Space

1.1 Define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field

Weight is the force experienced by an object due to a gravitational field

Work done refers to energy used when displacing an object over a specific distance (W=Fs)
Gravitational potential energy (Ep) is defined as the work done against gravity to bring a
mass to a given point in space

1.2 Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to

work done
1.3 Define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an
object from a very large distance away to a point in a gravitational field
=

Gravitational potential energy is defined as the work done to move an object from a very
large distance away to a given point in a gravitational field
Assuming that an object has zero potential energy at an infinite distance away, then
gravitation potential energy can be calculated using:
=

The total energy of an object in a gravitational field is the sum of its kinetic energy and
potential energy (Etotal = Ek + Ep= 0 Ep = -Ek)
An object at rest at an infinite distance away from
the centre of a gravitational field has zero Ek and Ep
If the object moves towards the planet, it gains Ek,
and for energy to be conserved, Ep must decrease
by the same amount (must be negative as an object
moves closer as it starts at zero)
Ep -1/r gives the graph its curved shape

Gravity on the surface of a planet can be calculated using the equation:

Variations in Earths gravity are caused by factors including:

o The Earth is not a perfect sphere and bulges at the equator (latitude)
o The density and thickness of the Earths lithosphere at specific locations
o The Earths rotation creates a centrifuge effect that is greatest at the equator, opposing
gravity
o Altitude (distance between an object and the Earths surface)

1.4 Perform an investigation and gather information to determine a value

for acceleration due to gravity using pendulum motion or computer
assisted technology and identify reason for possible variations from the
value 9.8 ms-2

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1.5 Gather secondary information to predict the value of acceleration due

to gravity on other planets
Planet
Mercury
Venus
Mars

Gravitational Acceleration (ms-2)

3.70
8.87
3.71

2.1 Describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion

within the Earths gravitational field in terms of horizontal and vertical
components

Objects undergoing projectile motion on Earth travel along a parabolic path

For standard projectile motion, horizontal velocity remains constant whilst vertical velocity
changes as an object experiences a constant downwards acceleration of 9.8ms-2
The addition of horizontal and vertical velocity vectors gives the net velocity vector

2.2 Describe Galileos analysis of projectile motion

Galileo postulated that all objects fall at the same rate, regardless of mass, as gravitational
acceleration is the same for all objects, ignoring air resistance
Galileo rolled balls down polished ramps to observe that objects experience uniform
acceleration (first person to break motion into horizontal and vertical components)
Galileo was the first person to conclude that projectiles travel along parabolic paths due to
uniform acceleration vertically and constant horizontal motion

2.3 Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the: gravitational

constant, mass and radius of the planet

Escape velocity: The velocity required at a planets surface to completely leave its
gravitational field without further energy input.
To give a projectile enough kinetic energy to reach an infinite distance from the surface of a
planet, its kinetic energy must equal the amount of energy required to bring the projectile
from an infinite distance to the surface of a planet
This means a projectile must have kinetic energy equal to the absolute value of its
gravitational potential energy at the point of take-off
= |

Escape velocity increases as the mass of a planet increases, and as the radius of a planet
decreases

2.4 Outline Newtons concept of escape velocity

Newton proposed a hypothetical experiment involving firing cannonballs horizontally off a

mountain with increasing velocities and considering the possible outcomes, ignoring air
resistance

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For low speeds, the projectile would travel along a parabolic path
As speed increases, the cannonball will take longer to hit the ground as although
gravitational acceleration is pulling the object down, the Earths surface is falling away from
the projectile due to its horizontal motion
Once speed is high enough, the projectile will travel continuously in a circle, ignoring air
resistance, never falling to Earths surface
Further increasing speed will result in an elliptical path of motion, before the path eventually
becomes hyperbolic, whereby the projectile has reached escape velocity when this first
occurs

2.5 Identify why the term g-forces is used to explain the forces acting on
an astronaut during launch

G-force refers to the force experienced by astronauts in terms of Earths gravitational field
strength at the Earths surface
Positive g-force acts from the feet to the head (upwards) and negative g-force acts from the
head to the feet (downwards)
Note: g-force refers to a reaction force during acceleration, hence 0Gs are experienced
when freefalling.
1G refers to an astronaut experiencing a normal gravitational acceleration as if they were on
Earths surface, where W=mg, and g=9.8ms-2
If a rocket is accelerating upwards at 9.8ms-2, then an astronaut is experiencing 2Gs
In freefall, an astronaut experiences 0Gs
G-force is used to more easily quantify the forces acting on an astronaut during launch
During launch astronauts experience up to 4 g, but may be subjected to a maximum of 10 g
during training
To minimise the risk of a blackout (positive g) or red-out (negative g) from g force along the
longitudinal axis of an astronaut, they are seated perpendicular to the direction of force
application, use special seats, and may wear g suits to maintain blood flow to the brain

2.6 Discuss the effect of the Earths orbital motion and its rotational
motion on the launch of a rocket

Earths orbital and rotational motion both have effects on the launch of a rocket, with orbital
motion affecting interplanetary travel and rotational motion affecting Earths satellites
When a rocket is launched, its velocity is affected by both the rocket motor, and Earths
movement through space
Launching rockets in the same direction as Earths orbit provides additional velocity,
particularly when launching near the equator
The Earth is constantly rotating anticlockwise about its axis when viewed from the North
Pole, and when a rocket is launched towards the east, they gain momentum from the Earths
rotation, and are travelling in the same direction as Earths atmosphere as it rotates
The benefits of launching rockets in the same direction as Earths orbit include launching
larger payloads at a reduced cost with lower fuel requirements

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However, launching rockets against Earths orbital and rotational motion is disadvantageous
as rockets would need to be launched at great velocities, increasing costs and fuel
requirements

2.7 Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms

of the: Law of Conservation of Momentum, forces experienced by
astronauts

The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that in a closed system, the sum of momenta
before a change is equal to the sum of momenta after a change
For rockets, the change is the release of exhaust gas
Using the equation below, it can be seen that if both the rocket and the exhaust have the
same initial velocity, for momentum to be conserved after ejecting exhaust backwards
relative to the front of a rocket, the velocity of the rocket must increase
pinitial = pfinal
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Over time, the mass of the rocket decreases as exhaust is ejected, and since engine thrust
remains constant, the velocity of the rocket must increase to conserve momentum
F=ma
The above equation shows that if the thrust force of the rocket is constant, and mass is
decreasing, then acceleration must increase during launch
Further reductions in mass occur as a result of multistage rockets (empty fuel tanks detached
to improve efficiency) and increased altitude (gravitational acceleration is much lower)
For astronauts, this increasing acceleration results in an increased amount of g-force
experienced, hence thrust force needs to be progressively reduced during launch to protect
astronauts

2.8 Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of
objects, including satellites orbiting the Earth

Uniform circular motion refers to the motion of objects that prescribe a perfect circle as they
move, with a centripetal force acting towards the centre of the circular motion
Centripetal force is calculated using the equation:
=

The sources that produce the centripetal force acting on an object can vary, such as the
forces acting on satellites as they orbit (gravity), cars as they turn (friction) and a charged
particle moving through a magnetic field (right hand palm rule)
For orbiting satellites, orbital velocity can be calculated in terms of a planets mass and the
satellites orbital radius by equating centripetal force to gravitational force, as shown below:
=
=

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2.9 Compare qualitatively low Earth and geo-stationary orbits

Feature
Altitude
Orbital Velocity
Orbital Period
Main Uses

Low Earth Orbit

300-1500km
~8km/s
90 minutes
Geotopographic studies
Studying weather patterns

Geo-stationary
~36000km
~3km/s
24 hours
Information relaying between
different geographical locations
Communication
Weather monitoring
Not affected by orbital decay
Always located above the same
position on the Earth
Easy to track

Provide scans of Earth multiple

times a day
Provides a closer view of the
Advantages
Earth due to low altitude

Fast transmission of information

with minimal delay
Easier and cheaper to launch
Can be affected by atmospheric
Difficult and expensive to launch
drag, resulting in orbital decay
due to orbital radius
Space debris has a higher risk of Experience more damage due to
causing damage
energetic cosmic rays
Disadvantages More difficult to track due to
Difficult to repair
speed
Have a limited view of the Earths
Orbital paths must be controlled
surface (one-third)
to minimise interference between
satellites
A geo-synchronous orbit refers to any orbit with a 24-hour orbital period, and may be inclined
from 0 (equatorial) to 90 (polar)
All geo-stationary orbits must be equatorial, orbiting above the equator

2.10 Define the term orbital velocity and the quantitative and qualitative
relationship between orbital velocity, the gravitational constant, mass of
the central body, mass of the satellite and the radius of the orbit using
Keplers Law of Periods

Orbital velocity: The velocity of an orbiting satellite, calculated by dividing orbital

circumference by orbital period.
Orbital velocity is derived using the equations:
=

Note that orbital velocity is also given by the equation:

2
=

Substituting these equations together, Keplers third law (law of periods) is derived:

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It follows that orbital velocity increases as the mass of the central body increases and as
orbital radius decreases
The mass of the satellite cancels out when calculating orbital velocity

2.11 Account for the orbital decay of satellites in low Earth orbit

Low Earth orbit satellites (LEOs) continuously lose orbital velocity as a result of drag caused
by collisions with air particles in the upper regions of Earths atmosphere where the boundary
between the atmosphere and the vacuum of space is not clearly defined
Air friction caused by these collisions causes a gradual reduction in orbital velocity, hence
LEOs require periodic rocket boosts to prevent orbital radius from decreases
If orbital decay continues for extended periods of time, a satellite will eventually crash

2.12 Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earths
atmosphere and landing on the Earths surface
2.13 Identify that there is an optimum angle for safe re-entry for a
manned spacecraft into the Earths atmosphere and the consequences of
failing to achieve this angle

Re-entry is a procedure that involves a space vehicle experiencing high velocities and
temperatures upon entering Earths atmosphere from space, with trajectory being a major
consideration in order for a safe landing to occur
Issue
Heat

Angle of Re-entry

Ionisation Blackout

Physics Notes

Elaboration
Friction with the atmosphere can result in temperatures up to 1650C
Ablative heat shields are made of a plastic resin that that melts to form
a gas, carrying heat away by convection
Thermal soak heat shields are made of insulating materials such as
ceramics to absorb and radiate heat away from a spacecraft
Air conditioners are used to regulate the interior temperature of a
spacecraft, maintaining room temperature
Modern space vehicles have a blunt nose and descend belly-first to
shield the majority of the vehicle from heat
Without appropriate shielding, a space vehicle is unable to return to
heat
An angle of re-entry that is too steep will result in a descent that is too
fast, experiencing higher temperatures as altitude decreases and
excessive g-forces, potentially destroying the spacecraft
An angle of re-entry that is too shallow will cause the spacecraft to
retain too much of its velocity and bounce off the atmosphere into a
higher orbit with insufficient fuel to make another controlled re-entry
attempt
The optimal angle of re-entry lies within the range of 5.2 to 7.2
High temperatures produced during re-entry create a layer of plasma
that interferes with radio communication
This phenomenon is known as an ionisation blackout and can
interrupt communication for 30 seconds, up to several minutes
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This is a hazard that can cause complications if a safety issue occurs

during re-entry as radio communication is unable to properly function
Scientists are attempting to minimise or eliminate the effects of this
phenomenon by designing new antennae and spacecraft designs

2.14 Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the actual

velocity of a projectile from its horizontal and vertical components

Use the following equations when calculating horizontal displacement, velocity and
acceleration:
=
= +
=
+2
=
1
=
+
2

2.16 Identify data sources, gather, analyse and present information on

the contribution of one of the following to the development of space
exploration: Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, ONeill or
von Braun

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) proposed three important theoretical contributions to

the development of space travel, providing a foundation for further progress as new
technology and resources became available
Originally it was believed that rockets could not be used to produce thrust in space as there
would be no air to push against
Tsiolkovsky disproved this belief by applying the Law of Conservation of Momentum (m1u1
+ m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2) and Newtons Third Law (for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction, demonstrating how the expulsion of fuel could be used to achieve rocket
thrust
Tsiolkovsky suggested the use of liquid fuels as they are much lighter than solid fuels,
allowing for greater control by being throttled, and achieving a greater exhaust velocity
(commonly used by satellites to adjust orbits)
Tsiolkovsky envisioned a 20-stage rocket train, and although such a rocket would be
unviable, the principle of multi-stage rockets is highly relevant to modern rocketry as rocket
stages that have depleted their fuel are detached, reducing the weight of the rocket and
improving its efficiency, being vital to the success launch of rockets with large payloads
Although Tsiolkovsky did not directly impact space exploration, his ideas were vital to the
development of space exploration, facilitating further development by other scientists, such
as Goddards implementation of liquid fuels in rockets

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3.1 Describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a massive

object in terms of its effects on other masses in it

A gravitational field exerts a force that pulls objects towards the centre of the field
Gravitational field strength is related to the mass of the object that produces it, with field
strength increasing as mass increases
Massive objects produce a strong gravitational field that will attract other masses near it
If these masses have no (or very little) tangential velocity, they will be pulled directly towards
the massive object
If these masses have sufficient tangential velocity, they may be pulled into orbit, or have
their trajectory altered by the force produced by the massive objects gravitational field

3.2 Define Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation:

Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation allows the force exerted by gravity in a field to be
calculated in terms of the masses involved and the distance between them
The force exerted on two bodies within a gravitational field is given by the equation:
=

Note that the force acts such that the two bodies are pulled together
The larger body is less affected by the force as according to F=ma, if force is constant and
mass is very large, then acceleration is very small

3.3 Discuss the importance of Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation in

understanding and calculating the motion of satellites

In order to successfully launch a satellite, the orbital velocity required needs to be calculated
This is achieved by equating the centripetal force that must act on a satellite to gravitational
force, as shown below:
=

=
Since Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation is required to calculate the force of gravity when
deriving orbital velocity, it is therefore vital to understanding and calculating the motion of
satellites
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation can also be used to derive Keplers Law of Periods,
providing a further understanding of the motion of satellites in a given system
Although Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation is not a complete solution to understanding
orbital motion, it remains a very important component of current scientific understanding on
the motion of satellites

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3.4 Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space
probes

If carefully calculated and executed, the gravity of passing planets can be used to accelerate
space probes, known as the slingshot effect
The slingshot effect is primarily used to increase the velocity of space probes, as well as
alter their trajectory
To increase velocity, a probe should approach a planet from behind, whereby the probe
experiences acceleration due to entering the gravitational field and the orbital motion of the
planets which effectively drags the probe along the planets path
Upon exiting the gravitational field, the probe loses the momentum gained by entering the
field, but the momentum gained by the dragging effect of the planets gravity is retain,
resulting in a net increase in velocity
Trajectory can also be altered by the slingshot effect, and is particularly useful when sending
probes to planets in the outer solar system as a significant amount of energy is required to
leave the suns gravitational field
By using the slingshot effect, the amount of fuel required to change the trajectory of a space
probe can be reduced, whilst allowing for increased velocity that reduces flight time
Note: The slingshot effect can also be used to slow down a space probe

3.5 Present information and use available evidence to discuss the factors
affecting the strength of the gravitational force

From the Law of Universal Gravitation that the magnitude of the attraction force is directly
proportional to mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two
objects
It follows that the larger the masses involved and the closer the masses are to each other,
the larger the gravitational force
Variations in Earths gravity are caused by factors including:
o The Earth is not a perfect sphere and bulges at the equator (latitude)
o The density and thickness of the Earths lithosphere at specific locations
o The Earths rotation creates a centrifuge effect that is greatest at the equator, opposing
gravity
o Altitude (distance between an object and the Earths surface)

4.1 Outline the features of the aether model for the transmission of light

Early studies of light indicated that it possessed wave properties, and like waves, must
therefore travel through a medium, named the aether
According to the aether model, light is a wave that propagates through a material known as
the aether

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Features of the aether include:

o Evenly distributed throughout all space, surrounding all matter
o Undetectable (could not be seen, heard or felt)
o Zero viscosity (able to flow with zero resistance)
o Incompressible/elastic (100% energy transfer efficiency)
o Massless
o Considered an absolute frame of reference where the absolute motion of all objects in
the universe could be measured relative to the aether

4.2 Describe and evaluate the Michelson-Morley attempt to measure the

relative velocity of the Earth through the aether

If the aether is stationary and the Earth is moving through the aether, then an aether wind
should affect the speed of light for an observer on the Earth
The Michelson-Morley experiment sought to determine the absolute velocity of Earth through
space by measuring the speed and direction of the aether wind
The experimental device, known as a MichelsonMorley interferometer, splits a beam of light in two
directions at 90 by passing through a half-silvered
mirror, before the beams are reflected and recombined
after travelling an equal distance to produce an
interference pattern
The device was floated on liquid mercury, allowing for
smooth rotation during experimentation
As the device was rotated, it was expected that the
direction of the aether wind would cause the light
beams to travel at different speeds from each other,
causing the interference pattern to change, allowing
the velocity of the Earth to be calculated
Granite table floating on mercury
However, no change in the interference pattern was
observed, despite extensive testing, suggesting that
the aether model and/or experiment are flawed
In terms of calculating Earths absolute velocity, the experiment was a failure, but since
results were both reliable and valid, they contributed greatly to scientific theory about light
and space

4.3 Discuss the role of the Michelson-Morley experiments in making

determinations about competing theories

The results of the Michelson-Morley experiment disproved the aether model for the
transmission of light, instead supporting Einsteins model of light
The two competing theories were:
o The aether model in which light propagated through a stationary aether, in which the
Earth moved
o Einsteins model which specified that light travelled at a constant speed in all direction
The result of the experiment therefore played a major role in the determination of competing
theories, supporting Einsteins model, whilst debunking the aether model

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4.4 Outline the nature of inertial frames of reference

A frame of reference refers to the environment in which an observer makes measurements,

and may be either stationary or moving
An inertial frame of reference is one in which no net force is acting, and all of Newtons laws
hold true (i.e. an inertial frame is a frame the is not accelerating)
No mechanical experiment or observation from within the frame can reveal if the frame is
moving with constant velocity or at rest
Note: Fictitious forces such as centrifugal force does not exist in inertial frames of reference
because they do not exist as an action force in all inertial frames of reference.

4.5 Discuss the principle of relativity

The classical principle of relativity developed by Galileo and Newton stated that no
measurement made from within an inertial reference frame should be able to determine the
velocity of the frame (i.e. from within a frame of reference it is impossible to determine
whether the frame is in motion or not)
The only way to determine the motion of an inertial frame is by observing other reference
frames
This means that all inertial frames of reference are equal and equally correct, and that there
is no absolute rest frame through which all motion occurs
Einstein proposed his theory of special relativity in 1905, postulating the following key ideas:
o The laws of physics are the same for all inertial reference frames (i.e. all inertial frames
are equal and cannot be distinguished from each other as there is no absolute rest frame)
o The speed of light is constant for all observers
Experimentation produced evidence that as observed velocity increases, time dilates, length
contracts and mass increases
The principle of relativity therefore concludes that the only constant in the universe is the
speed of light, and that everything else is dependent upon the relative movement between
frames of reference
The main limitation of special relativity is that it is only valid for inertial frames of reference
(i.e. reference frames that experience no acceleration)
Einsteins revolutionary idea was able to explain evidence such as the Michelson-Morley
experiment and make predictions about the behaviour of light, but had little evidence
supporting it when it was formulated, requiring many years to become accepted in the
scientific community

4.6 Describe the significance of Einsteins assumption of the constancy of

the speed of light

Einstein postulated that the speed of light is constant for all observers, meaning that
whenever an observer makes measurements to determine the speed of light, the value is
always the same
The significance of Einsteins postulate is that if the speed of light is constant, then mass,
length and time change so that the speed of light is never exceeded
This is extremely important when predicting the behaviour of objects at relativistic velocities

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4.7 Identify that if c is constant then space and time become relative

In traditional physics, the behaviour of light had to adapt to the motion of the observer
Following Einsteins theory that the speed of light is constant, the dimensions involved with
motion have to adapt to light
The result is that space and time become relative to velocity so that c is always constant

In 1739, the original definition of a metre was 10,000,000th of Earths quadrant passing through

4.8 Discuss the concept that length standards are defined in terms of time
in contrast to the original metre standard

Paris
This arc was surveyed and three platinum bars were made as standards
It was discovered that the quadrant survey was incorrect and the metre was redefined to the
distance between two marks on the platinum standard
A more formal definition was developed in 1875 and the distance between two lines scribed
on a single bar of platinum-iridium alloy
The current definition for the metre uses the constant nature of the speed of light in a vacuum
(299,792,458ms-1) and the accuracy of the definition of one second (9,129,631,770
oscillations of the Cs133 atom) to define one metre as the distance travelled by light in a
vacuum over an interval of

299,792,458

of a second.

This definition establishes the concept that all length standards are now measured in term
of the distance travelled by light in a given period of time
A light-year is another length standard and is defined by the distance travelled by light in a
vacuum over an interval of one year

4.9 Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the consequence of special

relativity in relation to: the relativity of simultaneity, the equivalence
between mass and energy, length contraction, time dilation, mass dilation

The idea of the relativity of simultaneity proposes that due to the special relativity, events
observed as simultaneous in one reference frame may not be observed as simultaneous in
another frame
Consider the example of a train travelling at 0.5c, which has mirrors at each end, and a light
source directly in the middle
When the light is switched on, a person in the middle of the train would observe that light
returns from both sides of the train at the same time, having travelled the same distance
However, to a person outside of the train, they would observe that the rear door opens first
as the train is moving forwards, increasing the distance light must travel to reach the front
door, indicating that simultaneity is dependent on the frame from which events are observed
Mass and energy are linked by the equation:
=
which allows an objects rest energy (the energy equivalent of a stationary objects mass,
measured within the objects rest frame) to be determined, as well as the energy released if
matter is destroyed and converted into pure energy

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This equation challenged law of conservation of matter and law of conservation of energy,
being modified to Energy and matter cannot be created or destroyed. They can only be
transformed
Length contraction means that as observed velocity (velocity of another reference frame
from an inertial reference frame) increases, the length of a moving object appears to contract
relative to its length when measured at rest, given by the equation:
=

Time dilation means that as observed velocity increases, moving clocks appear to run
slower, given by the equation:
=

Mass dilation means that as observed velocity increases, moving objects appear to have a
greater mass in comparison to their mass at rest, given by the equation:
=

Note: All of these changes correspond to changes in the properties of space-time, and are
only true if the frame being observed and the frame of observation are both inertial frames
of reference

4.10 Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation and length
contraction for space travel

Relativistic effects have several implications for space travel

Mass dilation states that as speed approaches c, mass increases to infinity, and
consequently, a spacecrafts acceleration gradually decreases (F=ma), though it never
reaches zero, making it impossible to travel at the speed of light
Time dilation will cause astronauts in a relativistic spacecraft to age slower than people in a
stationary reference frame (Earth), effectively living longer than stationary observers
Length contraction means that as the velocity of a spacecraft increases, the apparent
distance ahead of it decreases, whereby the distance covered by a relativistic spacecraft will
appear shorter to observers on the spacecraft

4.11 Gather and process information to interpret the results of the

Michelson-Morley experiment

The aim of the Michelson-Morley experiment was to determine the velocity of the Earth
through the aether and assumed that light travelled at different speeds depending on the
direction of the aether wind, produced by the relative motion between the Earth and the
aether
By splitting a light beam into two perpendicular beams and allowing it to recombine after
travelling an equal distance, it was believed that the interference pattern would change as
the device was rotated, altering the speed of light for each beam

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Results indicated that light travelled at the same speed in all directions, regardless of the
devices orientation, producing the same interference pattern
The experiment therefore produced a null result that neither proved nor disproved the
existence of the aether
This proved that the aether model for light transmission was flawed and supported Einsteins
theories about the constancy of the speed of light, as well as the non-existence of the aether

4.12 Perform an investigation to help distinguish between non-inertial

and inertial frames of reference

Pulling a string attached to a spring balance with a 100g mass via a pulley can determine
whether a frame of reference is inertial
When stationary or pulling with a constant velocity, the spring balance measures 100g,
indicating the frame of reference is inertial
When pulling with increasing speed, the spring balance measured more than 100g,
indicating a non-inertial frame of reference as a net force is acting on the frame of reference
and the laws of physics do not directly hold true (i.e. the 100g mass is measured as more
than 100g when accelerating)

4.13 Analyse and interpret some of Einsteins thought experiments

involving mirrors and trains and discuss the relationship between thought
and reality

Einstein proposed two thought experiments, one involving looking at himself in a mirror
travelling at the speed of light, and the other involving light travelling from the roof to the floor
of a train before being reflected back
Both experiments demonstrated that by using conventional models such as vector addition,
it is possible for an observer to see light travelling faster than c, contradicting his principle
that the speed of light is constant
The first experiment considered whether he would be able to see his face normally in a
mirror held in front of him in a train travelling constantly at the speed of light
Considering the distance travelled by light from Einsteins face to the mirror, a stationary
observer outside the train would view the light travelling twice the distance observed by
Einstein in the same amount of time, therefore indicating that the observer measured light
traveling at 2c
Einstein stated that this would not occur, and instead both observers would measure the
light travelling at c, with time being manipulated such that they fit the equation:
=
In the light bouncing experiment, a beam of light from the roof of a train is directed directly
down into a mirror on the floor which reflects the light back towards the roof
From inside the train, the light is seen to travel a path that is vertical only, whilst from outside,
the light is seen to travel a longer distance in a v-like shape
Likewise, Einstein makes the interpretation that time experiences a change so that c remains
constant for all observers

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Discussion for relationship between thought and reality:

o Thought experiments can be used to perform experiments that cannot be performed in
reality, such as trains moving at relativistic speeds, allowing conclusions to be made
o However, misinterpretation of thought experiments through flawed logic or failing to
account for all possible factors can result in experiments that bear no relationship with
reality, failing to apply science that would affect the outcome of the experiment in reality
o Consequently, the use of thought experiments to can be effective when considering
possible outcomes for specific scenarios, but should be carefully analysed before
drawing conclusions as although the logic involved may be considered valid, the
experiment cannot be reproduced in reality and may draw false conclusions
o Overall, thought experiments can be considered an important component of science as
they are sometimes the only way of deducing theories

4.14 Analyse information to discuss the relationship between theory and

the evidence supporting it, using Einsteins predictions based on relativity
that were made many years before evidence was available to support it

Einstein made predictions that space and time are relative to observed movement, and that
the speed of light is constant, before evidence was available to support his theories
In 1971, the Hafele-Keating experiment involved three sets of synchronous atomic clocks,
two of which were placed on commercial jets flying around the world in opposite directions
When compared to the ground clocks, the clocks travelling east lost 59 nanoseconds, and
the clocks travelling westward gained 273 nanoseconds
Supported Einsteins predictions on relativity as the plane travelling east gained additional
velocity from travelling in the same direction as the Earths rotation, whilst the plane travelling
west has a lower velocity than the ground clocks as it opposed the direction of Earths
rotation
The results of the experiment were within 10% of predicted results, supporting Einsteins
theory
Experiments involving muons produced similar results, that supported Einsteins theory of
relativity
A muon is an unstable sub-atomic particle very similar to an electron, but heavier, and has
a half-life of approximately 2.2 microseconds when stationary, allowing for a maximum range
of 660 metres when travelling at c
Muons form in the upper atmosphere and are expected not to reach the Earths surface due
to their short half-life, but this is incorrect as muons have been observed having reached the
Earths surface
By accelerating muons to 0.996c in a particle accelerator, the half-life of muons for the
inertial frame of an observer has been measured as approximately 16 microseconds,
indicating that time dilation has occurred
The time dilation effect gives muons have a longer half-life from the reference frame of an
observer on Earth due to their high velocity, allowing them to reach the Earths surface
A hypothesis can only be classified as a theory once there is evidence supporting it
Therefore, Einsteins conclusions could only be considered predictions at the time that he
proposed them, becoming theories years later after evidence was gathered that supported
his ideas.

Physics Notes

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Maksim Stojkovic 2016