Martix

Section E
Matrices and determinants
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Chapter 24
The theory of matrices and

determinants
Why it is important to understand: The theory of matrices and determinants
Matrices are used to solve problems in electronics, optics, quantum mechanics, statics, robotics, linear
programming, optimisation, genetics, and much more. Matrix calculus is a mathematical tool used in
connection with linear equations, linear transformations, systems of differential equations, and so on,
and is vital for calculating forces, vectors, tensions, masses, loads and a lot of other factors that must be
accounted for in engineering to ensure safe and resource-efficient structure. Electrical and mechanical
engineers, chemists, biologists and scientists all need knowledge of matrices to solve problems. In computer
graphics, matrices are used to project a three-dimensional image on to a two-dimensional screen, and to
create realistic motion. Matrices are therefore very important in solving engineering problems.
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
understand matrix notation

add, subtract and multiply 2 by 2 and 3 by 3 matrices
recognise the unit matrix
calculate the determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix
determine the inverse (or reciprocal) of a 2 by 2 matrix
calculate the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix
determine the inverse (or reciprocal) of a 3 by 3 matrix
24.1
Matrix notation
Matrices and determinants are mainly used for the solution of linear simultaneous equations. The theory of
matrices and determinants is dealt with in this chapter and this theory is then used in Chapter 25 to solve
simultaneous equations.
The coefficients of the variables for linear simultaneous equations may be shown in matrix form.
The coefficients of x and y in the simultaneous

equations
x + 2y = 3
4x 5y = 6

1
2
become
in matrix notation.
4 5
Similarly, the coefficients of p, q and r in the equations
Higher Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66282-6, 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
276 Higher Engineering Mathematics

1.3 p 2.0q + r = 7
3.7 p + 4.8q 7r = 3
4.1 p + 3.8q + 12r = 6
Section E
1.3 2.0
become 3.7
4.8
4.1
3.8
1
7 in matrix form.
12
The numbers within a matrix are called an array and

the coefficients forming the array are called the elements of the matrix. The number of rows in a matrix
is usually specified by m and the number of columns
by n and
a matrix
referred to as an m by n matrix.
2 3 6
Thus,
is a 2 by 3 matrix. Matrices cannotbe
4 5 7
expressed as a single numerical value, but they can often
be simplified or combined, and unknown element values can be determined by comparison methods. Just as
there are rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division of numbers in arithmetic, rules for these
operations can be applied to matrices and the rules of
matrices are such that they obey most of those governing
the algebra of numbers.
24.2 Addition, subtraction and

multiplication of matrices
(i) Addition of matrices
Corresponding elements in two matrices may be added
to form a single matrix.
Problem 1. Add the matrices

2 1
3
0
(a)
and
7
4
7 4
3 1 4
2 7 5
1 and 2 1
0
(b) 4 3
1 4 3
6 3
4
(a)
Adding the corresponding elements gives:

2 1
3
0
+
7
4
7 4

2 + (3) 1 + 0
=
7 + 7
4 + (4)

1 1
=
0
0
(b)
Adding the corresponding elements gives:
3 1 4
2 7 5
4 3
1 + 2 1
0
1 4 3
6 3
4
3+2
1 + 7 4 + (5)
1+0
= 4 + (2) 3 + 1
1+6
4 + 3 3 + 4
5 8 9
1
= 2 4
7 7
1
(ii) Subtraction of matrices

If A is a matrix and B is another matrix, then ( A B)
is a single matrix formed by subtracting the elements of
B from the corresponding elements of A.
Problem 2. Subtract

3
0
2 1
(a)
from
7 4
7
4
2 7 5
3 1 4
0 from 4 3
1
(b) 2 1
6 3
4
1 4 3
To find matrix A minus matrix B, the elements of B are
taken from the corresponding elements of A. Thus:

2 1
3
0
(a) 7
4
7 4

2 (3) 1 0
=
7 7
4 (4)

5 1
=
14
8
3 1 4
2 7 5
(b) 4 3
1 2 1
0
1 4 3
6 3
4
32
1 7 4 (5)
10
= 4 (2) 3 1
16
4 3 3 4
1 6
1
2
1
= 6
5
1 7
Problem 3. If

3
0
2 1
A=
,B=
and
7 4
7
4
The theory of matrices and determinants

1
0
find A + B C
2 4
A+B =

1 1
0
0
(from Problem 1)

1 1
1
0
Hence, A + B C =
0
0
2 4

1 1
1 0
=
0 (2)
0 (4)

2 1
=
2
4
Alternatively A + B C
=

3
0
2 1
1
0
+
7 4
7
4
2 4

3 + 2 1
0 + (1) 0
7 + (7) (2) 4 + 4 (4)

2 1
=
as obtained previously
2
4
(iii) Multiplication
When a matrix is multiplied by a number, called scalar
multiplication, a single matrix results in which each
element of the original matrix has been multiplied by
the number.

3
0
Problem 4. If A =
,
7 4

1
0
2 1
find
B=
and C =
7
4
2 4
2 A 3B + 4C
For scalar multiplication, each element is multiplied by

the scalar quantity, hence

3
0
6
0
2A = 2
=
7 4
14 8

2 1
6 3
3B = 3
=
7
4
21 12

1
0
4
0
and 4C = 4
=
2 4
8 16
Hence 2 A 3B + 4C

6 0
6 3
4
0
=
+
14 8
21 12
8 16

6 6 + 4
0 (3) + 0
=
14 (21) + (8) 8 12 + (16)

8
3
=
27 36
When a matrix A is multiplied by another matrix B,
a single matrix results in which elements are obtained
from the sum of the products of the corresponding rows
of A and the corresponding columns of B.
Two matrices A and B may be multiplied together,
provided the number of elements in the rows of matrix
A are equal to the number of elements in the columns of
matrix B. In general terms, when multiplying a matrix
of dimensions (m by n) by a matrix of dimensions (n by
r ), the resulting matrix has dimensions (m by r ). Thus
a 2 by 3 matrix multiplied by a 3 by 1 matrix gives a
matrix of dimensions 2 by 1.

2 3
5 7
Problem 5. If A =
and B =
1 4
3 4
find A B

C
C12
Let A B = C where C = 11
C21 C22
C11 is the sum of the products of the first row elements
of A and the first column elements of B taken one at a
time,
i.e. C11 = (2 (5)) + (3 (3)) = 19
C12 is the sum of the products of the first row elements
of A and the second column elements of B, taken one
at a time,
i.e. C12 = (2 7) + (3 4) = 26
C21 is the sum of the products of the second row
elements of A and the first column elements of B, taken
one at a time,
i.e. C21 = (1 (5)) + (4 (3)) = 7
Finally, C22 is the sum of the products of the second
row elements of A and the second column elements of
B, taken one at a time,
i.e. C22 = (1 7) + ((4) 4) = 9

19 26
Thus, A B =
7 9
Section E

C=
277
Section E
Problem 6. Simplify

3
4
0
2
2
6 3 5
7 4
1
1
The sum of the products of the elements of each row of
the first matrix and the elements of the second matrix,
(called a column matrix), are taken one at a time.
Thus:

3
4
0
2
2
6 3 5
7 4
1
1
(3 2) + (4 5) + (0 (1))
= (2 2) + (6 5) + (3 (1))
(7 2) + (4 5) + (1 (1))

26
= 29
7
3
4
0
6 3 and
Problem 7. If A = 2
7 4
1
2 5
B = 5 6, find A B
1 7
The sum of the products of the elements of each
row of the first matrix and the elements of each column of the second matrix are taken one at a time.
Thus:
3
4
0
2 5
2
6 3 5 6
7 4
1
1 7
[(3 2)
[(3 (5))
+ (4 5)
+(4 (6))
+ (0 (1))]
+(0 (7))]
[(2 2)
[(2 (5))
+(6 (6))
= + (6 5)
+ (3 (1))]
+(3 (7))]
[(7 2)
[(7 (5))
+ (4 5)
+(4 (6))
+ (1 (1))]
+(1 (7))]
26 39
= 29 5
7 18
Problem 8. Determine
1 0 3
2 2 0
2 1 2 1 3 2
1 3 1
3 2 0
The sum of the products of the elements of each row of
the first matrix and the elements of each column of the
second matrix are taken one at a time. Thus:
1 0 3
2 2 0
2 1 2 1 3 2
1 3 1
3 2 0
[(1 2)
[(1 2)
[(1 0)
+ (0 1)
+ (0 3)
+ (0 2)
+ (3 3)] + (3 2)] + (3 0)]
[(2 2)
[(2 2)
[(2 0)
= + (1 1)
+ (1 3)
+ (1 2)
+ (2 3)] + (2 2)] + (2 0)]
[(1 2)
[(1 2)
[(1 0)
+ (3 1)
+ (3 3)
+ (3 2)
+ (1 3)]
11 8 0
= 11 11 2
8 13 6
+ (1 2)]
+ (1 0)]
In algebra, the commutative law of multiplication states

that a b =b a. For matrices, this law is only true in
a few special cases, and in general A B is not equal
to B A

2 3
Problem 9. If A =
and
1 0

2 3
B=
show that A B = B A
0 1

2 3
2 3
AB =
1 0
0 1

[(2 2) + (3 0)] [(2 3) + (3 1)]
=
[(1 2) + (0 0)] [(1 3) + (0 1)]

4 9
=
2 3

2 3
2 3
BA=
0 1
1 0

[(2 2) + (3 1)] [(2 3) + (3 0)]
=
[(0 2) + (1 1)] [(0 3) + (1 0)]

7 6
=
1 0

4 9
7 6
Since

=
, then A B = B A
2 3
1 0
12.
279
DF
13. Show that A C = C A

Now try the following Practice Exercise
24.3
In Problems 1 to 13, the matrices A to K are:

3 1
5 2
A=
B=
4
7
1 6

1.3
7.4
C=
2.5 3.9
4 7
6
4
0
D = 2
5
7 4
3
6 2
E = 5 3 7
1
0 2
3.1
F = 1.6
5.3

2
H=
5

2.4
6.4
6
3.8 1.9
G=
2
3.4 4.8
4
1 0
J = 11 K = 0 1
7
1 0
In Problems 1 to 12, perform the matrix operation

stated.
1.
A+ B
2.
D+E
3.
A B
4.
A+ B C
5. 5 A + 6B
6. 2D + 3E 4F
7.
AH
8.
AB
9.
AC
10.
DJ
11.
EK
The unit matrix
A unit matrix, I, is one in which all elements of the

leading diagonal (\) have a value of 1 and all other elements have a value of 0. Multiplication of a matrix by
I is the equivalent of multiplying by 1 in arithmetic.
24.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2

matrix
The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix

a b
is defined
c d
as (ad bc)
The elements of the determinant of a matrix are
written
vertical lines.
Thus,
the determinant
between
3 4
3 4
and is equal to
of
is written as
1
6
1
6
(3 6) (4 1), i.e. 18 (4) or 22. Hence the

determinant of a matrix
can
be expressed as a single
3 4
= 22
numerical value, i.e.
1
6
Problem 10. Determine the value of
3 2
7
4
3 2
= (3 4) (2 7)
7
4
= 12 (14) = 26
+ j)
j 2
Problem 11. Evaluate
(1
j 3 (1 j 4)
(1 + j )
j 2
j 3 (1 j 4)
= (1 + j )(1 j 4) ( j 2)( j 3)
= 1 j 4 + j j 24 + j 26
= 1 j 4 + j (4) + (6)
since from Chapter 22, j 2 = 1
= 1 j4+ j + 4 6
= 1 j 3
Section E
Practice Exercise 105 Addition,

subtraction and multiplication of matrices
(Answers on page 846)
530 260
360 490
Multiplying the matrices on the left-hand side, gives

a + 2c b + 2d
1 0
=
3a + 4c 3b + 4d
0 1
Equating corresponding elements gives:
530 260
360 490
= (530 )(490 )
b + 2d = 0, i.e. b = 2d
4
and 3a + 4c = 0, i.e. a = c
3
Substituting for a and b gives:
4
c
+
2c
2d
+
2d

3
1 0

=

0 1
4
3 c + 4c 3(2d) + 4d
3
2

c 0
3
= 1 0
i.e.
0 1
0 2d
3
1
2
showing that c = 1, i.e. c = and 2d = 1, i.e. d =
3
2
2
4
Since b = 2d, b =1 and since a = c, a =2
3

1 2
a b
Thus the inverse of matrix
is
that is,
3 4
c d
2
1
3
1
2
2
There is, however, a quicker method of obtaining the
inverse of a 2 by 2 matrix.

p q
For any matrix
the inverse may be
r s
obtained by:
(260 )(360 )
= (2060 ) (60 )
= (10 j 17.32) (6 + j 0)
= (4 j 17.32) or 17.7877
Section E

Practice Exercise 106 2 by 2 determinants

3 1
1. Calculate the determinant of
4
7
2.
Calculate
the determinant of

2
5
3 6
3.
Calculate
the determinant
of

1.3
7.4
2.5 3.9
j2
j 3
4. Evaluate
(1 + j )
j
240 520
5. Evaluate
732 4117
6.
(x 2)
6
Given matrix A =
2
(x 3)
determine values of x for which | A | = 0
(i) interchanging the positions of p and s,

,
24.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a

2 by 2 matrix
The inverse of matrix A is A 1 such that A A1 = I ,
the unit matrix.

1 2
Let matrix A be
and let the inverse matrix, A1
3 4

a b
be
c d
1 I ,
Then,
sinceA A =

1 2
a b
1 0
=
3 4
c d
0 1
(ii) changing the signs of q and r , and

(iii) multiplying this new
matrix
by the reciprocal of
p q
the determinant of
r s

1 2
Thus the inverse of matrix
is
3 4

2
1
4 2
1
= 3
1
4 6 3 1
2
2
as obtained previously.
Problem 13. Determine the inverse of

3 2
7
4

p q
The inverse of matrix
is obtained by interr s
changing the positions of p and s, changing the signs
of q and r and
multiplying
by the reciprocal of the
p q
. Thus, the inverse of

determinant
r s

1
4 2
3 2
=
7
4
(3 4) (2 7) 7 3
2
1

13 13
1
4 2
=
=
7 3
26 7 3
26 26

Practice Exercise 107 The inverse of 2 by 2
matrices (Answers on page 846)

3 1
1. Determine the inverse of
4
7
2
1
2
3

1
3
3
5

1.3
7.4
2.5 3.9
24.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3

matrix
(i) The minor of an element of a 3 by 3 matrix is
the value of the 2 by 2 determinant obtained by
covering up the row and column containing that
element.
1 2 3
Thus for the matrix 4 5 6 the minor of
7 8 9
element 4 is obtained bycovering the row
1
(4 5 6) and the column 4, leaving the 2 by
7
2 3
, i.e. the minor of element 4

2 determinant
8 9
is (2 9) (3 8) =6
(ii) The sign of a minor depends on its position

within
+ +
the matrix, the sign pattern being + .
+ +
Thus
the
signed-minor
of
element
4
in
the matrix
1 2 3
4 5 6 is
2 3
= (6) = 6
8 9
7 8 9
The signed-minor of an element is called the
cofactor of the element.
(iii) The value of a 3 by 3 determinant is the
sum of the products of the elements and their
cofactors of any row or any column of the
corresponding 3 by 3 matrix.
There are thus six different ways of evaluating a 3 3
determinant and all should give the same value.
Problem 14. Find the value of
3
4 1
2
0
7
1 3 2
The value of this determinant is the sum of the products

of the elements and their cofactors, of any row or of any
column. If the second row or second column is selected,
the element 0 will make the product of the element and
its cofactor zero and reduce the amount of arithmetic to
be done to a minimum.
Supposing a second row expansion is selected. The
minor of 2 is the value of the determinant remaining when the row and column containing the 2 (i.e.
the second row and the first column),
is covered
up.
4 1
i.e. 11
Thus the cofactor of element 2 is
3 2
The sign of element 2 is minus (see (ii) above), hence

the cofactor of element 2, (the signed-minor)
is +11
i.e. 13,
Similarly the minor of element 7 is
1 3
and its cofactor is +13. Hence the value of the sum

of the products of the elements and their cofactors is
2 11 +7 13, i.e.,
3
4 1
2
0
7
= 2(11) +0 +7(13) =113
1 3 2
The same result will be obtained whichever row or

column is selected. For example, the third column
expansion is
Section E
281
3 4
(1)
7
+
(2)
1 3
2 0
1 3
= 6 + 91 + 16 = 113, as obtained previously.
Practice Exercise 108 3 by 3 determinants

1
4 3
5
2
6
1 4
2
1.
4 7
6
2
4
0
5
7 4
1
4 3
2
6
Using the first row:
1 4
2
2 6
5 6
5
2
= 1
+ (3)
4 2
1 2
1 4
2.
Find the matrix of cofactors of
4 7
6
2
4
0
5
7 4
3.
Calculate the determinant of
4 7
6
2
4
0
5
7 4
8 2 10
Evaluate
2 3 2
6
3
8
Section E
= (4 + 24) 4(10 + 6) 3(20 + 2)

= 28 + 16 66 = 22
1
4 3
2
6
Using the second column:
1 4
2
5 6
+ 2
1 3
(4)
1 3
= 4
1 2
1
2
5
6
4.
= 4(10 + 6) + 2(2 3) + 4(6 15)
5.
= 16 2 36 = 22
Problem 16. Determine the value of
j2
(1 + j ) 3
1
j
(1 j )
0
j4
5
Using the first column, the value of the determinant is:
1 j
(1 + j ) 3
( j 2)
(1 j )
j 4 5
j4
5
(1 + j ) 3
+ (0)
1
j
= j 2(5 j 24) (1 j )(5 + j 5 j12) + 0

= j 2(9) (1 j )(5 j7)
= j 18 [5 j 7 j5 + j 27]
= j 18 [2 j 12]
= j 18 + 2 + j 12 = 2 + j 30 or 30.0786.19
Find the matrix of minors of
Calculate the determinant of
3.1 2.4
6.4
1.6 3.8 1.9
5.3 3.4 4.8
j2
2
j
6. Evaluate
(1 + j ) 1 3
5
j4 0
360
j2
1
(1 + j ) 230
7. Evaluate
0
2
j5
8.
Find the eigenvalues that satisfy the following equations:
(2 )
2
(a)
=0
1
(5 )
(5 )
7
5
(4 )
1
= 0
(b)
2
8
(3 )
(You may need to refer to Chapter 1, pages

1014, for the solution of cubic equations).
283
21 11
28
11 5 23
21 11
28
6 13 8
1
11 5 23
or
113
113
6 13 8
24.7 The inverse or reciprocal of a

3 by 3 matrix
The adjoint of a matrix A is obtained by:
(i) forming a matrix B of the cofactors of A, and
The inverse of matrix A, A1 is given by

A1 =
adj A
|A|
where adj A is the adjoint of matrix A and |A| is the

determinant of matrix A.
Problem 17. Determine the inverse of the matrix
3
4 1
0
7
2
1 3 2
The inverse of matrix A, A 1 =
The adjoint of A is found by:
adj A
|A|
Problem 18. Find the inverse of
1
5 2
4
3 1
3
6 7
Inverse =
0
7
The cofactor of element 3 is +
= 21
3 2
2
7
The cofactor of element 4 is
= 11, and so on.

1 2
21
11 6
The matrix of cofactors is 11 5 13
28 23 8
The transpose of the matrix of cofactors, i.e. the adjoint
of the matrix,
is obtainedby writing the rows as columns,
21 11
28
and is 11 5 23
6 13 8
3
4 1
From Problem 14, the determinant of
2
0
7
1 3 2
is 113
3
4 1
0
7 is
Hence the inverse of 2
1 3 2
17
9
15
The matrix of cofactors is 23 13 21
18 10 16
The transpose
of the matrix of cofactors (i.e. the
17
23
18
adjoint) is 9 13 10
15 21 16
1
5 2
4
The determinant of 3 1
3
6 7
(i) obtaining the matrix of the cofactors of the elements, and

(ii) transposing this matrix.
adjoint
determinant
= 1(7 24) 5(21 + 12) 2(18 3)

= 17 + 45 30 = 2
1
5 2
4
Hence the inverse of 3 1
3
6 7
17
23
18
9 13 10
15 21 16
=
2
8.5 11.5 9
6.5
5
= 4.5
7.5
10.5
8
Practice Exercise 109 The inverse of a 3 by
3 matrix (Answers on page 847)
1.
Write down the transpose of
4 7
6
2
4
0
5
7 4
Section E
(ii) transposing matrix B to give B T , where B T is the

matrix obtained by writing the rows of B as the
columns of B T . Then adj A = BT

2.
Write down the transpose of
3
6 21
5 2 7
3
1
0 35
3.
Determine the adjoint of
4 7
6
2
4
0
5
7 4
Section E
4.
5.
6.
Find the inverse of
4 7
6
2
4
0
5
7 4
3
6 12
Find the inverse of 5 23 7

1
0 35
Determine the adjoint of
3
6 21
5 23 7
1
0 35
For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 105 to 109 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
Chapter 25
Applications of matrices
and determinants
Why it is important to understand: Applications of matrices and determinants
As mentioned previously, matrices are used to solve problems, for example, in electrical circuits, optics,
quantum mechanics, statics, robotics, genetics, and much more, and for calculating forces, vectors,
tensions, masses, loads and a lot of other factors that must be accounted for in engineering. In the
main, matrices and determinants are used to solve a system of simultaneous linear equations. The
simultaneous solution of multiple equations finds its way into many common engineering problems.
In fact, modern structural engineering analysis techniques are all about solving systems of equations
simultaneously. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, which are based on matrix theory, are very important
in engineering and science. For example, car designers analyse eigenvalues in order to damp out the
noise in a car, eigenvalue analysis is used in the design of car stereo systems, eigenvalues can be used
to test for cracks and deformities in a solid, and oil companies use eigenvalues analysis to explore land
for oil.
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
solve simultaneous equations in two and three unknowns using matrices

solve simultaneous equations in two and three unknowns using determinants
solve simultaneous equations using Cramers rule
solve simultaneous equations using Gaussian elimination
determine the eigenvalues of a 2 by 2 and 3 by 3 matrix
determine the eigenvectors of a 2 by 2 and 3 by 3 matrix
Higher Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66282-6, 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
3

29
1 0 x
=
4
0 1
y
25.1 Solution of simultaneous

equations by matrices
(a) The procedure for solving linear simultaneous
equations in two unknowns using matrices is:
(i) write the equations in the form
a 1 x + b 1 y = c1
a 2 x + b 2 y = c2
(ii)
Section E
(iii)
write the matrix equation corresponding to

these
equations,

a b
x
c
i.e. 1 1
= 1
a2 b2
c2
y

a1 b 1
determine the inverse matrix of
a2 b 2

1
b2 b1
i.e.
a1
a1 b2 b1 a2 a2
(from Chapter 24)

(iv) multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse
matrix, and
(v) solve for x and y by equating corresponding
elements.
Problem 1. Use matrices to solve the
simultaneous equations:
3x + 5y 7 = 0
4x 3y 19 = 0
(1)
(2)
5

29
7
19
3
29 29
21 95

29 + 29
x
Thus
=
28 57
y
29 29

x
4
i.e.
=
y
1
(v) By comparing corresponding elements:
x = 4 and y = 1
Checking:
equation (1),
3 4 + 5 (1) 7 = 0 = RHS
equation (2),
4 4 3 (1) 19 = 0 = RHS
(b) The procedure for solving linear simultaneous

equations in three unknowns using matrices is:
(i) write the equations in the form
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
(i) Writing the equations in the a1 x + b1 y = c form

gives:
3x + 5y = 7
4x 3y = 19
(ii) The matrix equation is

3
5
x
7
=
4 3
y
19

3
5
(iii) The inverse of matrix
is
4 3

1
3 5
3
3 (3) 5 4 4
3
5
i.e. 29 29
4 3
29 29
(iv) Multiplying each side of (ii) by (iii) and remembering that A A 1 = I , the unit matrix, gives:
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
(ii)
write the matrix equation corresponding to

these equations, i.e.

x
a1 b1 c1
d1
a2 b2 c2 y = d2
a3 b3 c3
d3
z
(iii)
determine the inverse matrix of
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 (see Chapter 24)
a3 b3 c3
(iv) multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse

matrix, and
(v) solve for x, y and z by equating the corresponding elements.
Applications of matrices and determinants

Hence the inverse of A,
14
0
7
1
16 5 2
A1 =
35
5
5 5
Problem 2. Use matrices to solve the

(1)
2x 3y + 4z 33 = 0
3x 2y 2z 2 = 0
(2)
(3)
(i) Writing the equations in the a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1

form gives:
x +y+z =4
2x 3y + 4z = 33
3x 2y 2z = 2
(ii) The matrix equation is

1
1
1
x
4
2 3
4 y = 33
3 2 2
z
2
(iii) The inverse matrix of
1
1
1
4
A = 2 3
3 2 2
is given by
A
adj A
=
|A|
The adjoint of A is the transpose of the matrix of

the cofactors of the elements (see Chapter 24). The
matrix of cofactors is
14 16 5
0 5 5
7 2 5
and the transpose of this matrix gives
14
0
7
adj A = 16 5 2
5
5 5
The determinant of A, i.e. the sum of the products
of elements and their cofactors, using a first row
expansion is
2 3
+ 1
2 2
3 2
3 2
= (1 14) (1 (16)) + (1 5) = 35
(iv) Multiplying each side of (ii) by (iii), and remembering that A A1 = I , the unit matrix, gives

14
0
7
4
10 0
x
1
0 1 0 y =
16 5 2 33
35
5
5 5
2
00 1
z

x
(14 4) + (0 33) + (7 2)
1
y =
(16 4) + ((5) 33) + ((2) 2)
35
z
(5 4) + (5 33) + ((5) 2)
70
1
105
=
35
175
2
= 3
5
(v) By comparing corresponding elements, x = 2,
y = 3, z = 5, which can be checked in the
original equations.
Practice Exercise 110 Solving simultaneous
equations using matrices (Answers on
page 847)
In Problems 1 to 5 use matrices to solve the
simultaneous equations given.
1.
3x + 4y = 0
2x + 5y + 7 = 0
2.
2 p +5q + 14.6 =0
3.1 p +1.7q + 2.06 =0
3.
x + 2y + 3z = 5
2x 3y z = 3
3x + 4y + 5z = 3
4.
3a + 4b 3c = 2
2a + 2b + 2c = 15
7a 5b + 4c = 26
5.
p + 2q + 3r + 7.8 = 0
2 p + 5q r 1.4 = 0
5 p q + 7r 3.5 = 0
Section E
x + y+z4=0
287

6.
Section E
7.
8.
i.e. the determinant of the coefficients left

when the y-column is covered up,
a1 b1
and
D=
a2 b2
In two closed loops of an electrical circuit, the

currents flowing are given by the simultaneous
equations:
I1 + 2I2 + 4 = 0
5I1 + 3I2 1 = 0
Use matrices to solve for I1 and I2
The relationship between the displacement s,
velocity v, and acceleration a, of a piston is
given by the equations:
s + 2v + 2a = 4
3s v + 4a = 25
3s + 2v a = 4
Use matrices to determine the values of s, v
and a
In a mechanical system, acceleration x,
velocity x and distance x are related by the

3.4 x + 7.0x 13.2x = 11.39
6.0x + 4.0 x + 3.5x = 4.98
2.7 x + 6.0x + 7.1x = 15.91
Use matrices to find the values of x,
x and x

when the constants-column is covered up.
Problem 3. Solve the following simultaneous
equations using determinants:
3x 4y = 12
7x + 5y = 6.5
Following the above procedure:
(i) 3x 4y 12 = 0
7x + 5y 6.5 = 0
(ii)
x
y
1
4 12

3 12

3 4
5 6.5

7 6.5

7
5
i.e.
x
(4)(6.5) (12)(5)
=

equations by determinants
(a) When solving linear simultaneous equations in
two unknowns using determinants:
(i)
i.e.
write the equations in the form

a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
(ii)
the solution is given by

x
y
1
=
=
Dx
Dy
D
b1 c1
where Dx =
b2 c2

when the x-column is covered up,
a1 c1
Dy =
a2 c2
1
(3)(5) (4)(7)
x
y
1
=
=
26 + 60 19.5 + 84 15 + 28
i.e.
x
y
1
=
=
86 64.5 43
Since
x
1
86
=
then x =
=2
86 43
43
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0
and then
y
(3)(6.5) (12)(7)
and since
1
64.5
y
= then y =
= 1.5
64.5 43
43
Problem 4. The velocity of a car, accelerating at
uniform acceleration a between two points, is given
by v = u + at, where u is its velocity when passing
the first point and t is the time taken to pass
between the two points. If v = 21 m/s when t = 3.5 s
and v = 33 m/s when t = 6.1 s, use determinants to
find the values of u and a, each correct to 4
significant figures.

Substituting the given values in v = u + at gives:
Following the procedure:

(1)
33 = u + 6.1a
(2)
(i) The equations are written in the form
i.e.
and
u + 6.1a 33 = 0
(i) (9 + j 12)I1 (6 + j 8)I2 5 =0

(6 + j 8)I1 + (8 + j 3)I2 (2 + j 4) =0
(ii)
I1
(6 + j 8)
5
(8 + j 3) (2 + j 4)
I2
(9 + j 12)
5
(6 + j 8) (2 + j 4)
(ii) The solution is given by

u
a
1
=
=
Du
Da
D
where Du is the determinant of coefficients left
when the u column is covered up,
3.5 21
i.e.
Du =
6.1 33
= (3.5)(33) (21)(6.1)
= 12.6
1 21
Similarly, Da =
1 33
= (1)(33) (21)(1)
and
a
1
u
=
=
12.6 12 26
u=
i.e.
and
I1
(20 + j 40) + (40 + j 15)
=
12.6
= 4.846 m/s
2.6
12
a=
= 4.615 m/s2 ,
2.6
each correct to 4 significant
figures.
Problem 5. Applying Kirchhoffs laws to an

electric circuit results in the following equations:
(9 + j 12)I1 (6 + j 8)I2 = 5
(6 + j 8)I1 + (8 + j 3)I2 = (2 + j 4)
Solve the equations for I1 and I2
I2
(30 j 60) (30 + j 40)
=
1
(36 + j 123) (28 + j 96)
I1
I2
1
=
=
20 + j 55 j 100 64 + j 27
Hence I 1 =
= 12
1 3.5
D =
1 6.1
= (1)(6.1) (3.5)(1) = 2.6
Thus
(9 + j 12) (6 + j 8)
(6 + j 8) (8 + j 3)
=
and
I2 =
20 + j 55
64 + j 27
58.5270.02
= 0.8447.15 A
69.4622.87
10090
69.4622.87
= 1.4467.13 A
(b) When solving simultaneous equations in three

unknowns using determinants:
(i) Write the equations in the form
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z + d3 = 0
and then
(ii) the solution is given by
y
z
1
x
=
=
=
Dx
Dy
Dz
D
Section E
21 = u + 3.5a
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
u + 3.5a 21 = 0
289
b1 c1 d1
where Dx is
b2 c2 d2
b3 c3 d3
i.e. the determinant of the coefficients

obtained by covering up the x column.
a1 c1 d1
D y is
a2 c2 d2
a3 c3 d3
3 4 26
87
D I1 =
5 3
2
6 12
5
87
87
= (3)
(4)
2 12
6 12
5 3
+ (26)
2
6
= 3(486) + 4(114) 26(24)
Section E
i.e., the determinant of the coefficients

obtained by covering up the y column.
a1 b1 d1
Dz is
a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 d3
= 1290
2 4 26
D I2 =
1 3
87
7
6 12
= (2)(36 522) (4)(12 + 609)

obtained by covering up the z column.
a 1 b 1 c 1
and D is
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
+ (26)(6 21)
= 972 + 2388 + 390
= 1806
2
3 26
87
D I3 =
1 5
7
2 12

obtained by covering up the constants
column.
= (2)(60 174) (3)(12 + 609)
Problem 6. A d.c. circuit comprises three closed

loops. Applying Kirchhoffs laws to the closed
loops gives the following equations for current flow
in milliamperes:
2I1 + 3I2 4I3 = 26
+ (26)(2 35)
= 228 1791 + 858 = 1161
2
3 4
D =
1 5 3
7
2
6
and
I1 5I2 3I3 = 87
= (2)(30 + 6) (3)(6 21)
7I1 + 2I2 + 6I3 = 12
+ (4)(2 35)
Use determinants to solve for I1 , I2 and I3

(i) Writing the equations in the
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 form gives:
2I1 + 3I2 4I3 26 = 0
I1 5I2 3I3 + 87 = 0
7I1 + 2I2 + 6I3 12 = 0
(ii) the solution is given by
I2
I3
1
I1
=
=
=
D I1
D I2
D I3
D
where D I1 is the determinant of coefficients
obtained by covering up the I1 column, i.e.
= 48 + 45 + 132 = 129
Thus
I1
I2
I3
1
=
=
=
1290 1806 1161 129
giving
I1 =
1290
= 10 mA,
129
1806
= 14 mA
129
1161
= 9 mA
and I 3 =
129
I2 =
291
9.
The forces in three members of a framework

are F1 , F2 and F3 . They are related by the
simultaneous equations shown below.
1.4F1 + 2.8F2 + 2.8F3 = 5.6
4.2F1 1.4F2 + 5.6F3 = 35.0
4.2F1 + 2.8F2 1.4F3 = 5.6
Find the values of F1 , F2 and F3 using
determinants.
10.
Mesh-current analysis produces the following

three equations:
200 = (5 + 3 j 4)I1 (3 j 4)I2
1090 = (3 j 4 + 2)I2 (3 j 4)I1 2I3
150 1090 = (12 + 2)I3 2I2
Solve the equations for the loop currents I1 , I2
and I3
Practice Exercise 111 Solving

simultaneous equations using determinants
In Problems 1 to 5 use determinants to solve the
simultaneous equations given.
1.
3x 5y = 17.6
7y 2x 22 = 0
2.
2.3m 4.4n = 6.84

8.5n 6.7m = 1.23
3.
3x + 4y + z = 10
2x 3y + 5z + 9 = 0
x + 2y z = 6
4.
1.2 p 2.3q 3.1r + 10.1 = 0

4.7 p + 3.8q 5.3r 21.5 = 0
3.7 p 8.3q + 7.4r + 28.1 = 0
5.
6.
y 2z
1
x
+
=
2 3
5
20
x 2y z
19
+
=
4
3
2 40
59
x +yz =
60
In a system of forces, the relationship between
two forces F1 and F2 is given by:

equations using Cramers rule
Cramers rule states that if
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z = b1
a21 x + a22 y + a23 z = b2
a31 x + a32 y + a33 z = b3
then x =
Dy
Dz
Dx
, y=
and z =
D
D
D
5F1 + 3F2 + 6 = 0
3F1 + 5F2 + 18 = 0
Use determinants to solve for F1 and F2
7.
Applying mesh-current analysis to an a.c.

circuit results in the following equations:
(5 j 4)I1 ( j 4)I2 = 1000
(4 + j 3 j 4)I2 ( j 4)I1 = 0
Solve the equations for I1 and I2
8.
Kirchhoffs laws are used to determine the

current equations in an electrical network and
show that
i 1 + 8i 2 + 3i 3 = 31
3i 1 2i 2 + i 3 = 5
2i 1 3i 2 + 2i 3 = 6
Use determinants to find the values of i 1 ,i 2
and i 3
Who was Cramer? Gabriel Cramer (31 July 17044 January 1752) was a Swiss mathematician. His articles cover a
wide range of subjects including the study of geometric problems, the history of mathematics, philosophy, and the date of
Easter. Cramers most famous book is a work which Cramer
modelled on Newtons memoir on cubic curves. To find out
more go to www.routledge.com/cw/bird
Section E
where
D =
Dx =
a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
b1 a12 a13
b2 a22 a23
b3 a32 a33
i.e. the x-column has been replaced by the RHS b column,
a11 b1 a13
D y =
a21 b2 a23
a31 b3 a33
Section E
i.e. the y-column has been replaced by the RHS
1 4
1
Dy =
2 33
4
3 2 2
= 1((66) 8) 4((4) 12) + 1(4 99)

= 74 + 64 95 = 105
1
1 4
Dz =
2 3 33
3 2 2
= 1((6) (66)) 1(4 99)

+ 4((4) (9)) = 60 + 95 + 20 = 175
Hence
b column,
a11 a12 b1
Dz =
a21 a22 b2
a31 a32 b3
i.e. the z-column has been replaced by the RHS
x=
Dy
70
105
Dx
=
= 2, y =
=
= 3
D
35
D
35
Dz
175
and z = D = 35 = 5
b column.
Problem 7. Solve the following simultaneous
equations using Cramers rule.
x +y+z =4
2x 3y + 4z = 33
3x 2y 2z = 2
(This is the same as Problem 2 and a comparison of
methods may be made). Following the above method:
1
1
1
D =
2 3
3 2 2
= 1(6 (8)) 1((4) 12)

+ 1((4) (9)) = 14 + 16 + 5 = 35
4
1
1
33 3
4
Dx =
2 2 2
= 4(6 (8)) 1((66) 8)

+ 1((66) (6)) = 56 + 74 60 = 70

equations using Cramers rule (Answers on
page 847)
1.
Repeat problems 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 of Exercise

110 on page 287, using Cramers rule.
2.
Repeat problems 3, 4, 8 and 9 of Exercise 111

on page 291, using Cramers rule.
25.4
Solution of simultaneous
equations using the Gaussian
elimination method
Consider the following simultaneous equations:

x +y+z =4
(1)
2x 3y + 4z = 33
(2)
3x 2y 2z = 2
(3)
Leaving equation (1) as it is gives:

x +y+z =4
(1)

Equation (2) 2 equation (1) gives:
(2 )
above method is known as the Gaussian elimination

method.
We conclude from the above example that if
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z = b1
and equation (3) 3 equation (1) gives:

0 5y 5z = 10
a21 x + a22 y + a23 z = b2
Leaving equations (1) and (2 ) as they are gives:

x +y+z =4
(1)
0 5y + 2z = 25
(2 )
Equation (3 ) equation (2 ) gives:

0 + 0 7z = 35
a31 x + a32 y + a33 z = b3
(3 )
(3 )
By appropriately manipulating the three original equations we have deliberately obtained zeros in the positions shown in equations (2 ) and (3 ).
The three-step procedure to solve simultaneous equations in three unknowns using the Gaussian elimination method is:
a21
(i) Equation (2)
equation (1) to form equaa11
a31
equation (1) to
tion (2 ) and equation (3)
a11

form equation (3 ).
a32
equation (2 ) to form equa(ii) Equation (3 )
a22
tion (3 ).
(iii) Determine z from equation (3 ), then y from
equation (2 ) and finally, x from equation (1).
Working backwards, from equation (3 ),

z=
35
=5
7
from equation (2 ),

5y + 2(5) = 25,
from which,
y=
25 10
= 3
5
and from equation (1),

x + (3) + 5 = 4
from which,
x = 4+35= 2
(This is the same example as Problems 2 and 7,
and a comparison of methods can be made). The
Who was Gauss? Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (30 April

177723 February 1855) was a German mathematician and
physical scientist who contributed significantly to many fields,
including number theory, statistics, electrostatics, astronomy
and optics. To find out more go to www.routledge.com/cw/bird
Section E
0 5y + 2z = 25
293

Problem 8. A d.c. circuit comprises three closed
loops. Applying Kirchhoffs laws to the closed
loops gives the following equations for current flow
in milliamperes:
2I1 + 3I2 4I3 = 26
I1 5I2 3I3 = 87
7I1 + 2I2 + 6I3 = 12
1.
In a massspringdamper system, the acceleration x m/s2 , velocity x m/s and displacement x m are related by the following simultaneous equations:
(1)
6.2 x + 7.9 x + 12.6x = 18.0
(2)
7.5 x + 4.8 x + 4.8x = 6.39
(3)
13.0 x + 3.5x 13.0x = 17.4
Use the Gaussian elimination method to solve for

I1 , I2 and I3
By using Gaussian elimination, determine the

acceleration, velocity and displacement for the
system, correct to 2 decimal places.
(This is the same example as Problem 6 on page 290,

and a comparison of methods may be made)
2.
The tensions, T1 , T2 and T3 in a simple framework are given by the equations:
Section E
Following the above procedure:

1.
2I1 + 3I2 4I3 = 26

1
Equation (2) equation (1) gives:
2
0 6.5I2 I3 = 100
(2 )
7
equation (1) gives:
2
0 + 12.5I2 8I3 = 103
(3 )
2I1 + 3I2 4I3 = 26
(1)
0 6.5I2 I3 = 100
(2 )
5T1 + 5T2 + 5T3 = 7.0
(1)
T1 + 2T2 + 4T3 = 2.4

4T1 + 2T2
Determine T1 , T2 and T3 using Gaussian elimination.
Equation (3)
2.
12.5
equation (2 ) gives:
Equation (3 )
6.5
0 + 0 9.923I3 = 89.308
(3 )
3.
= 4.0
3.
Repeat problems 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 of Exercise 110 on page 287, using the Gaussian
elimination method.
4.
Repeat problems 3, 4, 8 and 9 of Exercise 111

on page 291, using the Gaussian elimination
method.
From equation (3 ),

I3 =
from equation
89.308
= 9 mA
9.923
(2 ), 6.5I
2 9 = 100,
100 +9
from which, I 2 =
= 14 mA
6.5
and from equation (1), 2I1 + 3(14) 4(9) = 26,
26 42 + 36 20
=
2
2
= 10 mA
from which, I 1 =

equations using Gaussian elimination
25.5
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
In practical applications, such as coupled oscillations

and vibrations, equations of the form:
Ax = x
occur, where A is a square matrix and (Greek lambda)
is a number. Whenever x = 0, the values of are
called the eigenvalues of the matrix A; the corresponding solutions of the equation A x = x are called the
eigenvectors of A.
Sometimes, instead of the term eigenvalues, characteristic values or latent roots are used. Also, instead of
the term eigenvectors, characteristic vectors is used.
From above, if A x = x then A x x = 0 i.e.
(A I) = 0 where I is the unit matrix.
If x = 0 then |A I| = 0

|A I| is called the characteristic determinant of A
and |A I| = 0 is called the characteristic equation.
Solving the characteristic equation will give the value(s)
of the eigenvalues, as demonstrated in the following
worked problems.
from which,
2x 1 + 4x 2 = 0
and
2x1 4x 2 = 0
The eigenvalue is determined by solving the characteristic equation |A I| = 0

3 4
1 0
i.e.
=0
2 1
0 1

3 4
0
i.e.
=0
2 1
0
3
4
i.e.
=0
2
1
(Given a square matrix, we can get used to going straight

to this characteristic equation)
Using the equation (A I)x = 0 for 2 = 1

3 1
4
0
x1
then
=
x2
2
1 1
0
i.e.

4 4
0
x1
=
2 2
x2
0
from which,
4x 1 + 4x 2 = 0
and
2x 1 + 2x 2 = 0
(3 )(1 ) (2)(4) = 0
i.e.
3 3 + 2 8 = 0
and
2 4 5 = 0
i.e.
( 5)( + 1) = 0
From either of these two equations, x 1 = x 2 or

x 2 = x 1
from which, 5 = 0 i.e. = 5 or + 1 = 0 i.e.

= 1
(Instead of factorising, the quadratic formula could be
used; even electronic calculators can solve quadratic
equations.)

3 4
Hence, the eigenvalues of the matrix
are 5
2 1
and 1
the eigenvectors of the

3 4
matrix A =
2 1

From Problem 9, the eigenvalues of
1 = 5 and 2 = 1
3 4
2 1

35
4
0
x1
then
=
x2
2
15
0
i.e.

2 4
0
x1
=
x2
2 4
0

are
Hence, whatever value x 1 is, the value of x 2 will be

1 times
Hence the simplest eigenvector is:
greater.

1
x2 =
1

2
is an eigenvector correSummarising, x1 =
1

1
sponding to 1 = 5 and x2 =
is an eigenvector
1
corresponding to 2 = 1
Problem 11.
Determine
the eigenvalues of the
5 2
matrix A =
9
2
5 2
=0
i.e.
9 2
Hence,
(5 )(2 ) (9)(2) = 0
i.e.
10 5 2 + 2 18 = 0
and
2 7 8 = 0
i.e.
( 8)( + 1) = 0
Section E
From either of these two equations, x 1 = 2x 2

Hence, whatever value x 2 is, the value of x 1 will be
two times
greater. Hence the simplest eigenvector is:
2
x1 =
1
the eigenvalues of the
3 4
matrix A =
2 1
Hence,
295

from which, 8 = 0 i.e. = 8 or + 1 = 0 i.e.
= 1 (or use the quadratic formula).

5 2
Hence, the eigenvalues of the matrix
9
2
are 8 and 1
Section E
1 = 8 and 2 = 1
5 2
9
2
Summarising, x1 =
2
3
is an eigenvector corre
1
sponding to 1 = 8 and x2 = 3 is an eigenvector
corresponding to 2 = 1
Problem 13.
Determine theeigenvalues of the
1
2
1
0
matrix A = 6 1
1 2 1

the eigenvectors of the
5 2
matrix A =
9 2
From Problem 11, the eigenvalues of

are
Using the equation ( A I )x = 0 for 1 = 8

5 8 2
x1
0
then
=
9 2 8
x2
0
i.e.

0
3 2
x1
=
x2
0
9 6
2
1
=0
i.e.
6
1
0
1
2
1
Hence, using the top row:

(1 )[(1 )(1 ) (2)(0)]
2[6(1 ) (1)(0)]
+ 1[(6)(2) (1)(1 ) = 0
from which,
3x 1 2x 2 = 0
i.e.
(1 )[1 + + + 2 ] 2[6 6]
+ 1[12 1 ] = 0
9x 1 6x 2 = 0
i.e.
(1 )[2 + 2 + 1] + 12 + 12
13 = 0
and
2 + 2 + 1 3 22 + 12 + 12
13 = 0
and
From either of these two equations, 3x 1 = 2x 2 or
2
x1 = x 2
3
Hence, if x 2 =
3, x 1 =
2. Hence the simplest eigen2
vector is: x1 =
3

5 1
2
x1
0
then
=
9
2 1
x2
0
i.e.

0
6 2
x1
=
x2
0
9 3
from which,
6x 1 2x 2 = 0
and
9x 1 + 3x 2 = 0
From either of these two equations, x 2 = 3x 1
Hence, ifx 1 =1, x 2 = 3. Hence the simplest eigenvector
1
is: x2 =
3
i.e.
3 2 + 12 = 0
or
3 + 2 12 = 0
i.e.
(2 + 12) = 0
i.e.
( 3)( + 4) = 0 by factorising
from which, = 0, = 3 or = 4
Hence,
the eigenvalues
of
1
2
1
6 1 0 are 0, 3 and 4
1 2 1
the
matrix
Problem 14.
Determine theeigenvectors of the
1
2
1
0
matrix A = 6 1
1 2 1
From
Problem 13,
the
eigenvalues
of
1
2
1
6 1 0 are 1 = 0, 2 = 3 and 3 = 4
1 2 1
from which,
x 1 + 2x 2 + x 3 = 0
then
i.e.
6x 1 x 2 = 0
x 1 2x 2 x 3 = 0
From the second equation,
x 1 2x 2 + 3x 3 = 0
Hence, when x 1 = 1, x 2 = 6 and x 3 = 13
from which,
5x 1 + 2x 2 + x 3 = 0
6x 1 + 3x 2 = 0
Substituting in the first equation,
Hence the
simplest
eigenvector corresponding to 1 = 0
1
is: x1 = 6
13

13
2
1
x1
0
x2 = 0
then 6
1 3
0
1
2
1 3
x3
0
i.e.

2
2
1
0
x1
6 4
0 x2 = 0
x3
1 2 4
0
0
5
2 1
x1
6
3 0 x2 = 0
x3
0
1 2 3
from which,
6x 1 = x 2
x 1 + 12x 1 + x 3 = 0 i.e. 13x 1 = x 3
1 4
2
1
x1
x2
6
1 4
0
1
2
1 4
x3

0
= 0
0
x 2 = 2x 1
5x 1 4x 1 + x 3 = 0 i.e. x 3 = x 1
Hence, if x 1 = 1, then x 2 = 2 and x 3 = 1
Hence the simplest
eigenvector corresponding to 2 =
1
4 is: x3 = 2
1
Problem 15.
Determine the
eigenvalues of the
1 4 2
1
matrix A = 0 3
1 2
4
2x 1 + 2x 2 + x 3 = 0
6x 1 4x 2 = 0
x 1 2x 2 4x 3 = 0
3x 1 = 2x 2
1 4
2
3
1
= 0
i.e.
1
2
4
Hence, using the top row:
(1)[(3)(4)(2)(1)](4)[0(1)(1)]
2x 1 + 3x 1 + x 3 = 0 i.e. x3 = x 1
Hence, if x 2 = 3, then x 1 = 2 and x3 = 2
Hence the
simplest
2
is: x2 = 3
2
2[01(3)] = 0
i.e.
(1 )[12 3 4 + 2 2] + 4[1]
2[3 + ] = 0
i.e.
(1 )[2 7 + 10] 4 + 6 2 = 0
and 2 7 + 10 3 + 72 10 4 + 6 2 = 0
Section E
0
10
2
1
x1
x2 = 0
1 0
0
then 6
x3
0
1
2
1 0
i.e.

0
1
2
1
x1
6 1 0 x 2 = 0
0
x3
1 2 1
297

3 + 82 19 + 12 = 0
3 82 + 19 12 = 0
i.e.
or
From the last equation,
To solve a cubic equation, the factor theorem (see

Chapter 1) may be used. (Alternatively, electronic
calculators can solve such cubic equations.)
= 3 82 + 19 12
i.e.
x 1 = 2x 2 3(2x 2 )
i.e.
x 1 = 4x 2
(i.e. if x 2 = 1, x 1 = 4)
then ( 1)( 3)( 4) = 0
Hence the
simplest
4
is: x1 = 1
2
Using the equation (A I )x = 0 for 2 = 3

1 3 4
2
0
x1
then 0
33
1 x2 = 0
x3
1
2
43
0
i.e.

0
2 4 2
x1
0
0
1 x2 = 0
x3
0
1
2
1
from which, = 1 or = 3 or = 4
from which
Let f ()
If = 1, then
f (1) = 13 8(1)2 + 19(1) 12 =
Since f (1) = 0 then ( 1) is a factor.

If = 2, then f (2) = 23 8(2)2 + 19(2) 12 = 0
If = 3, then f (3) = 33 8(3)2 + 19(3) 12 = 0
If = 4, then f (4) = 43 8(4)2 + 19(4) 12 = 0
Section E
x 1 = 2x 2 3x 3
Thus, since 3 82 + 19 12 = 0
Hence,
the eigenvalues
of
1 4 2
0 3
1 are 1, 3 and 4
1 2
4
the
Problem 16. Determine the

eigenvectors of the
1 4 2
1
matrix A = 0 3
1 2
4
1 4 2
1
From Problem 15, the eigenvalues of 0 3
1 2
4
are 1 = 1, 2 = 3 and 3 = 4
1 1 4
2
0
x1
31
1 x2 = 0
then 0
x3
1
2
41
0
i.e.

0
0 4 2
x1
0 2
1 x2 = 0
x3
0
1 2
3
from which,
4x 2 2x 3 = 0
2x 2 + x 3 = 0
x 1 + 2x 2 + 3x 3 = 0
From the first two equations,

x 3 = 2x 2
(i.e. if x 2 = 1, x 3 = 2)
2x 1 4x 2 2x 3 = 0
x3 = 0
x 1 + 2x 2 + x 3 = 0
matrix
Since x 3 = 0, x 1 = 2x 2 (i.e. if x 2 = 1, x 1 = 2)
Hence the
simplest
2
is: x2 =
1
0
Using the equation (A I )x = 0 for 3 = 4

1 4 4
2
x1
0
then
0
34
1
x2 = 0
x3
1
2
44
0
i.e.

0
3 4 2
x1
x2 = 0
0 1 1
0
1
2
0
x3
from which,
3x 1 4x 2 2x 3 = 0
x 2 + x 3 = 0
x1 + 2x 2 = 0
from which, x 3 = x 2 and x 1 = 2x 2 (i.e. if x 2 = 1,
x 1 = 2 and x 3 = 1)
Hence the
simplest
2
is: x3 = 1
1

Practice Exercise 114 Eigenvalues and
eigenvectors (Answers on page 847)
4.
1 1 1
4 2 4
1 1 5
1 1 0
5. 1 2 1
0 1 1
6.
2 2 2
1 3 1
1 2 2
7.
1 1 2
0 2 2
1 1 3
Section E
For each of the following matrices, determine their

(a) eigenvalues (b) eigenvectors

2 4
3 6
3 1
1.
2.
3.
1 1
1 4
2 0
299
For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 110 to 114 in this chapter,
go to the website:
Revision Test 7
Complex numbers, matrices and determinants
This Revision Test covers the material contained in Chapters 22 to 25. The marks for each question are shown in
brackets at the end of each question.
1. Solve the quadratic equation x 2 2x + 5 = 0 and
show the roots on an Argand diagram.
(9)
2. If Z 1 = 2 + j 5, Z 2 = 1 j 3 and Z 3 = 4 j determine, in both Cartesian and polar forms, the value
Z1 Z2
of
+ Z 3 , correct to 2 decimal places.
Z1 + Z2
(9)
7.
Calculate the determinant of matrix C
(4)
8.
Determine the inverse of matrix A
(4)
9.
Determine E D
(9)
10.
Calculate the determinant of matrix D
(6)
11.
Solve the following simultaneous equations:
Section E
3. Three vectors are represented by A, 4.245 , B,

5.532 and C, 2.875 . Determine in polar
form the resultant D, where D = B + C A (8)
4. Two impedances, Z 1 = (2 + j 7) ohms and
Z 2 = (3 j 4) ohms, are connected in series to
a supply voltage V of 1500 V. Determine the
magnitude of the current I and its phase angle
relative to the voltage.
(6)
4x 3y = 17
x + y+1=0
using matrices.
12.
8x + 6y 3z = 41
3x + y 5z = 73
(18)
In questions 6 to 10, the matrices stated are:

5
2
1
6
A=
B=
7 8
3 4

j3
(1 + j 2)
C=
(1 j 4) j 2
2 1 3
1
3 0
1 0 E = 4 9 2
D = 5
4 6 2
5
7 1
6.
Determine A B
Use determinants to solve the following simultaneous equations:

4x + 9y + 2z = 21
5. Determine in both polar and rectangular forms:

(a) [2.3735 ]4 (b) [3.2 j 4.8]5
(c) [1 j 3]
(7)
13.
(11)
The simultaneous equations representing the currents flowing in an unbalanced, three-phase, starconnected, electrical network are as follows:
2.4I1 + 3.6I2 + 4.8I3 = 1.2
3.9I1 + 1.3I2 6.5I3 = 2.6
1.7I1 + 11.9I2 + 8.5I3 = 0
14.
(4)
Using matrices, solve the equations for I1 , I2

and I3
(11)

2 4
For the matrix
find the (a) eigenval1 1
ues (b) eigenvectors.
(14)
For lecturers/instructors/teachers, fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Revision Test 7,
together with a full marking scheme, are available at the website:

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Section E

Matrices and determinants

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The theory of matrices and

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

understand matrix notation

The coefficients of x and y in the simultaneous

276 Higher Engineering Mathematics

The numbers within a matrix are called an array and

24.2 Addition, subtraction and

Adding the corresponding elements gives:

Adding the corresponding elements gives:

(ii) Subtraction of matrices

The theory of matrices and determinants

For scalar multiplication, each element is multiplied by

278 Higher Engineering Mathematics

+ (3 3)] + (3 2)] + (3 0)]

+ (2 3)] + (2 2)] + (2 0)]

In algebra, the commutative law of multiplication states

The theory of matrices and determinants

13. Show that A C = C A

In Problems 1 to 13, the matrices A to K are:

In Problems 1 to 12, perform the matrix operation

The unit matrix

A unit matrix, I, is one in which all elements of the

24.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2

(3 6) (4 1), i.e. 18 (4) or 22. Hence the

Problem 10. Determine the value of

Problem 11. Evaluate

Practice Exercise 105 Addition,

280 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Problem 12. Evaluate

Multiplying the matrices on the left-hand side, gives

Now try the following Practice Exercise

(i) interchanging the positions of p and s,

24.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a

(ii) changing the signs of q and r , and

The theory of matrices and determinants

. Thus, the inverse of

Now try the following Practice Exercise

2. Determine the inverse of

24.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3

, i.e. the minor of element 4

(ii) The sign of a minor depends on its position

The value of this determinant is the sum of the products

The sign of element 2 is minus (see (ii) above), hence

and its cofactor is +13. Hence the value of the sum

= 2(11) +0 +7(13) =113

The same result will be obtained whichever row or

282 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following Practice Exercise

= 6 + 91 + 16 = 113, as obtained previously.

Practice Exercise 108 3 by 3 determinants

Problem 15. Evaluate

Using the first row:

Find the matrix of cofactors of

Calculate the determinant of

= (4 + 24) 4(10 + 6) 3(20 + 2)

Using the second column:

= 4(10 + 6) + 2(2 3) + 4(6 15)

Using the first column, the value of the determinant is:

= j 2(5 j 24) (1 j )(5 + j 5 j12) + 0

Find the matrix of minors of

Calculate the determinant of