Laser Torch Project

MAJOR PROJECT LASER TORCH BASED VOICE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 ABOUT PROJECT
LASER TORCH-BASED VOICE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
Using this circuit you can communicate with your neighbors wirelessly. Instead of RF
signals, light from a laser torch is used as the carrier in the circuit. The laser torch can
transmit light up to a distance of about 500 meters. The phototransistor of the receiver
must be accurately oriented towards the laser beam from the torch. If there is any
obstruction in the path of the laser beam, no sound will be heard from the receiver.
The transmitter circuit comprises condenser microphone transistor amplifier BC548
(T1) followed by an opamp stage built around µA741 (IC1). The gain of the op-amp
can be controlled with the help of 1-mega-ohm pot meter VR1. The AF output from
IC1 is coupled to the base of transistor BD139 (T2), which, in turn, modulates the
laser beam. The transmitter uses 9V power supply. However, the 3-volt laser torch
(after removal of its battery) can be directly connected to the circuit—with the body
of the torch connected to the emitter of BD139 and the spring-loaded lead protruding
from inside the torch to circuit ground. The receiver circuit uses an npn
phototransistor as the light sensor that is followed by a two-stage transistor
preamplifier and LM386-based audio power amplifier. The receiver does not need
any complicated alignment. Just keep the phototransistor oriented towards the remote
transmitter’s laser point and adjust the volume control for a clear sound. To avoid
50Hz hum noise in the speaker, keep the phototransistor away from AC light sources
such as bulbs. The reflected sunlight, however, does not cause any problem. But the
sensor should not directly face the sun.
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGG,
HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

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1.2 Laser information page
1. 21 General information
The 'laser' - or - (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) was

perfected in 1960, by research scientist Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Laboratory
in Malibu California. Physicists Charles H. Townes and his brother-in-law Arthur
Schawlow were the first to actually apply for a patent on the laser and they were the
first to publish their findings in scientific journals. The He-Ne laser (red beam) was in
commercial use, by 1968. Today many different types of lasers exist, for a wide range
of applications. Lasers are used for surgery, for cutting metal, for determining
distance, for projecting 3-dimensional holographic images, for computer printing and
for entertainment lighting applications. Laser light differs from ordinary light in four
ways. Briefly it is much more intense, directional, monochromatic and coherent. Most
lasers consist of a column of active material with a partly reflecting mirror at one end
and a fully reflecting mirror at the other. The active material can be solid (ruby
crystal), liquid or gas (HeNe, CO2 etc.).
1.22 Why use a laser? A laser as a communications medium has some unique
properties compared to other forms of media. A line-of-sight laser beam is useful
where wires cannot be physically connected to a remote location. A laser beam,
unlike wires, also does not require special shielding over longer distances. Lasers
offer at least an order of magnitude longer distances compared to infrared LEDs.
Although RF transmitters may offer longer distances than line-of-sight lasers, they are
subject to interference from other transmitters. Since the laser medium is line-of-sight
and the beam being only several millimeters in diameter it is very difficult for the
data stream to be tapped. This offers secure communication since any attempts to
intercept the laser beam would be detected at the receiver as a loss in data.
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CHAPTER 2
COMPONENT USED
2.1 Transmitter:.
Table 2.1
S.No. NAME OF THE COMPONENT QUANTITY
1. Resistance (8.2 K) 2
2 Resistance (1.8 M) 1
3. Resistance (10 K) 1
4. Resistance (15 K) 2
5. Resistance (82 ohm) 1
6. Variable Resistance (1 M) 1
7. Capacitor (1 mf) 1
8. Capacitor (0.1 mf) 1
11. Semiconductor T1 BC548 1
12. Semiconductor T2 BD139 1
13. Condenser MIC 1
14. IC UA741 1
15. PCB 1
2.2 Receiver:
S.No. NAME OF THE COMPONENT QUANTITY
1. Resistor (6.8 K) 1
2 Resistor (4.7M) 1
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3. Resistor (470 K) 1
4. Resistor (2.2 K) 2
5. Resistor (1 K) 1
6. Resistor (10 K) 1
7. Variable resistor (50 K) 1
9. Capacitor(47 pf) 1
13. Capacitor(10mf) 1
14. Capacitor(470 mf) 1
15. Semiconductor 2N5777 1
16. Semiconductor BC549 2
17. LM 386 1
18. P.C.B 1
19. 8 ohm Speaker 1
CHAPTER 3
COMPONENT STUDY
3.1 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An op amp is a high-gain, direct-coupled differential linear amplifier whose response
characteristics are externally controlled by negative feedback from the output to the
input. OP amps, widely used in computers, can perform mathematical operations such
as summing, integration, and differentiation. OP amps are also used as video and
audio amplifiers, oscillators, etc. in the communication electronics. Because of their
versatility op amps are widely used in all branches of electronics both in digital and
linear circuits.
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OP amps lend themselves readily to IC manufacturing techniques. Improved IC

manufacturing techniques, the op amp's adaptability, and extensive use in the design
of new equipment have brought the price of IC ops amps from very high to very
reasonable levels. These facts ensure a very substantial role for the IC op amp in
electronics.
Fig shows the symbol for an op amp. Note that the operational amplifier has two
inputs marked (-) and (+). The minus input is the inverting input. A signal applied to
the minus terminal will be shifted in phase 180° at the output. The plus input is the
non-inverting input. A signal applied to the plus terminal will appear in the same
phase at the output as at the input. Because of the complexity of the internal circuitry
of an op amp, the op amp symbol is used exclusively in circuit diagrams.
Fig 3.1 symbol of op-amp
IC-741
An operational amplifier often referred to as op Amp, is a very high gain high

performance amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc signal voltages. Modern
integrated circuit technology and large-scale production techniques have brought
down the prices of such amplifiers within reach of all amateurs, experimenters and
hobbyists. The Op Amp is now used as a basic gain element, like an elegant
transistor, in electronic circuits.
The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes the
operational amplifier a highly versatile device. If a feedback is applied from the
output to the inverting input terminal, the result is a negative feedback, which gives a
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stable amplifier with precisely controlled gain characteristics. On the other hand, if
the feedback is applied to the non-inverting input, the result is positive feedback,
which gives oscillators and multivibrator. Special effects are obtained by combination
of both types of feedback.
Fig 3.2 symbol of IC741
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL
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Fig 3.3 Negative feedback control ckt
The above figure shows the basic circuit, including the negative feedback loop of an
op amp. The output is fed back to the inverting input terminal in order to provide
negative feedback for the amplifier. The input signal is applied to the inverting input.
As a result, the output will be inverted. It is possible to operate the op amp as a non-
inverting amplifier by applying the signal to the plus input. In this circuit the
feedback network is still connected to the inverting input.
3.2 VR(potentiometer/resistance variac/trimmer):
fig 3.4symbol
The potentiometer is a resistor of variable resistance. It has three terminals; a fixed

resistance is found between two of the terminals and the third terminal slides along
the fixed resistor. Often, it is used to control the volume in an audio amplifier.
3.3 Capacitor The capacitor plays a crucial role in electronics -- it stores electrons
for when they're needed most. Capacitors consist of two conducting plates placed
near each other. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates
separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that
does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other..
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fig 3.5 ceramic capacitor
They can store electric charge for later discharge. Direct current through a capacitor
will charge the capacitor for a short time, and then stop flowing. Alternating current,
because of the changing electric fields it generates, can “flow” across a capacitor.
3.4 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
The DMM is an instrument that is able to measure voltage, current, and resistance in
a circuit, or across circuit components and displays its measurements on a digital
display.
3.5 Battery(9 VOLT): If you look at any battery, you'll notice that it has two
terminals. One terminal is marked (+), or positive, while the other is marked (-), or
negative. In an normal flashlight batteries, the ends of the battery are the terminals. In
a large car battery, there are two heavy lead posts that act as the terminals.
Electrons collect on the negative terminal of the battery. If you connect a wire
between the negative and positive terminals, the electrons will flow from the negative
to the positive terminal as fast as they can (and wear out the battery very quickly --
this also tends to be dangerous, especially with large batteries, so it is not something
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you want to be doing). Normally, you connect some type of load to the battery using
the wire.
Fig 3.6 : 9V Battery
Inside the battery itself, a chemical reaction produces the electrons. The speed of
electron production by this chemical reaction (the battery's internal resistance)
controls how many electrons can flow between the terminals.
Electrons flow from the battery into a wire, and must travel from the negative to the
positive terminal for the chemical reaction to take place. That is why a battery can sit
on a shelf for a year and still have plenty of power unless electrons are flowing from
the negative to the positive terminal, the chemical reaction does not take place. Once
you connect a wire, the reaction starts.
3.6 Laser torch
For this project we have removed the laser assembly from a small laser pointer. The
power supply circuit is the green board attached to the brass laser head. We carry
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similar laser pointers in our catalog that are easily disassembled for this project. The
power supply circuit came conveniently marked with a plus and a minus next to two
holes in the board. We solder the black negative lead from the battery clip to the hole
marked minus. We solder one of the coil leads to the hole marked plus. We solder the
red positive lead of the battery clip to the other lead from the coil.
fig 3.7:Laser torch
3.7 Microphone
Sound is an amazing thing. All of the different sounds that we hear are caused by
minute pressure differences in the air around us. What's amazing about it is that the
air transmits those pressure changes so well, and so accurately, over relatively long
distances. It was a metal diaphragm attached to a needle, and this needle scratched a
pattern onto a piece of metal foil. The pressure differences in the air that occurred
when you spoke toward the diaphragm moved the diaphragm, which moved the
needle, which was recorded on the foil. When you later ran the needle back over the
foil, the vibrations scratched on the foil would then move the diaphragm and recreate
the sound. The fact that this purely mechanical system works shows how much
energy the vibrations in the air can have! All modern microphones are trying to
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accomplish the same thing as the original, but do it electronically rather than
mechanically. A microphone wants to take varying pressure waves in the air and
convert them into varying electrical signals. There are five different technologies
commonly used to accomplish this conversion. We use condenser mic in our project.
Condenser microphones - A condenser microphone is essentially a capacitor, with

one plate of the capacitor moving in response to sound waves.
3.8 Integrated Circuit (IC)
An integrated circuit is a pre-made circuit shrunk down to small size and put on a
chip. IC’s save circuit makers time by serving common purposes like amplifying a
signal which would otherwise have to be done by a new circuit built from scratch
every time.
3.8.1 UA741: GENERAL-PURPOSE OP-AMP
Uses:-
1. Short-Circuit Protection
2. Offset-Voltage Null Capability
3. Large Common-Mode and Differential Voltage Ranges

4. No Frequency Compensation Required
5. Low Power Consumption
6. No Latch-Up
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i.
fig 3.8 UA741
Description
The UA741 is a general-purpose operational amplifier featuring offset-voltage null

capability. The high common-mode input voltage range and the absence of latch-up
make the amplifier ideal for voltage-follower applications. The device is short-circuit
protected and the internal frequency Compensation ensures stability without external
components. A low value potentiometer may be connected between the offset null
inputs to null out the offset voltage as shown in Figure 2. The UA741C is
characterized for operation from 0C to 70C.
3.8.2 LM386
General Description
The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer
applications. The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the
addition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the
gain to any value from 20 to 200.
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The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the
supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 milliwatts when operating from
a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation.
Features
1. Battery operation
2. Minimum external parts
3. Wide supply voltage range: 4V-12V or 5V-18V
4. Low quiescent current drain: 4mA
5. Voltage gains from 20 to 200
6. Ground referenced input
7. Self-centering output quiescent voltage
8. Low distortion: 0.2% (AV = 20, VS = 6V, RL = 8Ohm, PO = 125mW, f =
1kHz)
9. Available in 8 pin MSOP package
Applications
1. AM-FM radio amplifiers

2. Portable tape player amplifiers
3. Intercoms
4. TV sound systems
5. Line drivers
6. Ultrasonic drivers
7. Small servo drivers
3.9 Transistors
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BC548: NPN general purpose transistors BC548
FEATURES
1. Low current (max. 100 mA)

2. Low voltage (max. 65 V).
APPLICATIONS
General purpose switching and amplification.
DESCRIPTION
NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.
PNP complements: BC556, BC557 and BC558.
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BC549: NPN general purpose transistors BC549
FEATURES
1 Low current (max. 100 mA)
2 Low voltage (max. 45 V).
APPLICATIONS
Low noise stages in audio frequency equipment.
DESCRIPTION
NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.
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BD 139
Medium Power Linear and Switching
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Applications
• Complement to BD136, BD138 and BD140 respectively
3.10 Photodiodes
If a conventional silicon diode is connected in the reverse-biased circuit , negligible

current will flow through the diode and zero voltage will develop across R1. If the
diode casing is now carefully removed so that the diode's semiconductor junction is
revealed, and the junction is them exposed to visible light in the same circuit, the
diode current will rise, possibly to as
Fig. 3.9 Reverse-baised diode circuit
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high as 1 mA, producing a significant output across R1. Further investigation will
show that the diode current (and thus the output voltage) is directly proportional to
light intensity, and that the diode is therefore photosensitive.
In practice, all silicon junctions are photosensitive, and a photodiode can be regarded
as a conventional diode housed in a case that lets external light reach its
photosensitive semiconductor junction. Fig. 2 shows the standard photodiode symbol.
In use, the photodiode is reverse biased and the output voltage is taken from across a
series-connected load resistor. This resistor may be connected between the diode and
ground, as in fig. 1, or between the diode and the positive supply line, as in fig. 3
Fig.3.10 Photodiode symbol
The human eye is sensitive to a range of light radiation, as shown in fig. 4. It has a
peak spectral response to the colour green, which has a wave length of about 550 nm,
but has a relatively low sensitivity to the colour violet (400 nm) at one end of the
spectrum and to dark red (700 nm) at the other. Photodiodes also have spectral
response characteristics, and these are determined by the chemistry used in the
semiconductor junction material. Fig. 4 shows typical response curves of a general-
purpose photodiode, and infrared (IR) photodiode.
Photodiodes have a far lower light-sensitivity than cadmium-sulphide LDRs, but give
a far quicker response to changes in light level. Generally, LDRs are ideal for use in
slow-acting direct-coupled light-level sensing applications, while photodiodes are
ideal for use in fast-acting AC-coupled signalling applications. Typical photodiode
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applications include IR remote-control circuits.
1
Fig 3.11 Photodiode circuit with D -to-V + load
A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a photodetector. Photodiodes

are packaged with either a window or optical fibre connection, in order to let in the
light to the sensitive part of the device. They may also be used without a window to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays.
Fig. 3.12 Typical spectral response curves of (a) the human eye, (b) a general-purpose photodiode, and (c) an infra-red
photodiode.
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A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased

in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. The
phototransistor works like a photodiode, but with a much higher sensitivity for light,
because the electrons that are generated by photons in base-collector junction are
injected into the base, this current is then amplified by the transistor operation. A
phototransistor has a slower response time than a photodiode however.
3.10.1 Principle of operation
A photodiode is a p-n junction or p-i-n structure. When light with sufficient photon
energy strikes a semiconductor, photons can be absorbed, resulting in generation of a
mobile electron and electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion
region, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion
region, producing a photocurrent.
Photodiodes can be used in either zero bias or reverse bias. In zero bias, light falling
on the diode causes a voltage to develop across the device, leading to a current in the
forward bias direction. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar
cells — in fact, a solar cell is just a large number of big, cheap photodiodes.
Diodes usually have extremely high resistance when reverse biased. This resistance is
reduced when light of an appropriate frequency shines on the junction. Hence, a
reverse biased diode can be used as a detector by monitoring the current running
through it. Circuits based on this effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on
the photovoltaic effect.
Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure, however they are operated with
much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied
by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which
increases the effective responsivity of the device.
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Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than
germanium-based photodiodes, but germanium photodiodes must be used for
wavelengths longer than approximately 1 µm.
3.10.2 Applications
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as

photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players
smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim
the display when its dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than
photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and
industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.
3.11 Phototransistors
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The standard symbol of a phototransistor, which can be regarded as a conventional

transistor housed in a case that enables its semiconductor junctions to be exposed to
external light. The device is normally used with its base open circuit, in either of the
configurations shown in fig. 6, and functions as follows.
Fig. 3.13 Phototransistor symbol.
In fig. 6(a), the base-collector junction of the transistor is effectively reverse biased
and thus acts as a photodiode. The photo-generated currents of the base-collector
junction feed directly into the base of the device, and the normal current-amplifying
transistor action causes the output current to appear (in greatly amplified form) as
collector current, and in fig. 6(a) R1 causes this current to generate an output voltage
as shown.
In practice, the collector and emitter current of the transistor are virtually identical
and, since the base is open circuit, the device is not subjected to significant negative
feedback. Consequently, the alternative fig. 6(b) circuit, in which R1 is connected to
Q1 emitter, gives a virtually identical performance to that of fig.
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Fig. 3.14 Alternative phototransistor configuration.
The sensitivity of a phototransistor is typically one hundred times greater than that of
a photodiode, but is useful maximum operating frequency (a few hundred kilohertz)
is proportionally lower than that of a photodiode by using only its base and collector
terminals and ignoring the emitter, as shown in fig.
Fig. 3.15 Phototransistor used as a photodiode
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Phototransistors are solid-state light detectors with internal gain that are used to
provide analog or digital signals. They detect visible, ultraviolet and near-infrared
light from a variety of sources and are more sensitive than photodiodes,
semiconductor devices that require a pre-amplifier. Phototransistors feed a
photocurrent output into the base of a small signal transistor. For each illumination
level, the area of the exposed collector-base junction and the DC current gain of the
transistor define the output. The base current from the incident photons is amplified
by the gain of the transistor, resulting in current gains that range from hundreds to
several thousands. Response time is a function of the capacitance of the collector-
base junction and the value of the load resistance. Photodarlingtons, a common type
of phototransistor, have two stages of gain and can provide net gains greater than
100,000. Because of their ease of use, low cost and compatibility with transistor-
transistor logic (TTL), phototransistors are often used in applications where more
than several hundred nanowatts (nW) of optical power are available.Selecting
phototransistors requires an analysis of performance specifications. Collector current
is the total amount of current that flows into the collector terminal. Collector dark
current is the amount of collector current for which there is no optical input.
Typically, both collector current and collector dark current are measured in milliamps
(mA). Peak wavelength, the wavelength at which phototransistors are most
responsive, is measured in nanometers (nm). Rise time, the time that elapses when a
pulse waveform increases from 10% to 90% of its maximum value, is expressed in
nanoseconds (ns). Collector-emitter breakdown voltage is the voltage at which
phototransistors conduct a specified (nondestructive) current when biased in the
normal direction without optical or electrical inputs to the base. Power dissipation, a
measure of total power consumption, is measured in milliwatts (mW).
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CHAPTER 4
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION AND WORKING
4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
4.1.1 TRAMSMITTR:
fig 4.1:Transmitter
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4.1.2 RECEIVER:
fig 4.2:Receiver
4.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION AND WORKING:-There are two sections:

the transmitter board and the receiver board, both powered by a separate 9V battery
or a fixed voltage power supply, depending on your needs. The transmitter board has
an electret microphone module at one end, and the laser diode at the other end. The
electronics modulates the intensity of the laser beam according to the output of the
microphone. The laser diode has an inbuilt collimating lens, and is simply a module
that connects to the transmitter board. The receiver uses a photodiode as the receiving
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element, and the onboard amplifier powers a small 4-36 ohm speaker. This board is
therefore a high gain amplifier with a basic audio output stage.
But what about results - are they better? Sure. Because this design uses a higher
power (and visible) laser beam, the range is improved, and alignment is easier and not
all that critical, especially over a few hundred meters. The quality of sound
transmitted by the link is quite surprising. clearly, this project is ideal for setting up a
speech channel between two areas, say adjacent houses, or offices on opposite sides
of the street. Or you could use it as a link between the work shop and the house. For
duplex (two way) communication, you'll obviously need two laser 'channels'.An
important feature of transmission by laser beam is privacy. Because a laser beam is
intentionally narrow, it's virtually impossible for someone to tap into the link without
you knowing. If someone intercepts the beam, the link is broken, signaling the
interception. Fibre-optic cables also have high security, as it's very difficult to splice
into the cable without breaking the link. However it's theoretically possible; so for the
highest security, you probably can't beat a line-of-sight laser beam.
Where the transmission distance is no more than meter of so, a LED (or two for
increased power) can be substituted for the laser diode. For instance, where the link is
being used for educational purposes, such as demonstrating fibre-optic coupling, or
the concept of communication over a light beam. Obviously the security of the
transmission is much lower as LEDs transmit light in all directions. While this laser
link can be adapted for use as a perimeter protector.Now to a description of how it all
works., it's really very simple. We'll start with the transmitter.
4.2.1Transmitter
A laser diode needs a certain value of current, called the threshold current, before it
emits laser light. A further increase in this current produces a greater light output. The
relationship between output power and current in a laser diode is very linear, once the
current is above the threshold, giving a low distortion when the beam is amplitude
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modulated. For example, the 65Onm 5mW laser diode used in this project has a
typical threshold current of 3OmA and produces its full output when the current is
raised by approximately 1OmA above the threshold to 4OmA.
Further increasing the current will greatly reduce the life of the laser diode, and
exceeding the absolute maximum of 8OmA will destroy it instantly. Laser diodes are
very fragile and will not survive electrostatic discharges and momentary surges!
However, if used within specifications, the typical life of one of these lasers is around
20,000 hours. In the transmitter circuit (Fig.1) the laser diode is supplied via an
adjustable constant-current source. Note that the metal housing for the laser diode and
the lens also acts as a heatsink. The laser diode should not be powered without the
metal housing in place. The. Increasing the voltage at VR1 reduces the laser current.
The setting of VR1 determines the quiescent brightness of the laser beam, and
therefore the overall sensitivity of the system.
The electret microphone is powered through R1 and is coupled to the non inverting
input of 1C1 a via capacitor. This input is held at a fixed DC voltage to give a DC
output to bias.
4.2.2 Receiver
The transmitted signal is picked up by the photo detector diode in the receiver (shown
in Fig.2). The output voltage of this diode is amplified by the common emitter
amplifier around T4 . This amplifier has a gain of 20 or so, and connects via VR2 to
IC2, an LM386 basic power amplifier IC with a gain internally set to 20.This IC can
drive a speaker with a resistance as low as four ohms, and 35OmW when the circuit is
powered from a 9V supply. Increasing the supply voltage will increase the output
power marginally. Incidentally, the photodiode used for this project has a special
clear package, so it responds to visible light, and not just infrared.
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4.2.3 Microphone
Sound is an amazing thing. All of the different sounds that we hear are caused by
minute pressure differences in the air around us.
What's amazing about it is that the air transmits those pressure changes so well, and
so accurately, over relatively long distances.It was a metal diaphragm attached to a
needle, and this needle scratched a pattern onto a piece of metal foil. The pressure
differences in the air that occurred when you spoke toward the diaphragm moved the
diaphragm, which moved the needle, which was recorded on the foil. When you later
ran the needle back over the foil, the vibrations scratched on the foil would then move
the diaphragm and recreate the sound. The fact that this purely mechanical system
works shows how much energy the vibrations in the air can have! All modern
microphones are trying to accomplish the same thing as the original, but do it
electronically rather than mechanically. A microphone wants to take varying pressure
waves in the air and convert them into varying electrical signals. There are five
different technologies commonly used to accomplish this conversion:
Condenser microphones - A condenser microphone is essentially a capacitor, with

one plate of the capacitor moving in response to sound waves. The movement
changes the capacitance of the capacitor, and these changes are amplified to create a
measurable signal. Condenser microphones usually need a small battery to provide a
voltage across the capacitor.
How does it do that
In all of the laser communicators on this page, the laser light is amplitude modulated.
This simply means that the amount of light the laser emits varies over time. To
understand what is going on, it helps to consider how a loudspeaker makes sound. A
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loudspeaker is a paper cone attached to a coil of wire that sits in a magnetic field from
a strong permanent magnet When an electric current flows in the loudspeaker coil,
the coil becomes an electromagnet, and it moves toward or away from the permanent
magnet. As it moves, the paper cone pushes on the air around it, compressing the air
in front of it, and expanding the air behind it. Waves of compressed and expanded air
travel to your ear, and cause your eardrum to move in time to the movements of the
paper coneThe laser communicator adds two components to the loudspeaker concept.
We take the electrical signal that goes to the loudspeaker, and connect it instead to the
laser, so the laser gets brighter and dimmer as the electric current varies. The second
component is the receiver, which converts the light back into an electric current. This
current varies in time with the first current, because the amount of light that it
receives is varying in time.This second electric current is used to move the paper cone
of a loudspeaker, just as before. However, now the loudspeaker can be quite a
distance away from the original electric current, without any wires connecting the
two.
30

KAITHAL-136027
CHAPTER 5
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Formation
Method Used
Under the print and etching technique two methods are used:
(a) Manual Method
(b) Screen Printing
Due to certain difficulties the screen-printing method is not used and the printing is
done manually.
The following steps are followed to get final PCB:
1. Printing
2. Painting
3. Scrapping
4. Etching
5. Washing
6. Drilling
7. Masking
These steps are explained bellow in details:
31

KAITHAL-136027
Printing:
First of all the circuit is traced out on the blank PCB plate using a
carbon paper carefully avoiding crossing of lines.
Painting:
Paint is now applied carefully on the various numbers in the circuit and
plate kept aside for drying.
Scrapping:
After allowing the plate to dry, the lines are checked for continuity. In
the case of intersection, if any, the unwanted paint is removed with the
help of a scrapper.
Etching:
Now the plate is immersed into the solution of ferric chloride for about
two hours. During this time period the copper from the unwanted is
etched away by the ferric chloride solution leaving behind the copper
under the painted area.
Washing:
The plate is taken out and washes thoroughly and cleans the plate of
ferric solution. It is now allowed to dry for some time. After drying the
reaming paint is removed using a thinner.
Drilling:
The position of all the holes required in the PCB is marked carefully .A
proper drill bit is selected and holed drilled in the PCB.The PCB now is
ready for masking.
:
32

KAITHAL-136027
Masking
Now coasting of protective chemicals are masking the PCB moisture
proof and electrically insulated. The PCB is now ready for component
mounting.
LIST OF TOOLS AND INTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Following tools and instruments are used for preparing the project
1 Soldering iron
2 Disordering pump
3 Drill Machine
4 Multimeter
5 Filer
6 Tweezers
7 Screw driver
8 Dual power supply
9 Flux
10 Desoldering wick
11 Petrol
12 Brush
13 Soldering Wire
33

KAITHAL-136027
CHAPTER 6
CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING
6.1Construction
As the photos show, both the transmitter and the receiver are built on silk- screened
PCBS. As usual fit the resistors, pots and capacitors first, taking care with the polarity
of the electrolytic. IC sockets are not essential, although servicing is obviously made
easier if they are used. In which case, fit these next, followed by the transistors and
photo transistors
The photo diode/ transistors, is mounted directly on the receiver PCB. When first
mounted, the active side of the diode (black square inside the package) will face
towards the centre of the board. You then bend the diode over by almost 180' so the
active surface now faces outwards. The polarised microphone element solders
directly to the transmitter PCB. The negative lead is marked with a minus sign and is
the lead that connects to the metal case. The laser diode is also polarised, and has
three leads. Of these, only two are used, shown on the circuit. Take care when
soldering the laser in place, as too much heat can destroy it. The diode can be
mounted on the board, or connected with leads to it. Connect a clip lead to the inside
of the laser pointer where the battery touched. Usually there is a small spring to which
you can attach the clip lead. The other end of the battery usually connects to the case
of the laser. Since there are many different styles of laser pointer, you may have to
experiment with clip lead placement to get the laser to work with the new external
battery pack. You may also have to hold down the laser's push button switch by
wrapping a rubber band or some wire around it Finally, connect the speaker and 9V
battery clips, then check over the boards for any soldering errors or incorrectly
installed components
34

KAITHAL-136027
6.2 Testing
First of all, it's most important that you don't look directly into the laser beam. If you
do, it could cause permanent eye damage. Also, you are responsible for the safety of
others near the laser, which means you must stop others from also looking into the
beam, and take all necessary safety steps. This is covered by legislation.
both the receiver and the transmitter can be powered by separate 9V batteries or
suitable DC supplies. Before applying power to the transmitter PCB, set VRI to its
halfway position, to make sure the laser current is not excessive. To be totally sure,
you could set VRI fully anticlockwise, as this setting will reduce the laser current to
zero.
Then apply power to the board. If the laser doesn't produce light, slowly adjust VRI
clockwise. The laser diode should emit a beam with an intensity adjustable with VRI.
At this stage, keep the beam intensity low, but high enough to clearly see. If you are
not getting an output, check the circuit. You won't see the laser beam intensity change
with the modulating signal.
To check that the system is working, place the two PCBs on the workbench, spaced a
meter or go apart. You might need to put a sheet of paper about 2Omm in front of the
photodiode to reduce the intensity of light from the laser beam. Set the volume
control of the speaker to about halfway. If the volume control setting is too high
you'll get acoustic feedback
Move the laser diode assembly so the beam points at the receiver's photodiode. It's
useful to adjust the beam so it's out of focus at the photodiode, to make alignment
even easier. You should now be able to hear the speaker reproducing any audio signal
picked up by the microphone.
35

KAITHAL-136027
CHAPTER 7
SETTING UP LINK AND PRECAUTIONS
7.1 Setting up a link
Once you've tested the link, you'll probably be keen to put it to use. For a short link of
say 100 meters, all you need do is position the receiver so the laser beam falls on the
photodiode. Once the link is established, adjust VRI higher the laser current, the
shorter will be its life.If you have an ammeter, connect it to measure the current taken
by the transmitter board. Most of the current is taken by the laser, so adjust VRI to
give a total current consumption of no more than 45Ma. Also, focus the laser so all of
the beam is striking the photodiode. At close range, there's probably no need to focus
the beam. In fact, because of the high output power (5mW) of the laser diode,
excellent results will be obtained over reasonably short distances (20 meters or so)
with rough focusing and quiescent current adjustments. But the longer the distance
between the transmitter and the receiver, the more critical the adjustments. For
example, for distances over 20 meters, you might have to put a piece of tube over the
front of the photodiode to limit the ambient light falling on it. This diode is
responsive to visible light, so a high ambient light could cause it to saturate. For very
long distances, say half a kilometer, you'll probably need a parabolic reflector for the
laser beam, to focus it directly onto the photodiode.
For short ranges (a meter or so), or for educational or testing purposes, you can use a
conventional red LED. Adjust the quiescent current with VR1. The light output of a
LED is not focused, and simply spreads everywhere, so a reflector might help the
sensitivity. Warnings The laser diode in this project is a class 3B laser and you should
36

KAITHAL-136027
attach a warning label to the transmitter.. Remember that, as for any hazardous
device, the owner of a laser is responsible for its proper use.
7.2 PRECAUTIONS
1. Laser safety:
Safety instructions for lasers: Laser beams may damage the eyes severely or may
cause blindness if they radiate into the eyes directly or indirectly. Therefore the laser
electronics must be installed in such a manner that radiation into the eyes will be
impossible neither directly nor indirectly via marrow’s in the room.
When using lasers with an output power higher than 1 mW, you should check about
the legal regulations for prevention of accidents and be very careful. Normal laser
pointers sold in shops have typically output power of 1..5 mW (power depends on
laser pointer model and what country regulations say on maximum power). This
power level is normally not very hazardous, but can cause permanent dotages your
eye if you stare at the beam.
We should be very careful with higher power lasers and lasers on that power range
that emit invisible radiation, because they can cause immediate eye damage (and very
high power lasers can cause skin burns or fire).With any high power laser make sure
that you have safe operating environment, necessary regulations/permissions and
somebody that takes care that these legal regulations are observed. Lasers use
coherent light which has very different properties to a standard lighting effect. This is
what makes lasers one of the most beautiful forms of light, but also one of the most
dangerous light sources if not used with proper cautions
2. In the transmitter schematic, no ballast resistor is shown because most small

LASER power supplies already have one built in. Yours may differ, and a resistor
may be needed.
37

KAITHAL-136027
3. The receiver should be kept away from bright lights. You may put a piece of wax
paper in front of photo transistor to keep the LASER from swamping it.
4. In order to get any decent amount of modulation, you may need to drive with more
then a watt.
CHAPTER 8
PROBLEMS FACED
Problems faced in the project execution
38

KAITHAL-136027
Although this project was successfully completed, however a few hurdles that came
during the construction of the circuit were the breaking of the thin electrical wires
after it had been soldered and the breaking of the photodiode receiver’s leg leading to
an error in reception of data.
Moreover the connections with the OP-AMP chip have to be dealt with very carefully
because one wrong connection may damage the whole chip. If the supply to laser is
greater than it will not glow.
All these things are to be taken care of, for the efficient working of the project.
Chapter-9
CONCLUSION
Conclusion
39

KAITHAL-136027
After the successful working of the project, it can be concluded that this project is
suitable for easily communication. There can be further up gradations in the project
which could lead to a much better system for communication. Some of the possible
ways are as follows:-
Instead of the short range laser, high range lasers can be used which range a few
hundred meters.
Provisions have to be made for cases when there is no heavy traffic.
REFERENCES
Electronics device and circuits

By:- S.Salivahanan
40

KAITHAL-136027
N Suresh kumar
A Vallava Raj
Hughes electrical technology
By:- I Mckenzie Smith
Principles of Electronics
By:- V.K.Mehta
Electronics For You (Magazine)
WEBSITES
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.google.com
 www.answers.com
 www.howstuffworks.com
 www.efy.com
41

KAITHAL-136027

Laser Torch Project

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MAJOR PROJECT LASER TORCH BASED VOICE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

1.1 ABOUT PROJECT

LASER TORCH-BASED VOICE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

1.2 Laser information page

The 'laser' - or - (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) was

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

S.No. NAME OF THE COMPONENT QUANTITY

5. Resistance (82 ohm) 1

8. Capacitor (0.1 mf) 1

9. Capacitor (470 mf) 1

10. Capacitor (1000 mf) 1

11. Semiconductor T1 BC548 1

12. Semiconductor T2 BD139 1

13. Condenser MIC 1

S.No. NAME OF THE COMPONENT QUANTITY

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

7. Variable resistor (50 K) 1

8. Capacitor (0.01 mf) 1

10. Capacitor (0.1 mf) 2

11. Capacitor (1 mf) 1

12. Capacitor (100 mf) 2

14. Capacitor(470 mf) 1

15. Semiconductor 2N5777 1

16. Semiconductor BC549 2

19. 8 ohm Speaker 1

3.1 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

OP amps lend themselves readily to IC manufacturing techniques. Improved IC

Fig 3.1 symbol of op-amp

An operational amplifier often referred to as op Amp, is a very high gain high

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

Fig 3.2 symbol of IC741

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

Fig 3.3 Negative feedback control ckt

3.2 VR(potentiometer/resistance variac/trimmer):

The potentiometer is a resistor of variable resistance. It has three terminals; a fixed

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

fig 3.5 ceramic capacitor

3.4 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

Fig 3.6 : 9V Battery

3.6 Laser torch

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

fig 3.7:Laser torch

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

Condenser microphones - A condenser microphone is essentially a capacitor, with

3.8 Integrated Circuit (IC)

3.8.1 UA741: GENERAL-PURPOSE OP-AMP

3. Large Common-Mode and Differential Voltage Ranges

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

fig 3.8 UA741

The UA741 is a general-purpose operational amplifier featuring offset-voltage null

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

1. AM-FM radio amplifiers

HARYANA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,

BC548: NPN general purpose transistors BC548

1. Low current (max. 100 mA)

General purpose switching and amplification.

NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.

PNP complements: BC556, BC557 and BC558.