Many studies have demonstrated that a variety of hereditary and environmental factors show a causal

relationship with juvenile delinquency. Personality disorders, physical abuse, substance dependence,
and environment are just some of the many different factors that can promote conduct disorder in our
nation's youth. The term Juvenile Delinquent is more of a legal term than it is a diagnosis, and those
children labeled juvenile delinquents by the courts are usually diagnosed with conduct disorder
(Santrock, 2012).
Poor parenting also has a strong relationship with juvenile delinquency. However, is there one specific
style of parenting that tends to prevent (or cause) delinquency? Research suggests that an authoritative
parenting style dramatically decreases instances of juvenile delinquency. Conversely, neglectful
parenting shows a distinct positive correlation with such behavior.
Juvenile Delinquency: An Overview
I spent a full year at two different Juvenile Detention Centers in Northern Florida, working as both a
teacher and a guidance counselor in an embedded educational program for both Level 6 and Level 8
Offenders. Every last student in the facility had been labeled by the courts as a juvenile delinquent,
and the vast majority had been diagnosed with conduct disorder. A large percentage showed signs of
alcohol and drug abuse, roughly one third had been treated for venereal disease, and approximately
15% were at one time victims of sexual abuse, usually by a close family member.
The majority of incarcerated juveniles were repeat offenders, and the overwhelming majority had no
prominent male figure in their lives. In fact, of the 230 students with whom the author worked, only
about 15-20 had parents who were married. The rest were either raised by a single parent, or a relative,
such as a grandmother or aunt. Most of the boys had never even met their biological father. Others had
stepfathers who were abusive, neglectful, or just absent.
One does not need to perform a great deal of research to conclude that there is an inverse correlation
between proper parenting and juvenile delinquency. While it would be incorrect to say with certainty
that bad parenting produces bad children, there is nonetheless an obvious relationship between the
quality of parenting and the likelihood that the child will engage in delinquent behaviors. While several
social factors play a role in juvenile delinquency, research shows that the major contributing factor is
indeed the family unit specifically, parenting, or lack thereof (Mmari, et al. 2010). Steinberg (2000)
doubts that there is an influence on the development of antisocial behavior among young people that is
stronger than that of the family (33). He notes, as an example, that children who are physically abused
by their parents are far more likely to abuse others, and to expect abuse from others. But what are the
characteristics of good parenting, and why does it lessen the chances of juvenile delinquency. Before
we address this issue, we must first understand juvenile delinquency.
In order to understand juvenile delinquency, we must properly define it. Berger (2000) defines juvenile
delinquency as both major and minor lawbreaking by an individual aged eighteen and younger. Crimes
can range from relatively minor infractions, such as truancy and petty theft, all the way to rape and
murder. Juvenile delinquency, thus, is a broad term connecting adolescents in two significant ways.
First, their age, which will always be aged 18 and under. Second, that they have committed a crime and
been prosecuted in a court of law. Because this covers such a wide range of offenders, researchers have
sought to identify different categories of delinquency, as it is such a broad term. Hoeve, et al. (2008)
have identified five categories of juvenile delinquents, with most research concentrating on drug sales
and violence. The five types of delinquency include: 1) a non-delinquent; 2) minor-persisting; 3)
moderate desisting; 4) serious persisting; and 5) serious desisting trajectory. For the purposes of this

article, we will keep our focus on the latter three categories.

A non-delinquent may be a first time offender, and may never find themselves in a courtroom ever
again. A minor-persisting could be a child with a history of something relatively minor, like truancy.
Compare that to serious persisting and serious desisting trajectory, and now we are talking about
robbery, carjacking, felony assault, rape, and even murder. These levels also indicate escalation,
repeated arrest, and subsequent conviction.
Santrock (2012) notes that conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency are closely linked. According to
his research, approximately five percent of American children show serious conduct disorders, with an
overwhelming majority (close to 80%) being males. It is indeed fair to say that children diagnosed with
conduct disorder are far more likely to become juvenile delinquents, which again is a legal distinction,
and not a clinical one.
Juvenile delinquency can be caused by a variety of factors. Negative peers, proximity to violence, low
intelligence, delinquent peers, and certain genetic traits all play a role. However, a great deal of
research suggests that the family unit is perhaps the single greatest determiner of delinquent behavior in
juveniles (Steinberg, 2000).
Parenting Styles and Delinquency
As children develop, they attempt to make sense of the complicated world in which they live. Whether
they realize it not, children both want and need structure. When done correctly, structure helps a child
feel safe, and when they feel safe they feel loved. The drawback of authoritarian parenting is that the
security it provides is more like the security a prison provides as opposed to the security a parent is
supposed to provide.
Indulgent parenting essentially spoils children. It promotes egocentrism, selfishness, and behavioral
problems (Santrock, 2012). Ironically, some parents choose this style of parents to foster creativity and
confidence in their children. However, because structure is lacking, this type of parenting often fails to
produce the intended results.
Steinberg (2000) notes that parental engagement in the childrens lives is one of the most important
if not the single most important contributors to childrens healthy psychological development
adolescents whose parents are not sufficiently engaged in their lives are more likely to get into trouble
than are other youngsters (36). Steinberg clarifies his position, stating that negative parenting is a risk
factor, not a definitive cause of juvenile delinquency. The style of parenting to which he is referring is
called Indifferent, or Neglectful Parenting, which is where the parents are largely absent from the
childs life. As a result, the child receives almost no structure from his or her own parents, and in turn
seeks it from other outlets. These outlets can include social media, negative peer pressure, delinquent
siblings, and the childs own compromised mental health status.
It is perhaps no surprise that this style of parenting will most likely produce children with conduct
disorders, who in turn stand a far greater chance of being labeled juvenile delinquents by the court
system (Hoeve, et al. 2007). While authoritarian and indulgent parenting styles ultimately prove
detrimental to a childs upbringing, they do not correlate to delinquent behavior in the way that
neglectful parenting does. It is also important to definition of neglectful, as it applies to this style of
parenting. This does not simply mean a lack of parental involvement, though that may certainly be one
dimension. It includes possible mental health and substance abuse issues in the family, the effects of a
divorce on the family unit, and outside influences on the child that factor more heavily than the parent,

such as peer influences or dangerous neighborhoods (Steinberg, 2000 & others).

Parenting Styles: An examination
According to Wright and Wright (1994), the family unit is the foundation of human society. Children
who grow up in an environment immersed in conflict, or who are the victims of abuse, or who lack
proper parental modeling and supervision, are far more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. This
research is nothing new. Almost half a century ago, Eisner (1966) demonstrated that regardless of
ethnicity, children raised by two parents were far less likely to commit crimes than those raised by a
single parent. The world, however, has changed, with single parent homes more of the norm than an
aberration. Current research has focused not on the number of parents, but on the style of parenting to
which the child has been exposed.
Diana Baumrind (1971) has identified four different parenting styles, and has noted that some are far
more effective than others. They are as follows:
Neglectful Parenting is characterized by a utter lack of involvement in the child's life. Such
parenting can cause poor self esteem, poor self-control, and will likely promote truancy and
delinquency during adolescence (Santrock, 2012).
Indulgent Parents are quite involved in their child's life, but place hardly any demands in terms of
behavioral expectations. Parents might engage in this style of parenting in order to promote
independence and creativity, but the opposite usually occurs. Children reared this way tend to be
egocentric and have a hard time relating to others. It does not, however, tend to promote delinquent
behavior, perhaps because the child already gets whatever he wants from his parents in the first place.
Authoritarian Parenting is a style where the parent's word is Law. Children are tightly controlled and
punished for transgressions. There is little verbal exchange between parent and child. This is a
domineering, punitive style of parenting that can result in unhappy and anxious children (Santrock,
2012).
Authoritative Parenting is a style that encourages children to be independent but still provides the
rules and consistency that children need in order to feel safe and in control. Parents who use this style
will explain to their children why certain rules exist, or perhaps why a child's behavior was
inappropriate. Parents tend to be supportive and nurturing, which in turn promotes mature and ageappropriate behavior in their children.
An overwhelming amount of research indicates that authoritative parenting is the preferred method of
child rearing (Santrock, 2012). The Santrock text cites a number of examples that demonstrate that
authoritative parenting transcends ethnic, social, and cultural lines, indicating that it is almost
universally applicable. It does note, though, that the application of authoritarian parenting does work in
certain culturally specific situations. Asian American families, generally speaking, employ a form of
authoritarian parenting, but Santrock (2012) notes that this form of parenting is distinct in that it is
conceptualized as a form of training rather than one characterized by punishment. Similar examples
can be found in Latino cultures. As this author understands it, the problem with authoritarian parenting
is that it does not provide adequate context for the child. A child who is punished without
understanding the reason for their punishment is simply a child being punished, as opposed to one who
has a chance to learn from a mistake and thus not repeat it.
Authoritative parenting shares a number of characteristics with authoritative parenting. Discipline and

structure are key in both forms, but an authoritative parent tries to ensure that their child understands
the reasons why their behavior was inappropriate, the reason why they are being punished, and perhaps
most importantly, ensures that the child knows that they are still loved and supported, despite the
transgression. This is a major way in which authoritarian parenting fail children are severely punished
and are trained to think that their actions have somehow compromised their parents love for them.
Santrock (2012) notes that a number of longitudinal studies show that the children of authoritarian
parents tend to be more aggressive, more prone to violence and delinquency, and less trusting of others.
Simply put, authoritarian parenting promotes antisocial behavior; authoritative parenting promotes
socially responsible children.
A Possible Solution
What can we do to stem the tide of delinquency among our nations youth. If every parent paid more
attention to their children, surely that would be a step in the right direction. But a massive change like
that is perhaps unrealistic, at least without some form of third party direction. In Strengthening
Americas Families, Alvarado and Kumpfer (2000) discuss an Initiative aimed at doing just that. They
acknowledge that delinquency stems from a number of interrelated social problems, from neglectful
parenting to inappropriate sexual activity, but they believe that they key is the family unity. Because
families are the first point of a childs social contact, it is essential that parents understand the critical
role they play in their childrens development and that they be equipped with the information and skills
necessary to raise healthy and well adapted children (9). The Strengthening Americas Family
Initiative is a program designed to provide parents with the skills they need to decrease risk factors
associated with juvenile delinquency.
In their paper, they discuss the concept of Protective Factors, which they argue are the key to
maintaining a strong family unit. Parental supervision, attachment to parents, and consistency of
discipline are the most important protective factors (9). These provide a strong defense against risk
factors such as peer substance abuse, parental mental disorders, family isolation, poverty, violence, and
several other interrelated social issues.
It seems as if awareness is a key weapon in the war against juvenile delinquency. Many parents simply
need to be educated about the risks associated with improper parenting. Parents who are teenagers
themselves, or who are mentally ill, or who are themselves the children of neglectful parents must learn
the skills necessary to raise their children in environments where an overwhelming amount of risk
factors place their children in constant danger. By providing the skill sets to these parents, the Initiative
hopes to reduce the overall percentage of juvenile delinquents in the country.
Conclusion
Having worked for years with repeat juvenile offenders, I have seen firsthand the dangers of juvenile
delinquency. The epidemic is not just destructive to the family unit, but to society as a whole. Teenage
criminals are in many ways more dangerous than their adult counterparts. They tend to lack a firm
grasp of consequences in the way that adults do, and because their perspective is that of a childs, their
understanding of the ramifications of their actions is compromised. Without proper supervision,
juveniles are incredibly susceptible to negative peer influences, and may simply lack the coping skills
most adults have to face the challenges implicit in daily life.
So important is the concept of structure in a childs life that many residents of juvenile correctional
faculties actually prefer incarceration to life on the streets. For many, a detention center provides meals,
shelter, medical care, and protection from predators. Perhaps most importantly, many juvenile offenders

find their first real positive role models inside the walls of the detention facilities the guards and
teachers and case workers and therapists to which they are assigned on a daily basis.
Perhaps it comes as no surprise that authoritative parenting promotes well adjusted youth. It should also
be obvious that neglectful parents tend to produce conduct disorders in their children, which in turn
produces juvenile delinquents. The overwhelming amount of research and data demonstrates
conclusively that there is such a thing as proper and improper parenting.
While neglectful parenting does not absolutely cause conduct disorders, the relationship is undeniable.
While Santrock (2012) and others note that an integrative approach to parenting is often effective as
well, the practicing therapist can rest assured that the authoritative parenting style is the best defense
against juvenile delinquency, and the neglectful parenting style is the most likely cause. It is thus
imperative for parents to understand the importance of positive involvement and the dangers of neglect.
What do you think? Leave a comment below.
References
Alvarado, R., and Kumpfer, Karol (2000). Strengthening America's families. Journal of the Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention 7(3): 9-18,
Baumrind, Diana (1971). Current patterns of behavioral authority. Developmental Psychology. 4(1, Part 2): 1-103.
Berger, K.S. (2000). the developing person through childhood and adolescence. New York: Worth Publishers
Chung, He Len, & Steinberg, Laurence. (2006). Relations between neighborhood factors, parenting behaviors, peer
deviances, and delinquency among serious juvenile offenders. Dev Psychol. 42(2): 319-331
Forehand, Rex, et al. (1997). Role of parenting in adolescent deviant behavior: replication across and within two ethnic
groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology: 65(6):1036-1041.
Hoeve, M., Blockland, A., et al. (2008). Trajectories of delinquency and parenting styles. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 36, 223-235.
Mmari, N.K., Blum, W.R., & Teufel-Stone, N. (2010). What increase risk and protection for delinquent behaviors among
American India Youth? Findings from three tribal communities. Youth & Society, 41, 382-413.
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and placement instability. Children and Youth Services Review. 27(3): 227-249
Santrock, John W. (2012). A topical approach to lifespan development (6th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Steinberg, Laurence. (2000). Youth violence: do parents and families make a difference? National Institute of Justice
Journal, 31-38
Wright, Kevin N. and Wright, Karen E. (1994). Family Life, Delinquency, and Crime: A Policymakers Guide. Research
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