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Introduction
Over the past four decades, politicians and government officials of the so-called
advanced industrial countries have scaled back state-sponsored programs in
education, healthcare, welfare to the poor, and housing subsidies. In conjunction, international economic organizations, such as the International Monetary
Fund and the World Bank, have imposed fiscal policies upon developing
nations, which disadvantage the poor by retrenching public services. These
broad level shifts in the global political economy have been legitimized through
a planetary newspeak that centers on such buzzwords as globalization positing a new economy, which require flexible and multicultural identities
(Bourdieu and Wacquant 2001). In this way, free trade advocates naturalize
these political processes with reductive biological models of society that often
assume an autonomous individual, as Kapferer discusses in his contribution to
this forum (see also Taussig, Rapp, and Heath 2003).
Many self-identified leftist anthropologists working in the United States have
tried to explain these political changes with the concepts of Fordism and flexible accumulation, resulting in ahistorical analyses that conflate the political
experiences of the United States with diverse European and Asian countries.
Moreover, they seek to explain such phenomena as deindustrialization and the
growing integration of the global political economy with terms and assumptions based in the mythological discourse of American nationalism, which identifies a few decades as the entirety of American history (Di Leonardo 1985).
Such analyses sensationalize the current round of reactionary policies by
depicting them as either a break, rupture, or retrenchment of the assumed
ideals and virtues of the North American version of the welfare state.
In this article, I critically evaluate the usefulness of Fordism and flexible
accumulation in regards to the contemporary context. Specifically, I focus on
the way that geographer David Harvey (1989, 1996) has used these two concepts to provide a sweeping account of the global political economy during the
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second half of the twentieth century. Harvey deploys the idea of Fordism in a
way that idealizes the postwar politics in advanced capitalist countries and
conflates the varied and diverse postwar experiences of Japan, the United
States, and various European countries into a singularif not mythiccatchall
category of Fordism. Further, I examine a number of influential anthropologists
working in the United States, who uncritically adopt Harveys concept of flexibility as if it were an axiom; they apply the term in ways that suspiciously converge with American nationalist discourse and universalize the particularities
of the American experience. Accordingly, Harveys thesis has served as an
engine for the crystallization of the Fordism idea, having been uncritically
adopted in distilled form by many anthropologists, who cite it as the authority
on political economy while neglecting the specific local, regional, and national
histories in the United States. I argue that the analysis of the contemporary
political processes in the United States, during the era of globalization, should
be compared and related to the specifics of anticommunism and imperialism
that shaped its postwar welfare state. A closer look at the historical development of the American welfare state will reveal that the devolution process represents many continuities with so-called Fordism and its concomitant welfare
policies. Moreover, the uncritical adoption of Harveys theory of flexibility has
contributed to many alarming misconceptions about the nature of the political
processes in the United States.
Legends of Fordism
171
distinctive regime of accumulation. As such, it then formed the basis for a long
postwar boom that stayed broadly intact until 1973. During that period, capitalism in the advanced capitalist countries achieved strong but relatively stable
rates of economic growth. Living standards rose, crisis tendencies were contained, mass democracy was preserved and the threat of inter-capitalist wars
kept remote. (1989: 129)
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us sat down and read Marx, and I found it a very compelling framework within
which I could formulate problems, think through things in terms of my intellectual
work. It was also increasingly helpful politically. (Kreisler 2004: 2)
Legends of Fordism
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Accordingly, Ongs analysis fetishizes novelty by insisting that the experiences of her informants represent new cultural logics of a new age of globalization, which in turn she proclaims to be the outcome of new strategies of
flexible accumulation, before finally concluding: New strategies of flexible
accumulation have promoted a flexible attitude toward citizenship Transnational mobility and maneuvers mean there is a new mode of constructing identity, as well as new modes of subjectification that cut across political borders
(1999: 1718, emphasis added). Consequently, Ongs fascination with newness
precludes a historical understanding of this contemporary matrix of citizenship,
capital accumulation, and global migration. When concepts of globalization,
such as that promoted by Ong, fail to relate change to continuity they celebrate
what Trouillot has called newness in ways that silence much of world history (2003: 47). Drawing on Mintz (1998), Trouillot argues that recognizing
earlier global flows need not result in the contention that nothing has changed.
On the contrary: [B]y helping us screen out that which passes for new and
may actually be quite old, the reference to a massive empirical record of five
centuries highlights the more profound changes of our present. Having discovered the silencing of the past on a world scale, we are better poised to discover
the production of silences about our present (ibid.: 4748).
Legends of Fordism
175
the poor; the ethnographic evidence generated by these studies illuminates the
manner in which political power legitimizes the increasing numbers of poor
people in the United States.
Judith Goode and Jeff Maskovskys edited volume, The New Poverty Studies:
The Ethnography of Power, Politics, and Impoverished People in the United States,
showcases this rich ethnography and represents the contributions such field
research can make to refine the historical specificity of a general paradigm. In
addition to rich ethnography, these studies have attempted to relate ethnographic accounts to broader arrangements of power by focusing on the 1996
welfare reform: The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA). Consequently, many of these anthropologists have contextualized their analyses of poverty within the globalization paradigm in order
to theorize connections between welfare state restructuring, economic restructuring, and global economic shifts (Morgen and Maskovsky 2001: 317). Like
Ong, they draw on Harveys concept of flexible accumulation, as if it provides
the theoretical link between ethnography and welfare reform. Accordingly, Morgen and Maskovsky argue that welfare reform embodies class warfare, what
they call aspects of the post-Fordist strategy of flexible capital accumulation
(ibid.: 321). This approach, therefore, contrasts the present anti-poverty policies
to an ideal of welfare. As a consequence, the authors accept the federal states
self-presentation that welfare was a well-intentioned program designed to eliminate poverty, and hence unwittingly present a rosy picture of welfare and deemphasize how welfare policies were intended to regulate the poor more so than
they were to regulate capital (see Piven and Cloward 1971).
As a consequence of these authors failure to analyze the anti-poverty policies in terms of power, they produce a view of the scaling back of welfare as
devolution (Goode and Maskovsky 2001), which becomes, in turn, a metaphor
that dramatizes the manner in which the federal government has scaled down
the welfare state. As Bourdieu (2003) has argued, the state projects that created compulsory education, public health policies, social security, and poor
relief, were first and foremost strategies for regulating the working class.
Moreover, recent curtailments in state funding for these projects also mark
continuity with regard to their regulatory intent. Instead of seeing devolution
as a fundamental aspect of state power (Diamond 1951; Corrigan and Sayer
1985) that reveals critical aspects of the continuities in the expansion of power
as regulatory mechanisms, the authors see what they term devolution as if
it were a specific characteristic of the post-Fordist state, which depoliticizes
the welfare state and further misrecognizes the production and transformation
of state power as regulatory mechanisms for the distribution of resources.
This formulation poses two fundamental problems First, it takes provision of
welfare as the key characteristic of the state; and, second, in the use of devolution as a metaphor for this betrayal, it promotes the view that devolving
power to state and local authorities is a contradiction to the welfare state, and,
therefore, as an attribute that can been taken as a key characteristic of the
post-Fordist state.
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Harveys idea of Fordism misconceives of the state by viewing it as an empirical given; by assuming that the curtailment of social policies previously promoted by the state as a regulatory mechanism, the state can be represented as
withering and weakening. Goode and Maskovsky are thus left with a presentation of the federal state that reproduces the ideological version of state agencies,
as an empirically singular, coherent, project rooted in popular sovereignty. In
contrast, sociologist Abrams suggests that the state is better seen as an ideological project when he notes: The state, in sum, is a bid to elicit support for
or tolerance of the insupportable and intolerable by presenting them as something other than themselves, namely, legitimate, disinterested domination
(1988: 76). Therefore, devolution of federal power has a much wider relevance
than can be revealed by analyses that concentrate merely on the cut backs in the
federal budget. Rather than seek to understand how these changes have reworked the relationship between the state and its subject population, Goode and
Maskovsky join Harveys chorus as they charge industry with abrogating the
Fordist contract with labor by downsizing firms and relocating manufacturing
offshore. In this way, they present the view that this shift began a political and
ideological assault on unions, civil rights, on environmental and other regulations, and on the Keynesian policies that had previously sought to regulate the
economy with public investment (Goode and Maskovsky 2001: 5).
To conclude, I argue that the political and ideological assault on the unions
began with the Wagner and Taft-Hartley Acts, and that the assault on Civil
Rights was contained within the implementation of policies by federal laws in
a way that demobilized black progressive politics (see Reed 1999). Moreover,
Keynesian policies sought simultaneously to regulate the poor, working people,
and capital, such that the now much lamented passing of the welfare state, was
a system of regulatory mechanisms that produced an immense consolidation of
power and wealth in the U.S. As we lament the passing of the welfare state, we
must recognize that the production of theory and the method for analysis and
understanding of the subtleties of continuity and novelty in transformations of
globalization cannot be achieved by circling around the flexible post of an idealized Fordist compromise.
Acknowledgments
I thank my new colleague at Goucher College, Nelly Lahoud, for a trenchant and charitable
reading of an early draft. In addition, Jason Antrosio, Pamela Ballinger, Robert Beachy, Victor
Braitberg, Bruce Kapferer, Sidney W. Mintz, Boris Nikolov, Janet Shope, and Brackette F.
Williams gave me valuable advice on very short notice. Despite my criticism of David Harvey,
I wish to note my gratitude to him, as much of this critique derives from the many valuable
lessons I learned from his classes as a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University. I alone
am responsible for any remaining errors.
Legends of Fordism
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Notes
1. For critical treatments of Harveys concept of flexibility, see Amin (1994).
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