RIGHT TO DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL PROTECTION

Life, Liberty, and Property

1. Constitutional Provision. Section 1, Article III of the Constitution states No person shall be
deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall any person be denied the
equal protection of the laws. The provision speaks of due process and equal protection.
2. Scope of Protection. The protection covers all persons, whether citizens or aliens, natural or
juridical.
3. Meaning of Life, Liberty, and Property. Due process and equal protection cover theright to
life, liberty, and property. It is important therefore to know the meaning of the three.
(a) Life. When the constitution speaks of right to life, it refers not just to physical safety but also to
the importance of quality of life. Thus, right to life means right to be alive, right to ones limbs
against physical harm, and, equally important, right to a good quality of life.[2] Life means
something more than mere animal existence.[3]
(b) Liberty. It includes negative and positive freedom. Negative freedom means freedom from,
or absence of, physical constraints, while positive freedom means freedom to exercise ones faculties.
Right to liberty therefore includes the two aspects of freedom and it cannot be dwarfed into mere
freedom from physical restraint or servitude, but is deemed to embrace the right of man to enjoy his
God-given faculties in all lawful ways, to live and work where he will, to earn his livelihood by any
lawful calling, to pursue any vocation, and enter into contracts.[4]
(c) Property. It refers either to the thing itself or right over the thing. As a thing, property is
anything capable of appropriation, and it could be personal or real. As a right, it refers to right to
own, use, possess, alienate, or destroy the thing. The constitution uses property in the sense of right,
and as such it includes, among others, right to work, ones employment, profession, trade, and other
vested rights. It is important to note however that privileges like licenses are not protected property;
but they may evolve in a protected right if much is invested in them as means of livelihood. Public
office is not also a property; but to the extent that security of tenure cannot be compromised without
due process, it is in a limited sense analogous to property.[5]
5. These rights are intimately connected. For example, if ones property right over employment is
taken away, the same will adversely affect ones right to life since quality of living is jeopardized.
Consequently, in the absence of property and a good quality of life, the ability to do what one wants is
impeded.
6. Hierarchy of Rights. While the rights are intimately related, they have a hierarchy. As to their
order of importance, right to life comes first, followed by right to liberty, and then right of property.
Due Process
1. Meaning. Due process of law is a constitutional guarantee against hasty and unsupported
deprivation of some persons life, liberty, or property by the government. While is it true that the
state can deprive its citizens of their life, liberty, or property, it must do so in observance of due
process of law. This right is the embodiment of the supporting idea of fair play[6] and its essence

is that it is a law which hears before it condemns, which proceeds upon inquiry and renders
judgment only after trial.[7]
2. When Invoked. The right is invoked when the act of the government is arbitrary, oppressive,
whimsical, or unreasonable. It is particularly directed against the acts of executive and legislative
department.
3. Two Aspects of Due Process. Due process of law has two
aspects: procedural andsubstantive. Basically, the procedural aspect involves the method or
manner by which the law is enforced, while the substantive aspect involves the law itself which must
be fair, reasonable, and just.
4. Procedural due process requires, essentially, the opportunity to be heard in which every
citizen is given the chance to defend himself or explain his side through the protection of general
rules of procedure. It contemplates notice and opportunity to be heard before judgment is rendered.
In judicial proceedings, the requirements of procedural due process are:[8]
(a) An impartial or objective court or tribunal with jurisdiction over the subject matter;
(b) Court with jurisdiction over the person of the defendant or the property which is the subject of
the proceeding;
(c) Defendant given the opportunity to be heard (requirement on notice and hearing); and
(d) Judgment rendered after lawful hearing.
Since some cases are decided by administrative bodies, the Court also provides requirements of
procedural due process in administrative proceedings. These requirements, also known as seven
cardinal primary rights, are:[9]
(a) The right to a hearing, where a party may present evidence in support of his case;
(b) The tribunal must consider the evidence presented;
(c) The decision of the tribunal must be supported by evidence;
(d) The evidence must be substantial. Substantial evidence is such relevant evidence as a reasonable
mind might accept as adequate to support a conclusion;
(e) The evidence must have been presented at the hearing, or at least contained in the record and
known to the parties affected;
(f) The tribunal or body or any of its judges must rely on its own independent
consideration of evidence, and not rely on the recommendation of a subordinate; and
(g) The decision must state the facts and the law in such a way that the parties are apprised of the
issues involved and the reasons for the decision.

5. Notice and Opportunity to be Heard. What matters in procedural due process arenotice and
an opportunity to be heard.
(a) Notice. This is an essential element of procedural due process, most especially in judicial
proceedings, because without notice the court will not acquire jurisdiction and its judgment will not
bind the defendant. The purpose of the notice is to inform the defendant of the nature and character
of the case filed against him, and more importantly, to give him a fair opportunity to prepare his
defense. Nevertheless, the notice is useless without the opportunity to be heard.
(b) Opportunity to be Heard. It must be emphasized that what is required is not actual hearing
but a real opportunity to be heard.[10] If, for instance, a person fails to actually appear in a
hearing even though he was given the chance to do so, a decision rendered by the court is not in
violation of due process. Moreover, strict observance of the rule is not necessary, especially in
administrative cases. In fact, in administrative proceedings, notice and hearing may be dispensed
with for public need or for practical reasons. It is also sufficient that subsequent hearing is held if the
same was not previously satisfied.
6. Substantive due process requires that the law itself is valid, fair, reasonable, and just. For
the law to be fair and reasonable it must have a valid objective which is pursued in a lawful manner.
The objective of the government is valid when it pertains to the interest of the general public, as
distinguished from those of a particular class. The manner of pursuing the objective is lawful if the
means employed are reasonably necessary and not unduly oppressive.
7. Under the doctrine of void for vagueness, a statute or law that is vague is void because it
violates the rights to due process. A statute is vague when it lacks comprehensible standards which
men of ordinary intelligence must necessarily know as to its common meaning but differ as to its
application. Such kind of statute is opposed to the Constitution because it fails to accord persons
proper understanding or fair notice, and because the government is given unbridled freedom to carry
out its provision. For this doctrine to be operative, however, the statute must be utterly vague. Thus,
if a law, for example, could be interpreted and applied in various ways, it is void because of
vagueness. Corollary to this is the doctrine of overbreadth which states that a statute that is
overly broad is void. This is because it prevents a person from exercising his constitutional rights,
as it fails to give an adequate warning or boundary between what is constitutionally permissive and
not. If a law, for instance, prohibits a bystander from doing any annoying act to passersby, the law
is void because annoying act could mean anything to a passerby and as such, overly broad.
Equal Protection
1. Meaning. The guarantee of equal protection means that no person or class of persons shall be
deprived of the same protection of the laws which is enjoyed by other persons or other classes in the
same place and in like circumstances.[11] It means that all persons or things similarly situated
should be treated alike, both as to rights conferred and responsibilities imposed. The guarantee
does not provide absolute equality of rights or indiscriminate operation on persons. Persons or
things that are differently situated may thus be treated differently. Equality only applies among

equals. What is prohibited by the guarantee is the discriminatory legislation which treats differently
or favors others when both are similarly situated.
2. Purpose. The purpose of the guarantee is to prohibit hostile discrimination or undue favor to
anyone, or giving special privilege when it is not reasonable or justified.
3. Reasonable Classification. Well established is the rule that reasonable classificationdoes
not violate the guarantee, provided that the classification has the following requisites:[12]
(a) It must be based upon substantial distinctions;
(b) It must be germane to the purpose of the law;
(c) It must not be limited to existing conditions only; and
(d) It must apply equally to all members of the class.
4. Example. In one case,[13] Section 66 of the Omnibus Election Code was challenged for being
unconstitutional, as it is violative of the equal protection clause. The provision distinguishes between
an elective official and an appointive official in the filing of theire certificate of candidacy. While
elective officials are not deemed resigned upon the filing their certificates, appointive officials are.
The Supreme Court held that the law is constitutional and not violative of equal protection since the
classification is valid. The Court argues that elective office is different from appointive office, in that
the mandate of the former is from the people, while that of the latter is from the appointing
authority. The term of the elective officials are likewise longer than that of the appointive officials.
Thus, the classification is adjudged reasonable and valid.
5. Discrimination against Aliens. Although the protection extends to both citizens and aliens,
discrimination against aliens may be held valid under certain circumstances. For example, citizens
by virtue of their membership to the political community possess complete civil and political rights,
while aliens do not have complete political rights. The former can vote during elections, run for
public office, own real property, while aliens cannot.
6. Review of Laws. If the laws are scrutinized by the court, it said to be subject to judicial review.
There are three standards followed by the court in judicial review, these are:
(a) Deferential review in which laws are upheld to be valid or consistent to the guarantee of equal
protection when they are rational and the classifications therein bear a relation to a legitimate
governmental interests or purpose. In here the courts do not seriously inquire into the substantiality
of the interest and possibility of alternative means to achieve the objectives;
(b) Intermediate review in which the substantiality of the governmental interest is closely
scrutinized as well as the availability of less restrictive means or alternatives. This standard is used if
the classification involves important but not fundamental interests; and
(c) Strict scrutiny in which the government is required to show the presence of a compelling
government interest, rather than a mere substantial interest, and the absence of a less restrictive
means for achieving the interest. Upon showing of these requirements, the limitation of a

fundamental constitutional right is justified. This standard is used if the law classifies persons and
limits others of their exercise of fundamental rights.
ARRESTS, SEARCHES AND SEIZURES
Right against Unreasonable Searches and Seizures
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 2, Article III states that people have the inviolable right to be
secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures of
whatever nature and for any purpose, and a search warrant or warrant of arrest can only be issued
upon showing of a probable cause determined personally by the judge after examination under oath
or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the
place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.
2. Scope. The protection extends to all persons, aliens or citizens, natural or juridical. It is a
personal right which may be invoked or waived by the person directly affected[14]against
unreasonable arrests or searches by the government and its agencies. It cannot, however, be invoked
against private individuals.
Warrant of Arrest and Search Warrant
1. Generally, the right against unreasonable searches and seizures requires that before a person is
arrested or a personal property seized, it must be supported by a valid warrant of arrest or a search
warrant. The exceptions are in cases of valid warrantless arrests and searches.
2. A warrant of arrest is a written order of the court, issued in the name of the Philippines,
authorizing a peace officer to arrest a person, and put him under the custody of the court.
3. A search warrant is a written order of the court, authorizing or directing a peace officer to search
a specific location, house, or other premises for a personal property allegedly used in a crime or may
be utilized as a tool to prove a crime.
Requisites of a Valid Warrant
1. Since as a general rule, an arrest or search is reasonable when it is covered by a valid warrant, it is
thus important to know the requisites a valid warrant. The Court enumerates the requisites as
follows:
(a) It must be based upon a probable cause. Probable cause refers to such facts and
circumstances which would lead a reasonably discreet and prudent man to believe that an offense
has been committed and that the objects sought in connect with the offense are in the place sought to
be searched;
(b) The probable cause must be determined personally by the judge. That the judge personally
determines the probable cause means that he personally evaluates the report and the supporting
documents submitted by the public prosecutor regarding the existence of the probable cause, or, if
the same is insufficient, require additional evidence to aid him in arriving at a conclusion as to the
existence of probable cause.[15]Thus, personal determination does not mean that he must
personally examine the complainant and his witnesses.[16] He may rely on reports and evidence
submitted to him, on the basis of which he determines the existence of probable cause and orders the

issuance of warrant. What is prohibited is to rely solely on the recommendation of the prosecutors
without doing any determination on his own;
(c) The determination must be made after examination under oath or affirmation of the complainant
and the witness he may produce; and
(d) It must particularly describe the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. The
property subject to search includes those used in the commission of the offense, stolen or embezzled
and other proceeds or fruits of the offense, or used or intended to be used in the commission of the
offense.
2. General warrants are those that do not particularly describe the place to be searched or the
persons or things to be seized. They are unconstitutional because the sanctity of the domicile and
privacy of communication and correspondence of individuals are placed at the mercy, caprice, and
passion of peace officers.[17]
Warrantless Arrest
1. When Warrantless Arrest Valid. Arrest without warrant is strictly construed as an exception to
the general rule requiring warrant. Under the Rules of Court,[18] a peace officer or a private person
may arrest a person even without a warrant under the following instances:
(a) In flagrante delicto arrest. When, in his presence, the person to be arrested has committed, is
actually committing, or is attempting to commit an offense;
(b) Hot pursuit. When an offense, has in fact just been committed, and he has personal knowledge
of facts indicating that the person to be arrested has committed it; and
(c) Arrest of escaped prisoners. When the person to be arrested is a prisoner who has escaped
from a penal establishment of place where he is serving final judgment or temporarily confined while
his case is pending, or has escaped while being transferred from one confinement to another.
2. Citizen Arrest. It must be noted that a lawful warrantless arrest may be performed not just by a
peace officer but also by a civilian. This is permitted under the rules under limited circumstances,
and it is called citizen arrest.
3. In the case of flagrante delicto arrest, an offense is committed in the presence of the arresting
officer or civilian. For example, if a person pushes illegal drugs in the presence of a police officer, the
latter can arrest the pusher even without a warrant of arrest because an offense is actually being
committed in his presence. The same principle underlies the buy-bust or entrapment operations
conducted by police officers in catching law offenders. In one case,[19] the Court held that rebellion
is a continuing offense, and so the rebel may be arrested anytime even without a warrant because he
is deemed to commit the offense in the presence of the arresting officer or person.
4. Illegal Detention is the offense committed by the arresting officer or civilian if the warrantless
arrest is performed outside the above rules.
Warrantless Searches
A search is valid even without a warrant, under the following instances:

(a) Search as an incident to a lawful arrest. When a valid arrest precedes the search or
contemporaneous with it, and the search is limited to the immediate vicinity of the place of arrest,
for purposes of securing dangerous objects and effects of the crime;
(b) Consented search. When the right has been voluntarily waived by person who has a right,
aware of such right, and has an actual intention to relinquish such right;
(c) Plainview search. When prohibited articles are within the sight of an officer who has the right
to be in a position to that view;
(d) Visual search at checkpoints. When the search at stationary checkpoints is pre-announced,
and limited to a visual search only;
(e) Terry search. When a police officer, in interest of effective crime prevention, performs a stopand-frisk or patting of outer clothing for dangerous weapons, after observing a suspicious conduct
on the part of a citizen;
(f) Search of moving vehicles, vessels, and aircrafts for violation of laws;
(g) Inspection of buildings and other premises for the enforcement of fire, sanitary, and building
regulations; and
(h) Search in airports and other populous places.
Administrative Searches and Arrests
1. In cases of deportation, where the State expels an undesirable alien from its territory, court
intervention and proceedings are not required. Nonetheless, the aliens constitutional rights are still
preserved because they are given fair trial and administrative due process.
2. Important to note is that no probable cause is required in deportation proceedings.[20] It is the
Commissioner of Immigration or any officer designated by him, not the judge, who issues the
administrative warrant, after determination by the Board of Commissioners of the existence of a
ground for deportation.
RIGHT TO PRIVACY
Provisions and Laws on Right to Privacy
1. Constitutional Provisions. The right to privacy is scattered throughout the Bill of Rights.
[21] The right against unreasonable searches and seizures, in Section 2, is an expression of this
right, inasmuch as it is based on the sacred right to be secure in the privacy of ones person, house,
paper, and effects. Due process of law, in Section 1, also provides the same privacy security by
protecting an individuals life, liberty, and property against undue interference by the government.
Section 6 speaks of the right to establish and change ones home which likewise deals with the
privacy and comfort of ones home. The right to form unions or associations under Section 8, and the
right against self-incrimination under Section 17 are also privacy rights which need protection
against undue intrusion by the government.
2. Nonetheless, the word privacy is expressly provided in Section 3(1), Article III, which states that
the privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon lawful order of

the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law. Privacy of
communication and correspondence is also an expression of the right to privacy.
3. Statutory Reinforcements. To reinforce these constitutional provisions, the Congress has
passed laws that recognize and protect the zones of privacy of an individual. These laws include: (a)
The Civil Code of the Philippines; (b) The Revised Penal Code; (c) Anti-Wire Tapping Act; (d) The
Secrecy of Bank Deposits; and (e) Intellectual Property Code.
Privacy of Communication and Correspondence
1. Subject of the Right. Invasion of communication and correspondence is one kind of search.
[22] However the subject of search is not a tangible object but an intangible one, such as telephone
calls, text messages, letters, and the like. These forms of communication and correspondence may be
intruded into by means of wiretapping or other means of electronic eavesdropping. What the
constitution prohibits is government intrusion, by means of wiretapping or electronic eavesdropping,
into the privacy of communication without a lawful court order or when public safety and order does
not demand.
2. Rule. As a rule, the government cannot intrude into the privacy of communication and
correspondence. The exceptions are: (a) when the court allows the intrusion, and (b) when public
safety and order so demands.
Anti-Wire Tapping Act
1. R.A. 4200 or the Anti-Wire Tapping Act, as a reinforcement of privacy of communication, is a law
which prohibits a person not authorized by all the parties to any private communication, to wire tap
or use any devise to secretly overhear, intercept, record, or communicate the content of the said
communication to any person.
2. Wire tapping or the use of record may be permitted in civil or criminal proceedings involving
specified offenses principally affecting national security, and only with previous authorization by the
court which must comply with the requirements of a warrant. The authority is effective only for sixty
days.
Writ of Habeas Data
The writ of habeas data is a remedy available to any person whose right to privacy in life, liberty, or
security is violated or threatened to be violated by an unlawful act or omission of a public official or
employee, or of a private individual or entity engaged in the gathering, collecting or storing of data or
information regarding the person, family, home, and correspondence of the aggrieved party.
Exclusionary Rule
1. The exclusionary rule states that any evidence unlawfully obtained is inadmissible as evidence
before the courts. This is based on Section 3(2), Article III which provides that any evidence obtained
in violation of right to privacy of communication or right to due process of law shall be inadmissible

for any purpose in any proceeding. The same rule is applied to any evidence taken in violate of R.A.
4200.
2. The rule is also called Fruit of the Poisonous Tree Doctrine. The name of the doctrine
metaphorically describes what happens to an evidence (fruit) taken through unlawful means
(poisonous tree). The evidence-fruit is discarded because it may infect or destroy the integrity of the
case and forfeit the purpose of the law.
3. For example, if police officers search a house without a search warrant and the same does not fall
under any of the instances of a valid warrantless search, the evidence obtained even if material in the
case cannot be admitted in court. Or if police officers wiretap a conversation without court
authorization, the recorded conversation shall be excluded as an evidence in court. Thus, the
evidences are said to be fruits of a poisonous tree.
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
Meaning and Scope
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 4, Article III provides that no law shall be passed abridging
the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble
and petition the government for redress of grievances. The right underscores tolerance to different
views and thoughts.
2. Aspects of the Right. Freedom of expression has four aspects, to wit: (a) freedom of speech; (b)
freedom of expression; (c) freedom of the press; and (d) freedom of assembly. Nonetheless, the scope
of the protection extends to right to form associations or societies not contrary to law, right to access
to information on matters of public concern, and freedom of religion. These are all crucial to the
advancement of beliefs and ideas and the establishment of an uninhibited, robust and wide-open
debate in the free market of ideas.[23]
3. Importance of the Right. Freedom of expression is accorded the highest protection in the Bill of
Rights since it is indispensable to the preservation of liberty and democracy. Thus, religious,
political, academic, artistic, and commercial speeches are protected by the constitutional guarantee.
4. Limitation. The right is not absolute. It must be exercised within the bounds of law, morals,
public policy and public order, and with due regard for others rights. Thus, obscene, libelous, and
slanderous speeches are not protected by the guarantee. So are seditious and fighting words that
advocate imminent lawless conduct.
Freedom from Prior Restraint and Subsequent Punishment
1. Freedom of speech and of the press has two aspects: (a) freedom from prior restraint, and (b)
freedom from subsequent punishment.
2. On the one hand, freedom from prior restraint means freedom from censorship or
governmental screening of what is politically, morally, socially, and artistically correct. In here,
persons and the media are freed from total suppression or restriction by the government of what
could be disseminated, and prevents the government from being a subjective arbiter of what is

acceptable and not. Although the system of prior restraint is presumed unconstitutional, it is allowed
under the following instances:[24]
(a) Undue utterances in time of war;
(b) Actual obstruction or unauthorized dissemination of military information;
(c) Obscene publication; and
(d) Inciting to rebellion.
3. On the other hand, freedom from subsequent punishment refers to the assurance that
citizens can speak and air out their opinions without fear of vengeance by the government.
Subsequent chastisement has the effect of unduly curtailing expression, and thus freedom therefrom
is essential to the freedom of speech and the press. The State, however, can validly impose
subsequent punishment under the following instances:
(a) Libel which is the most common form of subsequent punishment, refers to a public and
malicious imputation of a crime, vice or defect, real or imaginary or any act or omission, status
tending to cause dishonor, discredit or contempt of a natural or juridical person, or blacken the
memory of one who is dead;[25]
(b) Obscenity which includes works (taken as a whole) appealing to prurient interest or depicting
sexual conduct as defined by law or lacking of serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value;
[26]
(c) Criticism of official conduct made with actual malice;[27] and
(d) School articles which materially disrupt class work or involves substantial disorder or invasion
of rights of others.[28]
Tests to Determine When Right Maybe Suppressed
There are six tests or rules to determine when the freedom may be suppressed. These are:
(1) Dangerous Tendency Test which provides that if a speech is capable of producing a substantive
evil which the State is mandated to suppress or prevent, even if it did not materialize, the State is
justified of restricting the right. This rule has already been abandoned;
(2) Clear and Present Danger Test which is a more libertarian rule, provides that the finding out
of substantive evil is not enough to suppress the right. Rather the substantive evil must have clear
and present danger type depending on the specific circumstances of the case. This rule is consistent
with the principle of maximum tolerance and is often applied by the Court in freedom of
expression cases;
(c) Balancing of Interest Test which provides that when there is conflict between a regulation and
freedom of speech, the court has the duty to determine which of the two demands greater protection;

(d) Grave-but-Improbable Danger Test which was meant to supplant the clear and present
danger test, determines whether the gravity of the evil, less its improbability to happen, can justify
the suppression of the right in order to avoid the danger;[29]
(e) OBrien Test which provides that when speech and non-speech elements are combined in the
same course of conduct, a sufficiently important government interest that warrants the regulation of
the non-speech element can also justify incidental limitations on the speech element; and
(f) Direct Incitement Test which determines what words are uttered and the likely result of the
utterance, that is, whether or not they will directly incite or produce imminent lawless action.
Restrictions on Freedom of Speech
1. Two Kinds of Restrictions. The State may impose two kinds of restrictions on speech under a
system of prior restraint: content-based restriction and content-neutral restriction. The
restriction is content-based when restriction is directed to the speech itself, while the restriction is
content-neutral when it is directed, not to the speech itself, but to the incidents (such as time, place,
or manner) of the speech. An example of a content-based restriction is when the government
prohibits speeches against the President, in which case the restriction is on the speech itself. An
example of a content-neutral restriction is when the government regulates the manner of posting
campaign advertisements, in which case the restriction is on the manner the right is made.
2. Appropriate Tests for Each Restriction. If the governmental restriction is content-based, the
applicable rule or test is the clear and present danger test. This is to give the government a heavy
burden to show justification for the imposition of such prior restraint which bears a heavy
presumption of unconstitutionality. If the restriction is content-neutral, the applicable rule is only an
intermediate approach, inasmuch as the restraint is only regulatory and does not attack the speech
directly.
3. Example. In one case, the court held that the act of granting a permit to rally under the condition
that it will be held elsewhere is a content-based restriction and not content-neutral because it is
directed to the exercise of the speech right itself and not merely to the manner. As such, the
applicable test is the clear and present danger test.[30]
Regulations on Mass Media
Mass media may be broadcast media (e.g. television and radio) or print media (e.g. newspaper). The
two have a substantial difference in that broadcast media has a uniquely pervasive presence in the
lives of Filipinos. Thus, freedom of television and radio broadcasting is somewhat lesser than the
freedom accorded to the print media;[31]greater regulation is imposed over broadcast media
because of its greater tendency to invade the privacy of everyone than print media.
Doctrine of Fair Comment
1. Meaning. Under the doctrine of fair comment, a discreditable imputation directed against a public
person in his public capacity, does not necessarily make one liable. Although generally every
discreditable imputation publicly made is deemed false and malicious because every man is
presumed innocent until proven guilty, nevertheless, if the imputation directed against a person in
his public is based on established facts, even if the inferred opinion is wrong, the comments as

justified. As long as the opinion might reasonably inferred from the facts, it is not actionable. In
order to that such discreditable imputation to a public official may be actionable, it must either be a
false allegation or a baseless comment.[32]
2. Example. If a case of theft was filed against a barangay official, and someone commented that he
maliciously stole things from the local residents, the doctrine of fair comment is applicable,
inasmuch as the opinion was based on such fact. In here, the comment is justified.
Commercial Speech
1. Meaning. Commercial speech is one that proposes a commercial transaction done in behalf of a
company or individual for purposes of profit. It is a protected speech for as long as it is not false or
misleading and does not propose an illegal transaction.[33]
2. But if the government has a substantial interest to protect, even a truthful and lawful commercial
speech may be regulated.[34]
3. Private speech is accorded more freedom and protection than commercial speech.
Freedom of Assembly
1. Meaning. Freedom of assembly refers to the right to hold a rally to voice out grievances against
the government.
2. Freedom not Subject to Prior Restraint. As a rule, freedom of assembly is not subject to prior
restraint or prior issuance of permit by government authorities. Nevertheless, it must be exercised in
such a way that will not to prejudice public welfare. Freedom of assembly is reinforced by Batas
Pambansa Blg. 880, otherwise known as the Public Assembly Acts of 1985, which basically provides
the requirements and procedure for holding rallies. It also implements the observance of maximum
tolerance towards participants of rallies consistent with the clear and present danger test.
3. Permit Requirement. Under the said law, permit is required to hold a rally. It must be
emphasized, however, that the permit is not a requirement for the validity of the assembly or rally,
because the right is not subject to prior restraint. Rather, the permit is a requirement for the use of
the public place.
4. When Permit not Required. Permit is not required if the rally is held in a private place, in a
campus of a state college or university, or in a freedom park, in which case only coordination with
the police is required. If the application for permit is not acted upon by the mayor within two
working days, then the same is deemed granted.
5. Political rally during election is regulated by the Omnibus Election Code, not by BP 880.
Right to Form Associations
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 8, Article III provides that the right of the people, including
those employed in the public and private sectors, to form unions, associations, or societies for
purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged.
2. Who may Exercise the Right. The right of association may be exercised by the employed or the
unemployed and by those employed in the government or in the private sector. It likewise embraces

the right to form unions both in the government and private sector. The right of civil servants to
unionize is expressly provided in Section 2(5), Article IX-B: The right to self-organization shall not
be denied to government employees. The right of labor in general to unionize is likewise provided in
Section 3, Article XIII: [The State] shall guarantee the rights of all workers to self-organization,
collective bargaining and negotiations, and peaceful concerted activities, including the right to strike
in accordance with law.
3. Right to Strike not Included. The right to form associations or to self-organization does not
include the right to strike. Thus, public school teachers do not enjoy the right to strike even if they
are given the constitutional right of association.[35] The terms and conditions of employment in the
Government, including in any political subdivision or instrumentality thereof and government
owned and controlled corporations with original charters, are governed by law and the employees
therein shall not strike for purposes of securing changes.[36]
Right to Information
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 7, Article III provides that the right of the people to
information on matters of public concern shall be recognized. Access to official records, and to
documents and papers pertaining to official acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to government
research data used as basis for policy development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such
limitations as may be provided by law.
2. Scope and Limitation. The right guarantees access to official records for any lawful purpose.
However, access may be denied by the government if the information sought involves: (a) National
security matters, military and diplomatic secrets; (b) Trade or industrial secrets; (c) Criminal
matters; and (d) Other confidential information (such as inter-government exchanges prior to
consultation of treaties and executive agreement, and privilege speech).
FREEDOM OF RELIGION
Two Aspects of Freedom of Religion
1. Freedom of religion has two aspects: (a) the freedom to believe, and (b) the freedom to act
on ones belief. The first aspect is in the realm of the mind, and as such it is absolute, since the
State cannot control the mind of the citizen. Thus, every person has the absolute right to believe (or
not to believe) in anything whatsoever without any possible external restriction by the government.
The aspect refers to the externalization of belief as it is now brought out from the bosom of internal
belief. Since it may affect peace, morals, public policy, and order, the government may interfere or
regulate such aspect of the right.
2. The second aspect is expressed in Section 5, Article III, thus The free exercise and enjoyment of
religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No
religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights.
Non-establishment Clause
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 5, Article III provides that no law shall be made respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.

2. Explanation. The non-establishment clause holds that the State cannot set up a church or pass
laws aiding one religion, all religion, or preferring one over another, or force a person to believe or
disbelieve in any religion.[37] In order words, it prohibits the State from establishing an official
religion. It discourages excessive government involvement with religion and manifest support to any
one religious denomination. Manifestly, the clause is rooted in the principle of separation of church
and state.
3. Particular Prohibitions. In particular, the non-establishment clause prohibits, among others,
prayers of a particular denomination to start a class in public schools,[38]financial subsidy of a
parochial school,[39] display of the ten commandments in front of a courthouse,[40] law
prohibiting the teaching of evolution,[41] mandatory reading of the bible,[42] and using the word
God in the pledge of allegiance.[43]
4. Exceptions to the Prohibition. The clause, however, permits the following:
(a) Tax exemption on property actually, directly and exclusively used for religious purposes;[44]
(b) Religious instruction in sectarian schools[45] and expansion of educational facilities in parochial
schools for secular activities;[46]
(c) Religious instruction in public schools, elementary and high school, at the option of parents or
guardians expressed in writing, within regular class hours by designated instructors, and without
additional costs to the government;[47]
(d) Financial support given to priest, preacher, minister, or dignitary assigned to the armed forces,
penal institution or government orphanage or leprosarium;[48]
(e) Government sponsorship of town fiestas which traditions are used to be purely religious but have
now acquired secular character;[49] and
(f) Postage stamps depicting Philippines as the venue of a significant religious event, in that the
benefit to religious sect is incidental to the promotion of the Philippines as a tourist destination.[50]
Tests to Determine whether Governmental Act Violates Freedom of Religion
1. Different tests are used to determine if there are governmental violations of non-establishment
clause and free exercise clause. On the on hand, Lemon Test is used to determine whether an act of
the government violates the non-establishment clause. Under this test, a law or a governmental act
does not violate the clause when it has a secular purpose, does not promote or favor any set of
religious beliefs, and does not get the government too entangled with religion.[51]
2. On the other hand, Compelling State Interest Test and Clear and Present Danger Testare
used to determine whether there is violation of free-exercise clause. Compelling state interest test is
used to determine if the interests of the State are compelling enough to justify intrusion into an
individuals freedom of religion. Under this test, government infringement is justified if the burden it
creates on freedom of religion is due to a sufficiently compelling state interest and the means used to
attain its purpose is the least intrusive. Clear and present danger test is used to determine whether
the circumstance are of such nature as to create a clear and present danger that will bring about a
substantive evil which the state has the right to prevent.

3, Example. In one case,[52] the Court held that expulsion from school is unjustified if is based on
the conflict between religious beliefs and school practices (saluting the flag). The expulsion violates
the right of children to education. Using the clear and present danger test, the Court held that the
danger of disloyalty which the government is trying to prevent may be the very same thing that it
advocates if expulsion is validated. Times have changed. Freedom of religion is now recognized as a
preferred right.
Religious Solicitations
Under Presidential Decree No. 1564, also known as the Solicitation Law, permit is required
before solicitations for charitable and public welfare purposes may be carried out. The purpose of
the law is to protect the public from fraudulent solicitations. Nonetheless, permit is no longer
required if the solicitation is for religious purposes. Fraud is much less in religion. If the law is
extended to religion, then it becomes unconstitutional; it constitutes restriction on freedom of
religion as resources necessary for maintenance are deprived of churches.
Conscientious Objector Test
A conscientious objector is someone who sincerely claims the right to refuse to perform military
service[53] and salute a flag[54] on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, and/or religion.
He may be granted exemption from military service or from saluting the flag if he establishes that his
objection is sincere, based on religious training and belief, and not arbitrary.
LIBERTY OF ABODE AND RIGHT TO TRAVEL
Freedom of Movement
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 6, Article III provides that the liberty of abode and of
changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall not be impaired except upon lawful order
of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be impaired except in the interest of national security,
public safety, or public health, as may be provided by law.
2. Aspects of the Freedom. Freedom of movement has two aspects: (a) Freedom to choose and
change ones domicile, and (b) Freedom to travel within and outside the country. A persons place of
abode or domicile is his permanent residence.
Limitations
1. Freedom of movement is not an absolute right. It has limitations. Liberty of abode may be
impaired or restricted when there is a lawful court order.
2. The right to travel may also be restricted in interest of national security, public safety, or public
health, or when a person is on bail, or under a watch-list and hold departure order.
Right to Return to Ones Country
Although the right to return to ones country is not among the rights expressly mentioned in the Bill
of Rights, it is nonetheless recognized and protected in the Philippines. It is a generally accepted
principle of international law, and as such it is part of the law of the land, pursuant to the doctrine of

incorporation. It is different from the right to travel and is guaranteed under the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[55]
NON-IMPAIRMENT OF CONTRACTS
Contract Clause
1. Section 10, Article III provides that no law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
This is the so-called contract clause, which seeks to restrain substantial legislative impairment of, or
intrusion into, the obligations of contracts. What the clause guarantees is the integrity of contracts
against undue interference by the government.
2. For example, if a lawyer enters into a contract with a client by which the latter will pay 5% of the
value of the monetary claim, a subsequent law which deprives the lawyer of the said value is arbitrary
and unreasonable since it is destructive of the inviolability of contracts, and therefore invalid as
lacking of due process.[56]
Contracts Affected
1. Only valid contracts, either executed or executory, are covered by the guarantee.
2. The agreement of the parties, as long as it is valid, is the law between them. Their will should
prevail, and this must be respected by the legislature and not tampered with by subsequent laws.
Well-established is the policy that the subject of contractual agreements is imbued with paramount
public interest.
Kind of Impairment Covered
1. For the clause to be operative, the impairment caused by law must be substantial. Substantial
impairment happens when the law changes the terms of a legal contract between parties, either in
the time or mode of performance, or imposes new conditions, or dispenses with those expressed, or
authorizes for its satisfaction something different from that provided in its terms.[57] In other
words, the act of impairment is anything that diminishes the value of the contract.[58]
2. The cause of the impairment must be legislative in nature. The obligation of contract must
be impaired by a statute, ordinance, or any legislative act for it to come within the meaning of the
constitutional provision.[59] An administrative order or court decision is not included in the scope
of the constitutional guarantee.
3. In one case,[60] the Court held that a Rehabilitation Plan approved by the Securities and
Exchange Commission which suspends contractual claims against an insolvent or bankrupt
corporation does not violate the contract clause. The impairment must be legislative in character.
SECs approval of the plan is not a legislative act but an administrative act. Thus, there is not
impairment of the freedom to contract.
Limitations
1. As between freedom of contract and police power, police power prevails. Thus, laws enacted in
exercise of police power will prevail over contracts. After all, private rights and interest in contracts
must yield to the common good. Every contract affecting public welfare is presumed to include the
provisions of existing laws and a reservation of police power.

2. The supremacy of police power is felt most clearly in labor contracts and agricultural tenancy
contracts. For instance, a law (Blue Sunday Law) which provides for work or play on a Sunday is
upheld as valid even if it nullifies existing labor contracts, since it is a legitimate exercise of police
power.[61] In another case, a law (R.A. No. 34) changed the crop-sharing system between the
landlord and tenants from 50-50 to 55-45 in favor of the tenants. The Court held that the law is valid.
Consistent with the policy of social justice, the law favored the tenants as well as the general welfare
of the people in exchange of contractual rights.
3. The power of taxation and power of eminent domain, inasmuch as they are also
sovereign powers of the state, can validly impair obligations of contracts.
4. Licenses are different from contracts. Licenses are franchises or privileges given by the State
to qualified entities that may be withdrawn or relinquished when national interests so require.
However, like contracts, they yield to police power.
LEGAL ASSISTANCE AND FREE ACCESS TO COURTS
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 11, Article III provides that free access to the courts and
quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance shall not be denied to any person by reason of
poverty.
2. Protection for the Poor. Free access is a right covered by the due process clause, because a
person, regardless of his status in life, must be given an opportunity to defend himself in the proper
court or tribunal. Nonetheless, the right is placed in a separate provision to emphasize the desire
for constitutional protection of the poor.[62]
3. Litigation in Forma Pauperis. In consonance with this constitutional provision, the Rules of
Court provide for litigation in forma pauperis in which paupers and indigents, who have only their
labor to support themselves, are given free legal services and access to courts.
RIGHTS OF PERSONS UNDER CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION
Miranda Rights
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 12, Article III enumerates the rights of a person under
custodial investigation for the commission of an offense, to wit:
(a) Right to remain silent, right to have a competent and independent counsel preferably
of his own choice, right to free legal services if he cannot afford one, and theright to
informed of these rights. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence of
counsel;
(b) Right against the use of torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means
which vitiate his free will. Prohibition against secret detention places, solitary,
incommunicado, or other similar forms of detention;
(c) Exclusion of any confession or admission obtained in violation of this provision or the
right against self-incrimination as evidence against him; and
(d) Sanctions against violators and compensation for rehabilitation of victims.

2. Why called Miranda Rights. The present provision is usually referred to as the Miranda
Rights because it is an adoption of the rights provided in the American case Miranda v.
Arizona.[63]
Purpose of the Right
The provision emphasizes on the duty of law enforcement officers to treat properly and
humanely those under investigation. It recognizes the fact that the environment in custodial
investigations is psychologically if not physically coercive in nature,[64] so that law enforcers should
be reminded of the sanctity of individual rights and the limitations on their means of solving crimes.
In fact, as far as the present provision is concerned, the presumption of regularity of official acts
and the behavior of police or prosecution isnot observed if the person under investigation was not
informed.[65]
Custodial Investigation
1. This enumeration of rights above may be invoked during custodial investigations. Custodial
investigation refers to any questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been
taken into custody. The rights are available when the person interrogated is already treaded as
a particular suspect and the investigation is no longer a general inquiry into an unsolved crime.
However, during this stage, no complaint or criminal case has been filed yet. As such, the person
suspected to have committed a crime is not yet an accused, since no case was instituted against him.
2. During custodial investigations, suspects are identified by way of show-ups, mug shots,
and line ups. Show-ups are done by bringing the lone suspect face-to-face with the witness for
identification. Mug shots are performed by showing photographs to witnesses to identify the suspect.
And in line ups, the witness identifies the suspect from a group of persons.
Extrajudicial Confession
1. Meaning. Extrajudicial consfession refers to a confession or admission of guilt made outside
(extra) the court (judicial). It is a critical area of study in Constitutional Law. With respect to the
present provision, it refers to a confession given during a custodial investigation, which is not judicial
in nature. Under the Miranda Rights, a person may waive his right to remain silent and admit the
charge against him because anything that he says may be used against him. However, the waiver or
confession must be valid to be admissible as evidence against him.
2. Requisites for Validity. For an extrajudicial confession to be valid and admissible as
evidence in court, it must be: (a) voluntary; (b) made in the assistance of a competent and
independent counsel; (c) express; and (d) in writing.
3. Involuntary Confession. There are two kinds of involuntary confession: (a) confession through
coercion;[66] and (b) confession without being informed of the Miranda rights.[67] Both forms are
invalid and cannot be admitted as evidence against the confidant, the confession considered as a fruit
of a poisonous tree. Extrajudicial confessions must be given voluntarily. However, there is a
distinction between the two. On the one hand, an extrajudicial confession alleged to be taken
through torture or coercion is presumed voluntarily given and valid since the law enforcers are
presumed to perform their duty regularly, so that the complainant-suspect should prove that there is

torture to invalidate his confession. On the other hand, a confession given without being informed of
the Miranda rights is presumed involuntarily given, so that the law enforces must prove its
regularity.[68]
4. Assistance of Counsel. An extrajudicial confession made in the absence of a counsel, or even in
his presence but without adequate assistance, is also invalid and inadmissible. The rule requires that
the assisting counsel must be independent and competent. For this matter, a fiscal or a public
prosecutor, who represents the interest of the State, cannot assist the suspect or person under
investigation. His interest is adverse to the latter. Thus, even if competent, he cannot be
an independent counsel for the suspect.
5. A counsel from the Public Attorneys Office is qualified to assist a person in executing an
extrajudicial confession, his interest not adverse to the latter.
6. An extrajudicial confession to a mayor, even if uncounselled, may be admissible.[69]While a
mayor has power of supervision over the police, an admission to him, not in the capacity of a law
enforcer, is deemed freely given. The uncounselled admission to him does not violate the right to
legal assistance and therefore the confession is admissible as evidence against the confidant. In
addition, extrajudicial confession to a media man who is acting as a news reporter and not under the
supervision of the police, is admissible.
7. Because of the inherent danger of using information from broadcast media, extreme caution
must be taken in further admitting similar evidence or confession. There is presumption of
voluntariness in confessions which media describes as freely given. They must be strictly scrutinized.
RIGHT TO BAIL
Meaning of Right
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 13, Article III provides that all persons, except those charged
with offenses punishable by reclusion perpetua when evidence of guilt is strong, shall, before
conviction, be bailable by sufficient sureties, or be released on recognizance as may be provided by
law. The right to bail shall not be impaired even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is
suspended. Excessive bail shall not be required.
2. Meaning of Bail. Bail refers to the security given for the temporary release of a person in custody
of the law, furnished by him or a bondsman, conditioned upon his appearance before any court as
may be required. For instance, a person arrested and detained for the offense of homicide may post a
bond for his temporary release on the condition that he will appear in the court during the trial or
when the court so requires.
3. Purpose of Bail. Probational release through bail is corollary to the right to be presumed
innocent and a means of immediately obtaining liberty.[70] During the duration of release, the
accused is given the chance to prepare his defense,[71] and thus level the playing field for the
parties. Worth emphasizing is the reason why those charge with offenses punishable by reclusion
perpetua and against whom evidence of guilt is strong, are not allowed to bail. Under such
circumstances, there is improbability of appearance, and bail merely becomes an instrument of
evading the law.

Standards for Fixing Amount of Bail

1. The law does not prescribe for a fix amount of bail. What it requires is that the amount should
be reasonable and not excessive otherwise the right is rendered useless. Under the Rules of
Court, the amount is reasonable if the judge bases it primarily, but not exclusively, on the following
guidelines:[72]
(a) Financial ability of the accused;
(b) Nature and circumstances of offense;
(c) Penalty for offense charged;
(d) Character and reputation of accused;
(e) Age and health of the accused;
(f) Weight of evidence against him;
(g) Probability of his appearance at trial;
(h) Forfeiture of other bonds by him;
(i) The fact that he is a fugitive from justice when arrested; and
(j) Pendency of other cases where he is also under bail.
When Right May be Invoked
1. General Rule. The right to bail may be invoked from the moment of detention or arrest. Even if
no formal charges have been filed yet, for as long as there is already an arrest, the right may already
be availed of.
2. Bail as a Matter of Right. Bail may be invoked as a matter of right if the charge is not
punishable by reclusion perpetua and there is no final judgment of conviction yet. Technically, the
instances when bail is a matter of right are: (a) Before or after conviction by the MTC; and (b) Before
conviction of the RTC of an offense not punishable by death, reclusion perpetua or life
imprisonment.
3. Bail as a Matter of Discretion. Bail may be invoked as a matter of discretion on the part of the
court in the following instances:
(a) After conviction by the RTC of an offense not punishable by death, reclusion perpetua or life
imprisonment;
(b) Pending appeal subject to the consent of the bondsman; and
(c) After conviction, pending appeal when the court imposed a penalty of imprisonment for more
than six years but not more than twenty years, and it is not shown that the accused repeated a crime,

an escapee, committed an offense while under the custody of the probational release, or had the
tendency of flight or to commit another offense.
3. Right not Suspended. The present constitutional provision clearly provides that the right to bail
is not suspended when the President suspends the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. While bail
and habeas corpus are remedies intended for the immediate release of a detainee, there are
fundamental differences between them so that the suspension of one does not mean the suspension
of the other. Firstly, in bail, there is an implicit recognition of the validity of detention or arrest,
while in habeas corpus, there is an assumption that the detention or arrest is illegal. And secondly,
the prayer in bail is for the temporary release of the detainee, whereas in habeas corpus, the prayer is
for permanent release.
When the privilege of habeas corpus is suspended, the remedy of immediate release cannot be
availed of (although filing is still allowed). Under the current rules, if the detainee files a bail for his
temporary release, then it moots the purpose of habeas corpus, because it destroys the assumption of
illegality of the arrest or detention.
4. The law still allows those who jumped bail to exercise the right before conviction for as long as
bail is still a matter of right. What the court must do in such cases is to increase the amount of bail.
5. Bail is now available in extradition[73] cases, consistent with the developments in international
law which now treats an individual as a subject or party.[74]
When Right May not be Invoked
1. It could be inferred from the present provision that the right to bail may not be invoked if the
offense for which the person is detained is punishable by reclusion perpetua and the evidence of
guilt is strong.
2. Important also to note is that the military may not invoke the right to bail.[75] Among other
reasons, allowing military members to bail would pose a great danger to national security. They are
allowed to use firearms and they are paid using government money. Their sheer number and unique
structure, as well as the military mentality that they carry, may very well result to the overthrow of
the government if continuous allowance of the right to bail is given them most especially when there
are coup attempts. Allowing them to bail could mean resumption of widespread commission of
heinous activities.
Mandatory Hearing
When the offense charged is punishable by reclusion perpetua, before rendering a judgment, due
process demands that the court must conduct a mandatory hearing to determine if evidence of guilt
is strong. This is one of the instances when bail is a matter of discretion. But if the prosecutor simply
manifested that he leaves it to the sound discretion of the judge to grant bail and the judge grants the
same without hearing, then the judge commits an error because he cannot repose solely on the
prosecutor his decision. Even if there is no objection, there must be a hearing.[76]
RIGHTS OF THE ACCUSED

Criminal Cases
1. Section 14, Article III deals with the rights of the accused. It contemplates a scenario where a
case has already been filed against a person, in contrast to custodial investigations where a case
may not have been filed yet. The case filed is a criminal case, in which the parties are the People of
the Philippines and the accused. The People of the Philippines is the complainant, while
the accused is the person formally charged of a crime or offense punishable by law.
2. A case is said to be criminal when it involves the prosecution of a crime by the State and the
imposition of liability on erring individuals. It highlights the relation of the individual and the state,
with the state having the right to inflict punishment to an offender once his guilt is proven beyond
reasonable doubt.
3. The real offended party or victim in a criminal case is the State or the People of the Philippines,
and not the private complainant. This is because what has generally been violated is the law of the
Philippines which provides protection to the people and guarantees peace and order in the land.
Violation of the law poses danger not just to a private person, but to the people as a whole, and is a
threat to the sovereignty of the State.
4. The accused, who is the person charged in a criminal case, is pitted against the State. With all its
machineries, manpower, and almost unlimited sources of money, the State is placed in an
advantaged position. To level therefore the playing field, the Constitution provides for numerous
rights of the accused and of persons under investigation. Justice demands that they should be given a
fighting chance against the most power institution, which is the State.
Criminal Due Process
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 14(1), Article III provides that no person shall be held to
answer for a criminal offense without due process of law.
2. The provision refers to due process in criminal cases. As to its procedural aspect, criminal due
process requires that: (a) The accused is brought into a court of competent jurisdiction; (b) He is
notified of the case; (c) He is given the opportunity to be heard; and (d) There is a valid judgment
deliberated and rendered by the court.[77] As to its substantive aspect, the criminal cases must be
based on a penal law.
3. The right to appeal is not a constitutional right. It is a statutory right granted by the
legislature. But when it is expressly granted by law, then it comes within the scope of due process.
4. Criminal due process requires impartiality or objectivity on the part of the court. Although a
separate right to impartial trial is granted in Section 14, paragraph 2 of the Bill of Rights, it refers
only to the right of the accused during trial. Impartiality in criminal due process (Section 14,
paragraph 1) is broader since it extends to preliminary investigations conducted before the filing
criminal cases in court. One of the instances wherein impartiality is compromised is the socalled trial by publicity. When preliminary investigations are held for purposes of determining
whether an information or a case should be filed against the respondent, the investigating prosecutor

should not be swayed by the circumstances of pervasive and prejudicial publicity. It was held that
prejudicial publicity may be invoked as denial of due process if it prevents the observance of those
decencies or requirements of procedural due process.[78]
5. A military court has its own unique set of procedures consistent with the nature and
purpose of the military. Because of its distinct features, a military court cannot try and exercise
jurisdiction, even during martial law, over civilians for offenses allegedly committed by them as long
as civilian courts are still open and functioning.[79] Due process therefore demands that civilians
can only be tried for an offense in civilian courts and not in military courts, unless no civilian court is
available.
Rights of the Accused during Trial
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 14(2), Article III enumerates rights of the accused in all
criminal prosecutions, to wit:
(a) Right to be presumed innocent until the contrary is proved;
(b) Right to be heard by himself and counsel;
(c) Right to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him;
(d) Right to have a speedy, impartial, and public trial;
(e) Right to meet the witnesses face to face; and
(f) Right to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses and the production of
evidence in his behalf.
2. Criminal Prosecution. These are rights of the accused in criminal prosecutions. Under the
Rules, criminal proceedings start from arraignment up to the rendition of final judgment by the
court. Arraignment refers to that stage of the criminal proceeding when the information is read to
the accused to which he pleads guilty or not guilty. The proceeding continues until a final judgment
is entered by the court. The judgment is final when there is nothing for the court to do but to execute
it. Thus, during this duration the accused can invoke the said rights under the proper circumstances.
Right to be Presumed Innocent
1. Meaning. The right refers to the constitutional guarantee that the accused should be treated as if
innocent until he is proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt.
2. Presumption of Innocence and Criminal Due Process. Basically, the rights in Section 14(2)
are elaborations of criminal due process. The right to presumption of innocence, for instance, is
based on the fundamental procedural rule that the court must hear first before it condemns. If what
the court presumes is the guilt of the accused, then procedural due process is violated. In fact, the
accused is already in a disadvantaged position since he is pitted against the State. Presumption of
guilt renders the rights of the accused nugatory. To protect therefore individual rights, in particular
ones liberty, it should be the State that proves the guilt of accused, and not that the accused proves

his innocence. It is the prosecution (State) who has the burden of overcoming the presumption of
innocence. It should rely on its own merits and not on the weakness of the defense.
2. When Presumption is Overcome. The presumption of innocence is overcome by proof
beyond reasonable doubt. Under the rules of evidence, proof beyond reasonable doubt is the
highest quantum of evidence. Such proof requires that the court is morally certain that the accused is
guilty of the crime, so that if there is reasonable doubt that lurks in the mind of the judge, the
accused must be acquitted. When the defense creates reasonable doubt, the presumption of
innocence remains. It must be noted that the certainty required by law is not absolute certainty but
moral certainty as to every proposition of proof requisite to constitute the offense.[80]
3. Why Right is Granted. The philosophy behind the very high quantum of evidence to establish
the guilt of the accused is expressed by the court as follows: It is better to acquit a person upon the
ground of reasonable doubt even though he may in reality be guilty, than to inflict imprisonment on
one who may be innocent.[81]
4. Presumption of Guilt. The law and rules, however, allow that presumption of innocence may be
overcome by another presumption through prima facie evidence.Prima facie evidence means an
evidence deemed sufficient unless contradicted. The is based on logic and human experience. When
the prosecution, for instance, establishes that the stolen object is in the possession of the accused, it
creates a prima facie evidence that the accused committed the crime of theft. The presumption of
innocence is overturned, and the evidence creates a prima facie proof of the guilt of the accused.
This does not, however, mean that the presumption of innocence is finally overcome. The burden of
proof simply shifts from the prosecution to the defense (side of the accused) who will in turn present
contradictory evidence to overcome the prima facie proof.
Right to be Heard by Himself and Counsel
1. Right to be Heard. The right to be heard is the heart of criminal due process. Basically, it refers
to all the mechanisms afforded to the accused during the criminal proceedings. It is a safeguard
against prejudicial and partial judgments by the courts, as well as a guarantee that the accused be
given an opportunity to participate during trial in defense of himself.
2. Related Rights. Participation of the accused in the right to be heard includes three specific
rights: (a) the right to present evidence and to be present at the trial; (b) the right to be assisted by
counsel; and (c) the right to compulsory process to compel the attendance of witnesses in his behalf.
[82]
3. Ratio of Right to Counsel. The right of the accused to counsel is based on the reason that only a
lawyer has a substantial knowledge of the rules of evidence, and a non-lawyer, in spite of his
education in life, may not be aware of the intricacies of law and procedure. Depriving a person of
such right constitutes violation of due process.
4. Related Right. Included in the right to counsel is the duty of the court to inform the
accused of his right to counsel before arraignment and to give a counsel in case the
accused cannot afford the services of one. The counsel representing the accused must be
independent and competent. A counsel who has a divided interest between the prosecution (State)

and the defense (accused) is disqualified on the ground of lack of independence and conflict of
interest.
Right to be Informed of Nature and Cause of Accusation
1. Right to be informed is again an essential aspect of procedural due process. The constitutional
mandate is complied with by the arraignment of the accused in which he is informed by the court of
the offense charged to which the accused either pleads guilty of not guilty.
2. Well-settled is the rule that the allegations in the complaint and not the title of the
case that determines the nature of the offense.
Right to Speedy, Impartial and Public Trial
1. Right to speedy trial is based on the maxim that justice delayed is justice denied.
Unreasonable delays may result to a prolonged suffering of an innocent accused or an evasion of
justice by a truly guilty person. It offends not just the accused but also the State, inasmuch as what is
at stake is the speedy, inexpensive, and orderly administration of justice. Undue postponements not
only depletes the funds of the defense but also of prosecution. Thus, if the prosecution unreasonably
delays the criminal proceedings because of too many postponements and unjustifiable absences, the
accused may be acquitted on the ground of violation of right to speedy trial. This does not, however,
mean that the court cannot grant reasonable postponements. What is prohibited is oppressive and
vexatious postponements.
2. Right to impartial trial primarily requires that the judge who sits in the case must be objective
and renders a decision based on the cold neutrality of the evidence presented. For instance, a judge
who is hostile to the accused based on his comments and utterances, or who is substantially swayed
by the prejudicial publicity of the case, is a partial judge and must be inhibited from the case.
3. Right to public trial demands that the proceedings be conducted in such a way that the public
may know what transpires during the trial. It is not necessary that the entire public can witness the
proceedings; it is enough that the relatives and friends of the interested parties are accommodated in
the trial venue. In fact, the court is allowed under the rules to order the public to leave the premises
of the court room in interest of morality and order.
Right to Meet the Witnesses Face-to-Face
The right to confrontation enables the accused to test the credibility of the witnesses. The right is
reinforced under the rules of criminal procedure by the so-called cross-examination. Crossexamination is conducted after the presentation and direct examination of witnesses by the opposing
side. Both parties are allowed to test the veracity of the testimonies presented by the other.
Right to Compulsory Process
1. Reason for the Right. The form of criminal proceeding is adversarial because two opposing
parties battle out against each other and only one of them could emerge as victor. It is often the case
that the party with the weightier evidence wins. In criminal proceedings, the accused needs only to
create reasonable doubt on the mind of the court to be acquitted. Nevertheless, evidence is difficult
to find because of peoples anxiety in testifying in court as well as their dislike for burdensome court
processes. In recognition therefore of this fact, the law and the rules give the accused the right to

avail of compulsory means for attendance of witnesses and production of needed document or
things.
2. Kinds of Compulsory Processes. When the person sought to testify is uncooperative or just
afraid of court-related actions, the remedy of subpoena ad testificandum may be availed to
compel the person to testify. When relevant documents are needed but the holder thereof refuses to
produce them, the remedy of subpoena duces tecum may be availed of to compel the production
of the same.[83] These remedies are also available to the prosecution.
Right to be Present
1. Meaning and Purpose of the Right. As a rule, the accused has the right to be present at all
stages of trial, from arraignment to rendition of judgment, in order that he may be informed of what
transpires in every stage of the proceedings, to guard himself from technical blunders, and
ultimately, to fully defend himself from the accusation against him. Thus, it is again an incident of
criminal due process.
2. Waiver of Right. Right to be present, inasmuch as it is a right, may be waived by the accused. For
as long as it does not prejudice others, rights may be waived by its possessor. An example of a valid
waiver of the right to be present is the so-called trial in absentia. Even in the absence of the
accused, trial may still proceed (trial in absentia) if after his arraignment and notification of the
date of the hearing, he still unjustifiably failed to appear. The effect of the waiver is that the accused
will no longer have the right to present evidence and confront the witnesses.
3. When Right not Waivable. It must be noted that the presence of the accused becomes a duty,
and therefore not waivable, in the following: (a) During arraignment and plea;[84] (b) When he is to
be identified;[85] (c) During the promulgation of judgment, except when it is for a light offense.
[86] In all these instances, the accused must appear because his non-appearance may either
prejudice his rights or that of the State.
PRIVILEGE OF THE WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 15, Article III states that the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus shall not be suspended except in cases of invasion or rebellion, when the public safety
requires it. This is a reiteration of Section 18, Article VII. What is constitutionally guaranteed is the
right of a person detained by another to test or challenge, through habeas corpus, the validity of his
detention when the authority of the detaining person or agency is at issue.
2. The writ of habeas corpus is a written order issued by the court directed to a person detaining
another commanding him to produce the body of the prisoner at a designated time and place, with
the day and cause of his capture and detention, to do, to submit to, and to receive whatever court or
judge awarding the writ shall consider in his behalf. When a person is illegally confined or detained,
or when his liberty is illegally restrained, he has the constitutional right to file a petition of habeas
corpus. Should the court find out that the person is illegally confined or detained, he shall be
immediately released from detention.
3. When Privilege Suspended. The privilege of habeas corpus is suspended in cases of rebellion or
invasion. This is in order to meet the exigencies in such cases.

4. Writ of Amparo. Aside from the writ of habeas corpus, the writ of amparo is another available
remedy to any person whose right to life, liberty, and security has been violated or threatened to be
violated by an unlawful act or omission of a public official or employee, or of a private individual or
entity. This remedy is especially available in cases of enforced disappearances and extrajudicial
killings.
RIGHT TO SPEEDY DISPOSITION OF CASES
Section 16, Article III states that all persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of their cases
before all judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies. Unlike the right to speedy trial which
applies only in criminal proceedings, the right to speedy disposition of cases may be invoked in all
cases, whether judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative. Thus, right to speedy disposition of cases is
broader than right to speedy trial.
RIGHT AGAINST SELF-INCRIMINATION
Meaning of Right against Self-Incrimination
Section 17, Article III provides that no person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
This constitutional guarantee is better known as right against self-incrimination. The right allows a
person not to answer an incriminating question. An incriminating question is one that if answered
renders a person liable for an offense. However, it is only when the incriminating question is put to a
witness stand that the right may be invoked.
When Right Available
1. The right is available in all government proceedings, whether criminal or civil, and whether
judicial or quasi-judicial or administrative. It is even available in legislative investigations and
impeachment proceedings. In addition, the right may be invoked by all persons subject to judicial
examination and legislative investigation. Thus it may be invoked not just by the accused in criminal
cases, but also defendants in civil cases, and witnesses in all kinds of proceedings.
2. The right, nonetheless, is not self-executing. It is not automatically operational once an
incriminating question is asked. It must be properly invoked by objecting to an incriminating
question. For example, when a witness is subjected to direct examination by the opposing party, and
the opposing counsel asked was there an instance that you cheated on your wife?, the right may be
invoked by a timely objection to the incriminating question. If no objection is raised, then the answer
may be used as evidence against the witness for the proper criminal charge.
3. Although all persons subject to judicial, quasi-judicial, administrative, and legislative
investigations can invoke the right under proper circumstances, special utilization of the right is
given to the accused. A witness can invoke the right only when the question tends to be selfincriminating, but an accused can invoke the same in two ways. First is by refusing to testify
altogether during trial. And the second is, when he chooses to testify, by refusing to answer questions
that tend to incriminate him for another offense.

4. In criminal proceedings what is prohibited is physical or moral compulsion to extort

communication from the accused. Subjecting the body of the accused when material to solve the case
is allowed and not violative of the right. In one case, the Court held that writing is not a pure
mechanical act but requires the use of the intellect. Thus, an accused cannot be compelled to write or
sign and use the same as evidence against him.
5. State witnesses cannot avail of the right because the very purpose of their being state
witnesses is to give them immunity or protection to testify. Their testimonies are so crucial to the
resolution of a criminal case so that in attainment thereof immunity is given to them by the State.
This means that they will no longer be prosecuted for the crime for which they are testifying. Since
they have to unravel everything, even their guilt, in exchange of immunity, the right against selfincrimination could no longer be invoked.
Basis of the Right
1. The philosophy behind the constitutional guarantee is similar to the other rights of the accused.
From the very start, the accused is already in an adverse position pitted against the entire machinery
of the State. If evidence will still be taken from the lips of the accused, it would even tilt the scales
heavily in favor of the State.
2. The right is founded on public policy and humanity.[87] Public policy demands that a person
be spared from answering incriminating questions because requiring him would likely lead to the
crime of perjury, which is basically lying to the court after having promised to tell the truth and
nothing but the whole truth. Humanity prevents extorting confession by duress.
RIGHT AGAINST INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 18, Article III provides that no person should be detained
solely by reason of his political beliefs and aspirations, nor should involuntary servitude in any form
exist, except as a punishment for a crime. The first part of the provision deals with the right not to be
detained by reason solely of political beliefs and aspirations. This is essentially embodied in the
freedom of expression but with emphasis on the prohibition against incarceration of political
prisoners. The second part deals with the right against involuntary servitude. Involuntary servitude
refers to the compulsory service of another or simply modern day slavery. The right is based on the
egalitarian principle of democracy which prescribes equality of everyone in law, and on humanity
which prevents degradation of human dignity through enforced labor.
2. Slavery is an ancient practice of treating man as a commodity under the complete power of the
master. This has never been practiced in the Philippines, but has its remnants in modern forms of
enforced labor and peonage. Enforced labor happens when a person is unlawfully compelled to
work against his will; it is involuntary and to a certain extent resembles slavery. When a person,
because of poverty or lack of money, works for another in payment of his debt, the same is prohibited
by the present guarantee even if the service is rendered voluntarily. This voluntary service in
payment of debt is called peonage. While it appears voluntary, peonage is prohibited because the
person is forced to work by the circumstances of his indebtedness, although not by his creditor.

2. Exceptions. Involuntary servitude may be allowed under the following instances: (a) as
punishment for crime; (b) in the case of personal, military or civil service in defense of the State; and
(c) in compliance to a return to work order issued by the Department of Labor and Employment.
RIGHT AGAINST EXCESSIVE FINES AND CRUEL PUNISHMENTS
Meaning of Excessive Fine and Cruelty
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 19(1), Article III states that excessive fines shall not be
imposed, nor cruel, degrading or inhuman punishment inflicted
2. A fine is excessive when it is unreasonable and beyond the limits prescribed by law. The amount
of the fine is said to be unreasonable if the court does not take into consideration certain standards,
such as the nature of the offense, and the circumstances of the person punished by fine. The imposed
fine may never go beyond the statutory prescription, otherwise it is unlawfully excessive.
3. A punishment is cruel when it is shocking to the conscience of mankind and it involves
prolonged suffering and agony to the person punished. For a penalty to violate the constitutional
guarantee, it must be so flagrant and oppressive so as to be degrading to human dignity, and it must
be unreasonably disproportionate to the nature of the offense as to shock the senses of the
community.[88] The mere severity of a penalty does not make the punishment cruel or inhumane,
for as long as it is within the limits provided by law. As one maxim states, even if the law is harsh, it
is still the law (dura lex sed lex). A penalty that is germane to purpose of the penal law is not cruel
and inhumane.
4. Lastly, a penalty must be acceptable to the contemporary society. Ancient forms of
punishment, such as pillory, disembowelment, and crucifixion, which are already considered
barbarous practices, are cruel and inhumane. If a person, for instance, is paraded around town naked
with a tag on his neck saying I am a thief; do not imitate me, the form of punishment is cruel and
inhuman; it is barbarous and so ancient that it is no longer acceptable to the present-day society.
Death Penalty
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 19(2) also states that neither shall death penalty be
imposed, unless, for compelling reasons involving heinous crimes, the Congress hereafter provides
for it. Any death penalty already imposed shall be reduced toreclusion perpetua. The present
provision abolishes death penalty, although with a reservation that the Congress can subsequently
pass a law imposing it for compelling reasons involving heinous crimes.
2. Death Penalty not Cruel. The constitutional provision on death penalty or capital punishment
does not explicitly mention that it is cruel and inhumane. In fact, the Constitution allows the
Congress to impose death penalty for the right reasons. It could even be argued that extinguishment
of human life is not cruel and inhumane for the following reasons:
(a) It is proportionate to the nature of the offense. Death penalty may only be imposed by
Congress in the commission of heinous crimes and for compelling reasons. Heinous crimes are
crimes which are so flagrant and evil so as to be shocking to the conscience of civilized persons, such
as genocide, rape with homicide, murder, rebellion, and treason, especially when committed against

the innocent and helpless. With compelling reasons, Congress may impose death penalty since it is
proportionate to the atrocities committed;
(b) This form of penalty still has currency in the contemporary time. Death by lethal
injection is prevalently practiced by many countries for the punishment of heinous offenses; and
(c) Death by lethal injection is not cruel and inhumane because it does not prolong suffering or
inflict excruciating agony to the person punished. In truth, it only induces the person to sleep
through a lethal substance injected in the bloodstream which thereafter painlessly put the person to
death.
Proper Treatment of Persons Legally Detained or Imprisoned
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 19(2), Article III provides that the employment of physical,
psychological, or degrading punishment against any prisoner or detainee or the use of substandard
or inadequate penal facilities under subhuman conditions shall be dealt with by law.
2. Purpose of the Right. This constitutional guarantee recognizes the inalienability of human
dignity. Even when a person is imprisoned or detained, and even if he commits heinous crimes, he is
still a person entitled to proper treatment and protection. Paraphrasing it, the Constitution provides
that even if a person is imprisoned or detained, he must be protected against physical, psychological,
or degrading punishment, and is entitled to the use of standard or adequate penal facilities under
humane conditions.
RIGHT AGAINST IMPRISONMENT FOR DEBT
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 20, Article III provides that no person shall be imprisoned for
debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
2. A debt, as covered by the constitutional guarantee, refers to a contractual obligation by a debtor
to pay money to the creditor. If by reason of poverty or lack of money a person cannot pay his debt,
he cannot be imprisoned by reason thereof. The creditor only has himself to blame if he voluntarily
agreed to lend money to someone who apparently cannot pay or whom he thought could pay but did
not. Nevertheless, although the debtor cannot be imprisoned, his property may be taken or attached
by the court, and then sold at public auction in payment of his debt to the creditor.
3. Estafa is not covered by this constitutional guarantee. What is punished in estafa is not the nonpayment of debt but the deceit accompanying the act of non-payment.
4. Non-payment of poll tax cannot be a cause of imprisonment. A poll tax is a tax of a fixed
amount imposed on individuals residing within a specified territory, whether citizens or not, without
regard to their property or the occupation in which they may be engaged.[89] Community tax or
residence tax is an example of poll tax. As far as poll tax is concerned, non-payment is not punished
by the government in consideration of the plight of the poor who cannot even afford to pay it.
Poverty could never be a reason for a persons imprisonment. It must be emphasized, however, that
as regards other forms of taxes, non-payment may be a cause of imprisonment. Failure to pay
income taxes is considered a crime (tax evasion), and punishable under the law by imprisonment.

RIGHT AGAINST DOUBLE JEOPARDY

Meaning of Double Jeopardy
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 21, Article III states that no person shall be twice put in
jeopardy of punishment for the same offense. If an act is punished by a law and an ordinance,
conviction or acquittal under either shall constitute a bar to another prosecution for the same act.
This is more famously known as the right against double jeopardy.
2. Double jeopardy means that a person is twice put at the risk of conviction for the same act or
offense. The right against double jeopardy therefore means that a person can only be indicted or
charge once by a competent court for an offense. When a person, for instance, has been charged of
homicide and the court acquitted him of the case, he can no longer be prosecuted for the same
offense or act. He can now invoke his right against double jeopardy.
3. There are two types of double jeopardy. The first happens when a person is put twice in
jeopardy of punishment for the same offense, and the second happens when an act is punishable by a
law and an ordinance at the same time, in which case the conviction or acquittal in either one of
them constitute as bar to another prosecution for the same act.
3. The requisites of double jeopardy are:[90]
(a) A valid complaint or information;
(b) Filed before a competent court;
(c) To which the defendant has pleaded; and
(d) The defendant was previously acquitted or convicted or the case dismissed or otherwise
terminated without his express consent.
When Double Jeopardy Could Be Claimed
1. Before double jeopardy could be claimed, there must be a first jeopardy. The first jeopardy
attaches only: (a) upon good indictment; (b) before a competent court; (c) after arraignment; (d)
when a valid plea has been entered; and (e) the case was dismissed or otherwise terminated without
the consent of the accused. A case is said to be terminated without the consent of the accused when
there is acquittal or a final decision convicting him.
2. To substantiate therefore the claim for double jeopardy, the following must be proven:
(a) A first jeopardy must have attached prior to the first jeopardy;
(b) The first jeopardy must have been validly terminated; and
(c) The second jeopardy must be for the same offense, or the second offense includes or is necessarily
included in the offense charged in the first information, or is an attempt to commit the same or is a
frustration thereof.

RIGHT AGAINST EX POST FACTO LAW AND BILL OF ATTAINDER

Meaning of Ex Post Facto Law
1. Constitutional Provision. Section 22, Article III provides that no ex post facto law or bill of
attainder shall be enacted.
2. An ex post facto law is one which:
(a) Makes criminal an act done before the passage of the law which was innocent when done, and
punishes such an act;
(b) Aggravates a crime, or makes it greater than it was, when committed;
(c) Changes the punishment and inflicts a greater punishment than the law annexed to the crime
when committed;
(d) Alters the legal rules of evidence, and authorizes conviction upon less or different testimony than
the law required at the time of the commission of the offense;
(e) Assuming to regulate civil rights and remedies only, in effect imposes penalty or deprivation of a
right for something which when done was lawful; and
(f) Deprives a person accused of a crime of some lawful protection to which he has become entitled,
such as the protection of a former conviction or acquittal, or a proclamation of amnesty.[91]
3. Applicable only in Criminal Cases. The constitutional prohibition applies only in criminal
cases.[92] One of the characteristics of criminal law is prospectivity in which only crimes committed
after the enactment of a penal are punishable. It cannot retroact and punish acts which were not yet
criminalized before its passage. The basic rule is that before an act may be considered an offense or
crime, it must first be defined as a crime and a penalty must be imposed for it under a law passed by
the legislative body. An act therefore is not a crime if there is no law punishing it. In the
same vein, a person does not commit a crime, no matter how apparently illegal it is, if there is no law
defining and punishing it. It is for this reason that an ex post facto law is not allowed because it
criminalizes what was not yet a crime during its commission.
Meaning of Bill of Attainder
1. Definition. A bill of attainder is a legislative act which inflicts punishment without trial. Its
essence is the substitution of a legislative for a judicial determination of guilt.[93]
2. Two Kinds of Bill of Attainder: (a) the bill of attainder proper which involves the legislative
imposition of death penalty, and (b) bill of pains and penalties which involves imposition of a
lesser penalty.
3. Reason for Prohibition. The prohibition against bill of attainder is an implementation of the
principle of separation of powers. The legislature cannot bypass the judiciary by enacting a law
that punishes an act without need of judicial proceedings. The legislative department should be
confined to its law-making function; it cannot encroach the authority of the courts by prescribing a
law that directly adjudges guilt without judicial determination.

4. Example. In one case, the Court held that the Anti-Subversion Law (R.A. 1700) is not a bill of
attainder.[94] The law declared the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) a clear and present
danger to Philippine security, and thus prohibited membership in such organization. It is not a bill of
attainder because it does not define a crime, but only lays a basis for the legislative determination
that membership in CPP and any other organization having the same purposes is a crime. It does not
automatically secure judgment by mere membership. In operation, the law does not render
unnecessary judicial proceedings. The guilt of the individual members of subversive groups must still
be judicially established.