,n be given. Then the following are equivalent:
(1) (A, A ) (C, C ).
51
(2) AA is similar to CC .
(3) A and C have the same singular values, including multiplicities.
(4) (A, A ) (C, C ) via unitary matrices, that is, A = U CV for some
unitary U Mn and V Mm .
1
Recall that A, C Mn are consimilar if A = SCS for some nonsingular S Mn . We now apply the analysis of Lemma 2.3.1 to the conjugate
mapping.
Theorem 2.5.2 Let A, C Mn be given. Then (A, A) (C, C) if and only
1
if there exists a nonsingular S Mn such that A = SCS , that is, if and
only if A is consimilar to C.
Proof Suppose (A, A) (C, C). Then there exist nonsingular X, Y Mn
such that A = XCY 1 and A = Y CX 1 . Hence XCY 1 = A =
1
1
1
A = Y CX . It follows that ZC = CZ , where Z Y X. Now,
Theorem (6.4.20) of [HJ2] guarantees that there is a primary matrix
1
function log X such that log(Z ) = (log Z) and elog Z = Z. If we
1
1
1
1
1
set F e 2 log Z , then F 2 = Z and F = e 2 log Z = e 2 log Z , so there
1
1
is a single polynomial p(t) such that F = p(Z) and F
= p(Z ).
1
1
Thus, F C = p(Z)C = Cp(Z ) = CF
and so A = XCY 1 =
1
1
Y (Y X)CY 1 = Y ZCY 1 = Y F 2 CY 1 = SCS , where S Y F .
Therefore, A and C are consimilar. The converse is easily verified.
Corollary 2.2.7 and Theorem 2.5.2 now proves the following, which is
Theorem (4.1) in [HH1].
Corollary 2.5.3 Let A, C Mn be given. Then A is consimilar to C if and
only if the following two conditions are satisfied:
(1) AA is similar to CC, and
(2) rank (AA)k A = rank (CC)k C for all k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
52
2.6
XAY 1
JA 0
0 A1
..
..
.
.
0 0
0 0
...
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
Ap
0 0 0
53
and
Y BX 1
JB 0
0 B1
..
..
.
.
0 0
0 0
...
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
Bp
0 0
T
T
T
T
(Ai , Bi ) {(Imi , Jm
(0)), (Jm
(0), Imi ), (Hmi , Km
), (Km
, Hmi )},
i
i
i
i
A1 0
B1 0
.
.
.
.
. . . ..
. . ..
A
.
..
and B ..
0 Ap
0 Bp
have the asserted properties.
We can also use the results in Section 2.2 to give a dierent proof for
Theorem (3) in [F] (see also [PM]).
Theorem 2.6.2 Let A Mm,n , B Mn,m , and a nilpotent N Mm be
given. Suppose that N A = 0. Then the Jordan canonical forms of AB and
AB + N have the same nonsingular parts, and these two matrices have the
same set of eigenvalues.
54
Proof Lemma 2.2.2 guarantees that there exist nonsingular X Mm and
Y Mn such that
XAY
"
Ik 0
0 A
and Y BX
"
J(AB) 0
0
B
"
N11 N12
N21 N22
Notice that
0 = N A = XN AY
= (XN X
)(XAY
)=
"
N11 N12 A
N21 N22 A
"
0 N12
0 N22
mk
and the nilpotence of N22 follows from that of N . Note that N22
=
mk
r t
(AB)
= 0, so any product of the form (AB) N22 vanishes when
max {r, t} m k. Since N22 A = 0, we have
l1
l
+ N22
(AB + N22 )l = (AB)l + (AB)l1 N22 + + (AB)N22
"
J(AB)
N12
AB + N22
0
(2.6.33)
55
2.7
nk1
0
for k = 0, . . . , n 1
for k n.
Proof The first assertion is an immediate consequence of Flanders Theorem 2.6.1, but it is easy to give a direct proof: Since (BA)n = 0
and (AB)n+1 = A(BA)n B = 0, we see that AB is nilpotent, so
rank BA < n 1. But n 2 = rank (BA)2 rank AB < n 1,
so rank AB = n 2, which ensures that AB is similar to Jn1 (0).
Using (1), we have
n k 1 = n (k + 1) =
=
=
and
nk1 =
=
rank (BA)k+1
rank B(AB)k A
rank B(AB)k
rank (AB)k
(n 1) k = n k 1
rank (BA)k+1
rank BA(BA)k
rank A(BA)k
rank (AB)k A
rank (AB)k
n k 1,
56
so rank B(AB)k = rank A(BA)k = n k 1 for k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
Since (AB)n1 = 0 and (BA)n = 0, rank B(AB)k = rank A(BA)k = 0
for all k n.
Let m n be given, and let A Mm,n and B Mn,m be given. Corollary 2.2.8 guarantees that there exist nonsingular X Mm and Y Mn such
that
XAY 1 =
JA 0
0
0 A1 0
0 0 A2
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
and Y BX 1 =
JB 0 0
0 B1 0
0 0 B2
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
"
Hn1 0
0 KT1
B2
"
KnT1 0
0 H1
and
"
Hns 0
0 KTs
"
KnTs 0
0 Hs
57
without any assumptions on A or B.
If we now assume that
rank A(BA)k = rank B(AB)k for all k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
then it follows that
rank A1 (B1 A1 )k = rank B1 (A1 B1 )k for all k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(2.7.34)
and
T
T
B1 (A1 B1 )k = [Jm
(0)k JT1 (0)k ] [Jm
(0)k JTt (0)k ]
t
1
= [0 JT1 (0)k ] [0 JTt (0)k ] 6= 0.
Since this contradicts (2.7.34), we must have 1 m1 . A symmetric argument, taking k = m1 1, shows that m1 1 . Hence m1 = 1 . Repetition of
this argument shows that mi = i for all i = 2, . . . , t. Conversely, if i = mi
for all i, then rank A(BA)k = rank B(AB)k for all k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. We summarize what we have learned in the following result, which also plays a key
role in identifying a canonical form under orthogonal equivalence.
Lemma 2.7.2 Let positive integers m, n be given with m n, and let A
Mm,n and B Mn,m be given. There exist nonsingular X Mm and Y Mn
such that
XAY 1 =
JA 0
0
0 A1 0
0 0 A2
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
and Y BX 1 =
JB 0 0
0 B1 0
0 0 B2
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
(2.7.35)
T
T
B1 = [Jm
(0) Im1 ] [Jm
(0) Imt ],
t
1
(2.7.36)
58
A2
"
Hn1 0
0 KT1
B2
"
KnT1 0
0 H1
and
"
Hns 0
0 KTs
"
KnTs 0
0 Hs
XAY 1 =
JA 0
0
0 A1 0
0 0 A2
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
and Y BX 1 =
JB 0 0
0 B1 0
0 0 B2
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
59
T
T
(0) I1 ] [Jm
(0) It ],
B1 = [Jm
t
1
A2 =
"
Hn1 0
0 KnT1
B2 =
"
KnT1 0
0 Hn1
and
"
Hns 0
0 KnTs
"
KnTs 0
0 Hns
(2.7.37)
(2.7.38)
0 0
"
#
1 0
1 0 0 0
A2
and B2
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 1
shows that condition (2) need not be satisfied (although (1) is). Moreover,
the example
"
#
"
#
A1 0
B1 0
A
and B
0 A2
0 B2
shows that neither condition need be satisfied.
60
Corollary 2.7.5 Let A Mn be given.
(1) AA has a square root.
(2) Let S Sn be given. If S (A)A is similar to AS (A), then S (A)A has
a square root. In particular, if AT A is similar to AAT , then AT A has
a square root.
Proof Since rank X = rank X = rank S (X) for any X Mn and any
S Sn , one checks that the conditions of Theorem 2.7.4 are satisfied
in each case.
The sucient condition in Corollary 2.7.5 is not necessary. The example
A
"
1 0
i 0
shows that AT A can have a square root without being similar to AAT .
2.8
For a given A Mm,n , what standard form can be achieved by Q1 AQ2 for
complex orthogonal Q1 Mm and Q2 Mn ? In our search for a standard
form, we are guided by the following facts and observations:
If m = n and A = QS is a QS decomposition of A, then QT A = S is
symmetric and AAT is orthogonally similar to S 2 , so we seek a standard
form that is as much as possible like a symmetric matrix whose square
is similar to AAT .
Lemma 2.3.1 ensures that Q1 AQ2 = C if and only if (A, AT ) (C, C T ),
so we may approach our standard form via a sequence of contragredient
equivalences applied to the pair (A, AT ).
rank A(AT A)k = rank (A(AT A)k )T = rank AT (AAT )k for all k =
0, 1, 2, . . ., so Lemma 2.7.2 ensures that
(A, AT ) ([JA A1 A2 0], [JAT B1 B2 0])
61
in which JA JAT is similar to the nonsingular part of the Jordan canonical form of AAT and all the direct summands in
T
T
(0)] [Imt Jm
(0)]
A1 = [Im1 Jm
t
1
and
T
T
B1 = [Jm
(0) Im1 ] [Jm
(0) Im1 ],
t
1
"
Hr1 0
0 KsT1
B2 =
"
KrT1 0
0 Hs1
and
"
Hrq 0
0 KsTq
(2.8.39)
"
KrTq 0
0 Hsq
(2.8.40)
"
KjT1 0
0 Hj1
KjTs 0
0 Hjs
"
Hnp 0
0 KTp
(2.8.41)
"
KnTp 0
0 Hp
(2.8.42)
"
B3 ,
in which
A3 =
"
Hn1 0
0 KT1
B3 =
"
KnT1 0
0 H1
and
62
(b) ([Ik JkT (0)], [JkT (0) Ik ]),
(c)
"
Hk 0
0 KkT
# "
KkT 0
0 Hk
#!
(d)
"
Hk 0
0 KlT
# "
KkT 0
0 Hl
#!
, and
with k 6= l.
Proposition 2.8.1 Let A, B Mk be nonsingular. Then there exists a symmetric S Mk such that (A, B) (S, S).
Proof Let S1 Mk be a symmetric matrix that is similar to AB. Let S be
any polynomial square root of S1 . Then S is symmetric and S 2 = S1
is similar to AB. Lemma 2.2.2 guarantees that (A, B) (S, S).
Definition 2.8.2 Let C and a positive integer k be given. Then
Sk ()
1
0
..
.
1 0
1
1
.. . .
.
.
0 0
...
...
0
0
..
.
+ i
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 0
. 0
Mk .
.. ..
.
.
1
. .
0
0 0
0
0
..
.
rank Ak (Bk Ak )l
rank S2k (0)2l+1
rank Jk (0)l+1 Jk (0)l
2k 2l 1 for all l = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Corollary 2.2.7 now guarantees that (Ak , Bk ) (S2k (0), S2k (0)).
63
Proposition 2.8.4 For a given positive integer k,
"
Hk 0
0 KkT
Proof Let
Ak
# "
"
KkT 0
0 Hk
Hk 0
0 KkT
#!
, and Bk
"
KkT 0
0 Hk
T
T
(0) JkT (0) and Bk Ak = JkT (0) Jk1
(0),
Notice that Ak Bk = Jk1
2
so that Ak Bk and Bk Ak are similar to J2k1 (0) , which is similar to
S2k1 (0)2 . One checks that
rank Bk (Ak Bk )l =
=
=
=
rank Ak (Bk Ak )l
rank S2k1 (0)2l+1
rank Hk (JkT (0))l KkT (Jk1 (0))l
2k 2l 2 for all l = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Corollary 2.2.7 now guarantees that (Ak , Bk ) (S2k1 (0), S2k1 (0)).
We have now analysed all of the basic blocks except those in (2.8.41) and
(2.8.42). If A3 and B3 are present, there is no hope of finding a symmetric S
such that (A3 , B3 ) (S, S) because there must be at least one k for which
rank A3 (B3 A3 )k 6= rank B3 (A3 B3 )k . Notice that it is precisely the presence
of A3 and B3 that is the obstruction to writing A = QS when m = n. The
next two results will permit us to handle this remaining case.
Lemma 2.8.5 Let k be a given integer with 1 k < n. There exists a
C Mk1,n such that C T C = Sk (0) 0.
Proof The symmetric n-by-n matrix Sk (0) 0 Mn has a singular value
decomposition Sk (0) 0 U T 2 U (see Corollary (4.4.4) of [HJ1]),
where U Mn is unitary and diag (1 , . . . , k1 , 0, . . . , 0) Mn
with 1 k1 > 0. Now let 1 diag (1 , . . . , k1 ) Mk1
and set C [1 0]U Mk1,n . Then C T C = U T 2 U = Sk (0) 0, as
desired.
64
Proposition 2.8.6 Let k be a given positive integer. There exists a C
Mk1,k such that C T C = Sk (0) and (C, C T ) (Hk , KkT ).
Proof Use Lemma 2.8.5 to construct a C Mk1,k such that C T C = Sk (0),
which is similar to KkT Hk = JkT (0). Lemma 2.7.1 ensures that CC T
and Hk KkT are similar to Jk1 (0), and that
rank C(C T C)l =
=
=
=
rank C T (CC T )l
rank Hk (KkT Hk )l
rank KkT (Hk KkT )l
k l 1 for all l = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
"
S 0
0 C
(2.8.43)
where S S1 S2 S3 is symmetric,
(a1) S1 is symmetric and S12 is similar to the nonsingular part of the Jordan
canonical form of AAT ,
(a2) S2 S2m1 (0) S2mt (0),
(a3) S3 S2j1 1 (0) S2js 1 (0),
and
in which
C1 0 0
0
..
0 D1 . . . ...
.
.. . . .
. . . . . . ...
.
.. .
..
. . Cp 0
.
.
0 0 Dp
0
0 0
0
0
65
(b1) Ci Mni 1,ni has rank ni 1, CiT Ci = Sni (0), and Ci CiT is similar to
Sni 1 (0) for each i ,
(b2) Dj Mj ,j 1 has rank j 1, Dj DjT = Sj (0), and DjT Dj is similar
to Sj 1 (0) for each j , and
(b3) ni 6= j for all i and j.
Proof One checks that (A3 , B3 ) (C, C T ), so that (A, AT ) (R, RT ), where
R
"
S 0
0 C
66
Suppose rank A = rank AT A. Then rank S + rank C = rank S 2 +
rank C T C. Since rank S rank S 2 and rank C rank C T C, we must
have
rank S = rank S 2 and rank C = rank C T C.
It follows that S2 is absent, and S3 is either absent or is equal to 0.
Now, rank Ci = rank CiT Ci = ni 1 for each i and rank Dj = j 1 >
j 2 = rank DjT Dj for each j. Hence, C may contain some Ci but not
Dj . The converse can be verified easily.
To prove (3), notice that rank X = rank X T for all X Mm,n . Hence,
Lemmata 2.7.2 and 2.7.3 ensure that rank (AT A)k = rank (AAT )k for
all k = 1, 2, 3, . . . if and only if A3 = 0 in (2.8.41) and B = 0 in (2.8.42).
This condition is equivalent to C = 0.
We give a new proof for the following analog of the singular value decomposition, which is Theorem (2) of [CH2].
Corollary 2.8.9 Let A Mm,n be given. Then A can be written as A =
Q1 Q2 where Q1 Mm and Q2 Mn are orthogonal and [ij ] Mm,n
is such that ij = 0 for i 6= j if and only if
(1) AT A is diagonalizable, and
(2) rank A = rank AT A.
Proof The forward assertion can be verified easily. For the converse, suppose
m n. Let orthogonal Q1 Mm and Q2 Mn be such that Q1 AQ2
has the form (2.8.43). It follows from Lemma 2.8.8 that S2 = 0 (or is
absent), S3 = 0 (or is absent), and S1 may be taken to be diagonal.
Now, Lemma 2.8.8(1d) and (2c) show that C does not have Ci and Dj .
Hence, C = 0, or is absent. Hence Q1 AQ2 [ij ] satisfies ij = 0 for
i 6= j, as desired.
The following (problem (34) on p. 488 of [HJ2]) is a generalization of the
QS decomposition in the non-square case.
Corollary 2.8.10 Let integers m, n be given with m n, and let A Mm,n
be given. There exist a Q Mm,n with QT Q = In , and a symmetric S Mn
such that A = QS if and only if rank (AT A)k = rank (AAT )k for all k =
1, 2, 3, . . ..
67
Proof Suppose A = QS with Q Mm,n , QT Q = In , and a symmetric Y
Mn . Let A1 [A 0] Mm , so that rank (AT1 A1 )k = rank (AT A)k and
rank (A1 AT1 )k = rank (AAT )k for all k 1. Theorem (2.7) of [CH1]
guarantees that there exists P [Q R] Mm such that P T P = Im .
Now,
A1 = [A 0] = [QS 0] = [Q R]
"
S 0
0 0
=P
"
S 0
0 0
Chapter 3
Linear Operators Preserving
Orthogonal Equivalence on
Matrices
68
69
3.1
Let Mm,n be the set of all m-by-n matrices with complex entries; and we
write Mn Mn,n . A matrix Q Mn is said to be (complex) orthogonal if
QT Q = I. Two matrices A, B Mm,n are said to be (complex) orthogonally
equivalent, denoted A B, if A = Q1 BQ2 for some orthogonal matrices
Q1 Mm and Q2 Mn . One checks that is an equivalence relation on
Mm,n . We are interested in studying linear orthogonal equivalence preservers
on Mm,n , that is, T : Mm,n Mm,n such that T (A) T (B) whenever
A B. We prove the following, which is our main result.
Theorem 3.1.1 Let T be a given linear operator on Mm,n . Then T preserves
orthogonal equivalence if and only if there exist complex orthogonal Q1 Mm
and Q2 Mn and a scalar C such that either
(1) T (A) = Q1 AQ2 for all A Mm,n , or
(2) m = n and T (A) = Q1 AT Q2 for all A Mn .
We have divided the proof of the theorem into three parts. In Section 3.2,
we establish that either T = 0 or T is nonsingular. In Section 3.3, we show
that T has the form asserted in the theorem, except that Q1 and Q2 are
nonsingular, but are not necessarily orthogonal. Finally, in Section 3.4, the
theorem is proved.
Similar problems have been studied in [HHL] and [HLT], and we use their
general approach. We analyse the orbits
O(A) = {X Mm,n : X A}
and their corresponding tangent spaces TA . It is known that these orbits
are homogeneous dierentiable manifolds [Bo]. As in [HHL] and [HLT], it
is necessary to develop some special techniques to supplement the general
approach in solving the problem. Unlike the relations considered in [HLT],
little is known about complex orthogonal equivalence and a simple canonical form is not available. This makes the problem more dicult and more
interesting. In fact, the results obtained in this paper may give more insight
into, and better understanding of, the orthogonal equivalence relation.
We denote the standard basis of Mm,n by {E11 , E12 , . . . , Em,n }. When
Eij Mn , we set Fij Eij Eji and to avoid confusion, when Eij Mm , we
70
set Gij Eij Eji . Notice that all Fij and Gij are skew-symmetric matrices.
We denote the standard basis of Cn by {e1 , . . . , en }. The n-by-n identity
matrix is denoted by I, or when necessary for clarity, by In . A vector x Cn
is said to be isotropic if xT x = 0.
3.2
Preliminary Results
71
Proof Let A Mm,n be a given nonzero matrix. There exists orthogonal (in
fact permutation matrices) P Mm and Q Mn such that the (1,1)entry of B = P AQ, say b11 , is nonzero. For a given positive integer k,
define the diagonal orthogonal matrix
Dk diag(1, 1, 1, . . . , 1) Mk .
Then 4b11 E11 = (Im + Dm )B(In + Dn ) = B + Dm B + BDn + Dm BDn
span O(A), so E11 span O(A). Since there exist permutation (and
hence orthogonal) matrices Pi Mm and Pj Mn such that Eij =
Pi E11 Pj , every Eij span O(A) and hence span O(A) = Mm,n .
Lemma 3.2.4 Let T be a given linear operator on Mm,n . Suppose T preserves orthogonal equivalence. Then, either T = 0 or T is nonsingular.
Proof Suppose that ker T contains a nonzero matrix A. By Lemma 3.2.1,
T (span O(A)) span O(T (A)) = {0}. Now, Lemma 3.2.3 guarantees
that span O(A) = Mm,n . Hence, T = 0.
We use the following result, which is Lemma (1) in [CH1].
Lemma 3.2.5 Let X1 , X2 Mn,k with 1 k n. There exists a complex
orthogonal Q Mn such that X1 = QX2 if and only if the following two
conditions are satisfied:
(a) X1T X1 = X2T X2 , and
(b) There exists a nonsingular B Mn such that X1 = BX2 .
Note that if X1 , X2 Mn,k have full rank, Lemma 3.2.5 ensures that
there exists an orthogonal Q Mn such that X1 = QX2 if and only if
X1T X1 = X2T X2 . In particular, for n 2 and any given nonzero z Cn ,
there are two possibilities:
(a) If z T z 6= 0, then z = Qe1 for some orthogonal Q Mn and some
nonzero C, and
(b) If z 6= 0 and z T z = 0, then z = Q(e1 +ie2 ) for some orthogonal Q Mn .
72
Let A Mm,n be given. Then O(A) = {Q1 AQ2 : Q1 Mm , Q2
Mn , QT1 Q1 = Im , and QT2 Q2 = In }. If B A, then AT A is similar to
B T B and AAT is similar to BB T . Suppose A has rank 1, so A = xy T
for some x Cm and y Cn . Then rank AT A = 0 or 1 according to
whether xT x is zero or nonzero, and rank AAT = 0 or 1 according to whether
y T y is zero or nonzero. Depending on the four possibilities for the pair
(rank AT A, rank AAT ), it follows that for some nonzero scalar C, O(A)
contains exactly one of the following: (a) E11 ; (b) (E11 +iE12 ); (c) (E11 +
iE21 ); or (d) (E11 E22 + iE12 + iE21 ).
The same reasoning leads immediately to the following lemma.
Lemma 3.2.6 Let E11 , E12 , E21 , E22 Mm,n be standard basis matrices, and
let E E11 E22 + iE12 + iE21 . Then
(a) O(E11 ) = {q1 q2T : q1 Cm , q2 Cn , and q1T q1 = q2T q2 = 1}.
(b) O(E11 + iE12 ) = {qy T : q Cm , y Cn , q T q = 1, and y T y = 0}.
(c) O(E11 + iE21 ) = {xq T : x Cm , q Cn , xT x = 0, and q T q = 1}.
(d) O(E) = {xy T : x Cm , y Cn , and xT x = y T y = 0} .
If Q(t) Mn is a dierentiable family of orthogonal matrices with Q(0) =
I, then dierentiation of the identity Q(t)Q(t)T = I at t = 0 shows that
Q0 (0) + Q0 (0)T = 0, that is, Q0 (0) is skew-symmetric. Conversely, if B Mn
is a given skew-symmetric matrix, then Q(t) etB is a dierentiable family
of orthogonal matrices such that Q(0) = I and Q0 (0) = B. If A Mm,n is
given and Q1 (t) Mm and Q2 (t) Mn are given dierentiable families of
orthogonal matrices with Q1 (0) = Im and Q2 (0) = In , one computes that
d
{Q1 (t)AQ2 (t)}|t=0 = Q01 (0)A + AQ02 (0).
dt
Thus, the tangent space to O(A) at A is given explicitly by
TA = {XA + AY : X Mm , Y Mn , X + X T = 0, and Y + Y T = 0}.
Definition 3.2.7 Let A Mm,n with n 2. Then
SA {AFij : i = 1, 2, and i < j n}.
73
Notice that SA TA for every A Mm,n .
Suppose A Mm,n and rank A 2. Then there exists a permutation
matrix Q Mn such that the first two columns of AQ are linearly independent. One checks that SAQ is a linearly independent subset of TAQ with
2n 3 elements. Thus, dim TA = dim TAQ 2n 3 whenever rank A 2.
A similar argument shows that dim TA 3n 6 whenever rank A 3.
Now suppose A Mm,n , rank A 2, and dim TA = 2n 3. Let Q Mn
be a permutation matrix such that the first two columns of
B AQ = [ b1 b2 b3 . . . bn ]
are independent. Then SB TB and dim span SB = 2n 3 = dim TA =
dim TB , so TB = span SB = {BY : Y Mn and Y + Y T = 0}. If n > 3 and
j > 3, note that
BF3j = [ 0 0 bj 0 . . . 0 b3 0 . . . 0]
and the only matrices in SB with nonzero entries in the third column are
BF13 = [ b3 0 b1 0 . . . 0 ] and BF23 = [ 0 b3 b2 0 . . . 0 ]; thus, b3 = 0
and bj is a linear combination of b1 and b2 . Hence, rank A = rank B = 2 if
n > 3. Note that if n = 2 or m = 2 and if A Mm,n with rank A 2, then
rank A = 2.
Lemma 3.2.8 Let A Mm,n be nonzero. Then
TA = {XA + AY : X Mm , Y Mn and X + X T = 0, Y + Y T = 0}
and
(a) dim TA = m + n 2 if A {E11 , E11 + iE12 , E11 + iE21 };
(b) dim TA = m + n 3 if A = E11 E22 + iE12 + iE21 ;
(c) dim TA 2n 3 if rank A 2. Moreover, if n > 3, rank A 2,
and dim TA = 2n 3, then rank A = 2 and there exists a permutation
matrix Q Mn such that TAQ = span SAQ ;
(d) dim TA 3n 6 if rank A 3.
(e) If rank A = 2 and dim TA = 2n 3, then there exists a permutation
matrix Q Mn such that dim span SAQ = 2n 3.
74
Proof The asserted form of TA , as well as assertions (c) and (d), have been
verified. Assertions (a) and (b) follow from direct computations. We
consider in detail only the case in which A = E11 +iE12 ; the other cases
can be dealt with similarly. Let X = [xij ] Mm and Y = [yij ] Mn
be skew-symmetric. Then
XA =
and
AY =
0
x21
..
.
0
ix21
..
.
xm1 ixm1
0
0
.. . .
.
.
0
0
0
..
.
0
y1n + iy2n
0
..
...
.
3.3
A Rank-Preserving Property of T 1
75
in this case. Let E Mm,n be given with 3 m+1 < n. If rank E = 1,
then dim TT 1 (E) m + n 2 < 2n 3. The first inequality is from
Lemma 3.3.2 and the strict inequality is from our assumption that
3 m + 1 < n. Lemma 3.2.8(c) now shows that T 1 (E) must have
rank 1.
"
0 A1
B Q1 A = 0 , , , C, with 6= 0,
0 0 A2
76
but A2 = 0 since rank A = 2. For n m 3, and referring to the discussion after Definition 3.2.7, we see that that {G13 B, G23 B} SB is a linearly
independent subset of TB . Hence, dim TA = dim TB 2n 1 > m + n 2.
(ii) If bT2 b2 = 0, a similar argument shows that there is an orthogonal
Q1 Mm such that
0 z
,
B Q1 A =
0 i iz
0 0 0
where z M1,n2 and 6= 0. Let X = [ x1 . . . xn ] SB . Then the columns
of X have the form
xj = j , j = 1, . . . , n
iaj
0
for some aj C. Hence, for n m 3, {G12 B, G13 B} SB is a linearly
independent subset of TB . Hence, dim TA = dim TB 2n 1 > m + n 2.
QA =
i .
0 b2
Notice that the second column of QA is isotropic and independent of the first
column.
(i) If b2 = 0, then there is 6= 0 such that
B QA = i i .
0
0 0
For n m 3, {G13 B, G23 B} SB is a linearly independent subset of TB .
Hence, dim TA 2n 1 > m + n 2.
77
(ii) If b2 6= 0 and bT2 b2 6= 0, there exists
6= 0 such that
B Q1 A =
0
0 0
an orthogonal Q1 Mm and
B Q1 A =
0 .
0 i
0 0 0
78
E1k Ek1 for k = 1, . . . n. Then
ak1
0
..
.
F1k A =
a
11
..
and
AT F1k
ak2
0
..
.
...
akk
0
..
.
...
akn
0
..
.
ak1 0 a11
ak2 0 a12
..
.. . .
.
. ..
.
.
akk 0 a1k
..
.. . .
.
. ..
.
.
akn 0 a1n
...
0
0
..
.
0
. . . ..
.
0
79
X D and rank X = 2. Then Lemma 3.2.8(c) ensures that dim TX 3,
so that dim TX = 3 for this case. Hence, Lemma 3.2.8 ensures that there
exists an orthogonal Q M3 such that dim span SXQ = 3. Lemma 3.3.7
now guarantees that XX T = 2 I2 for some C. Moreover, Lemma (4.4)
of [HHL] shows that 6= 0. It follows from Lemma 3.2.5 that there exists an
orthogonal Q1 M3 such that
X=
"
0 0
0 0
Q1 .
(3.3.1)
("
0 x y
x 0 z
x2 + y 2
yz
2
yz
x + z2
: x, y, z C .
= BB T = 2 I2 .
("
0 x y
z 0 0
: x, y, z C .
Thus, {E12 , E13 , E21 } O(E11 ) TE11 so that O(E11 ) TE11 contains at
least three vectors. Moreover, {T1 (E12 ), T1 (E13 ), T1 (E21 )} contains
80
three vectors since T1 is nonsingular. However, T1 (O(E11 ) TE11 )
O(T1 (E11 )) TT1 (E11 ) = O(A) TA , which contains exactly two vectors. This
contradiction shows that T (E11 ) 6 O(A).
Now let E E11 + iE12 . Then E = E(iF12 ) TE . Since A 6 TA ,we
have T (E) 6 O(A) by Lemma 3.2.2. Similarly, if E E11 +iE21 = (iG12 )E
then, T (E) 6 O(A).
Thus, T 1 (A) cannot have rank 1, and hence it has rank 2 and T 1 (A)
O(A) for some 6= 0. It follows that T (O(A)) O( 1 A) and hence,
T 1 (E) 6 O(A) for all rank-one E M2,3 , and all 6= 0. Combining this
result with the observation that T 1 (Y ) D for any Y D, we see that
rank T 1 (E) = 1 whenever rank E = 1.
Lemma 3.3.9 Proposition 3.3.1 holds if (m, n) = (3, 4).
Proof Let E M3,4 have rank 1 and let A T 1 (E). Lemma 3.3.4 shows
that rank A is either 1 or 2. Suppose rank A = 2. We apply the analysis of
the proof of Lemma 3.3.5 to A. Notice that Cases 1(i, ii) and 2(i, iii) are
not possible here. Thus, A has the form considered in Case 2(ii):
x1 x4
A = i x2 x5
0 x3 x6
with 6= 0 and all the columns of A are isotropic vectors. It now follows
from Lemma 3.2.8(a, c) and Lemma 3.2.1 that dim TA = 5. Moreover,
Lemma 3.2.8(e) ensures that dim span SAP = 5 for some permutation matrix
P M4 . Hence, Lemma 3.3.7 guarantees that there exists a C such that
AAT = aI3 . Since it is always the case that rank A rank AAT , we must
have a = 0, that is, the rows of A are also isotropic vectors. Thus, there exists
an orthogonal Q M4 such that the first row of AQ is [ i 0 0 ]. Since
AAT = 0, the third row of AQ has the form [ 0 0 c d ], where c2 + d2 = 0
and d 6= 0. It follows that
i 0
0
AQ = i ebd ed
0
0
bd d
81
that G12 AQ = AQ(a1 F12 + a2 F13 + a3 F14 + a4 F23 + a5 F24 ). Examining the
(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1) and (2, 4) entries, we get a1 = 1, a2 = a3 = a5 = 0. This
is a contradiction since for any a4 , G12 AQ 6= AQF12 + a4 AQF23 . Hence,
dim TA = dim TAQ 6, again a contradiction. Since we can exclude all the
possibilities associated with rank A = 2, it follows that rank A = 1.
Lemma 3.3.10 Proposition 3.3.1 holds if (m, n) = (4, 4).
Proof If A M4 has rank 2, then dim TA 7, as shown on the proof of
Lemma 3.3.5. Let B E11 E22 + iE12 + iE21 . Then dim TT 1 (B)
dim TB dim TC for any C 6 {0} O(B) and hence, T 1 (B) O(B)
has rank 1. Let D diag (1, 1, 1, 1). Then E11 +iE12 = 12 (B +DB)
and T 1 (E11 + iE12 ) = 12 (T 1 (B) + T 1 (DB)), a sum of two rankone matrices. Hence, T 1 (E11 + iE12 ) has rank at most 2. But since
dim TC 6 < 7 dim TA for all A, C M4 such that rank C = 1 and
rank A = 2, we must have rank T 1 (C) 6= 2 so that rank(T 1 (E11 +
iE12 )) = 1. Similarly, since E11 + iE21 = 12 (B + BD) and E11 =
1
((E11 + iE12 ) + (E11 + iE12 )D), both T 1 (E11 + iE21 ) and T 1 (E11 )
2
have rank 1. Thus, if E M4 has rank 1, then T 1 (E) must also have
rank 1.
Let T be a nonsingular linear orthogonal equivalence preserver on Mm,n ,
with m n and (m, n) 6 {(2, 2), (3, 3)}. Our arguments up to this point
show that T 1 preserves rank 1 matrices, that is, T 1 (E) has rank 1 whenever
E Mm,n has rank 1. Theorem 4.1 of [HLT] guarantees that there exist
nonsingular X Mm and Y Mn such that either T 1 (A) = XAY for all
A Mm,n , or m = n and T 1 (A) = XAT Y for all A Mn . Hence, either
T (A) = MAN for all A Mm,n , or m = n and T (A) = M AT N for all
A Mn , where M X 1 and N Y 1 . We will now show that the same
conclusion can be drawn for the two remaining cases (m, n) = (2, 2), (3, 3),
from which Proposition 3.3.1 follows in these two cases.
Lemma 3.3.11 Let T be a nonsingular linear orthogonal preserver on Mn .
If n = 2 or n = 3, then there exists a scalar 6= 0 such that T 1 (In )
O(In ).
Proof First note that Xn E11 E22 + iE12 + iE21 = Xn (iF12 ) TXn for
all n = 2, 3, . . ., where Eij , Xn Mn . Note also that, TIn = {X Mn :
82
X + X T = 0} is the set of all skew symmetric matrices in Mn . Hence,
dim TIn = n(n 1)/2. Moreover, In 6 TIn for each n.
83
3.4
A A=
. . . . . . ...
.
.. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
Q 1 A is orthogonal and A = Q.
Lemma 3.4.2 Let T be a given nonsingular linear operator on Mm,n . Then
T preserves orthogonal equivalence if and only if there exist orthogonal matrices Q1 Mm , Q2 Mn and a scalar 6= 0 such that either
(1) T (A) = Q1 AQ2 for all A Mm,n , or
(2) m = n and T (A) = Q1 AT Q2 for all A Mn .
84
Proof Under the stated assumptions, Proposition 3.3.12 ensures that there
exist nonsingular M Mm and N Mn such that either T (A) = MAN
for all A Mm,n , or m = n and T (A) = M AT N for all A Mm,n . We
consider only the case T (A) = M AN ; the case T (A) = MAT N can
be dealt with similarly. Let an orthogonal P Mn be given. Since
T preserves orthogonal equivalence, for each A Mm,n there exist
orthogonal matrices Q Mm and Z Mn (which depend on A and P )
such that T (A) = Q T (AP ) Z. Hence,
MAN (MAN )T = T (A) T (A)T
= Q T (AP ) Z (Q T (AP ) Z)T
= QMAP N (M AP N )T QT .
Choose A M
"
"
xT
0
(3.4.2)
xT N N T x 0
0
0
=Q
"
xT P N N T P T x 0
0
0
QT .
Chapter 4
Linear Operators Preserving
Unitary t-Congruence on
Matrices
85
86
4.1
Let Mn (IF) be the set of all n-by-n matrices over the field IF, where either
IF = C or IF = IR. The set of all matrices U Mn (IF) that satisfy U U = I
(that is, U is unitary) is denoted by Un (IF). We say that A, B Mn (IF) are
t-congruent if there exists a nonsingular X Mn (IF) such that A = XBX t ;
moreover, if X Un (IF), then A and B are said to be unitarily t-congruent.
Notice that if IF = IR, then Un (IR) is the set of all real orthogonal matrices
and unitary t-congruence becomes orthogonal similarity.
We shall also use the following notations in our discussion.
(a) Sn (IF) {X Mn (IF) : X t = X} is the set of all n-by-n symmetric
matrices.
(b) Kn (IF) {X Mn (IF) : X t = X} is the set of all n-by-n skewsymmetric matrices.
(c) Eij Mn (IF) is the matrix whose (i, j) entry is 1; all other entries are
zero. Notice that {Eij : 1 i, j n} forms a basis for Mn (IF).
(d) Fij Eij Eji . One checks that {Fij : 1 i < j n} forms a basis
for Kn (IF).
(e) If
X=
0
x12
x13 x14
x12
0
x23 x24
x13 x23
0
x34
x14 x24 x34 0
K4 (IF),
87
Interchanging x14 and x23 is equivalent to X U X + U t , where
0
1
0
0
1 0
1
0 0
0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 0
0 0
V
0 1
1 0
U4 (IR).
x34 is equivalent to X V X + V t ,
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
U4 (IR).
In [HHL], the authors studied the linear operators T on Mn (IF) that preserve t-congruence, that is, T (A) is t-congruent to T (B) whenever A and B
are t-congruent. At the end of the paper they raised the question of characterizing the linear operators on Mn (IF) that preserve unitary t-congruence.
The purpose of this chapter is to answer their question with the following
results.
Theorem 4.1.1 Let T be a given linear operator on Mn (C). Then T preserves unitary t-congruence if and only if one of the following three conditions
holds:
(1) There exist U Un (C) and scalars , C such that
T (X) = U (X + X t )U t + U (X X t )U t
for all X Mn (C) .
(2) n = 4 and there exist U Un (C) and a scalar C such that
T (X) = U (X X t )+ U t for all X M4 (C).
(3) n = 2 and there exists B M2 (C) such that
T (X) = (tr XF12 )B for all X M2 (C).
88
Theorem 4.1.2 Let an integer n 3 and a linear operator T on Mn (IR)
be given. Then T preserves orthogonal similarity if and only if one of the
following three conditions holds:
(1) There exists A0 Mn (IR) such that
T (X) = (tr X)A0 for all X Mn (IR).
(2) There exist U Un (IR) and scalars , , IR such that
T (X) = (tr X)I + U (X + X t )U t + U (X X t )U t
for all X Mn (IR).
(3) n = 4 and there exist U U4 (IR) and scalars , IR such that
T (X) = (tr X)I + U (X X T )+ U t for all X M4 (IR).
Theorem 4.1.3 A linear operator T on M2 (IR) preserves orthogonal similarity if and only if one of the following three conditions holds:
(1) There exist A0 , B0 M2 (IR) with tr B0 = tr A0 B0 = tr At0 B0 = 0 such
that
T (X) = (tr X)A0 + (tr XF12 )B0 for all X M2 (IR).
(2) There exist U U2 (IR) and scalars , , IR such that
T (X) = (tr X)I + U (X + X t )U t + U (X X t )U t
for all X M2 (IR).
(3) There exist U U2 (IR), C0 K2 (IR), and scalars , IR such that
T (X) = (tr X)I + (tr X)C0 + U (X + X t )U t
for all X M2 (IR).
89
As we shall see, even though the result in the complex case (Theorem 4.1.1) is very similar to Theorem (4.1) of [HHL], it requires a refinement
of their proof and several additional ideas to obtain our result. The real case
is even more interesting. Our Theorems 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 are quite dierent
from the result in [HHL]. The complication is due to the fact that Mn (IR)
can be decomposed as a direct sum of the subspaces
n
{I : IR},
0
Sn (IR) {A Mn (IR) : A = At and tr A = 0}, and
Kn (IR) {A Mn (IR) : A + At = 0},
A Mn (IF)
and make use of their geometric properties to help solve our problem. These
techniques have been used in [HLT], [HHL], [LRT], and in Chapter 3. We
collect some useful results from [HHL] and put them in Section 4.2 for easy
reference. In Section 4.3 we present the proof of Theorem 4.1.1. Section 4.4
is devoted to proving Theorems 4.1.2 and 4.1.3. For problems similar to ours
and their variations, we refer the reader to [HLT] and [LRT]. For a gentle
introduction to linear preserver problems, we refer the reader to [LT2].
4.2
Preliminaries
The following three results can be found in [HHL]. By private correspondence, the author has learned that Professor M. H. Lim has obtained dierent
90
proofs for these results.
Lemma 4.2.1 A nonzero linear operator T on Kn (C) preserves unitary tcongruence if and only if there exist U Un (C) and a scalar > 0 such that
either
(a) T (X) = U XU t for all X Kn (C); or
(b) n = 4 and T (X) = U X + U t for all X K4 (C).
Lemma 4.2.2 A nonzero linear operator T on Sn (C) preserves unitary tcongruence if and only if there exist U Un (C) and a scalar > 0 such that
T (X) = U XU t for all X Sn (C).
Lemma 4.2.3 A nonzero linear operator T on Kn (IR) preserves orthogonal
similarity if and only if there exist U Un (IR) and a scalar 6= 0 such that
either
(a) T (X) = U XU t for all X Kn (IR); or
(b) n = 4 and T (X) = U X + U t for all X K4 (IR).
The following is Theorem (2.2) in [Hi].
Lemma 4.2.4 A nonzero linear operator T on Sn (IR) preserves orthogonal
similarity if and only if one of the following conditions holds:
(a) There exists a nonzero A0 Sn (IR) such that
T (X) = (tr X)A0 for all X Sn (IR).
(b) There exist U Un (C) and scalars , IR with (, ) 6= (0, 0) such
that
T (X) = U XU t + (tr X)I for all X Sn (IR).
The following is Lemma (2.2) in [HHL].
Lemma 4.2.5 Suppose IF = C or IF = IR. Then span O(A) = Kn (IF) for
every nonzero A Kn (IF). Consequently, if T is a linear operator on Mn (IF)
that preserves unitary t-congruence, then ker T Kn (IF) 6= {0} if and only
if Kn (IF) ker T .
91
The following is Lemma (3.2) in [HHL].
Lemma 4.2.6 span O(A) = Sn (C) for every nonzero A Sn (C). Consequently, if T is a linear operator on Mn (C) that preserves unitary t- congruence, then ker T Sn (C) 6= {0} if and only if Sn (C) ker T .
Recall that if A Sn0 (IR), then A is symmetric and tr A = 0. Since
unitary t-congruence is real orthogonal similarity when IF = IR, any B
O(A) is also in Sn0 (IR), that is, tr B = 0 as well. Hence span O(A) Sn0 (IR)
but span O(A) 6= Sn (IR). This is one of the major dierences between the
cases IF = IR and IF = C (see Lemma 4.2.6).
Lemma 4.2.7 span O(A) = Sn0 (IR) for every nonzero A Sn0 (IR). Consequently, if T is a linear operator on Mn (IR) that preserves orthogonal similarity, then ker T Sn0 (IR) 6= {0} if and only if Sn0 (IR) ker T .
Proof Suppose A Sn0 (IR). We have already shown that span O(A)
Sn0 (IR). We now prove that Sn0 (IR) span O(A). There exist Q
Un (IR) and 1 , 2 , . . . , n1 , n IR such that
QAQt = diag (1 , 2 , . . . , n1 , n ).
Since A 6= 0 and tr A = 0, we may take 1 6= 0 and 1 6= n . Notice
that
(1 n )(E11 Enn ) = QAQt diag (n , 2 , . . . , n1 , 1 ),
so E11 Enn span O(A). Since Eij + Eji O(E11 Enn ), we have
Eij + Eji span O(A) for all 1 i < j n. The conclusion follows.
Notice that span O(A) = n for every nonzero A n . This observation,
together with Lemma 4.2.7, proves the following; for a dierent approach,
see the proof of Theorem (3.2) of [LT1].
Lemma 4.2.8 Let A Sn (IR) be given. Suppose that A 6 n Sn0 (IR). Then
span O(A) = Sn (IR). Consequently, if T is a linear operator on Mn (IR) that
preserves orthogonal similarity, then ker T Sn (IR) 6= {0} if and only if
Sn (IR) ker T .
92
Proof Write A = I + AS , where n1 tr A and AS Sn0 (IR). Notice
that 6= 0 since A 6 Sn0 (IR). Moreover, AS 6= 0 since A 6 n . There
exists a U Un (IR) such that B U AU t A = U AS U t AS 6=
0. Notice that B Sn0 (IR). Hence, Lemma 4.2.7 guarantees that
Sn0 (IR) span O(B) span O(A). Thus, I = A AS span O(A)
and n span O(A). The conclusion now follows.
Lemma 4.2.9 Let IF = C or IF = IR, and let A Mn (IF) be given. Then
(a) A + At span O(A), and
(b) A At span O(A).
Proof We follow and refine slightly the proof of Lemma (4.2) of [HHL]. Let
{Pi : 1 i 2n } denote the group of all real diagonal orthogonal
matrices in Mn (IF) and define
n
P(X)
2
X
i=1
4.3
We begin the proof of the forward implication of Theorem 4.1.1 by considering a singular linear operator T on Mn (C) that preserves unitary tcongruence; the reverse implication can be proved by direct verification.
Lemma 4.3.1 Let A Mn be given and suppose that A 6 Sn (C) Kn (C).
Then span O(A) = Mn (C). Consequently, if T is a linear operator on Mn (C)
that preserves unitary t-congruence, then A ker T if and only if T = 0.
93
Proof Lemma 4.2.9 guarantees that A + At , A At span O(A). Since
A + At 6= 0 and A At 6= 0, Lemmata 4.2.5 and 4.2.6 guarantee that
Sn (C) Kn (C) span O(A). We conclude that span O(A) = Mn (C).
If T is a nonzero singular linear operator on Mn (C) that preserves unitary
t-congruence, then Lemma 4.3.1 implies that ker T Sn (C) Kn (C), that
is, if T (A) = 0, then either A Sn (C) or A Kn (C). We look at these cases
separately.
If 0 6= A Kn (C), we can use (verbatim) the proof of Lemma (4.3) of
[HHL] to get the following analogous result.
Lemma 4.3.2 Let T be a nonzero linear operator on Mn (C) that preserves
unitary t-congruence. If ker T Kn (C) 6= {0}, then ker T = Kn (C) and T
satisfies condition (1) of Theorem 4.1.1 with = 0.
Suppose now that 0 6= A Sn (C) ker T . Lemma 4.2.5 guarantees that
T (Sn (C)) = 0. Let n 3. We follow the proof of Lemma (4.6) of [HHL] to
show that T (Kn (C)) Kn (C).
Define L : Kn (C) Sn (C) by
L(X)
T (X) + T (X)t
for all X Kn (C).
2
94
for all such . If we put S12 L(F12 ), we have
rank L(X) rank L(F12 ) rank S12 for all 0 6= X Kn (C).
Moreover, if rank A = 2, then C = 0 in (4.3.1) and hence rank L(A) =
rank S12 rank L(X) for any 0 6= X Kn (C).
As in the case of nonsingular t-congruence, there exists an X0 Kn (C)
such that rank L(X0 ) 3 (see the sixth paragraph of the proof of Lemma
(4.4) of [HHL]). Thus, for any A Kn (C) having rank 2, we have
rank L(A) = rank S12 3.
The analysis (for the complex case) of the proof of Lemma (4.4) of [HHL]
can be modified to show that this is not possible.
Lemma 4.3.3 Let an integer n 3 and a linear operator L : Kn (C)
Sn (C) be given. Then L preserves unitary t-congruence if and only if L = 0.
If n 3 and ker T Sn (C) 6= {0}, then Lemma 4.3.3 implies that
T (Kn (C)) Kn (C).
Hence, for this case, we may regard T as a nonzero linear operator on Kn (C).
Lemma 4.2.1 guarantees that Theorem 4.1.1 holds for this case.
Suppose now that n = 2 and let 0 6= A ker T Sn (C). Again,
Lemma 4.2.6 guarantees that T (Sn (C)) = 0. Let
A0
T (F12 )
.
2
95
Lemma 4.3.4 Let T be a given linear operator on Mn (C) that preserves
unitary t-congruence. Suppose that ker T Sn (C) 6= {0}. Then T (Sn (C)) =
{0} and one of the following conditions holds:
(a) There exist U Un (C) and a scalar C such that
T (X) = U (X X t )U t for all X Mn (C).
(b) n = 4 and there exist U Un (C) and a scalar C such that
T (X) = U (X X t )+ U t for all X M4 (C).
(c) n = 2 and there exists B M2 (C) such that
T (X) = (tr XF12 )B for all X M2 (C).
Lemmata 4.3.14.3.4 show that if T is a singular linear operator on Mn (C)
that preserves unitary t-congruence, then Theorem 4.1.1 holds. The following
result characterizes the nonsingular T . The proof is the same as that of
Lemma (4.7) of [HHL], and will be omitted.
Lemma 4.3.5 Let T be a nonsingular linear operator on Mn (C) that preserves unitary t-congruence. Then T (Sn (C)) = Sn (C) and T (Kn (C)) =
Kn (C).
Let us now consider the nonsingular T . Lemmata 4.2.1, 4.2.2, and 4.3.5
imply that there exist nonzero scalars , C and V1 , V2 Un (C) such that
T (X) = V1 XV1t for all X Sn (C)
and either
(A1) T (Y ) = V2 Y V2t for all Y Kn (C); or
(A2) n = 4 and T (Y ) = V2 Y + V2t for all Y K4 (C).
By considering various choices for X and Y , we will show that we may take
V2 = V1 in (A1), for some nonzero C. Moreover, we will show that
(A2) cannot happen.
96
It is without loss of generality to assume T (X) = X for all X Sn (C)
and T (Y ) = V Y V t for all Y Kn (C), where /, since we may
consider instead the linear transformation T1 1 V11 T V1t . Thus, we need
to show that we may take V = I for some nonzero C.
Suppose that n = 2. Direct calculation shows that for a given V Un (C),
V Y V t = (det V )Y for all Y K2 (C).
Hence, T (Y ) = V Y V t = (det V )Y for all Y K2 (C), as desired.
We now look at the case n 3. Let
X diag (1, 2, . . . , n) Sn (C),
and if n = 2k we let
Y B 2B kB Kn (C),
otherwise, if n = 2k + 1, then we take
Y B 2B kB 0 Kn (C),
where B F12 K2 (C).
Notice that T (V XV t + 1 Y ) = V (X + Y )V t is unitarily t-congruent to
X+Y . Since T preserves unitary t-congruence and since unitary t-congruence
is an equivalence relation,
U V XV t U t + V U Y U t V t = T [U (V XV t +
1
Y )U t ] and X + Y
(4.3.2)
(4.3.3)
Y = W V U Y U t V t W t = (W V U )Y (W V U )t .
(4.3.4)
and
97
Since W, U, V Un (C), we have W U V, W V U Un (C) as well. Hence we
may rewrite the identity (4.3.3) as
X(W U V ) = (W U V )X
(4.3.5)
(4.3.6)
(4.3.7)
V = V1 V2 Vk Vk+1 if n = 2k + 1,
(4.3.8)
or
where Vi U2 (C) for each i = 1, 2, . . . k and Vk+1 U1 (C).
We apply the same analysis to the same choices for X Sn (C) and
U Un (C), but this time we take
Y1 F23 = 0 B 0n3 Kn (C).
As before, there exists a W1 Un (C) such that
X(W1 U V ) = (W1 U V )X
(4.3.9)
98
and
Y1 (W1 V U ) = (W1 V U )Y1 .
(4.3.10)
A11 0 A13
W1 V U = 0 A22 0
,
A31 0 A33
where A11 C, A22 M2 (C), and A33 Mn3 (C). Since W1 V U =
(W1 U V )(V )(U V U ), it follows that A13 = 0, A31 = 0, and the V1 and the
V2 in (4.3.7) or (4.3.8) are diagonal. Similarly, we can show that every Vi in
(4.3.7) or (4.3.8) is diagonal. Hence, V is diagonal, say V = diag (1 , 2 , . . . , n )
with |i | = 1 for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Thus, T (Fij ) = i j Fij for each i, j
with 1 i < j n.
We summarize this result in the following.
Lemma 4.3.6 Let T be a nonsingular linear operator on Mn (C) that preserves unitary t-congruence. Suppose that T (X) = X for all X Sn (C), and
for some scalar C and V Un (C), T (Y ) = V Y V t for all Y Kn (C).
Then there exist scalars 1 , . . . , n C with |i | = 1 for each i = 1, . . . , n
such that V = diag (1 , . . . , n ). Consequently, T (Fij ) = i j Fij for each
i, j with 1 i < j n.
The proof of Lemma (4.9) of [HHL] can be used (again, verbatim) to prove
the following result.
Lemma 4.3.7 Let T be a nonsingular linear opreator on Mn (C) that preserves unitary t-congruence. Suppose T (X) = X for all X Sn (C), and
for each i, j with 1 i < j n, there exists a nonzero ij C such that
T (Fij ) = ij Fij . Then
1
T (X) = [(X + X t ) + 12 (X X t )] for all X Mn (C).
2
If T (X) = X for all X Sn (C) and T (Y ) = V Y V t for all Y Kn (C),
then Lemmata 4.3.6 and 4.3.7 imply that we may take V = I for some
C, as desired.
99
We now look at the remaining case n = 4, T (X) = U XU t for all X
S4 (C), and T (Y ) = V Y + V t for all Y K4 (C), where , C are nonzero
and U, V U4 (C). As before, it is without loss of generality to assume
T (X) = X for all X S4 (C) and T (Y ) = V Y + V t for all Y K4 (C).
By considering various choices for X and Y , we will show that this cannot
happen. In particular, we will prove the following.
Lemma 4.3.8 Let a scalar C and V U4 (C) be given. Then
1
T (X) (X + X t ) + V (X X t )+ V t for all X M4 (C)
2
preserves unitary t-congruence if and only if = 0.
If = 0, then direct verification shows that T preserves unitary tcongruence. Suppose 6= 0 and T preserves unitary t-congruence. Let
X diag (1, 2, 3, 4), Y B 2B, and U U1 U2 ,
(4.3.11)
Y (W V U ) = (W V U )Y.
(4.3.12)
(4.3.13)
=
=
=
=
U1 V11
U1 V12
U2 V21
U2 V22 .
(4.3.14)
100
Let V11 = Q1 Q2 be a (given) singular value decomposition of V11 , where
= diag (b1 , b2 ) with b1 b2 0, and Q1 , Q2 U2 (C). Then the identity
(4.3.14a) implies that
(Q2 W1 Q2 ) = (Q1 U1 Q1 ).
(4.3.15)
"
0 V12
V21 0
(4.3.17)
Y1 F23 + 2F14 =
0
0 0
0
0 1
0 1 0
2 0 0
2
0
0
0
(4.3.19)
101
and
Y (W1 V U1 ) = (W1 V U1 )Y.
(4.3.20)
z11 0
0 z14
0 z
0
22 z23
.
(4.3.21)
0 z32 z33 0
z41 0
0 z44
Now,
(4.3.22)
Since W1 U1 V and U1 are diagonal, D (W1 U1 V ) (W1 V U1 )U1 has the form
(4.3.21). Since V has the form (4.3.17) or (4.3.18), the identity (4.3.22) shows
that D is diagonal, that is, z14 = z23 = z32 = z14 = 0. Now choose U1 having
distinct (diagonal) elements. Then the identity (4.3.22) implies that each of
the Vij in (4.3.17) and (4.3.18) has the form either
or
"
1 0
0 2
(4.3.23)
"
0 4
3 0
(4.3.24)
and
1
1
(A1 + At1 ) = W (A2 + At2 )W t
2
2
(4.3.25)
1
1
V (A1 At1 )+ V t = W V (A2 At2 )+ V t W t .
2
2
(4.3.26)
102
Case 1 V
"
0 V12
V21 0
Let
A1
With
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
U 1
"
and A2
0 1
1 0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1 U4 (C),
(4.3.27)
w11 0
0
0
0 w22 w23 0
0 w32 w33 0
0
0 w44
0
0
V21 BV12t
t
V12 BV21
0
where
B
"
=W
0 0
0 1
"
0
0
0 V21 CV21t
and C
"
0 1
1 0
W t,
(4.3.28)
Since V21 CV21t = C, where det V21 6= 0, direct computation shows that
W
"
0
0
0 V21 CV21t
Wt =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
w23 w44
0
0
0
w33 w44
0 w23 w44 w33 w44
0
. (4.3.29)
= V12
"
0 0
0 1
V21t
"
0
0
0 w23 w44
(4.3.30)
#
(4.3.31)
103
Since 6= 0 and w44 6= 0, (4.3.30) shows that w33 = 0. Since W is unitary,
w22 = 0 as well. The identity (4.3.31) implies that V12 and V21 are diagonal,
say
"
#
"
#
1 0
3 0
and V21
.
V12
0 2
0 4
Now, consider
D1
1
0
0
2
2 0
0 3
2
0
3
0
0
3
0
4
and D2
1
2
0
0
2 0
3 0
0 2
0 3
0
0
3
4
(4.3.32)
and
1
1
V (D1 D1t )+ V t = W1 V (D2 D2t )+ V t W1t .
2
2
The identity (4.3.32) shows that W1 has the form
W1
0
u11 0
0
0
0 u23 0
0 u32 0
0
0
0
0 u44
(4.3.33)
0
0
0
31 3
0
0
22 4
0
0
0
31 2
0
0
22 4
0
0
0
0 2 0
0
0
0 3
,
2
0
0 0
0
3 0 0
(4.3.34)
where u11 u32 1 2 and u23 u44 3 4 . Since W1 and V are unitary,
|| = || = |i j | = 1 for all 1 i, j 2, and hence (4.3.34) is impossible.
Case 2 V V11 V22 .
104
For this case, we take
A1
1
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
and A2
1
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
One checks that A1 and A2 are unitarily t-congruent. Hence, there exists
a W U4 (C) such that T (A1 ) = W T (A2 )W t . As in Case 1, the identities
(4.3.25) and (4.3.26) hold. The identity (4.3.25) now shows that W has the
form
W W1 W2 , with W1 =
"
w11 0
0 w22
and W2 =
"
w33 w43
w34 w44
"
0 0
0 1
and C
"
0 1
0 0
(4.3.35)
#
(4.3.36)
4.4
Lemma 4.4.1 Let T be a given linear operator on Mn (IR). Suppose T preserves orthogonal similarity. Then ker T is a direct sum of one or more of
the following spaces: n , Sn0 (IR), and Kn (IR).
105
Proof Let 0 6= A ker T . Lemma 4.2.9 guarantees that AS A + At
span O(A) and AK A At span O(A). Thus, AS ker T and
AK ker T . If AK 6= 0, Lemma 4.2.5 ensures that Kn (IR) ker T ;
if AS n , then n ker T ; if 0 6= AS Sn0 (IR), Lemma 4.2.7
guarantees that Sn0 (IR) ker T ; and if AS 6 n Sn0 (IR), Lemma 4.2.8
ensures that Sn (IR) ker T .
Let T be a given linear operator on Mn (IR) that preserves orthogonal
similarity. Notice that for every X Mn (IR), we can write X = XS + XK ,
where
X + Xt
X Xt
XS
Sn (IR) and XK
Kn (IR).
2
2
Hence, T (X) = T1 (X) + T2 (X), where
T1 (X) T (XS ) and T2 (X) T (XK ) for all X Mn (IR).
One checks that both T1 and T2 preserve orthogonal similarity. Moreover,
Kn (IR) ker T1 and Sn (IR) ker T2 .
Since Sn (IR) = n Sn0 (IR), Lemma 4.4.1 guarantees that either Kn (IR)
ker T2 (so that T2 = 0) or Kn (IR) ker T2 = {0} (so that T2 is nonsingular
on Kn (IR)) . However, in the case of T1 , any subset of {n , Sn0 (IR)} could
also be a subset of ker T1 . We begin with this case.
Lemma 4.4.2 Let T be a given linear operator on Mn (IR) that preserves
orthogonal similarity. Then T1 satisfies one of the following three conditions:
(A1) There exists A0 Mn (IR) such that
T1 (X) = (tr X)A0 for all X Mn (IR).
(A2) There exist U Un (IR) and scalars , IR such that
T1 (X) = (tr X)I + U (X + X t )U t for all X Mn (IR).
(A3) n = 2 and there exist U U2 (IR), B K2 (IR), and scalars , IR
such that
T1 (X) = (tr X)I + (tr X)B + U (X + X t )U t
for all X M2 (IR).
106
Proof Suppose T preserves orthogonal similarity. Then T1 also preserves
orthogonal similarity and hence Lemma 4.4.1 guarantees that ker T1 is a direct sum of one or more of n , Sn0 (IR), Kn (IR). Suppose Sn0 (IR) ker T1 .
Since Kn (IR) ker T1 and any X Mn (IR) can be written as X =
( n1 tr X)I + XS 0 + XK , where XS 0 Sn0 (IR) and XK Kn (IR), we have
T1 (X) = (tr X)A0 for all X Mn (IR),
where we put A0 n1 T1 (I) Mn (IR). Hence condition (A1) holds.
Now suppose Sn0 (IR) 6 ker T1 . Notice that if a nonzero A Sn0 (IR)
satisfies T1 (A) = 0, then Lemma 4.2.7 ensures that Sn0 (IR) ker T1 . Hence,
in this case, T1 (A) 6= 0 for all nonzero A Sn0 (IR). Since
dim Sn0 (IR) =
n(n + 1)
n(n 1)
1>
= dim Kn (IR),
2
2
there exists a nonzero B Sn (IR) such that T1 (A) = B for some nonzero
A Sn0 (IR). It follows that T1 (Sn0 (IR)) Sn (IR). Since n Sn0 (IR) = Sn (IR),
we may regard T1 as a mapping from Sn (IR) to Mn (IR). Define
TS (X)
T1 (X) + T1 (X)t
for all X Sn (IR)
2
and
T1 (X) T1 (X)t
for all X Sn (IR).
2
Notice that TS (Sn (IR)) Sn (IR). Lemma 4.2.4 guarantees that TS satisfies
one of the following conditions:
TK (X)
(1a) There exists B1 Sn (IR) such that TS (X) = (tr X)B1 for all X
Sn (IR); or
(1b) There exist U Un (IR) and , IR such that TS (X) = (tr X)I +
U XU t for all X Sn (IR).
For every nonzero A Sn0 (IR), T1 (A) is nonzero and symmetric. It follows
that TS (A) = T1 (A) 6= 0 for all A Sn0 (IR). Hence (1a) cannot happen.
Notice also that TK (Sn (IR)) Kn (IR), so that Sn0 ker TK . Thus,
TK (X) = (tr X)A1 for all X Sn (IR),
107
where we put A1 n1 T1 (I) Kn (IR). Since T1 = TS + TK , we have
T1 (X) = (tr X)A1 + (tr X)I + U XU t for all X Sn (IR).
If n = 2, then condition (A3) of Lemma 4.4.2 holds. If n 3, we consider
various choices for X to show that A1 = 0, and hence condition (A2) holds.
Let n 3 and suppose A1 [aij ] 6= 0, that is, suppose that akh 6= 0 for
some 1 k < h n. Let
U XU t diag (1, . . . , k, . . . , h, . . . , n)
and
U Y1 U t diag (1, . . . , h, . . . , k, . . . , n).
Notice that X and Y1 are orthogonally similar. Hence, there exists W
Un (IR) such that T1 (X) = W T1 (Y1 )W t . It follows that
U XU t = W (U Y1 U t )W t
(4.4.37)
A1 = W A1 W t .
(4.4.38)
and
The identity (4.4.37) and the fact that W Un (IR) show that W [wij ] has
entries wkh , whk , wii = 1 where i = 1, . . . , n, i 6= h and i 6= k, and wij = 0
otherwise. The k th and hth rows of the identity (4.4.38) show that
(a) wkh whk ahk = akh ,
(b) wkh wii ahi = aki for i 6= k, and
(c) whk wii aki = ahi for i 6= h.
(4.4.39)
Since ahk = akh 6= 0, the identity (4.4.39a) shows that wkh whk = 1. The
identities (4.4.39b) and (4.4.39c) now show that ahi = aki = 0 for all integers
h 6= i 6= k.
Since n 3, there is an integer t such that 1 t n, t 6= k, and t 6= h.
Suppose t < k and this time consider
U Y2 U t diag (1, . . . , k, . . . , t, . . . , n).
Notice that X and Y2 are also orthogonally similar. Repeat the previous
analysis and conclude that akh = 0. Hence, A1 = 0, as desired.
108
One checks that if a given linear operator L on Mn (IR) satisfies any one
of the three conditions (A1) - (A3), then L preserves orthogonal similarity.
We now consider T2 . Recall that either T2 = 0, or T2 is nonsingular on
Kn (IR). Hence, T2 (A) 6= 0 for some (necessarily) nonzero A Kn (IR) if and
only if Kn (IR) ker T2 = {0}.
Lemma 4.4.3 Let T be a given linear operator on Mn (IR) that preserves
orthogonal similarity. Then T2 satisfies one of the following three conditions:
(B1) There exist U Un (IR) and a scalar IR such that
T2 (X) = U (X X t )U t for all X Mn (IR).
(B2) n = 4 and there exist U U4 (IR) and a scalar IR such that
T2 (X) = U (X X t )+ U t for all X M4 (IR).
(B3) n = 2 and there exists B0 M2 (IR) with tr B0 = 0 such that
T2 (X) = (tr XF12 )B0 for all X K2 (IR).
Proof We consider the restriction of T2 on Kn (IR). Define
TS (X)
and
T2 (X) + T2 (X)t
for all X Kn (IR),
2
T2 (X) T2 (X)t
for all X Kn (IR).
2
Notice that for any X Kn (IR), we have T2 (X) = TS (X) + TK (X).
Moreover, TS (Kn (IR)) Sn (IR) and TK (Kn (IR)) Kn (IR). We will show
that if n 3, then TS = 0 so that Lemma 4.2.3 ensures that either (B1) or
(B2) holds. If n = 2, we will show that T2 satisfies (B3).
Suppose TS 6= 0. Since TS also preserves orthogonal similarity, TS is
nonsingular. Since A O(A) for any A Kn (IR), we have TS (A)
O(TS (A)). Hence, if is an eigenvalue of TS (A) with multiplicity k, then
is also an eigenvalue of TS (A) with multiplicity k. Moreover, if A 6= 0, then
TS (A) has a positive eigenvalue.
TK (X)
109
Now, Im T is a subspace of Sn (IR) with dimension n(n 1)/2. If Z is a
subspace of Sn (IR) with dimension k, and if r {2, . . . , n 1} and
k (r)
(r 1)(2n r + 2)
,
2
(4.4.40)
n(n 1)
3t(t + 1)
= t(2t + 1)
= (t + 1).
2
2
n(n 1)
t(3t + 1)
= t(2t 1)
= (t + 1).
2
2
110
Hence, Y0 6 Im TS . Thus, if n = 4, then TS = 0.
Now consider the case n = 2. Notice that
1
X = (tr XF12 )F12 for every X K2 (IR).
2
It follows that
T (X) = (tr XF12 )A0 for all X K2 (IR),
where we put A0 12 T (F12 ). Since F12 and F12 are orthogonally similar,
A0 is orthogonally similar to A0 . Hence, tr A0 = tr (A0 ) = tr A0 , so
that tr A0 = 0. Notice that if A0 K2 (IR), then condition (B1) also holds.
We now return to consider our original T = T1 + T2 . First, we consider
n 3. Lemma 4.4.2 guarantees that T1 satisfies either (A1) or (A2), and
Lemmata 4.4.3 guarantees that T2 satisfies either (B1) or (B2). We consider
these cases separately.
Case 1. T1 (X) = (tr X)A0 and n 3.
First we consider T2 (X) = cV (X X t )V t , that is,
T (X) = (tr X)A0 + cV (X X t )V t for all X Mn (IR).
If c = 0, then condition (1) of Theorem 4.1.2 holds. Suppose now that c 6= 0.
Write A0 = AS + AK , where AS Sn (IR) and AK Kn (IR). Consider
X1
1
1
1
1
I + V t Ak V and X2 I V t Ak V.
n
2c
n
2c
0 0 1
1
1 t
111
and
0 0 0
1
1 t
t
X4 I + V Q( 0 0 1
0n3 )Q V Mn (IR).
n
2c
0 1 0
One checks that X3 and X4 are orthogonally similar. Hence T (X3 ) is orthogonally similar to T (X4 ). It follows that
a1 0 1
a1 0 0
1
B1
0 a2 0 and B2 0 a2
1 0 a3
0 1 a3
are orthogonally similar. Thus,
a2 (a1 a3 + 1) = det B1 = det B2 = a1 (a2 a3 + 1),
and hence a2 = a1 . Similarly, we can show that ai = a1 for each i = 3, . . . , n.
Hence, A0 = a1 I and condition (2) of Theorem 4.1.2 holds with = 0.
Suppose now that T2 satisfies (B2), that is, n = 4 and
T (X) = (tr X)A0 + cV (X X t )+ V t for all X M4 (IR).
If c = 0, then condition (1) of Theorem 4.1.2 holds. Suppose that c 6= 0. We
will show that A0 = aI for some a IR so that condition (3) of Theorem 4.1.2
holds. We will use the facts that Y + K4 (IR) and (Y + )+ = Y whenever
Y K4 (IR).
Write A0 AS + AK , where AS S4 (IR) and AK K4 (IR). Let
X1
1
1
1
1
I + (V t Ak V )+ and X2 I (V t Ak V )+ .
n
2c
n
2c
112
Suppose n = 4 and T2 satisfies (B2). If b = 0, then
T (X) = a(tr X)I + cV (X X t )+ V t for all X M4 (IR),
so that condition (3) of Theorem 4.1.2 holds. If b 6= 0, we may again follow
the analysis of the complex case (see the discussion after Lemma 4.3.8) to
show that c = 0. Thus, T satisfies condition (2) of Theorem 4.1.2 with = 0.
This proves the forward implication of Theorem 4.1.2. The converse can
be proven by direct verification.
For the remaining case, n = 2, notice that if K2 (IR) ker T , then
Lemma 4.4.2 shows that either condition (1) or condition (2) of Theorem 4.1.3
holds. It will be useful to have the following observation.
Proposition 4.4.4 Let A, B M2 (IR) be given. There exists U U2 (IR)
such that A = U BU t if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied:
(a) det A = det B,
(b) tr A = tr B, and
(c) tr At A = tr B t B.
Proof The forward implication is easily verified. For the converse, notice
that the conditions imply that A and B have the same eigenvalues and
singular values. Hence, the matrices A A + I and B B + I
also satisfy the three conditions for any IR. Notice that A and B
are orthogonally similar if and only if there is some IR such that A
and B are orthogonally similar. Thus, we may assume that tr A 6= 0
and det A 6= 0. Since A and B have the same singular values, there
exist X1 , X2 , V1 , V2 U2 (IR) such that
X1 AX1t = X2 and V1 BV1t = V2 ,
(4.4.41)
113
Hence, (b) and the fact that tr A 6= 0 show that X2 and V2 have
the same diagonal elements. Direct verification now shows that X2 =
W V2 W t , where W diag (1, 1) U2 (IR). Hence,
X2 = W V2 W t = W V2 W t .
It follows that A and B are orthogonally similar.
Suppose K2 (IR) 6 ker T . Assume further that S20 (IR) ker T . Write
1
1
X = (tr X)I + XS 0 (tr XF12 )F12 .
2
2
(4.4.42)
114
Use Proposition 4.4.4 to show that
X3 U t DS 0 U + F12 and X4 U t DS 0 U F12
are orthogonally similar. It follows that T (X3 ) is orthogonally similar to
T (X4 ), and DS 0 = 0, so that D0 = F12 . Since K2 (IR) 6 ker T , we must
have 6= 0.
Consider
X5 I + A0 and X6 I A0 .
Since A0 K2 (IR), X5 and X6 are orthogonally similar. The orthogonal
similarity of T (X5 ) and T (X6 ) shows that A0 = 0. Now,
(det U )(tr XF12 )F12 = U (X X t )U t for all X M2 (IR).
Hence, T satisfies condition (2) of Theorem 4.1.3.
The converse can be verified with the help of Proposition 4.4.4.
Appendix A
A New Look at the Jordan
Canonical Form
115
116
The ultimate proof of the Jordan canonical form theorem is a kind of
mathematical holy grail, and we join others who have sought this treasure
in recent years ([Br], [FS], [GW], [Ho], [V]). Our matrix-theoretic approach
builds on the Schur triangularization theorem and shows how to reduce any
unispectral upper triangular matrix to a direct sum of Jordan blocks. Connoisseurs of the Jordan canonical form will recognize in our argument key
elements of Ptaks classic basis-free proof [P].
Our terminology and notation is standard, as in [HJ1]: we denote the set
of m-by-n complex matrices by Mm,n and write Mn Mn,n ; AT denotes the
transpose of A, and A denotes the conjugate transpose; the n-by-n upper
triangular Jordan block with eigenvalue is denoted by Jk ().
Lemma A.1 Let positive integers k, n be given with k < n. Let X1 , Y T
Mk,n be such that X1 Y Mk is nonsingular. Then there exists an X2
Mnk,n such that X2 Y = 0 and
X
"
X1
X2
Mn is nonsingular.
#T
X = [ ]
"
X1
X2
= T X1 + T X2 = 0.
Then 0 = T X1 Y + T X2 Y = T X1 Y , so = 0 since X1 Y is nonsingular. Thus, T X2 = 0 and = 0 since X2 has full row rank. We
conclude that X is nonsingular, as desired.
Let A Mn be nilpotent, and let k 1 be such that Ak = 0 but
Ak1 6= 0; if A = 0, then k = 1 and we set Ak1 I. Let x, y Cn be such
that x Ak1 y 6= 0. Define
X1
x
x A
..
.
x Ak1
Mk,n
117
and
Y [y Ay Ak1 y] Mn,k .
X1 Y =
x Ak1 y
x Ak1 y
Mk
(A.0.2)
"
X1
X2
(A.0.3)
Mn is nonsingular.
"
X1
X2
= B1 X1 + A2 X2 .
(A.0.4)
Now use (A.0.4) and the identities (A.0.3) and (A.0.2) to compute
X2 AY = (X2 A)Y = B1 X1 Y + A2 (X2 Y ) = B1 (X1 Y )
and
X2 AY = X2 (AY ) = X2 (Y JkT (0)) = (X2 Y )JkT (0) = 0.
Since X1 Y is nonsingular, we conclude that B1 = 0. Thus, (A.0.4) simplifies
to
X2 A = A2 X2
(A.0.5)
118
and we can use (A.0.1) and (A.0.5) to compute
XA =
"
X1
X2
"
Jk (0) 0
0
A2
A=
"
X1 A
X2 A
#"
X1
X2
#
#
"
Jk (0)X1
A2 X2
"
Jk (0) 0
0
A2
X.
"
Jk (0) 0
0
A2
Hence, the given nilpotent matrix A and the block diagonal matrix C are
similar; either A2 is absent (k = n) or it has size strictly less than that of A
and Ak2 = 0.
Application of the preceding argument to A2 and its successors (finitely
many steps) now shows that any nilpotent matrix is similar to a direct sum
of singular Jordan blocks.
Lemma A.2 Let A Mn be nilpotent. Then there exists a nonsingular
S Mn and positive integers m, k1 km 1 such that k1 + +km = n
and
Jk1 (0)
0
0
Jk2 (0)
0
.
SAS =
..
..
..
...
.
.
.
0
Jkm (0)
Lemma A.3 Suppose that A Mn has r eigenvalues 1 , . . . , r with respective multiplicities n1 , . . . , nr . Then A is similar to a matrix of the form
T1 0
0 T2
.. ..
. .
0 0
...
0
0
..
.
Tr
(A.0.6)
119
where each Ti Mni is upper triangular with all diagonal entries equal to i ,
i = 1, . . . , r.
For a block matrix of the form (A.0.6), notice that each Ti i Ini is
nilpotent for i = 1, . . . , r. Lemma A.2 guarantees that there exists a nonsingular Si Mni and positive integers mi , i1 imi 1 such
that Ji1 (0) Jimi (0) = Si (Ti i Ini )Si1 = Si Ti Si1 i Ini . Hence,
Si Ti Si1 = Ji1 (i ) Jimi (i ). If we now consider the similarity of (A.0.6)
obtained with the direct sum S1 Sr , we obtain the desired result:
Jordan Canonical Form Theorem Let A Mn . Then there exist positive
integers m, k1 , . . . , km with k1 + + km = n, scalars 1 , . . . , m and a
nonsingular S Mn such that
SAS
Jk1 (1 )
0
0
Jk2 (2 )
..
..
.
.
0
0
...
0
0
..
.
Jkm (m )
Once one has the Jordan form, its uniqueness (up to permutation of the
diagonal blocks) can be established by showing that the sizes and multiplicities of the blocks are determined by the finitely many integers rank (AI)k ,
an eigenvalue of A, k = 1, . . . , n; see the proof of Theorem (3.1.11) in [HJ1].
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[FS] R. Fletcher and D. C. Sorensen. An Algorithmic Derivation of the Jordan Canonical Form. Amer. Math. Monthly 90 (1983), 1216.
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[L]
[PM] W. V. Parker and B. E. Mitchell. Elementary Divisors of Certain Matrices. Duke Math. J. 19 (1952), 483485.
[P]
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Vita
123
124
DENNIS I. MERINO
817 Scarlett Drive
Baltimore, MD 21204
(301) 296 3620
e-mail: dennis@jhuvms.bitnet
Personal
Marital Status
Citizenship
Visa
Single
Filipino
F-1
Education / Awards
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
Candidate for Ph.D. degree in Mathematical Sciences,
expected May, 1992.
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
Master of Science in Engineering awarded May, 1990;
Recepient of the Abel Wolman Fellowship, 1988.
University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics, summa cum laude, November,
1986.
Awardee, Deans Medal for Academic Excellence, 1987
College Scholar, 1983-1984
125
Employment Experience
1989-present
Teaching/Research Assistant
Department of Mathematical Sciences
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
Assisted in Discrete Mathematics, Combinatorial Analysis,
Graph Theory and Game Theory; Research in Matrix Analysis;
Statistical Data Analysis for the Maryland DWI Law Institute.
Instructor
Department of Mathematics
The University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines
Taught elementary courses in Analysis and Algebra.
Chairman of the Student-Faculty Relations Commitee, 1987.
Trainer for the participants in the International
Mathematical Olympiad, 1988
126
Canonical Form. (preprint)
R. A. Horn, C. K. Li, and D. I. Merino. Linear Operators Preserving
Orthogonal Equivalence on Matrices. (preprint)
C. K. Li, and D. I. Merino. Linear Operators Preserving
Unitary t-Congruence on Matrices. (preprint)
References
Dr. Roger A. Horn
Department of Mathematical Sciences
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, MD 21218
Dr. Chi-Kwong Li
Department of Mathematics
The College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, VA 23185
Dr. Alan J. Goldman
Department of Mathematical Sciences
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, MD 21218