CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1

Background
High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) is an electric power transmission facility utilizing high

power electronic technology. AC power transmission was dominating the power industry because
of its economical and technical advantages, viz., successful synchronized operation of multiple
generators, the development of transformers, and the invention of three-phase induction motors,
etc. Thanks to the recent developments in the field of power electronics, todays power systems
have become highly controllable. But still variations in the inductive and capacitive reactive power
flows which in turn cause voltage fluctuations are major threats towards power system
optimization. Also, the real and reactive power losses along the AC transmission lines make them
inefficient beyond a break-even distance, where DC transmission system dictates the performance
of the AC transmission system.

1.2

Literature Review
The HVDC system has been modelled and extensively perfected as VSC HVDC system in [1-

2]. These papers help in modelling a proper HVDC system with appropriate system parameters to
carry out system studies and facilitate the use of controllers for analysis and research.
Keeping the VSC model as the basis of study, there have been many papers on the design and
performance analysis of HVDC controllers [3-5]. These research papers deal with areas ranging
from design of the controller to selecting the appropriate parameters to improve the dynamic
performance of the system.

1.3

Objectives of thesis and Main Contributions

The rapid controllability of transmitted power in HVDC systems is possible only by

implementation of PWM controllers involving IGBTs at the rectifier as well as at the inverter end.
Conventional HVDC systems use converters incorporating thyristors and are called Line
Commutated Convertors (LCC). While the Modern HVDC systems use converters incorporating
IGBTs and are called Voltage Source Converters (VSC).

A PWM Controller has been suggested in this work and the same has been investigated for its
performance on a VSC HVDC system.

1.4

Outline of the thesis

Chapter 2 presents classic as well as modern (VSC) HVDC system. In this chapter the

arrangements of the HVDC system, the configurations, the advantages and applications of classic
as well as modern HVDC are described. Furthermore, the structure of the LCC and VSC -HVDC,
including its converters, harmonic filter and DC capacitor, is described in detail. The operation of
the LCC and VSC -HVDC is also explained in detail, supported by graphs and equations.
In Chapter 3, the concept of controllability in HVDC transmission system is explored and the basic
control structure of the VSC-HVDC is presented along with the discussion on each major
controller.
Chapter 4 focuses on simulation and analysis of VSC-HVDC. A MATLAB model of the system
is described in detail. In this chapter, results on steady state performance are simulated along with
the practical and experimental parameters to evaluate and verify the PWM control system of the
VSC-HVDC.
Finally, the conclusions of the work and some suggestions for future research are pointed out in
Chapter 5.

CHAPTER 2
HVDC SYSTEM

2.1

Introduction
Electric Power Transmission was initially carried out in the early 1880s using Direct Current

(DC). With the availability of transformers for stepping up the voltage for power transmission over
long distances and for stepping down the voltage for safe use, the development of robust induction
motor (to serve the users of rotary power), the availability of the superior synchronous generator,
and the facilities of converting AC to DC when required, AC gradually replaced DC. However in
1928, owing to introduction of grid control for the mercury vapour rectifier, electronic devices
began to show real prospects for high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission, because of the
ability of these devices for rectification and inversion. The most significant contribution to HVDC
came when the Gotland Scheme in Sweden was commissioned in 1954 to be the World's first
commercial HVDC transmission system. This was capable of transmitting 20 MW of power at a
voltage of 100 kV and consisted of a single 96 km cable with sea return.
The HVDC technology is a high power electronics technology used in electric power systems. It
is an efficient and flexible method to transmit large amounts of electric power over long distances
by overhead transmission lines or underground/ submarine cables. It can also be used to
interconnect asynchronous power systems.

2.2

Classic HVDC system

A Classic HVDC link connects two separate high voltage AC systems via long distance

overhead lines or sea cables as well as two independent neighboring systems with incompatible
electrical parameters. These HVDC transmission systems are specifically used to:

economically transmit electrical energy over long distances via overhead lines
or cable,

connect asynchronous grids or grids with different frequencies.

HVDC classic is a matured technology for power ratings up to 8,000 MW, with voltages up to
800 kV. The HVDC classic converter technology is based on thyristors and dependent on the AC
system voltage for commutation. Due to the nature of the technology, a typical minimum
3

transmitted DC power of 510 percent of rated power is necessary. In terms of reactive power
exchange with the connected AC system, the HVDC classic is roughly 50 percent of the active
power transmitted. For HVDC classic, specially designed (and more expensive) transformers - so
called converter transformers - are required to cope with both AC and DC stress for the DC or
valve winding. The losses per converter station are about 0.5 percent of the transmitted power for
HVDC classic.

2.2.1

Components of Classic HVDC

An LCC-HVDC system typically consists of the components discussed in this section.

Figure 2.1: One-line diagram of two-terminal LCC-HVDC system

2.2.1.1

Converters

The converter performs the energy conversion between AC and DC. It usually has a 12-pulse
arrangement, in which two 6-pulse bridges are connected in series on the DC side, as depicted.
The switching sequence and instance of the valves is decided by the converter control. The rectifier
is the converter in which power flows from AC to DC, and the inverter is the converter in which

power flows from DC to AC. The principle of conversion and the waveforms associated with these
conversions are detailed in section 2.4.

Figure 2.2: Configuration of 6-pulse bridge converter

Figure 2.3: Configuration of 12-pulse bridge converter

2.2.1.2

Converter Transformers

The converter transformers adjust the supplied ac voltage to the valve bridges to suit the rated
DC voltage. The transformer for a 12-pulse bridge has a star-star-delta three-winding
configuration, or a combination of transformers in star-star and star-delta connections. The
converter transformers may be provided as single-phase or three-phase units. The converter
transformer typically has a leakage reactance of about 10-18% to limit the current during a shortcircuit fault of the bridge arm.

2.2.1.3

Harmonic Filters

Converter operation generates harmonic currents and voltages on the AC and DC sides,
respectively. On the AC side, a converter with a pulse number of p generates characteristic
harmonics having the order of np1 (n=1, 2, 3,). AC filters are installed to absorb those harmonic
components and to reduce voltage distortion below a required threshold. Tuned filters and high
pass filters are used as AC filters. On the DC side, the order of harmonics is np. DC filters, along
with DC reactors, reduce the harmonics flowing out into the DC line. DC filters are not required
in cable transmission and back-to-back schemes.

2.2.1.4

Shunt Capacitors

A line commutated converter in steady-state operation consumes reactive power of about 60%
of the active, or DC power transferred. The shunt capacitors installed at the converter AC bus
supply the reactive power required to maintain the converter AC bus voltage. To achieve
satisfactory power factor for the LCC-HVDC converter, the shunt capacitors are normally
subdivided and switched by circuit breakers as the DC power varies. Some or all of the shunt
capacitors are normally configured as AC harmonic filters.

2.2.1.5

DC Reactors

The DC reactor contributes to the smoothing of the DC current and provides harmonic voltage
reduction in the DC link. The DC reactor also contributes to the limitation of the crest current
during a short-circuit fault on the DC line. It should be noted that the inductance of the converter
transformer also contributes significantly to the quality of the DC wattage at the DC bus.

2.2.1.6

DC Connections

Cables or overhead lines are always present on the pole connections, except in back-to-back
systems. On the electrode connections, many existing systems use the ground return in normal
operating conditions (monopolar systems) or in emergency conditions (bipolar systems). However,
because of environmental opposition, the utilization of ground return is becoming increasingly
problematic and the use of metallic return (as indicated in Figure 2.1), although more expensive,
is becoming common, especially for monopolar systems.

2.2.2

Configurations of HVDC System

6

HVDC converter bridges together with lines or cables can be arranged in a number of
configurations as shown in Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5.
a. Monopolar HVDC system
In the monopolar configuration, two converters are connected by a single pole line
and a positive or a negative DC voltage is used. In Figure 2.4(a) there is only one insulated
transmission conductor installed and the ground or sea provides the path for the return
current. For instance, the Konti-Skan (1965) project and Sardinia-Italy (mainland) (1967)
project use monopolar links. Alternatively, a metallic return conductor may be used as the
return path.

b. Bipolar HVDC system

This is the most commonly used configuration of HVDC transmission systems. The
bipolar configuration, shown in Figure 2.4(b), uses two insulated conductors as positive
and negative poles. The two poles can be operated independently if both neutrals are
grounded. The bipolar configuration increases the power transfer capacity. Under normal
operation, the currents flowing in both poles are identical and there is no ground current.
In case of failure of one pole power transmission can continue in the other pole which
increases the reliability. Most overhead line HVDC transmission systems use the bipolar
configuration.

c. Homopolar HVDC system

In the homopolar configuration, shown in Figure 2.4(c), two or more conductors have
the negative polarity and can be operated with ground or a metallic return. With two poles
operated in parallel, the homopolar configuration reduces the insulation costs. However,
the large earth return current is the major disadvantage.

d. Back-to-back HVDC system

This is the common configuration for connecting two adjacent asynchronous AC
systems. Two converter stations are located at the same site and transmission line or cable
is not needed. A block diagram of a back-to-back system is shown in Figure 2.5(a). The
two AC systems interconnected may have the same or different nominal frequencies, i.e.
50Hz and 60Hz. Examples of such system configuration can be found in Japan and South
America.
7

e. Multi-terminal HVDC system

In the multi-terminal configuration, three or more HVDC converter stations are
geographically separated and interconnected through transmission lines or cables. The
system can be either parallel, where all converter stations are connected to the same
voltage as shown in Figure 2.5(b) or series multi-terminal system, where one or more
converter stations are connected in series in one or both poles as shown in Figure 2.5(c).
A hybrid multi-terminal system contains a combination of parallel and series connections
of converter stations. Applications of multi-terminal HVDCs include the SardiniaCorsica-Italy (SACOI) connection, the Pacific Intertie in USA and the Hydro Quebec New England Hydro from Canada to USA.

Figure 2.4: Monopolar (a), Bipolar (b), and Homopolar (c) HVDC systems

Figure 2.5: Back-to-back (a), Parallel multi-terminal (b), and Series multi-terminal (c) HVDC systems

2.3

Advantages and Applications of Classic HVDC

2.3.1

Advantages of classic HVDC

It is important to remark that an HVDC system offers not only the capability to transfer
electrical power but also a number of advantages as compared to AC transmission such as:

no limits in transmitted distance. This is valid for overhead lines and submarine/
underground cables.

fast and accurate control of power flow which improves the power system
stability.

direction of power flow can be changed quickly.

an HVDC link does not increase the short-circuit power in the point of
connection. This implies that it will not be necessary to change other equipment
in the existing network from the viewpoint of short-circuit power.

HVDC can carry more power for a given size of conductor as compared to the
AC system, which implies that when transmitting the same amount of active
power, the need for right-of-ways (RoWs) is less for an HVDC than for an AC
connection.

power can be transmitted between two AC systems operating at different

nominal frequencies or at the same frequency without being synchronized.
9

2.3.2 Applications of classic HVDC

The purpose of the first classic HVDC application was to provide point to point electrical
power interconnections between asynchronous AC power networks. Other applications where
HVDC transmission is suitable include:

delivery of electrical power from large energy sources over long distance, e.g.
the connection of remote hydro-stations to load centers.

import of power into congested load areas, where it is not possible to build new
generations to meet the load demand. (Underground DC cable transmission is
usually used in such application.)

increasing the capacity of existing AC transmission by DC transmission, which

eliminates the need of new transmission RoWs.

power flow control: in AC networks, the desired power flow control is difficult
to accomplish. (Power marketers and system operators may require the power
flow control capability provided by HVDC transmission.)

2.4

Basic Operations and Equations

An ACthree phase balanced system is connected to the bridge, which consists of six valves.

Valves, normally thyristors, can be controlled deciding the instant of conduction. The operation of
the bridge rests in the fact that thyristors conduct in associated pairs and the commutation between
valves is determined by the AC phase voltages.
The three-phase six-valve bridge rectifier is almost exclusively used in high voltage direct current
applications. This is shown in Figure 2.6.

10

Figure 2.6: Hexa-valve Bridge Converter arrangement

The 6-valve bridge connection gives double the direct voltage as output compared to the simple 3phase rectifier. The convertor transformer may either be wound star-star as shown in Figure 2.6,
or as star-delta (or even as delta-star or delta-delta). The ripple of each of these connections is the
same, but is phase shifted by 30 in output with respect to each other. To obtain a smoother output,
two bridges (one star-star and the other star-delta) are connected together to give the twelve pulse
connection.
For the 6-valve bridge, with zero firing delay, the voltage waveforms across the thyristors are
shown in Figure 2.7. At any given instant, one thyristor valve on either side conducts. The
conducting period for the thyristor valve R1 is shown on the diagram.

Figure 2.7: Thyristor voltage waveforms ( = 0)

The corresponding DC output voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 2.8.

11

Figure 2.8: DC output waveforms ( = 0)

It is inferred that for the 6-valve bridge, the total R.M.S. ripple is of the order of 4.2% of the DC
value (for zero delay = 0 and zero commutation = 0). The ripple of course increase with delay
angle and has a value of about 30% at = /2. With the 12 pulse bridge rectifier, the R.M.S. ripple
is of the order of 1.03% of the DC value (for = 0 and = 0), and increases to about 15% at =
/2.
The use of a choke reduces the ripple appearing in the direct current transmitted.
If E is the R.M.S. line-to-line voltage, then if = 0 and = 0, then the direct voltage output is given
by equation (2.1).

= 2

= .
=

2.4.1

32

3
cos
2

32 1

.
[2 sin ]
3
3

. = 1.350

(2.1)

Control Angle ()

The control angle for rectification (also known as the ignition angle) is the angle by which
firing is delayed beyond the natural take over for the next thyristor. The transition could be delayed
using grid control. Grid control is obtained by superposing a positive pulse on a permanent
negative bias to make the grid positive. Once the thyristor fires, the grid loses control.
Assuming no commutation (two thyristors on same side conducting simultaneously during
transfer), the voltage waveforms across the thyristor is shown in Figure 2.9.
12

Figure 2.9: Thyristor voltage waveforms (with delay angle )

In this case, the magnitude of the direct voltage output is given by the equation (2.2).

= 2

= .
=

2.4.2

3
cos
2

+
3

32 1

.
[sin ( + ) + sin ( )]
3
3
3

32

+
3

. cos =

(2.2)

Commutation Angle ()

The commutation period between two thyristors on the same side of the bridge is the angle by
which one thyristor commutates to the next. During this period , two thyristors, on the same side,
conduct together. This is shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Commutation between two thyristors

13

With both the delay angle and commutation being present, the magnitude of the direct voltage may
be determined from equation (2.3) as follows.

= 2

32
3

++
3

+
3

3
f ()
2

+
3

1
2
(cos ( + ) + cos ) . +
2
3

[ 3 +
=

++
3

+
3

[cos + cos( + )]

cos
]
(2.3)

Commutation is a result of the AC system inductance Lc, which does not allow the current through
a thyristor to extinguish suddenly. Thus, larger the current, larger is the commutation angle .

2.4.3

Extinction Angle (w)

If the extinction angle for rectifier operation w is defined as w = + , then Vd can be defined
as in equation (2.4).
Consider the commutation between thyristors 1 & 3 in the bridge circuit shown in Figure 2.11. Let
ic be the commutation current. The commutation current is produced by the voltage ec which is the
line voltage between phases R and Y.
=

0
2

( + )

Figure 2.11: Circuit for analysis of commutation

14

(2.4)

 = 2 1 =

[ ( + ) ( )]
3
3
3

= 2

This can also be written in the following form, with ic = 0 at the start of commutation and ic = Id at
the end of commutation.
= 2

This equation, on integrating as shown, gives equation (2.5).

+

1
() =
2
0

+ =

(2.5)

20

(2.6)

Equation (2.4) can also be written as equation (2.6).

From equations (2.5) and (2.6), w can be eliminated to get equation (2.7).
V

cos = V0 + 2Ec
d

0 =

32E

, = 0 +

= 0

3Lc
0

(2.7)

It can also be shown tha equation (2.7) can be rewritten in terms of the extinction angle w instead
of the igition angle as in equation (2.8).
= 0

2.4.4

Current Waveform
15

(2.8)

If Commutation is not considered, the current waveforms through each thyristor (assuming a
very high value of inductance Ld in the DC circuit to give complete smoothing) are a rectangular
pulse lasting exactly one-third of a cycle. This is shown in Figure 2.12 for the cases without delay
and with delay.

Figure 2.12: Thyristor current waveforms ()

When commutation is considered, the rise and fall of the current waveforms would be modified as
they would no longer be instantaneous, as shown in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13: Thyristor current waveforms

Since each phase has two thyristors on the opposite half cycles, the AC current waveform on the
secondary side of the transformer has a non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in Figure 2.14.

16

Figure 2.14: Current waveforms on transformer secondary

If commutation angle is not considered, we can easily calculate the R.M.S. value of the AC current
on the transformer secondary is as in equation (2.9).
1 2

= .

. 2 = 3

(2.9)

Usually harmonic filters are provided on the AC system, so that only the fundamental component
needs to be supplied/absorbed from the AC system. From Fourier analysis, it can be shown that
the fundamental component is given as follows, resulting in equation (2.10).

1 2
. . cos ()
2

. . 2 sin 3 =

= 0.78

(2.10)

As can be seen from the voltage and current waveforms on the side, the current lags the voltage
due to the presence of the delay angle and the commutation angle . Hence, it is clear that the
rectifier consumes reactive power.

2.4.5

Power factor

17

Since the convertor consumes reactive power, there will be a power factor associated with the
convertor on the AC side. This is calculated as follows.
Active power supplied to DC link = Vd Id
Active power supplied from AC system = 3 E I cos
Since the convertor does not consume any active power, there must be power balance.
Vd Id = 3 E I cos
From this, the power factor is calculated as follows.
cos =

( + )

2
6
cos =

3
0
32

This gives the result as in equation (2.11).

1

= 2 ( + ) = 2 ( + ( + ))

(2.11)

In the absence of commutation, this reduces to the simple relationship:

cos = cos

Which means that is the power factor angle in the absence of commutation. The presence of
commutation reduces the power factor by increasing the effective angle.
With = 0, the active power transmitted is 3 E I cos , and is zero in value when = 90.

18

2.4.6

Inversion

Because the thyristors conduct only in one direction, the current in a convertor cannot be
reversed. Power reversal can only be obtained by the reversal of the direct voltage (average value)
Vd.
For inversion to be possible, a high value of inductance must be present, and the delay angle >
90, since Vd changes polarity at this angle. The theoretical maximum delay for inversion would
occur at = 180.
Thus, it is a common practice to define a period of advance from this point rather than a delay
from the previous cross-over as defined for rectification. Hence, we define = as the ignition
angle for inversion or the angle of advance. Similarly, the extinction angle is also defined as =
w. The definition of the commutation angle is unchanged. Thus, = +
It should be noted that unlike with rectification, which can be operated with = 0, inversion can
not be carried out with = 0, since minimum angle 0 is required for deionisation of the arc and
regaining grid control.
Thus we have practically relationship 0 < < /2. Practical value of 0 lies between 1 and 8.
Inversion cannot be carried out without a DC power source. Further, to obtain the necessary
frequency for the AC on inversion, the commutation voltage is obtained from either synchronous
machines or from the AC system fed. In isolated systems, L-C circuits may also be sometimes
used for the purpose. Figure 2.15 shows the thyristor voltage waveforms for inversion.

Figure 2.15: Thyristor voltage waveforms for inversion

19

During inversion, each thyristor conducts during the negative half cycle, so that the direct voltage
waveform and the corresponding current get altered as shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17: Direct voltage waveform & thyristor current waveform

2.5 VSC HVDC System

A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct
current for the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more
common alternating current (AC) systems. For long-distance transmission, HVDC systems may
be less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses. For underwater power cables, HVDC avoids
the heavy currents required to charge and discharge the cable capacitance each cycle. For shorter
distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment compared to an AC system may still be
warranted, due to other benefits of direct current links.
HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC transmission systems. Since
the power flow through an HVDC link can be controlled independently of the phase angle
between source and load, it can stabilize a network against disturbances due to rapid changes in
power. HVDC also allows transfer of power between grid systems running at different
frequencies, such as 50 Hz and 60 Hz. This improves the stability and economy of each grid, by
allowing exchange of power between incompatible networks.

20

Figure 2.14 : 6 pulse IGBT converter valve

2.6 Components of VSC HVDC

VSC-HVDC is a new dc transmission system technology. It is based on the voltage source
converter, where the valves are built by IGBTs and PWM is used to create the desired voltage
waveform. With PWM, it is possible to create any waveform (up to a certain limit set by the
switching frequency), any phase angle and magnitude of the fundamental component. Changes in
waveform, phase angle and magnitude can be made by changing the PWM pattern, which can be
done almost instantaneously. Thus, the voltage source converter can be considered as a
controllable voltage source.

Figure 2.17 One line diagram of VSC HVDC system

This high controllability allows for a wide range of applications. From a system point of view
VSC-HVDC acts as a synchronous machine without mass that can control active and reactive
power almost instantaneously. In this chapter, the topology of the investigated VSC-HVDC is
21

discussed. Design considerations and modeling aspects of the VSC-HVDC are given. The
topology selection for the VSC-HVDC is based on the desired capabilities.

2.6.1 Physical Structure

The main function of the VSC-HVDC is to transmit constant DC power from the rectifier to
the inverter. As shown in Figure.1, it consists of dc-link capacitors Cdc, two converters, passive
high-pass filters, phase reactors, transformers and dc cable.

2.6.2 Converters

The converters are VSCs employing IGBT power semiconductors, one operating as a
rectifier and the other as an inverter. The two converters are connected either back-to-back or
through a dc cable, depending on the application.

2.6.3 Transformers

Normally, the converters are connected to the ac system via transformers. The most
important function of the transformers is to transform the voltage of the ac system to a value
suitable to the converter. It can use simple connection (two-winding instead of three to eightwinding transformers used for other schemes). The leakage inductance of the transformers is
usually in the range 0.1-0.2p.u.

2.6.4 Phase Reactors

The phase reactors are used for controlling both the active and the reactive power flow by
regulating currents through them. The reactors also function as ac filters to reduce the high
frequency harmonic contents of the ac currents which are caused by the switching operation of
the VSCs. The reactors are essential for both active and reactive power flow, since these
properties are determined by the power frequency voltage across the reactors. The reactors are
usually about 0.15p.u. Impedance.

22

2.6.5 AC Filters

The ac voltage output contains harmonic components, derived from the switching of the
IGBTs. These harmonics have to be taken care of preventing them from being emitted into the ac
system and causing malfunctioning of ac system equipment or radio and telecommunication
disturbances. High-pass filter branches are installed to take care of these high order harmonics.
With VSC converters there is no need to compensate any reactive power consumed by the
converter itself and the current harmonics on the ac side are related directly to the PWM
frequency. The amount of low-order harmonics in the current is small. Therefore the amount of
filters in this type of converters is reduced dramatically compared with natural commutated
converters. This is described in section 3.6 in detail.

2.6.7 DC Capacitors

On the dc side there are two capacitor stacks of the same size. The size of these capacitors
depends on the required dc voltage. The objective for the dc capacitor is primarily to provide a
low inductive path for the turned-off current and energy storage to be able to control the power
flow. The capacitor also reduces the voltage ripple on the dc side.

2.6.8 DC Cables

The cable used in VSC-HVDC applications is a new developed type, where the insulation is
made of an extruded polymer that is particularly resistant to dc voltage. Polymeric cables are the
preferred choice for HVDC, mainly because of their mechanical strength, flexibility, and low
weight.

2.6.9 IGBT Valves

The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) valves used in VSC converters are comprised of
series-connected IGBT positions. The IGBT is a hybrid device exhibiting the low forward drop
of a bipolar transistor as a conducting device. Instead of the regular current controlled base, the
IGBT has a voltage-controlled capacitive gate, as in the MOSFET device. A complete IGBT
position consists of an IGBT, an antiparallel diode, a gate unit, a voltage divider, and a water23

cooled heat sink. Each gate unit includes gate-driving circuits, surveillance circuits, and optical
interface. The gate-driving electronics control the gate voltage and current at turn-on and turnoff, to achieve optimal turn-on and turn-off processes of the IGBT. To be able to switch voltages
higher than the rated voltage of one IGBT, many positions are connected in series in each valve
similar to thyristors in conventional HVDC valves. All IGBTs must turn on and off at exactly the
same moment, to achieve an evenly distributed voltage across the valve. Higher currents are
handled by paralleling IGBT components or press packs.

2.6.10 AC Grid
Usually a grid model can be developed by using the Thevenin equivalent circuit. However,
for simplicity, the grid was modeled as an ideal symmetrical three-phase voltage source.

2.7 Advantages and Applications of VSC HVDC

2.7.1 Advantages of VSC HVDC

A long distance point to point HVDC transmission scheme generally has lower overall
Investment cost and lower losses than an equivalent AC transmission scheme. HVDC conversion
equipment at the terminal stations is costly, but the total DC transmission line costs over long
distances are lower than AC line of the same distance . HVDC requires less conductor per unit
distance than an AC line, as there is no need to support three phases and there is no skin effect.

2.7.1.1 Cable Systems

If direct current is used, the cable capacitance is charged only when the cable is first
energized or if the voltage level changes; there is no additional current required. For a
sufficiently long AC cable, the entire current-carrying ability of the conductor would be needed
to supply the charging current alone. This cable capacitance issue limits the length and power
carrying ability of AC powered cables. DC powered cables are only limited by their temperature
rise and Ohm's Law.

2.7.1.2 Overhead lines

Depending upon the environmental conditions and the performance of overhead line
insulation operating with HVDC, it may be possible for a given transmission line to operate with
a constant HVDC voltage that is approximately the same as the peak AC voltage for which it is
24

designed and insulated. The power delivered in an AC system is defined by the root mean
square (RMS) of an AC voltage, but RMS is only about 71% of the peak voltage. Therefore, if
the HVDC line can operate continuously with an HVDC voltage that is the same as the peak
voltage of the AC equivalent line, then for a given current (where HVDC current is the same as
the RMS current in the AC line), the power transmission capability when operating with HVDC
is approximately 40% higher than the capability when operating with AC.

2.7.1.3 Asynchronous Connections

Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution
systems, it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating
from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause
portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and to separate, would not similarly affect
a DC link, and the power flow through the DC link would tend to stabilize the AC network. The
magnitude and direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly controlled, and
changed as needed to support the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused
many power system operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology for its stability
benefits alone.

Figure 2.

2.7.2 Applications of VSC HVDC

2.7.2.1 AC network interconnections
A generator connected to a long AC transmission line may become unstable and fall out of
synchronization with a distant AC power system. An HVDC transmission link may make it
25

economically feasible to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off-shore may use
HVDC systems to collect power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to the
shore by an underwater cable.

2.7.2.2 Renewable electricity superhighways

A number of studies have highlighted the potential benefits of very wide area super
grids based on HVDC since they can mitigate the effects of intermittency by averaging and
smoothing the outputs of large numbers of geographically dispersed wind farms or solar farms.

2.8 Basic Operation

Because thyristors can only be turned on (not off) by control action, the control system only has
one degree of freedom when to turn on the thyristor. This is an important limitation in some
circumstances.
With some other types of semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT), both turn-on and turn-off can be controlled, giving a second degree of
freedom. As a result, they can be used to make self-commutated converters. In such converters,
the polarity of DC voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage, being smoothed by a large
capacitance, can be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC converter using IGBTs is
usually referred to as a voltage sourced converter. The additional controllability gives many
advantages, notably the ability to switch the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to
improve the harmonic performance. Being self-commutated, the converter no longer relies on
synchronous machines in the AC system for its operation. A voltage sourced converter can
therefore feed power to an AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is
impossible with LCC HVDC.

Figure 2.18: Hexa-valve bridge converter arrangement

26

HVDC systems based on voltage sourced converters normally use the six-pulse connection
because the converter produces much less harmonic distortion than a comparable LCC and the
twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary.
The VSC HVDC systems are based on the two level converters, which can be thought of as a six
pulse bridge in which the thyristors have been replaced by IGBTs with inverse-parallel diodes,
and the DC smoothing reactors have been replaced by DC smoothing capacitors. Such converters
derive their name from the discrete, two voltage levels at the AC output of each phase that
correspond to the electrical potentials of the positive and negative DC terminals. Pulse-width
modulation (PWM) is usually used to improve the harmonic distortion of the converter.

2.8

Conclusion

This chapter dealt in detail with the general concept of HVDC transmission and its basic
operation and equations. Derivation of average output voltage as per the given formulae using
the various angles has resulted in improved controllability and manipulation of the DC voltage
and the angles to achieve the desired power flow.

27

CHAPTER 3
HVDC CONTROLLERS

3.1

Introduction
The major advantage of a HVDC transmission system is its built in ability to control the

transmitted power between the sending and the receiving end converter terminals, the former
called rectifier and the latter inverter. This controllability can be utilized for the stabilization of
the connected AC network, to control the frequency of a receiving, islanded network and to assist
the frequency control of a generator, connected to the HVDC transmission rectifier. The reactive
power, that the HVDC converter consumes, depends on the values of the control angles. Thus, the
exchange of the reactive power between the converter and the AC network can be controlled and
the AC voltage is stabilized. Also, combined active and reactive power generation is applied, when
found advantageous.
This chapter throws light on the fundamental controllers required for a stable HVDC transmission
system.

3.1.1

Functions of HVDC control

In a typical two-terminal DC link connecting two AC systems, the primary functions of the
DC controls are to:

Control power flow between the terminals,

Protect the equipment against the current/voltage stresses caused by faults, and

Stabilize the attached AC systems against any operational mode of the DC link.

The two DC terminals each have their own local controllers. A centralized dispatch centre will
communicate a power order to one of the terminals which will act as a Master Controller and has
the responsibility to coordinate the control functions of the DC link. Besides the primary functions,
it is desirable that the DC controls have the following features:

Limit the maximum DC current

Maintain a maximum DC voltage for transmission

28

3.2

Minimize reactive power consumption

Basic Control Principles

The basic concept to control a HVDC transmission is the possibility to set the DC voltage

across the converter valve bridge and the transmitted power by varying the phase position of the
gate control pulses to the converter valves. Figure 3.1 shows a simple diagram for a monopolar
HVDC transmission. The voltage of the rectifier is indicated by Ud1 and the inverter by Ud2. The
polarity of the voltage Ud across the bridge is defined and it should be noted, that to make the
inverter valves conduct the rectifier must set up a higher voltage than the inverter.

Figure 3.1: Simple block diagram for monopolar HVDC transmission

3.2.1

Power exchange between rectifier and inverter

The normal configuration used for HVDC is a 12-pulse bridge converter. In a 12-pulse
converter, two 6-pulse converters are connected in series with one valve bridge being provided,
with a Y/Y connected transformer and the other with a Y/D connected transformer. Figure 3.2
shows the 12-pulse converter bridge and its single line diagram symbol.

29

Figure 3.2: 12-pulse converter and its single line diagram

The power delivered to the DC circuit from the rectifier is:

= 1

(3.1)

The DC current Id is determined by the voltage difference between rectifier and inverter and by
the line resistance Rd.
=
=

And

1 2

1 (1 2 )

(3.2)
(3.3)

The DC line has normally a low resistance Rd and accordingly, Id is very sensitive to the converter
voltage variations. Only a small change in voltage (1 2 ) is needed to cause an increase or
a decrease in the DC current.

Therefore, changes in Id can occur by:

1. Varying the carrier signal frquency thus inturn varying the modulation index of
the PWM controller at the rectifier. Due to elctronic control, this is quite fast
and will occur within one half-cycle.
30

2. Varying the carrier signal frquency thus inturn varying the modulation index of
the PWM controller at the rectifier. This is quite fast and will occur within milliseconds.
3. Varying AC voltage at rectifier by means of the converter transformer tap
changer. This is a slow process and usually takes an order of several hundred
seconds.
4. Varying AC voltage inverter by the means of the converter transformer tap
changer This is a slow process and usually takes an order of several hundred
seconds.
Equation (3.3) gives the power delivered by the rectifier. The power absorbed by the inverter is
obtained by replacing the first Ud1 in (3.3) by Ud2.
=

2 (1 2 )

(3.4)

The difference between PdR and PdI is equal to the line losses in the DC circuit.
= = 2

(3.5)

By establishing a DC current feedback loop in one of the converter stations, normally in the
rectifier and by making the inverter determine the DC voltage, a basic controllable HVDC
transmission system is obtained.
By the feedback current control system in the rectifier, the DC voltage difference (1 2 ) is
automatically kept at such a level, that a preset DC current can be delivered to the inverter.
The current control can be performed by either the rectifier or the inverter with a principle that the
current is always controlled by one of the converters and the voltage is determined by the other.

3.3

Controllers
The control system illustrated in Figure 3.3 is the basic control system needed to operate a

HVDC transmission system. To differentiate between the rectifier and the inverter operation, both
stations are provided with equal control functions with only some individually preset parameters.
Both stations are given equal current orders, but the current margin I order is subtracted in the
inverter to make the effective current order in that station lower than the rectifier value.
31

Figure 3.3: The basic HVDC control system

The choice of a control strategy for a typical two-terminal DC link is mapped according to
conditions in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Choice of control startegy for two-terminal DC link

Condition

Control

Desirable Features

Reason

Limit the maximum DC

For the protection of

Use constant current

current Id

valves

control at rectifiers

Employ the maximum

For reducing power

Use constant voltage

DC voltage Vd

transmission losses

control athe inverter

Reduce the incidence of

For stability

commutation failures

purposes

Reduce reactive power

For voltage

consumption at the

regulation and

converters

economic reasons

32

Implementation

Use minimum
extinction angle
control at inverter

Use minimum firing

angles

Condition 1 implies the use of the rectifier in constant current control mode and Condition
3 implies the use of the inverter in constant extinction angle (CEA) control mode. Other control
modes may be used to enhance the power transmission during contingency conditions depending
upon applications.
The control characteristics of the convertor are the plots of the variation of the direct voltage
against the direct current. These are described in the following sections.

3.3.1

Firing angle Control

The objective of the firing control is to convert the ordered firing angle to firing pulses, which
are further transferred to the converter valves of the corresponding phase and within a correct
interval. The firing angle being between = min to = max, the latter being determined by the
minimum extinction angle limit. The permitted changes of the firing angle depend on the mode
of operation.
Thus, the most important task of the Firing Control is to make sure, that the firing instant does
occur within the designated time limitations for the thyristor valves. E.g. To avoid very fast
changes at low in regions, where the commutations would become unsuccessful.
Natural Voltage Characteristic (NV) and the Constant Ignition Angle (CIA) control
The Natural Voltage Characteristic corresponds to zero delay angle = 0. This has the
characteristic equation given by Vd = V0 (3Lc/) Id. The Constant Ignition Angle control is a
similar characteristic which is parallel to the NV characteristic with a controllable intercept V0 cos
. These are shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: N.V. Ch. & C.I.A. control of rectifier

33

The Converter Firing Control scheme receives a current order Io and sends out firing pulses (CP)
in such a way that the ordered current is maintained. The dynamics of the HVDC transmission
system is determined primarily through the settings of the Voltage Dependent Current Order
Limiter (VDCOL) and the Current Control Amplifier (CCA).

Figure 3.4: Overview of converter firing control

3.3.1.1

Voltage Dependent Current Order Limiter

When the DC voltage is low the current order is reduced by a current order limiter. The purpose
of this function is to prevent instability in AC voltage, which can occur when a high current is
forced into a weak inverter AC network. Further, it is used to achieve a controlled recovery without
commutation failures. To assist the AC system in recovering from faults, the reactive power
consumed by the converters must often be limited. This is carried out by the VDCOL that reduces
the transmitted DC current at low DC voltage.

Figure 3.6: Static chracteristics of VDCOL

The characteristics of the limiter shown in Figure 3.6, has a fixed minimum and a maximum
limitation of a slightly more complex structure. The break point Udl , below which the current order
34

is reduced, when the voltage is decreasing, can be different depending on the application. When
the receiving end AC network is very weak, it is suitable to locate Udl very close to UdN, but in
more normal cases Udl may be 50-70% of the rated voltage.
The DC voltage response is filtered in an asymmetrical low-pass filter before controlling the
maximum limitation of the current order. The filter has different time constants for the decreasing
and the increasing voltage and the time constant for the former is normally considerably lower
than for the latter.
The control schemes in both the rectifier and the inverter are provided with current order limiters
and the time constants are separately set for the two stations.

3.3.1.2

Current Control Amplifier (CCA)

The output signal from the current control amplifier is a reference for the delay angle and used
as an input order to the firing control system. The signal is directly proportional to or a function
of it. It should be limited to a region just outside the allowed region for , between a min and a
max value.
The CCA is needed for the current feedback loop. It should have enough gain to adjust the current
order I0 with the current response and a suitable dynamics to make the current control system stable
and fast.

3.3.1.3

Control Pulse Generator (CPG)

The firing control orders the control pulse generator (CPG) to generate the gate control pulse
signals individually to every valve in the converter. In normal current control the order from the
current control amplifier (CCA) is directly turned into the correct phase position of the gate control
pulse signals. The CPG distributes the control pulses to the correct thyristor valves. For each valve,
one control pulse is sent, i.e. for a twelve pulse bridge, 12 pulses are sent per cycle. Furthermore,
blocking of bypass pairs, de-blocking and selection of the bypass pairs are also performed in this
system. The orders are received from either the pole sequences or from the protection schemes.
The CFC is thus able to operate in whichever of the following modes determined by the CCA:

minimum delay a angle control

constant DC current control

35

3.3.2

minimum extinction angle control

constant DC voltage control

Extinction angle control (CEA)

The Inverter is usually operated at constant extinction angle. This has the characteristic equation given
by Vd = V0cos (3Lc/) Id as shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: N.V. Characteristic & C.I.A. control of rectifier

3.3.3

Constant current control (CC)

The converter valves have limited thermal inertia, and therefore do not carry a large current
over their rated value for any extended period of time. Typically, a maximum limit is specified as
the upper limit for the current carrying capacity of the valves.
In a DC link, it is a common practice to operate the link at constant current rather than at constant
voltage. (Of course, constant current means that current is held nearly constant and not exactly
constant). In constant current control, the power is varied by varying the voltage. There is an
allowed range of current settings within which the current varies.

36

Figure 3.8: Current control at rectifier end

3.3.4 Full characteristic of converter

The complete characteristic of each convertor has the N.V. characteristic and equipped with
CC control and the CEA control. This is shown in Figure 3.9 for a single converter.

Figure 3.9: Complete characteristic of converter

The constant current controller adjusts the firing angle even for short-circuits on the DC line.
The CC control is present in the inverter too, although the inverter is not usually operated in that
region. The rectifier is normally operated in the CC region while the inverter is operated in the
CEA region.

37

3.4

PWM Controller
The PWM HVDC controller is a special controller which uses special carrier signal. Three

phase input AC voltage is given to the three individual negative gain amplifier. The negative gain
amplifier decreases the voltage level so that it can be used for low voltage level electronic devices.
The output of the three individual comparators. For each comparator there are two inputs one is
from output of negative gain amplifier and the other is common generated carrier frequency for
all three comparators.
The output of each comparator is given directly to S1,S3,S5 and the negation of each individual
comparators output is given to S2,S4,S6 which actually provides the signal for firing the rectifier
and inverter. The general schematic of the controller is as shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: PWM controller with level comparator

3.5

Conclusion
This chapter dealt in detail about the various control schemes used for the operation of a

controllable HVDC transmission system. The conceptual study of these controllers and their
characteristics is necessary to understand how the power flow is controlled in a closed loop
configuration, and operating the HVDC transmission system in an optimal manner.

38

CHAPTER 4
SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1

Introduction
The control functions required for the HVDC link are preferred using the hierarchical control

sturcture shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Hierarchy of HVDC control system

The master controller for a bipole is located at one of the terminals and is providd with the
power order (Pref) from the system controller (from energy control centre). It has also has other
information such as AC volatge at converter bus, DC voltage, etc. The master controller transmits
the current order (Iref) to the pole units which in turn provide a firing angle order to the individual
valve groups (converters). The valve group or converter control also oversees valve monitioring
and firing logic through the optical interface. It also includes bypass pair-selection logic,
commutation failure protection, tap-changer control, converter start/ stop sequences, margin
switching and valve protection circuits.

39

4.2

MATLAB/SIMULINK Model & Simulation

In this project, a master controller for LCC-based HVDC system has been developed. The

controller scheme has been developed for the rectifier side.

Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of HVDC system

4.2.1 HVDC Transmisision System

4.2.1.1

Modelling of AC system at rectifier

AC system at rectifier in MATLAB/SIMULINK is modelled as balanced sinusoidal threephase infinite bus voltage behind impedance. The source impedance at rectifier is modelled as L
and R-L type. The details of the AC system have been given in section 4.5.1.

Figure 4.3: MATLAB model of AC side of HVDC system

4.2.1.2

Modelling of converter

The converters are modelled using six pulse IGBTs available in MATLAB. The IGBTs have
the facility to control their ON and OFF state. IGBTs are modelled as ideal therefore, negative
turn-off and firing due to large (/) or (/) are not considered.
40

Figure 4.4: MATLAB model of Rectifier unit consisting IGBTs

For the measurement of input line voltage the three phase VI measurement block from
MATLAB is used. The PWM triggering circuit is used for triggering the six-pulse IGBTs of
converter station.
4.2.1.3

Modelling of DC system

DC system parameters are given below, these are taken as the base values while modelling
the control circuit. The DC line is with smoothing reactors inserted on the rectifier side. The values
of resistance and the smoothing reactor are given in section 4.5.1

Figure 4.5: MATLAB model of HVDC Transmission line

4.2.2

Modelling of continuous pulse generator

The firing circuit for the rectifiers has been built using a synchronised 6-pulse generator as
shown below in Figure 4.6.
41

Figure 4.6: MATLAB model for firing pulse generator

4.2.3 PWM Controller

Figure 4.7:
Inverter in Power-Electronics refers to a class of power conversion circuits that operate
from a dc voltage source or a dc current source and convert it into a symmetric ac voltage or
current. It does reverse of what ac-to-dc converter does. The input to the inverter is a direct dc
source or dc source derived from an ac source. For example, the primary source of input power
42

may be utility ac voltage supply that is converted to dc by an ac - dc rectifier with filter capacitor
and then inverted back to ac using an inverter. Here, the final ac output may be of a different
frequency and magnitude than the input ac of the utility supply.

If the input dc is a voltage source, the inverter is called a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI).
One can similarly think of a Current Source Inverter (CSI), where the input to the circuit is a
current source. The VSI circuit has direct control over output (ac) voltage whereas the CSI
directly controls output (ac) current.

The simplest dc voltage source for a VSI may be a battery bank or a solar photovoltaic cells
stack. An ac voltage supply, after rectification into dc can also serve as a dc voltage source. A
voltage source is called stiff, if the source voltage magnitude does not depend on load connected
to it. All voltage source inverters assume stiff voltage supply at the input.

Output of voltage waveforms of ideal inverters should be sinusoidal. However practical

inverter waveforms are non sinusoidal and contain certain harmonics. For low and medium
power applications square wave or quasi square wave voltages are acceptable.

A variable voltage can be obtained by varying the input dc voltage and maintaining the gain
of the inverter constant. On the other hand, if the dc input voltage is fixed then variable output
voltage can be obtained by varying the gain of the inverter. This can be accomplished by Pulse
Width Modulation-PWM control within the inverter. PWM means the width of the square pulse
in positive and negative halves can be adjusted according to the rms of the output required. The
Wave PWM technique the output ac rms voltage is fixed when input dc voltage is fixed.
4.2.3.1 Single Phase Bridge VSI

Fig 4(a) shows the power circuit diagram for single phase bridge voltage source inverter. In
this four switches (in 2 legs) are used to generate the ac waveform at the output. Any
semiconductor switch like IGBT, MOSFET or BJT can be used. Four switches are sufficient for
resistive load because load current io is in phase with output voltage vo. However this is not true in
case of RL load where the io is not in phase with vo and diodes connected in anti-parallel with

43

switch will allow the conduction of the current when the main switch is turned off. These diodes
are called as Feedback Diodes since the energy is fed back to the dc source.

Fig 4.8 IGBT based Single phase bridge voltage source inverter power circuit diagram.

4.2.3.2 Square Wave PWM

In full bridge inverter, when T1, T2 conduct the output voltage is Vs and when T3, T4
conducts the output voltage is -Vs. The switches T1, T2 conducts for period of 0<tT/2 and the
switches T3, T4 conducts for period of T/2<tT where T is the time period of the gate pulses to
the devices. The frequency of output ac voltage can be varied by varying the T of the gate signal.
The root mean square (rms) value of output ac voltage:

4.2.3.3 PWM techniques for voltage control

The following PWM techniques are used for controlling the output ac rms voltage and
frequency in an inverter:
Single-Pulse-Width-Modulation
Multiple-Pulse-Width-Modulation
Sinusoidal-Pulse-Width-Modulation (SPWM)
44

4.2.3.4 Single-Pulse-Width-Modulation

In single pulse width modulation control, there is only one pulse per half cycle and the
output rms voltage is changed by varying the width of the pulse. The gating signals and output
voltages of single pulse-width modulation are shown in fig 4(b). The gating signals are generated
by comparing the rectangular control signal of amplitude Vc with triangular carrier signal Vcar. The
frequency of the control signal determines the fundamental frequency of ac output voltage.
The amplitude modulation index is defined as:

The rms ac output voltage

where
By varying the control signal amplitude Vc from 0 to Vcar the pulse width ton can be
modified from 0 secs to T/2 secs and the rms output voltage Vo from 0 to Vs.

In multiple PWM control, instead of having a single pulse per half cycle, there will be multiple
number of pulses per half cycle, all of them being of equal width.

4.2.3.5 Sinusoidal-Pulse-Width-Modulation (SPWM)

In sinusoidal pulse width modulation there are multiple pulses per half-cycle and the width
of the each pulse is varied with respect to the sine wave magnitude. Fig 4(c) shows the gating
signals and output voltage of SPWM with unipolar switching. In this scheme, the switches in the
two legs of the full-bridge inverter are not switched simultaneously, as in the bi-polar scheme.

45

Fig 4.9 Gating signals and output voltage of Single pulse-width modulation
In this unipolar scheme the legs A and B of the full-bridge inverter are controlled separately
by comparing carrier triangular wave vcar with control sinusoidal signal vc and -vc respectively.
This SPWM is generally used in industrial applications. The number of pulses per half-cycle
depends upon the ratio of the frequency of carrier signal (fc) to the modulating sinusoidal signal.
The frequency of control signal or the modulating signal sets the inverter output frequency (fo) and
46

the peak magnitude of control signal controls the modulation index ma which in turn controls the
rms output voltage. The area of each pulse corresponds approximately to the area under the sine
wave between the adjacent midpoints of off periods on the gating signals. If ton is the width of nth
pulse, the rms output voltage can be determined by:

The amplitude modulation index is defined as:

where,

= peak magnitude of control signal (modulating sine wave)

= peak magnitude of carrier signal (triangular signal)

The frequency modulation ratio is defined as:

where,

= frequency of control signal (sine signal)

= frequency of carrier signal (triangular signal)

4.2.3.6 Working
Three phase input AC voltage is given to the three individual negative gain amplifier. The
negative gain amplifier decreases the voltage level so that it can be used for low voltage level
electronic devices. The output of the three individual comparators. For each comparator there are
two inputs one is from output of negative gain amplifier and the other is common generated
carrier frequency for all three comparators.
The output of each comparator is given directly to S1,S3,S5 and the negation of each individual
comparators output is given to S2,S4,S6
47

Refer the below diagram.

Figure 4.10 PWM Controller

4.2.4

Modelling of DC fault circuit

The DC fault in the HVDC transmission system has been simulated by using controllable
switches and a switch controller as shown below in the figures below.

48

Figure 4.11: SIMULINK model for DC fault assembly

Figure 4.12: SIMULINK model for the fault circuit

Figure 4.13 SIMULINK model for fault switches

49

4.2.5

Modelling of Inverter

The converters are modelled using six pulse IGBTs available in MATLAB. The IGBTs have
the facility to control their ON and OFF state. IGBTs are modelled as ideal therefore, negative
turn-off and firing due to large (/) or (/) are not considered. For the measurement of
input line voltage the three phase VI measurement block from MATLAB is used. Separate pulses
are used for each of the six IGBTs.

Figure 4.14 VSC Inverter Unit

4.3

Result & Discussion

The results in support of the successful development of the simulation model of HVDC system

have been elaborated in the sub-sections below.

50

4.3.1

System Specifications

AC system at rectifier in MATLAB/SIMULINK is modelled as balanced sinusoidal threephase infinite bus voltage behind impedance. The source impedance at rectifier is modelled as L
and R-L type. The specifications of the AC system are given in the following table.

Table 4.1: AC system parameters

Parameter

Value

AC Voltage Base

307.8 kV

Base MVA

150 MVA

Voltage source

1 pu 0

Source Impedance

R = 0.5 / L = 0.001 mH

System frequency

50 Hz

The parameters of the DC system are as given in the table below.

Table 4.2: DC system parameters

Parameter

Value

DC Voltage Base

210 kV

Base MW

150 MW

Line Impedance

R = 0.5 / L = 1.0 mH

Minimum angle

=10

51

4.3.2

Steady State Performance of HVDC system

The designed HVDC transmission was simulated and their performance was analysed. The
study is carried out without the introduction of any fault on the DC side.

4.3.3

Input AC waveforms

Figure 4.15 Input AC Waveform

4.3.4

Rectifier Output DC waveforms

Figure 4.16 Rectifier Output DC Waveform

52

4.3.5

Output of Inverter( Phase Voltage)

Figure 4.17 Output of Inverter(Phase Voltage)

Line Voltage

Figure 4.18 Output of Inverter( Line Voltage)

53

4.3.6 Calculations
1) Input Supply
Frequency = 50Hz
Output of Three Phase Source (Vp-ground)

=170kV

Output of Three Phase Source (Vp line to line) = 3X (Vp-ground)

=294.45kV

2) DC Line
Input voltage to the Rectifier (Vp - AC)

= 170kV
Vout = (33 Vp)/
= 1.654*Vin
= 281.18kV .

This is the theoretical value.

Output voltage of the Rectifier (Vdc) = 280.18 kV .
This is the Experimental Value.

3) Output Rectifier Side

Output Frequency = 50Hz
Input voltage to the Inverter (Vdc)

= 280kV

Peak value of output line voltage

= 1.10266*Vdc= (4 Vp cos(/6))/
= 308.74kV .

This is the Theoretical value.

Peak value of output phase voltage

= 308.74kV/3
= 175.45kV
54

Output voltage of the Inverter (Vp-Line) = 310 kV .

4.3.7

Performance of HVDC Link

The performance of the HVDC transmission system is analysed for steady state performance
for a constant firing angle at rectifier end inverter.
The corresponding graphs are given below.

4.3.7.1 Steady State Performance

Figure 4.19: Voltage and current waveform of rectifier AC input (pu)

Figure 4.20: Real and reactive power input for rectifier (pu)

55

Figure 4.21: DC line voltage (pu) and DC power (pu)

Figure 4.22: DC line current (pu)

56

Figure 4.23: Rectifier firing angle (deg)

4.3.7.2

Type of fault

Duration of fault

Short-duration fault

< 0.2s

Medium-duration fault

< 0.6s

Long-duration fault

1s

Short-duration faults

The DC link is subjected to a sudden fault at t = 0.2s at the midpoint of the link. The fault
persists for 0.2s and then clears off.
The relevant graphs are presented below.

57

Figure 4.24: Voltage and current waveform of rectifier AC input (pu)

Figure 4.25: Real and reactive power input for rectifier (pu)

58

Figure 4.26: DC line voltage (pu) and DC Power (pu)

Figure 4.27: DC line current (pu)

59

Figure 4.28: Rectifier firing angle (deg)

Table 4.8: Short-duration fault response of HVDC transmission system with Master Controller

Parameters

Value

Firing angle during fault

89.8
AC system

Peak Real Power (P)

2.7 pu

Reactive Power (Q)

7.25 pu
DC line

Peak Current (Idc)

7.6 pu

Peak Power (Pdc)

2.85 pu

Response time

0.035s

Restoration time after fault clears

0.11s

60

4.3.7.3

Medium-duration faults

The DC link is subjected to a sudden fault at t = 0.2s at the midpoint of the link. The fault
persists for 0.4s and then clears off.
The relevant graphs are presented below.

Figure 4.29: Voltage and current waveform of rectifier AC input (pu)

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Figure 4.30: Real and reactive power input for rectifier (pu)

Figure 4.31: DC line voltage (pu) and DC Power (pu)

62

Figure 4.32: DC line current (pu)

Figure 4.33: Rectifier firing angle (deg)

63

Table 4.8: Medium-duration fault response of HVDC transmission system with Master Controller

Parameters

Value
89.8 (0.402s)

Firing angle during fault

180 (0.037s)
AC system
Peak Real Power (P)

2.7 pu

Reactive Power (Q)

7.25 pu
DC line

Peak Current (Idc)

8.6 pu

Peak Power (Pdc)

3.25 pu

Response time

0.034s

Restoration time after fault clears

0.135s

4.3.7.4

Long-duration faults

The DC link is subjected to a sudden fault at t = 0.2s at the midpoint of the link. The fault
persists for 0.9s and then clears off.
The relevant graphs are presented below.

64

Figure 4.34: Voltage and currrent waveform of rectifier AC input (pu)

Figure 4.35: Real and reactive power input for rectifier (pu)

65

Figure 4.36: DC line voltage (pu) and DC power (pu)

Figure 4.37: DC line current (pu)

66

Figure 4.38: Rectifier firing angle (deg)

Table 4.8: Long-duration fault response of HVDC transmission system with Master Controller

Parameters

Value
89.8 (0.402s)

Firing angle during fault

180 (0.537s)
AC system
Peak Real Power (P)

2.7 pu

Reactive Power (Q)

7.25 pu
DC line

Peak Current (Idc)

8.63 pu

Peak Power (Pdc)

0.545 pu

Response time

0.034s

Restoration time after fault clears

0.14s

67

4.4 Conclusion
This chapter dealt with the theoretical concepts of the PWM controller scheme. The
controller logic was developed and then implemented in MATLAB in order to trigger the VSC
converter. The model used is in MATLAB/SIMULINK consisting 6-pulse VSC HVDC system
having IGBT. The performane of the system under normal condition and under different types of
falts is comprehensively analysed and compared.

68

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
A PWM controller scheme has been designed for a VSC HVDC transmission system. This
project work dealt with the theoretical concepts of the PWM controller scheme implemented in
the simulation of VSC based HVDC system with fault analysis. The controller has developed and
then implemented in MATLAB in order to trigger the VSC. The model used in
MATLAB/SIMULINK consists of 6-pulse IGBT VSC based HVDC system. The performance
of the system under normal condition and under different types of faults is comprehensively
analysed.
The system was tested and analysed for the steady state performance of the HVDC
transmission system with faults. The performance of the system was found to be significantly
improved with fixed PWM pulses.Also the system has been analysed with the introduction of
system faults of varying duration in the DC link. The response of the system to these faults was
found to be very fast, and highly accurate.

69