SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE, NEW DELHI

WORKING PAPER ON

Towards Resilient Urban Water

Bodies in the Context of Urban
Development
A Study of
Thiruvananthapuram City

NITHYA ELIZABETH . UP/1120 . DEPARTMENT OF URBAN PL ANNING

WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

WORKING PAPER ON

Towards Resilient Urban Water Bodies in the

Context of Urban Development A Study of
Thiruvananthapuram City
Submitted by Nithya Elizabeth . UP/1120 . Department of Urban Planning . School
of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi
SUMMARY: The paper looks into the importance of urban water bodies in urban areas and
the effects of urbanization on these water bodies. The paper further deals with the
conservation and rejuvenation of urban water bodies, towards making them more resilient to
cope with the impacts of urbanization. The paper also looks into case studies on similar
themes and concludes with outlining the relevance of the topic in the study area of
Thiruvananthapuram City.

Water bodies are an integral part of the landscape of India. Dotted with large
number of lakes, reservoirs and wetlands, these have served to meet the water
demands of the population for centuries. They have served as growth centers, focal
points and spaces for community interaction, since time immemorial. These water
bodies were managed and sustained through the efforts of the community, for a
long time.
However with unprecedented expansion of cities, rapid urbanization and population
growth, these water bodies have been stressed to its limits. Water crisis has been
on the rise in highly populated urban areas and would be further aggravated with
the growth of urbanization. Apart from the indiscriminate tapping of the surface
water resources, they are also subject to pressures of illegal encroachments and
pollution due to solid and liquid waste disposal, thus, marring the quantity and
quality of urban water bodies. This, if not, addressed in a timely manner can affect
the urban ecosystem and disrupt the urban way of life.
1.0.

URBAN WATER BODIES FOR URBAN AREAS

Water bodies are an intrinsic part of the eco system. Urban waters are rivers,
bays, or other water bodies close to high-population, urban areas. Urban
water bodies including lakes and ponds have traditionally served the function of
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

meeting water requirements of the people for drinking, household uses like
washing, for agriculture, fishing and also for religious and cultural purposes. Apart
from these functions, which involve direct use of the water, these water bodies are
also known to recharge ground water, channelize water flow to prevent water
logging and flooding. They are also host to a wide variety of flora and fauna.
Urban Water Bodies are very important feature in the urban landscape. They are
vital in the hydrological severe conditions like drought and floods; they influence the
micro-climate as well as enhance the aesthetic beauty of the landscape and offer
various recreational opportunities. The Water Bodies in urban areas provide a
diversity of values and uses ranging from ecological goods and services to direct
production values. The stored water may be used for consumptive purpose as well
as non-consumptive use like irrigation, fishing, ecotourism, etc. These are also sites
of artistic, religious and spiritual pursuits. These are essentially relevant social
benefits.
The ecology of urban waters poses special challenges due to concentrated human
activity. The typical urban environment exposes these waters including their
shores and sediments (mud at the bottom of the waterway) to many sources of
pollution. These sources include industry, businesses, municipal wastewater, storm
water, spills, marinas, septic systems and many other sources. In addition, the big
urban populations next to these waters add pollution from households, ranging from
cleaners to paints, from motor oil to fertilizers.
These pollutants cause many problems for urban waters: dirty banks; water unsafe
to swim in; and toxic substances entering the food chain. Cleanups are expensive to
business and taxpayers and polluted areas often cannot be used for development,
industry or recreation.
In view of these social benefits and environmental concerns, the need to initiate
efforts to restore, conserve, manage and maintain urban water bodies as an
inseparable part of the whole eco system cannot be undermined.
2.0.

FACTORS FOR DEGRADATION OF URBAN WATER BODIES

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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

All over the world, the first victims of water pollution from sewage are the Water
Bodies like ponds, lakes and reservoirs so much so that even one time drinking
water source reservoirs like Upper Lake in Bhopal and Himayatsagar and
Osmansager lakes in Hyderabad are now facing the crisis. In the last half of 20th
Century the lakes underwent un-precedented environmental degradation on
account of (a) population explosion, (b) large scale industrialization, (c) chemical
intensive agriculture, and (d) water intensive lifestyles. The factors that lead to
degradation of lakes include urbanization, pollution of water due to sewage, nutrient
rich agricultural run-off and industrial toxic liquid waste and reclamation leading to
siltation and loss of morphometry.
Urbanization and/or industrialization of the lake catchments in particular has had its
extremely adverse impact as they have become dumping sites for untreated
domestic sewage, industrial effluents and municipal solid waste. The case of small
water bodies (Kuntas) is still pathetic; many of these are already reclaimed and the
remaining are being systematically destroyed by dumping waste, garbage and silt.
The total water spread and depth of all the major reservoirs is progressively
reducing due to siltation from natural and man-made factors.
A city of about 3 million population is estimated to produce nearly 10 crore litres of
waste water daily which can be re-cycled and re-used, to amply meet the local/nonpotable needs.
2.1.

Threat and Loss of Urban Water Bodies

Human interference has considerably contributed towards the deterioration of the

urban water bodies in India. Over the years, the numbers of lakes, ponds and other
types of water bodies in the urban and peri-urban areas decreased continuously.
Bengaluru in the beginning of 1960 had 262 lakes but right now only ten of them
hold water. In 2001, when the collector of Ahmedabad listed the water bodies in the
city following a High Court order, it was seen that 65 out of 137 listed lakes were
already encroached. The lakes in the urban areas are built over as the urban
planners cannot see beyond land. Not only the water bodies but the catchments are
also built over.

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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

The urban water bodies are under the land owning agencies like departments of
revenue, fisheries, urban development, public works, municipalities or panchayats.
These departments fill up the water bodies and show these cases as change of land
use patterns. The vital roles played by the urban water bodies in flood moderation
and groundwater recharge are completely underestimated, unaccounted and
overlooked.
Unplanned tourism activities cause disturbance of wildlife, pollution by solid waste,
changes in local lifestyles and loss of cultural heritage. In the absence of garbage
disposal facilities, the practice of dumping garbage into nearby water bodies has
become quite common in recent years, leading to many high altitude lake pollution
and degradation.
Few of the major threats which affect the urban water bodies in India are as follows:
I.

Encroachment

of

the

water

bodies

both

planned

and

II.
III.

unplanned/unauthorized
Mining activities in the catchment area
Pollution of the water bodies/catchment and disposal of untreated/partially

IV.
V.

treated sewage
Groundwater decline leading to fall in the level of lake
Absence of administrative framework to manage the water body.

The loss or degradation of water-bodies can lead to serious consequences, including

increased flooding; species decline, deformity, or extinction; and decline in water
quality. These losses, as well as degradation of catchment, have resulted in loss of
water bodies across all continents. Decline in water quality results in increased
undesirable eutrophication and algal blooms. When these algal blooms decompose,
large amounts of oxygen are used up, depriving fish and other aquatic organisms,
resulting in their death. The rapid urbanization has caused the degradation of most
of the urban lakes and other water bodies in India, thus, having the following
impacts:
I.

Eutrophication: Industrial effluents, run-off from agricultural fields,

refuse

and

sewage,

domestic

wastes

like

food

remnants,

soaps,

detergents and sewage are dumped into lakes which break down and
release nutrients in the lake water. Microscopic organisms ingest these
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

nutrients and survive on them. Following ingestion of carbonic elements,

carbon dioxide is released, while some of the elements are converted into
nitrates and phosphates. This is called oxidizing and uses up a lot of
dissolved oxygen. The depleted levels of dissolved oxygen in water lead to
a situation where other aquatic life-forms cannot survive. This process is
II.

called eutrophication.
Siltation: Water flowing into a lake brings silt. Increased deforestation
loosens the top soil, which finds its way into lakes. Some of the silt is
washed out when the lake overflows. However, the outflow of silt does not

III.

always match the inflow and silt settles at the bottom of the lake.
Flooding: Traditionally tanks were created as a chain of water bodies to
have a cascading system so that the inter-connectivity would retain
flowing water, maintain it round the year, leaving little room for water to

3.0.

be wasted. Such a system is impacted for past some decades.

CONSERVATION AND REJUVENATION TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN
WATER BODIES

Having understood the importance of urban water bodies in the urban ecosystem
and the threats being faced by the same due to rapid urbanization, it is necessary
that immediate steps are taken to conserve and rejuvenate these water bodies for a
better urban life.
3.1.

Why Resilience?

Resilience of an ecological system can be defined as the capacity of a system to

absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain
essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks.
Ecological Systems are in a constant state of change and planning for water bodies
using resilience indicators can help provide information on potential changes in the
future state of a system, including changes which might impact the future provision
of ecosystem services.
A resilient approach can serve as an improved technique of planning for urban
development where steps can be adopted to stay in the game or sustain oneself
rather than achieving an end, thereby paving the path to sustainability. Ahern
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

(2011) referred to resilient cities as being safe-to-fail rather than fail-safe,

recognizing five types of strategy to build urban resilience capacity: practice multifunctionality; practice redundancy and modularization; promote (biological and
social) diversity; build and restore multi-scale networks and connectivity; and
practice adaptive planning and design. Redman (2011) observed that strategies
such as these which encourage flexibility and adaptive capacity tend to be in
conflict with traditional approaches which focus on optimization and efficiency.
Building resilience into urban planning thus requires a broad and long-term
perspective to be taken, even when making short-term decisions.
Assessing for resilience in urban water bodies therefore can help study the
interactions of the societal and natural factors that come into play in the context of
urban development.
3.2.

Existing Policies and Laws for Conservation of Urban Water Bodies

There are several policies which deal with the conservation, management and
restoration of lakes, tanks and other water bodies. The first National Water policy
was adopted by National Water Resources Council in the year 1987. The revised
National Water Policy was notified in 2002. Since then, 18 states have so far come
up with the state policies in which they refer to the protection, management and
conservation of water bodies.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests has developed the National Wetland
Conservation Programme in 1983 for conservation of lakes and other water bodies.
Since most of the lakes are in urban areas and face more threats of
pollution

and

encroachment,

the

ministry

developed

separate

programme in 2001 called NLCP to conserve the lakes of the urban areas.
The NLCP programme focuses on the development of the national level policies and
actions for the urban lakes. The main objectives of the programme includes
prevention of pollution of the waterbody from the point and non-point sources,
catchment treatment, desilting and de-weeding of the waterbodies, research of the
flora and fauna related to the waterbody and also other activities related to the
lake. The policy also takes care of the interaction of the human population and the
lake.
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

Lakes are at present under different departments like Public Health Engineering,
Water Supply, Fisheries, Irrigation, Urban Development, Tourism and Forests, Public
Works Department, Forest and Environment etc. Similarly the catchments are
controlled and used by different agencies.
The controlling and management agencies for the waterbodies and their conflicting
interests are the main cause of degradation of waterbodies. It has been seen that
creation of a single apex authority in place of different lake owning agency is very
essential. This apex authority will also be in charge of managing the waterbodies. To
improve the process of implementation and coordination between the centre, state
or urban local bodies the Ministry of Environment and Forest directed all the states
to constitute City Level Monitoring Committees (CLMCs).
Many international agencies also help in conservation and restoration of lakes and
other waterbodies throughout the world including the UNESCO, UNEP, UNDP,
International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC), and WHO, who have specific
programmes for the restoration of inland aquatic/ freshwater ecosystems. Other
agencies like IUCN, WWF for Nature-India, Wetlands International and International
Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) also contribute towards the conservation of the
wetlands. There are also international funding agencies which contribute towards
the revival programmes of the waterbodies.
The lakes and waterbodies of India are directly influenced by a number of legal and
regulatory framework including Article 48-A and Article 51-A (g) of the constitution
of India. Few of the legal policies and acts which control the development and
restoration of the lakes and the waterbodies in India are as follows:

The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
The Water (Prevention And Control Of Pollution) Act, 1977
Water (Prevention And Control Of Pollution) Act, 1974
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1999
National Conservation Strategies On Environment & Development
The Biological Diversity Act , 2002
Convention On Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971
Convention On Biological Diversity, June 1992
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

National water policy, 2002

In Guwahati, the state government, pushed by the judicial intervention, passed the
Guwahati Water Bodies (Preservation and Conservation) Bill 2008. The aim was to
preserve wetlands and to re-aquire lands in the periphery of the water body for its
protection. The Andhra governments Water, Land, Trees Act empowers state
agencies to take steps to protect water bodies and to prevent conversion. The act
also requires measures to permanently demarcate the boundaries of the water
bodies and to evict and prevent encroachment. The Kerala Government has also
came out with Kerala Conservation of Paddy Land and Wetland Act, 2008. This Act
has provided imprisonment for not less than six months and fine up to Rs. 1 lakh.
4.0.

CASE STUDIES ON SIMILAR THEMES - Berhampur, Odisha

Berhampur is the fourth largest and one of the oldest cities of India located in
southern part of Odisha state. Since 1867 the city is practicing Municipal
Governance. Berhampur is popularly known as Silk City. The city has elected Mayor
since 2008. The present population of the city is about 0.35 million with a spread
over of 79.80 Sqkm area and 37wards. Berhampur city is in the process of restoring
270 acres of lands under water bodies.
Berhampur has restored more than 22 ponds and is in the process of another 17
water bodies. Under UIDSSMT Berhampur city mobilized funds to restore these
ponds. Govt. of India, Govt. of Odisha and Berhampur Municipal Corporation shares
the cost at 80%, 10% & 10% respectively. This is an example of Pro Poor policy.
The increase in population in the recent decade has transformed lakes and ponds
into residential or commercial areas. The disappearance of Berhampur's ponds
started in the 80s. Historically there were numerous number ponds existed in this
city interconnected to each other through underground channels. However, over the
years these channels were vanished and most of the private owned lakes/ponds
were reused for residential and commercial purposes. Meanwhile official statistics
today mention existence of 42 lakes / ponds, out of which 39 are in the process of
restoration and three are in litigation.

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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

Water bodies in Berhampur are either natural lake, manmade ponds which have
been built from the 18th & 19th century to meet the water requirements of the
population. Berhampur water bodies are also part of the local hydrologic system. It
helps keeping monsoon waters for the drier periods of the year, to canalize these
important flows preventing water logging, inundation and erosion, and to ensure the
refilling of groundwater. They also support a rich ecosystem, with a great variety of
animals and plants. In simple words, water bodies would provide the following:

Refilling of ground water, ensuring the bore wells do not dry up

Recreational area for the community
Regulation of temperature
Support a rich ecosystem

Problems
The water bodies of Berhampur city is in need of a major rejuvenation. Most of
these water bodies turned into cesspool and posing health hazard for people living
in around and users. These water bodies remained as neglected spots in city maps
with no one taking serious actions towards the rejuvenation efforts. As a result:

The Storage capacity got reduced over the years due to silting
The weir was damaged and so the water level has gone down
The capacity is also reduced. The natural rainwater channels are either

blocked or diverted away from the water bodies due to housing construction.
There is lot of weed and about 80-100% water area is covered with weeds.
The sewerage management was poor and some sewerage flowed into the

lake
The construction workers and informal settlers at any time in the absence of
a proper toilet for them started using these water bodies as a public toilet

Strategy Adopted
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

The situation of water bodies has prompted the city council to address the issue and
initiate actions. With its limited resources and financial strength, has undertaken
this mammoth effort to restore the lake. The criticality of this restoration lies in the
fact that:

The domestic water needs today are actually met by bore wells in the area.

There is a need to ensure that these do NOT GO DRY.

There are no other civic amenities or parks in this layout and the ponds is the

only lung space

Preservation of the past efforts that have gone into restoring the ponds,
thereby ensuring that the efforts do not go in waste

Innovation
While City Council is debating to restore the water bodies an opportunity was
conceived at the Govt. of India level under the Urban Infrastructure Development
Scheme for Small & Medium Towns (UIDSSMT). The Berhampur city approached
Govt. of India for financial assistance to restore these water bodies.

The Berhampur City Council submitted detailed project repot to restore 39 out of 42
water bodies. With basic objectives of improving water quality, recharging of ground
water, provision of water for the animal beings, water for the use of firefighting &
construction activity, ensuring aesthetic value of these ponds and use in various
cultural activities of human beings. The activities included dewatering, desilting,
embankment protection, bathing ghats, pavements, periphery lighting, guard wall,
aeration of forty two selected water bodies
Results
The project is approved by Govt. of India with total amount of Rs.1665.89 Lakhs. In
which the share of Govt. of India would be 80% and 10 % each by Govt. of Odisha
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

(Provincial Govt.) & Berhampur Municipal Corporation respectively. All these water
bodies existing waters were drained in a phased manner and allowing them to dry
up in sunlight. Once the water is dried Excavation of earth and silt upto the required
depth and removal of silt earth and foreign matters from the container and
periphery of the tanks were carried. Then tank bottom surface were filled with
granular sand for recharging of ground water. The city will restore around 270acrs of
land by the end of pond restoration in 42 water bodies. This is one of the biggest
restorations of water bodies practice in urban areas of Odisha.
After restoring the tank beds, bathing ghats around the tanks were also restored or
constructed. Similarly the tanks were protected with embankment. The surrounding
areas were landscaped with plants, pavements were constructed for walking, cattle
barriers installed, waste bins were placed to protect tanks from Garbage, Lighting
arrangement around the tanks to prevent nuisance and messages were placed to
build awareness among the people that the tanks are always ready to serve them
better. People are using these sites site for walking, meditation, yoga and leisure.
These type of activities were absent previously due to nuisance and misuse of
water. The physical character of water bodies with water quality is improving. The
city officials are monitoring the progress of water quality for bathing, drinking by
animals and amusement purposes of tourists
Lessons Learned
Berhampur city has transformed itself into a responsible institution in managing
environmental resources and setting an example for other city in this region.
Lessons learnt during the course of the project include:
1.

Sustainability: During the course, city learned more and more about
lake / pond rejuvenation in a holistic sense. That is, to ensure the lake
not only is clean, but sustains the test of time. Hence city must keep
constant efforts in focusing both aspects of restoration - namely
rejuvenation as well as sustenance through regular engagement with

2.

citizens and users.

Transferability: Berhampur city plans to replicate same process in
restoring remaining water bodies. Similarly this process can be easily
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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

replicated in other cities in this region and Cities in India facing similar
5.0.

challenge in managing water bodies.

PLANNING FOR RESILIENT WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF
URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN THIRUVANANTHAPURAM CITY

The city of Thiruvananthapuram has 14 major water bodies and 40 main ponds. The
main drainage basin of major water bodies of the city is Akkulam Lake. The other
two drainage basins are Vellayani Lake and Parvathy Puthanaar. The run-off
drainage pattern of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation shows that the city is having a
well-knit drainage system consisting of a continuous stretch of low lying land (which
were paddy fields earlier), natural drains and two lakes functioning as drainage
basins. This system plays a vital role in preventing flooding within the city by
making way for the proper drainage of run off.
However, with unplanned urban development, poor maintenance and pollution,
these water bodies have degenerated over years. About 25% of the sewage
collected in the city is pumped into major rivers and Water bodies of the City
including Karamana River, Killi River, Enjackal Thodu, Kannammoola Thodu, Veli
Lake, Parvathy Puthanar, etc. Many of the water bodies have been encroached upon
and paddy fields and ponds reclaimed.
The study will look into the impact of urban development on the water bodies of the
City and formulate development imperatives for the urban area which takes due
consideration of the water resources of the city, for sustainable solutions.
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(2013). Advisory on Conservation and Restoration of Water Bodies in Urban Areas. New
Delhi: Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India.
Centre for Science and Environment, (2012). CHURNING STILL WATER. New Delhi: Centre for
Science and Environment.

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WORKING PAPER ON TOWARDS RESILIENT URBAN WATER BODIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A Study of Thiruvananthapuram City

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