WRITING THE MA in ELT & APPLIED LINGUISTICS AT KING'S

COLLEGE LONDON
A WRITING DEVELOPMENT RESOURCE
Developed by Chris Tribble & Ursula Wingate, 2013

THE FIRST WORKSHOP

Contents
WRITING THE MA in ELT & APPLIED LINGUISTICS AT KING'S COLLEGE LONDON

A WRITING DEVELOPMENT RESOURCE

THE FIRST WORKSHOP

1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

MOVES IN MA ASSIGNMENTS

2.1
3.

MOVE ANALYSIS THREE EXAMPLES (high scoring assignments; grades 68 - 80)

INTRODUCTIONS

2
5

3.1

INTRODUCTIONS in high scoring assignments

3.2

INTRODUCTIONS in low scoring assignments

4.

CITATIONS IN INTRODUCTIONS

10

4.1

CITATIONS in high scoring assignment introductions

10

4.2

CITATIONS in low scoring assignment introductions

12

5.

CONCLUSIONS

14

5.1

CONCLUSIONS in high scoring assignments

14

5.2

CONCLUSIONS in low scoring assignments

16

6.

1.

Consider one or more examples from your own writing.

17

INTRODUCTION

All of the examples in this guide have been taken from assignments in the KCL
Apprentice Writing Corpus. Assignments on the MA typically require students to
demonstrate knowledge of relevant research literature, to reflect on the relevance of
this research on specific teaching and learning contexts, and to come to conclusions
in relation to the particular issues which are raised in the assignment. It is important
to understand how critical reflection fits into this process. All too often students
misunderstand what is meant when they are asked to read and write critically. It
doesn't mean to disagree or to criticise negatively. Rather, it means to assess the
relevance or utility of theories and research in our field from a professional
perspective, and to make recommendations or proposals on the basis of this
understanding. In this way we can make links between the work that is carried out by
a research community and what we do ourselves in specific communities of practice.
We hope that the following sections will encourage students on the MA to review the
ways in which high and low scoring candidates have used written language to
organise their ideas into assignments and dissertations. In writing successful
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assignments, students on the MA in ELT and Applied Linguistics will draw on relevant
evidence and authorities and evaluate this evidence in relation to the assignment
topic/question and their own professional practice. Ideally, they will do this in order
to reach conclusions which will have value for their own future professional
engagement, and, in the best cases, which will inform the activities of other
members of our profession.
2.

MOVES IN MA ASSIGNMENTS

Academic writing can be understood to be organised in a distinct series of discourse

moves. At MA level the different sections of an assignment can often be broken
down into a series of easily identified major moves. Thus, at a simple level, a
scientific report will include, for example, the major moves: Introduction, Methods,
Results, Discussion, Conclusion. A social science dissertation might have the
structure: Introduction, Overview of Relevant Research, Justification of Approach,
Findings, Discussion, Conclusion. Student assignments have a simpler structure.
Typically this will be: Introduction (which contextualises the study, identifies issues
that will be addressed, and maps out what the student plans to do), Body (a series
of paragraphs each of which addresses an aspect of the topic), and a Conclusion
(which summarises main findings, re-connects with the assignment topic, and offers
a final concluding comment).
In many student assignments these major moves are indicated by separate headings
and sub-headings. By analysing these moves we can get a clearer idea of how an
assignment is typically organised.
It is also possible to produce a more detailed analysis of the text by looking inside
the different moves. On a closer examination you will find that each major move is
made up of a series of smaller, internal moves. As each part of the text is doing a
certain job, it is often possible to reconstruct this internal move structure by asking
the question "what is the function of this section of the text?"
In the following section the move structure of a series of high and low scoring
assignments has been analysed. Such an analysis provides the starting point for
getting a better understanding of your own writing.
2.1

MOVE ANALYSIS THREE EXAMPLES (high scoring assignments;

grades 68 - 80)

Examples are given below of the different major moves found in three high scoring
assignments.
One thing that all the assignments shared was a simple system of headings to
introduce each section. This is a practice that all students might want to consider. It
has the advantage of guiding the reader and ensuring also that the writer has a
clearer sense of where they're going and how each section of the assignment needs
to be linked to the next. If you do use headings DO remember to use MS Word's
Heading Styles. These can be invoked by using the keystrokes Crtl+Alt+1 /
Crtl+Alt+2 / Crtl+Alt+3. The styles themselves can be edited and adjusted.
Generally, I would recommend using a numbered heading system in dissertations
and assignments (1, 1.1, 1.1.1 etc.) as this makes it easier to refer to different
sections of the piece of work.
In these analyses the original headings have been used and a summary of the
content has been provided to give an indication of the content and the development
of the argument.

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TASK 1
Review the essay outlines for Examples A, B and C. Identify any structural features that they share.
Assignment topics:
Example A: In the light of recent research, do you consider EAP a pragmatic, non-ideological means of developing students academic communicative competence (Swales 1990) or is such an approach a
means of accommodating students into their disciplines that supports inequities.
Example B: Describe what is meant by a content-based approach to language teaching and learning (CLIL) and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What are the arguments for and against using such an
approach in a context you are familiar with?
Example C: Comment on what you feel to be the relevance of the following critical account of conventional SLA theories and research. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the view expressed here?
Unfortunately, studies of how people learn a second language have been constricted by the narrow purview of mainstream second language acquisition (SLA) work. The issues of language learning have been
cast as questions to do with the acquisition of morphemes syntax, and lexis, with pronunciation or communicative competence, and the learner has been cast as a one-dimensional acquisition device.
(Pennycook 2001:143)
[EXAMPLE A]
[EXAMPLE B]
[EXAMPLE C]
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Contextualising comment: reference to relevant literature
Contextualising comment: Historical survey of the development
Contextualisation of SLA studies in earlier theories of language
Clear statement of a position in relation to the topic + indication of
of CLIL has developed.
acquisition.
the structure of the assignment.
Summary of European applications of CLIL in bilingual
Summary of "mainstream" arguments
Summary of main argument.
education.
Summary of mainstream SLA research issues.
Justification for the focus of the study.
Outline of the structure of the assignment.
Problematisation of mainstream position
Outline of the assignment:
BODY
BODY
Critical Pragmatism
Whats in a name?
BODY
Introduction of the concept of Critical Pragmatism + demonstration
Survey of terms used in bilingual education (diagram to
SLA research methods
of its relevance to the assignment topic
illustrate)
Summary of current approaches to SLA research + critique (Pennycook)
Background
Core Principles: CLIL in Theory
Argument for SC approach
Summary of key literature in relation to Critical Pragmatism, genre
Summary of CLIL theory
Language use vs. language acquisition
and recent attempts to bring critical approaches and genre
Core Principles: CLIL in Practice
Summary of argument against the dismissal of language use as
together.
Review of recent experience in the development of CLIL based
evidence in understanding SLA
Why pragmatic EAP is dominant
methodologies and curricula and consideration of main preMetaphors of learning and acquisition
Account of the development of EAP in the UK and internationally
requisites for successful CLIL implementation
Summary of arguments against input-output metaphor of leaning and
and a description of why approaches taken over the last 20 years Curriculum | Pedagogy | Ethos
cognition.
or so have not had a "critical" dimension.
Call for a consideration of a "bi-directional process' of L2 learning."
A Framework for the Implementation of CLIL
Critical pragmatic approaches
Sociocultural Theory (SCT); an alternative perspective
Summary of the necessary conditions for the implementation of
Summary of how recent attempts have been made to introduce
Summary of SCT (SCT is a theory of mind)
CLIL
critical pragmatic approaches and potential applications in EAP.
SCT summary (Summarises main argument.)
Applying the Framework
Principles for critical pragmatism
Uniting the two perspectives
Review of the potential for the introduction of CLIL in the school
Survey of how critical pragmatic approaches can be applied in EAP
Re-connection with the Pennycook + call for a combination of both
where the writer currently teaches.
settings with a particular emphasis on plagiarism.
approaches
Curriculum | Pedagogy | Ethos
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
Summary of main stance.
Summarisation of findings
Recapitulation of the argument in favour of implementing CLIL in
Exhortation to apply critical pragmatic approaches more widely in
Call for a fuller consideration to be given to social aspects of learning in
a specific location.
EAP.
future SLA studies
Recommendation for future research.
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NOTES
Desirable features:

REFLECTION
- Consider an example of your own writing. To what extent does this reflect the good practice exemplified here?
- What RECOMMENDATIONS would you make to a student writing their first assignment at King's?
NOTES

The following sections illustrate in more detail how each of these stages of an assignment can be developed, and demonstrate some of the
areas where things can go wrong.

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3.

INTRODUCTIONS

Four example Introductions from high scoring assignments and two examples from
low scoring assignments are given below. While none of these are either entirely
perfect or entirely dreadful, they do appear to indicate some things to do and things
to avoid when it comes to writing Introductory sections in MA assignments and
dissertations.
3.1

INTRODUCTIONS in high scoring assignments

TASK 1
-

Review the analyses for the first three introductions in high scoring
assignments.
Complete your own analysis of Example 4.
Summarise what would appear to be the desirable features of assignment
Introductions

EXAMPLE A. Assignment title: What counts as validity in formative assessment?

Introduction
Introduction
The role of assessment in language teaching and learning is complex and often
politically-charged. In recent years, many researchers have promoted a more socially
and democratically equitable conception of assessment (i.e. Shohamy 2001, Lynch
2001), that is non-psychometric and non-standardised. This has led to the promotion,
endorsement and implementation of various classroom-based alternatives, many of
which have shared characteristics and concerns (cf. Leung 2005, p. 870 for a brief
overview). [1] Despite this change in tide, however, a number of old questions rightly
persist. In particular the issues of validity and reliability, which Leung (2005) refers to as
the quality and soundness of the assessment approach, are still prevalent (p. 869).
Interestingly, these questions are posed by those spearheading this new movement in
an attempt to ensure theoretical, empirical and epistemological robustness (i.e. Leung
2004). [2] In this discussion I shall address the issue of validity in regard to Formative
Assessment (FA). In the first section, I shall define, examine and then problematise the
central tenets of FA; this problematisation will raise three key questions in regard to
validity in FA. In the second section, I will begin by briefly delineating some of the
underlying assumptions of validity in conventional assessment practice. Following this, I
shall return to the three crucial and interrelated questions previously identified, through
which I argue for a reconceptualised understanding of validity in FA that acknowledges
its complex and contingent nature. In my conclusion I shall argue that subscription to
this viewpoint will enable FA to attain a more prominent position in educational
assessment. [3]

[1] This section establishes

the intellectual context and
refer to relevant authorities.
[2] Refers to the issue or
problem that is going to be
the focus of the assignment.

[3] Provides a map / set of

signposts which guide the
reader through the rest of
the assignment

EXAMPLE B. Assignment title: 'The three Ss (Swan, Sheen and Seedhouse) have put forward
some fundamental criticism of TBLT: from a conversation analytic perspective (Seedhouse,
2005)), a pedagogical perspective (Swan, 2005) and from a learning culture perspective
(Sheen, 2003). In a publication entitled TBLT: Sorting out the Misunderstandings, Ellis
(forthcoming) attempts to show that all three have got it wrong, and that TBLT has got it right.
Discuss, relate and weight the arguments of all four players against each other, and formulate a
conclusion based on a) your personal evaluation of the debate, b) your personal teaching
experience.

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) has acquired an important place in university

English for Academic Purposes teaching (EAP), perhaps for two major reasons. Firstly,
its student centred teaching approach shares many of the same educational principles
as modern higher education, both privileging experience and its role in the
proceduralisation of knowledge (Samuda & Bygate, 2008). Secondly, genre analysis
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methodology used by many EAP academics (Hyland & Hamp Lyons, 2002, Harwood,
2005) transfers easily into TBLT, thus making for an apparently straightforward route
from research to methodology. Given the handicap that L2 speakers may have since
academic proficiency may take 5-10 years longer than conversational proficiency to
develop (Collier 1987, 1989, 1995 & Cummins, 1996 cited in Davison, C. & A. Williams,
2000), EAP tutors are tasked with developing L2 speakers academic proficiency as
quickly as possible in order to create an equitable situation for them to learn in
(Cummins, 2000). It could be argued that tasks are an effective means of developing
linguistic and discourse proficiency simultaneously while developing student skills and
autonomy (see materials such as Swales & Feak, 2004, www.uefap.com.) [1]
However, in my experience, though TBLT principles appear relatively straightforward
and sound, some of their specifics may be less so for both teachers and students. [2]
This essay will briefly outline the teaching context at Kingston University before
discussing the debate around the adequacy of input in TBLT; its methodology; the role
of the teacher. It will then proceed to explore whether variations in the way tasks are
defined and issues around how it is researched make it possible to make
generalisations across contexts. Finally, issues of teacher understanding, assessment
and culture will be briefly discussed in relation to their role in problematising TBLT in the
context of Kingston. [3]

[1] Establishes the

intellectual / academic
context and refer to relevant
authorities.
[2] Highlights the issue you
will address in the
assignment.
[3] Gives readers a map to
guide them through the rest
of the assignment.

EXAMPLE C. Assignment title: Describe what is meant by a content-based approach to

language teaching and learning and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What are the
arguments for and against using such an approach in a context you are familiar with?

In recent years bilingual education across Europe has become much more
commonplace. For many, this may suggest a radical shift in educational policy and
provision, but in fact content-based approaches to language learning and teaching have
been thriving in various pockets of the world for some time. Notably, the Canadian
education system has embraced immersion programmes for English-speaking
Canadians since the mid-1960s, but a broad taxonomy would include Hispanic students
in the U.S., immigrant students in many European and North American countries,
secondary school students in Nigeria and other nations in Africa, among many others
(Mohan 1986). Take-up of bilingual approaches across Europe has been more recent,
but current recognition among governments as well as the EU (cf. Grosser 1999) that
bi- or multilingualism benefits both the individual and society now means these
approaches have a more tenable foothold in education systems. This increasing
prominence is mirrored by the rise in interest among applied linguists, many of whom
advocate a bilingual approach (e.g. Mohan 1986, Ullman 1999, Wode 1999, Coffey
2005). [1] In this essay we seek first to give an holistic account of what an integrated
content and language approach to language teaching and learning actually is. [2] This
shall entail a discussion of the theoretical foundations and core principles involved in
such practice. This understanding will enable the construction of a conceptual
framework of optimum conditions which we will apply to help us navigate the possible
arguments for and against a content-based approach being introduced in a context I am
personally familiar with, viz. a mainstream secondary school in Norfolk. In addition to
this framework, I shall draw on some case studies as a secondary instrument (Dornyei
2007) in order to help broaden the discussion by relating the experiences of other
institutions. Lastly, I shall conclude by setting forth my own position as regards my
context and make tentative suggestions for further research. [3]

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[1] Establishes the academic

focus of the assignment and
refers to relevant authorities.
[2] Specifies the main issue
that the assignment will
address.
[3] Provides readers with an
overview of the stages into
which the assignment has
been structured.

Page 6

EXAMPLE D. Assignment Title: With reference to the literature on process syllabuses and
learners needs discuss the extent to which it is useful and feasible to involve learners in the
negotiation of a syllabus and/or take the learners needs into account in the syllabus for a
teaching context you are familiar with.

COMMENTARY

Introduction
The development of a more learner-centred curriculum based upon an evolving
syllabus negotiated between learners and teachers is an innovative development in
syllabus design. However, such a radical re-interpretation of the syllabus brings with it
problems that make it a considerable challenge to design, implement and evaluate.
While there have been successful examples in ESP at tertiary level and among primary
and secondary schools in the state sector, it is less commonly associated with adults
students of general English classes in the private sector. [1] In this paper I examine
whether this syllabus type is a valid alternative to conventional syllabuses and if such a
model in its pure form is feasible in this context. [2] I begin with a brief definition of what
a process syllabus is and outline a rationale for introducing it. With learnercenteredness an integral feature of this type of syllabus, I argue for a greater role for
needs analysis within the general English class. Such innovation is also seen as
dependent on the quality of the teacher and I outline the challenges it presents for the
teacher as course designer. Finally, I suggest some ways in which a strong version
might be implemented and evaluated within a general English class for adults. [3]

[1]
[2]

[3]

NOTES
Desirable Features of Assignment Introductions

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3.2

INTRODUCTIONS in low scoring assignments

TASK 2
-

+Review the analyses for the introductions in low scoring assignments given
below.
Summarise the ways in which these introductions differ from the four previous
introductions.

EXAMPLE A.Assignment title: To what extent do you believe that the goal of ELT in the outer
circle should be native-like use of English? Discuss the issues in relation to sociolinguistic
factors and ensuing pedagogical implications.

This essay will first define the outer circle of English using Kachrus model and contrast
this with other models of the spread and use of English. I am going to investigate the
different goals of English users and learners in the outer circle and try to draw some
conclusions as to why these goals may deviate from standard English, which entails
quality of clear communication and standards of intelligibility (Widdowson 1994: 379).
[1] An important issue when dealing with the term native-like is an appropriate
definition of native and the connotations associated with norms and standardisation.
Strevens (1992) provides one definition of native speaker as someone who uses it as a
mother tongue and McArthur (1994) suggests that there are problems with defining it
due to the variation inherent just in the UK, never mind the rest of the world, adding that
people are quick to judge and categorise someone on the basis of accent alone. [2]
The English Today debate between Kachru and Quirk will be highlighted to show the
opposing views in relation to this. [3] Due to the wide ranging scope of the question, I
am going to mainly focus on the post-colonial situation in India, with a few examples
from African English, and look at the function of English in these societies from both the
Native and Non-Native speaker perspective.[4]
[5]

[1]Goes directly to outlining

what is going to be done in
the assignment, without
providing any intellectual or
social context.

[2]Introduces a discussion of
the term "native-like" without
explaining why it might be a
problem..
[3]Comments on "The
English Today Debate"
without explaining why this
has been introduced.
[4]Narrows the focus of the
study.
[5]Gives no forward map to
guide the reader in relation to
the rest of the assignment.

EXAMPLE B. Assignment title: Describe some of the principles of Critical Discourse

Analysis. Are these principles useful for the teaching and learning of English as a
foreign/second/other language?
The mediums of mass communication may be changing from radio, television and
newsprint to the internet and mobile, but the information we receive still attempts to
directly, indirectly or subliminally modify our thinking and behaviour. We are not
independent actors and are influenced by how texts and images are packaged and
presented to us. Likewise teachers and students should be aware that the multimodal
discourse in society is not neutral. [1] Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is
multidisciplinary. In linguistics CDA tries to study language and its use in a wide social
and political context rather than on the purely linguistic aspects of discourse at the
micro-level. Some principles of CDA are useful in teaching and learning in that they
enhance the ability to look beyond the superficial aspects of text and this enhances
critical thinking. More specifically an English L2 student should have the socio-linguistic
knowledge and competencies to understand how language influences and is influenced
by its social and cultural contexts. CDA tries to highlight the relationships between
ideology, power and language. [2] However, it is up to the individual teacher to decide
on their pedagogic role and to assess whether or not language learning should also
include the development of critical judgement. I believe that the language teacher
should be aiming to improve not only linguistic ability but also communicative and
intercultural competencies in a student. These competencies cannot be honed without
developing critical thinking. [3][4]

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[1]Makes a series of
generalisations about the
topic without any citations to
warrant the statements being
made.

[2] Discusses some aspects

of CDA without referring to
any authorities.
[3] Makes a highly personal
statement about the
responsibilities of language
teachers.
[4]Gives no forward map to
guide the reader in relation to
the rest of the assignment.

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NOTE contrasts

REFLECTION
Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
- Consider one or more examples from your own writing.
- How can you improve the introduction section to ensure that it contextualises
your study and provides the reader with clear guidance?
NOTES
-

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4.

CITATIONS IN INTRODUCTIONS

Citations can be (at the simplest level) classed as INTEGRAL or NON-INTEGRAL.

INTEGRAL citations are part of the grammar of the clause 1. Examples will be
which Leung (2005: 869) refers to as the quality and soundness of the assessment
approach, are still prevalent, or (see materials such as Swales & Feak, 2004,
www.uefap.com.). NON-INTEGRAL citations are separate from the grammar of the
clause. Typically, they occur at the end of sentences. Examples are: Firstly, its
student centred teaching approach shares many of the same educational principles
as modern higher education, both privileging experience and its role in the
proceduralisation of knowledge (Samuda & Bygate, 2008), or Given the handicap
that L2 speakers may have since academic proficiency may take 5-10 years longer
than conversational proficiency to develop (Collier 1987, 1989, 1995, Cummins,
1996 cited in Davison, C. & A. Williams, 2000).
Although both INTEGRAL and NON-INTEGRAL citations are widely used, research has
shown that students often over-use NON-INTEGRAL citations, and some confusion
can be created by this over-use when it comes to identifying whose voice is present
in different stages of the text the voice of the writer, or the voice of the authority
being cited2. Non-integral citations are often used in a vague manner without making
clear what the authors stance or argument is (see Comment 1 in 4.2, Example A). In
an overview of the literature on a specific topic, it is acceptable to refer broadly, with
non-integral references, to authors representing certain stances. When you are
developing a line of argument, however, it is often better to use integral citations
and use the precise voice and stance of specific authors to support the argument
(see Comment 3 in 4.1., Example A).
TASK 1
-

Review the citations that are used in the following high scoring assignment
introductions.
Complete your own analysis of Example C.

On the basis of this evidence, summarise what appear to be some preferred

approaches to citing authorities in high scoring assignments.
4.1

CITATIONS in high scoring assignment introductions

EXAMPLE A. What counts as validity in formative assessment?

Introduction
The role of assessment in language teaching and learning is complex and often
politically-charged. In recent years, many researchers have promoted a more
socially and democratically equitable conception of assessment (Shohamy 2001,
Lynch 2001) [1], that is non-psychometric and non-standardised. This has led to the
promotion, endorsement and implementation of various classroom-based
alternatives, many of which have shared characteristics and concerns (cf. Leung
2005, p. 870 for a brief overview) [2]. Despite this change in tide, however, a
number of old questions rightly persist. In particular the issues of validity and
reliability, which Leung (2005:869) [3] refers to as the quality and soundness of
the assessment approach, are still prevalent. Interestingly, these questions are
posed by those spearheading this new movement in an attempt to ensure
theoretical, empirical and epistemological robustness (Leung 2004)[4]. In this

[1]NON-integral citation
indicating examples of studies
which support the preceding
generalisation.
[2] NON-INTEGRAL citation
introduced by cf' to provide an
example from the literature
[3] INTEGRALcitationwhich
clearly states the authors
position.

Hyland, K., (1999). "Academic attribution: citation and the construction of

disciplinary knowledge".Applied Linguistics.20 (3)pp. 341-367 gives a useful
overview.
2
see Thompson, P. and C.,Tribble (2001). "Looking at citations: using corpora in
English for Academic Purposes".Language Learning and Technology.5 (3)pp. 91-105
for a discussion.
1

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Page 11

discussion I shall address the issue of validity in regard to Formative Assessment

(FA). In the first section, I shall define, examine and then problematise the central
tenets of FA; this problematisation will raise three key questions in regard to validity
in FA. In the second section, I will begin by briefly delineating some of the
underlying assumptions of validity in conventional assessment practice. Following
this, I shall return to the three crucial and interrelated questions previously
identified, through which I argue for a reconceptualised understanding of validity in
FA that acknowledges its complex and contingent nature. In my conclusion I shall
argue that subscription to this viewpoint will enable FA to attain a more prominent
position in educational assessment.

[4]NON-integral citation offers an

example of a study which
supports the preceding
generalisation.

EXAMPLE B. Assignment title: 'The three Ss (Swan, Sheen and Seedhouse) have put
forward some fundamental criticism of TBLT: from a conversation analytic perspective
(Seedhouse, 2005)), a pedagogical perspective (Swan, 2005) and from a learning culture
perspective (Sheen, 2003). In a publication entitled TBLT: Sorting out the
Misunderstandings, Ellis (forthcoming) attempts to show that all three have got it wrong,
and that TBLT has got it right. Discuss, relate and weight the arguments of all four players
against each other, and formulate a conclusion based on a) your personal evaluation of the
debate, b) your personal teaching experience.

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) has acquired an important place in university

English for Academic Purposes teaching (EAP), perhaps for two major reasons.
Firstly, its student centred teaching approach shares many of the same educational
principles as modern higher education, both privileging experience and its role in
the proceduralisation of knowledge (Samuda & Bygate, 2008) [1]. Secondly, genre
analysis methodology used by many EAP academics (Hyland & Hamp Lyons, 2002,
Harwood, 2005) [2] transfers easily into TBLT, thus making for an apparently
straightforward route from research to methodology. Given the handicap that L2
speakers may have since academic proficiency may take 5-10 years longer than
conversational proficiency to develop (Collier 1987, 1989, 1995, Cummins 1996
cited in Davison, C. & A. Williams, 2000) [3], EAP tutors are tasked with developing
L2 speakers academic proficiency as quickly as possible in order to create an
equitable situation for them to learn in (Cummins, 2000) [4]. It could be argued that
tasks are an effective means of developing linguistic and discourse proficiency
simultaneously while developing student skills and autonomy (see materials such
as Swales & Feak, 2004, www.uefap.com.) [5]
However, in my experience, though TBLT principles appear relatively
straightforward and sound, some of their specifics may be less so for both teachers
and students. This essay will briefly outline the teaching context at Kingston
University before discussing the debate around the adequacy of input in TBLT; its
methodology; the role of the teacher. It will then proceed to explore whether
variations in the way tasks are defined and issues around how it is researched
make it possible to make generalisations across contexts. Finally, issues of teacher
understanding, assessment and culture will be briefly discussed in relation to their
role in problematising TBLT in the context of Kingston.
EXAMPLE C. Assignment Title: Describe what is meant by a content-based approach to

[1] NON-integral citation

providing evidence for reason 1:
student-centred approach.
.
[2] NON-integral citations naming
authorities in genre analysis.
[3] NON-integral citations
providing evidence for the
handicap.
[4] NON-integral citation
supporting the point concerning
EAP tutors task.
[5] NON-INTEGRAL citation
introduced by see to provide an
example from the literature.

COMMENTARY

language teaching and learning and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What are
the arguments for and against using such an approach in a context you are familiar with?

In recent years bilingual education across Europe has become much more
commonplace. For many, this may suggest a radical shift in educational policy and
provision, but in fact content-based approaches to language learning and teaching
have been thriving in various pockets of the world for some time. Notably, the
Canadian education system has embraced immersion programmes for EnglishWri tin g th e MA- Work sh op #1
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Page 12

speaking Canadians since the mid-1960s, but a broad taxonomy would include
Hispanic students in the U.S., immigrant students in many European and North
American countries, secondary school students in Nigeria and other nations in
Africa, among many others (Mohan 1986)[1]. Take-up of bilingual approaches
across Europe has been more recent, but current recognition among governments
as well as the EU (cf. Grosser 1999) [2]that bi- or multilingualism benefits both the
individual and society now means these approaches have a more tenable foothold
in education systems. This increasing prominence is mirrored by the rise in interest
among applied linguists, many of whom advocate a bilingual approach (e.g. Mohan
1986, Ullman 1999, Wode 1999, Coffey 2005) [3]. In this essay we seek first to
give an holistic account of what an integrated content and language approach to
language teaching and learning actually is. This shall entail a discussion of the
theoretical foundations and core principles involved in such practice. This
understanding will enable the construction of a conceptual framework of optimum
conditions which we will apply to help us navigate the possible arguments for and
against a content-based approach being introduced in a context I am personally
familiar with, viz. a mainstream secondary school in Norfolk. In addition to this
framework, I shall draw on some case studies as a secondary instrument (Dornyei
2007) [4] in order to help broaden the discussion by relating the experiences of
other institutions. Lastly, I shall conclude by setting forth my own position as regards
my context and make tentative suggestions for further research.

[1]
[2]

[3]

[4]

NOTES features of citations in high scoring assignment introductions

4.2

CITATIONS in low scoring assignment introductions

TASK 2
-

Review the analyses of citation use in low scoring assignment introductions

given below.
Summarise and ways in which these conclusions differ from citation use in the
four previous introductions.

Example A. Applications of Schema Theory in English Language Teaching

Introduction
In modern society, English occupies an important role as Lingua Franca (Aitsiselmi and
Gakoudi, 2002) to communicate with people. [1] Thus, English language competence is
considered as one of the requirements to enter higher education institutions and to get a
job, so English education is a major issue in South Korea, although English teaching in
South Korea has difficulties in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. For
Wri tin g th e MA- Work sh op #1
Chris Tribble / Ursula Wingate, 2012

[1] Confusing NON-integral

citation does it refer to a
definition of ELF, or the
importance of ELF

Page 13

examples, students do not have many opportunities to practice English outside

classroom, large-size class, and insufficient class hours. Therefore, reading can be a
solution which can be used at anytime and anywhere for EFL students. [2] However, I
often found some students get bored of reading and not motivated to read because they
are lack of linguistic knowledge such as vocabulary, grammar and not interested in
learning English. Moreover, when they encounter a text which has unfamiliar topic and
cultural backgrounds, students are not motivated to read the text. Thus, pre-reading
activities to motivate students are used in English classroom based on schema theory.
Since the 5th National Education Curriculum(1987-1992) [3], which organizes contents
of education and guidelines to obtain educational purposes by the Ministry of Education,
introduced schema theory into English language teaching, educators have modified the
content of textbooks, especially reading, adapting schema theory in Korea (Lee, 2000)
[4]. This change of curriculum shows exactly how much schema theory has been
affecting reading education in Korea.
In this essay, I am going to look at how schema theory are effective at English language
teaching, focusing mainly on reading although the theory is also very helpful for listening,
speaking, writing, and vocabulary. In the following, first I will start with a description of
schema theory, then move on to schema theory in English Language Teaching (ELT)
material design, and especially focusing on schema theory and reading. Finally, discuss
applications of the theory in the context of ELT in Korea and further applications and
limitations.

[2] No citational support

this is merely anecdotal.

.
[3] No citation. A URL
would have been sufficient.
[4] NON-integral citation
the reader is not clear if it is
Lee who is developing the
narrative, or the assignment
author.

Example B. Assignment title: Describe some of the principles of Critical Discourse Analysis. Are
these principles useful for the teaching and learning of English as a foreign/second/other
language?

The mediums of mass communication maybe changing from radio, television and
newsprint to the internet and mobile, but the information we receive still attempts to
directly, indirectly or subliminally modify our thinking and behaviour. We are not
independent actors and are influenced by how texts and images are packaged and
presented to us. Likewise teachers and students should be aware that the multimodal
discourse in society is not neutral. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is multidisciplinary.
In linguistics CDA tries to study language and its use in a wide social and political
context rather than on the purely linguistic aspects of discourse at the micro-level. Some
principles of CDA are useful in teaching and learning in that they enhance the ability to
look beyond the superficial aspects of text and this enhances critical thinking. More
specifically an English L2 student should have the socio-linguistic knowledge and
competencies to understand how language influences and is influenced by its social and
cultural contexts. CDA tries to highlight the relationships between ideology, power and
language. However, it is up to the individual teacher to decide on their pedagogic role
and to assess whether or not language learning should also include the development of
critical judgement. I believe that the language teacher should be aiming to improve not
only linguistic ability but also communicative and intercultural competencies in a student.
These competencies cannot be honed without developing critical thinking. [1]

[1] No citations.

NOTES contrasts between citation practice in high and low scoring

assignments

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REFLECTION 1
-

Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
Consider one or more examples from your own writing.
How can you improve the way in which you cite authorities in the introduction
section.

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5.

CONCLUSIONS

In the Conclusion you typically reconnect with the original topic of the assignment,
and summarise your argument and/or any findings you have made before providing
a conclusion which can be, for example, an evaluation, a recommendation, or a
statement of preference. It is sometimes also useful to comment on any limitations
to the study or to suggest areas where further research is required.
TASK 1
-

Review the Conclusions for the first three discussion sections.

Complete your own analysis of Example 4.

On the basis of this evidence, summarise what would appear to be some desirable
features of assignment conclusions
5.1

CONCLUSIONS in high scoring assignments

EXAMPLE A.
Comment on what you feel to be the relevance of the following critical account of conventional
SLA theories and research. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the view expressed
here?
Unfortunately, studies of how people learn a second language have been constricted by the
narrow purview of mainstream second language acquisition (SLA) work. The issues of language
learning have been cast as questions to do with the acquisition of morphemes, syntax and lexis,
with pronunciation or communicative competence, and the learner has been cast as a onedimensional acquisition device.
(Pennycook 2001:143)

[]Concluding Comments
This paper tentatively seeks to explore some of the big issues in SLA research.
Pennycooks comment is, I feel, undoubtedly relevant, especially in light of all the work
now being done that gives social or sociocultural perspectives on SLA their due
measure, or at least a more equitable stake. [1] It may well be myopic to assume,
however, that those who have worked in the mainstream are not concerned with the
social dimension of SLA. What I advocate here though is a sociocultural orientation to
SLA that recognizes the inner and outer domains of learning and their
interconnectedness. [2] The discussion above indicates how the theory can be drawn on
in order to better understand the place of identity in SLA. It is my belief that future
research in SLA should seek to test and/or apply the concepts and methodology
developed in Sociocultural Theory and related disciplines (i.e. ethnography) and that this
direction will evolve fruitfully for those seeking to understand SLA, as well as those
teaching or learning a second language. [3]

[1] Comments on the

overall direction of the
paper and re-connects with
the assignment task.
[2] Gives a qualifying
comment on the claim in
the Pennycook statement.
[3] Presents a conclusion
(from a personal
perspective).

EXAMPLE B. [] Conclusion
It seems that the desire in mainstream SLA to find one uniting theory has led the field to
neglect the social aspect of language learning. Using scientific research methods has
meant overlooking the importance of human variables and disregarding important
research about acquisition in use. Thus, Pennycooks criticisms of mainstream SLA still
hold nearly twenty years later but, as alternative social theories gain credence, this
narrow purview is being challenged with increasing acknowledgement of the
importance of factors outside individual psychology. [1]
Uniting social and cognitive theories should give a more integrated perspective on
language learning. However, whether this leads to one unified homogeneous theory of
learning (Sfard, 1998:11) is less important than ensuring that context, learner identity
and other social aspects to acquisition are as fully considered as individual cognition. [2]
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Chris Tribble / Ursula Wingate, 2012

[1] Provides a reconnection

with the original topic.
Critical evaluation of the
stance set forward by
Pennycook.
[2] Provides a concluding
evaluation and
recommendation /
observation.
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EXAMPLE C:
Assignment Title: Describe what is meant by a content-based approach to language
teaching and learning and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What are the
arguments for and against using such an approach in a context you are familiar with?
[]Conclusion
The discussion above illustrates (at least impressionistically) that CLIL would be a viable
option at Northcott Dene. [1] In many ways the school is ideally placed and although
atomized pedagogic practice is an important issue and needs redressing at some level,
the real impetus for change can come from the SMT and/or other practitioners who are
willing to experimentally and innovatively take the school to new places, either
incrementally or radically. In addition, I believe that further research in this area could
adopt an Action Research paradigm and that this would allow the practitioners to speak
for themselves, as well as to each other. [2] It is, after all, only through understanding the
experience of others that we can learn something new for ourselves. [3]

EXAMPLE D:

[1] Makes a reconnection

with the assignment topic.
[2] Gives a
recommendation for action
based on the review of
literature and contextual
analysis.
[3] Presents a statement of
personal belief

COMMENTARY

Assignment Title: Collocation has become an increasingly relevant concern in the

teaching of lexis. What is the significance of collocational knowledge, and in what ways
can teachers support their learners acquisition of it.
[]Conclusion
In this essay I have outline the pervasive importance of collocation, not only to the study
of lexis but to grammar and its relevance in teaching the four skills of the IELTS paper.
[1] Despite the fact that we have insufficient information of all the collocational aspects
that accrue to a particular lexical item, there is still plenty of scope for using collocation
more widely and more systematically in raising awareness, devising more innovative
materials and creating more learning opportunities in the classroom than is currently the
case. [2]

[1]

[2]

NOTES features of assignment conclusions

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5.2

CONCLUSIONS in low scoring assignments

TASK 2
-

Review the analyses for the conclusions from low scoring assignments given
below.
Summarise and ways in which these conclusions differ from the four previous
introductions.

EXAMPLE A:Assignment Title: Describe some of the principles of Critical Discourse

Analysis. Are these principles useful for the teaching and learning of English as a
foreign/second/other language?
[]Conclusion
There are connections between language use, power and ideology. [1] Language
students need to develop two competencies; that of user and analyst. [2] For too long
EFL teachers have concentrated on the former and reduced the significance of the latter.
CDA can help to redress the balance. [3]

[1] There is a lack of explicit

connection between
conclusion and the
assignment topic.
[2] Makes an evaluation
and recommendation (but
gives no clear justification
for this).
[3] Presents assertions
without an individual
statement of opinion or
belief.

EXAMPLE B:Assignment Title: Describe what is meant by a task-based approach to

language teaching and learning and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What
are the arguments for and against using such an approach in a context you are familiar
with?
[]Conclusion
The teachers in Taiwan sometimes use traditional teaching methods in their classrooms.
This was due to the contextual factors such as limited instructional hours, big classes,
inadequate training, regulated grammar based exams, and insufficient support from
students. Still, inadequate training was one of the factors causing impediment to the
application of TBL. [1]
In my own view about TBA is that I have discovered that the main constraint for adopting
TBL is still lies very much on the employers, and poor opportunities were offered to put
TBL in to real practice. Emphasis was placed on schools exams or short term priorities,
such as vocabulary test results. That is why a gap was found between the theory and the
actual practices, even though teachers were informed and a few teachers were trained in
TBL. We still do not see the result or the impact of TBA pedagogy today in Taiwan. [2]
The potential factors resulting in the discpancy between a willingness to execute and the
actual implementation is due to learning environment constraints, such as: students
themselves, time limitation, teaching environment, curriculum design, school culture,
evaluation and assessment, and pressure from faculty members. Under the
circumstances, it is my contention that in ones teaching career, it is essential to
compromise with classroom reality, which is always the cause of impeding teachers
implementation of the ideal teaching practices. [3]

[1] Offers no explicit reconnection with the topic of

the assignment. The
opening statement is a restatement of earlier
comments.
[2] Comments on why TBL
has not embedded in
Taiwan not a comment on
reasons for / against.
[3] The concluding
statement of opinion has no
explicit connection with the
assignment task.

NOTES contrasts between conclusions in high and low scoring

assignments

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REFLECTION
-

Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
Consider one or more examples from your own writing.
How can you improve the effectiveness of the conclusions you write in MA
assignments?

REFLECTION
-

Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
Consider one or more examples from your own writing.

Wri tin g th e MA- Work sh op #1

Chris Tribble / Ursula Wingate, 2012

Page 19