ON THE

MOTIONS OF THE HUMAN FEET

AND

THE MEANS OF PRESERVING THEM UNIMPAIRED

BEING

TIIE

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

BY JAMES DOWIE,
AUTHOB OP THE FOOT AND

ITS

COVERING; ALSO, REMARKS ON THE

LOSS OP MUSCULAR POWER.

The value of the human foot

not sufficiently estimated.

is

Fergusson,

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PREFACE.

rp

HE

very favourable and flattering reception with

which

my

previous efforts* have been received by all

community, but especially by the Medical

Profession, in my humble endeavours to combine Science
classes of the

with Practice in clothing the

their natural

human

feet so as to preserve

functions unimpaired, has induced

me

to

submit a few remarks which bear

more particularly on one view of the subject not hitherto
again venture

to

sufficiently noticed, or at least not dwelt

tent that its importance

demands

upon

namely,

of considering that both feet are required

to the

ex-

the necessity
to

form the

The true positions of the tripod

bilateral symmetry of the pedestal can

pedestal of the body.

bearings and the

only be thus obtained without distortion and injury to the

* See Papers read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts in the years

and at greater length in 1861.

The Foot and its Covering, comprising a Translation of Campers
most valuable essay onthe Best form of Shoe. 2s. 6d. Hardwicke.
Remarks on the Loss of Muscular Power, read before the British
Association at Cambridge in 1862. 6d. Hardwicke.
The Proper Clothing of the Human Foot, the First Step in Physical
1835 and 1839,

and Mental Training, read before the Social Science Association in

1862.

PREFACE.

IV

peculiar structure, and development of a finely-formed

arched

foot.

Nearly

looked this fact

all civilized

when they

nations must have over-

constructed shoes to wear on

and even when made

right and left, they retained much of the same form
which has been handed down to us in works of art, such
as in Chelsea and other china figures, and in many of our
The evil of this is illustrated
statues in modern times.
in the centre vignette on the title-page, which I have taken
from Dr. Campers essay referred to. This diagram shows
how the great toe must be diverted from the straight line in
such a shoe, thereby depriving each foot of the abutment
to the arch, and producing a flat foot, with all its attendant
weakness, want of elasticity, and suffering, in addition to
the absence of beauty of form. If the following remarks
shall have the effect of directing attention to the subject in
an artistic or sanitary point of view, I shall have accomeither foot,

plished

my

and yet

to

fit

neither

wish.,

JAMES DOWIE.
455 Strand, London.
,

THE

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.
KX

HE acknowledgment in tlie columns of the Medical

That the value of the human

press,*

one to which

sufficiently estimated/' is

on professional grounds.
to the difference

sound

walking

foot-gear generally patronized

importance in

many

in need of ventilation,

endeavour

to investigate

of the foot

The function

(3),

The

(2),

free,

* See Lancet,

Fergusson, Esq.,

unimpeded

and

to the

in the curing

subject

is

of the

It

stands

this paper I shall

(1),

The

tripod bearings

of the instep

and

circulation of the fluids of

by William
delivered at the Koyal

16th July, 1864, Lecture VI.,

F.R.C.S.,

improper

very briefly the following

it,

to the

respects.

and in

three divisions of

viz.

and worn

The

of distortions, lameness, &c.

much

more particularly

means used

objectionable mechanical

highest

subscribe

between the value of sound and un-

in standing or

feet

allude

foot is not

F.It.S.,

College of Surgeons of England, in June, 1864.

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

the lower extremities,

me

these subjects appearing to

deserving of special notice at the present time.

each by a few normal and ab-

shall illustrate

normal

come under

my own

many

out of the

selected

cases,

that have

observation and experience as a

shoemaker during the

last forty years.

THE TRIPOD BEARINGS OF THE FOOT.

The

architectural structure

of the

human

foot

is,

in principle, that of a portion of a groined arch

of

unequal longitudinal and lateral span, resting chiefly

upon three

piers,

the

great toe and

little

from the heel

to

lateral

and the

heel,

The

toe.

of the

balls

longitudinal span

is

the ball of the great toe, and the

span from

longitudinal one just

the

tioned to the ball of the

The

little toe.

men-

balls of the

second, third, and fourth toes, and the balls of the

five

digital extremities, also rest

forming eight additional bearings

upon the ground,

to

each foot

but

they appear rather to have a secondary than a pri-

mary

function, if I

ments

to

tioned.

the

may

so speak, like that of abut-

twm principal bearings above men-

Nearly the same thing

may

fleshy parts of the sole, between the

little toe

and that of the

heel,

be said of the
bearing of the

more especially

in sup-

porting a heavy weight

when standing on one

But from the

which these bearings form,

triangle

foot.

THE TRIPOD BEARINGS OF THE FOOT.

they substantiate the principle of a tripod as pointed

Camper long

out by Dr.

ago, in his

work on

The

Best Form of Shoe/'

There

evidently illustrated in this structural

is

economy

of the foot a

Creator, that requires

than

to in the clothing

grand design of

Great

be more closely attended

to
is

its

generally done, in order to

preserve the extremities in health and usefulness.

This

when

As

true at every age, but

is

the foot

more

so in

early

life,

growing, than at any after period.

is

a question of form, the two feet

examined together, as in

fig.

1, in

should be

order to perceive

the bilateral symmetry and beauty

of

the whole organism, each foot

when taken
half.

both

only

Thus, when standing upon

close to

feet,

body then
or

being

singly

upon

rests

each other, the

upon two

six bearings

two situated

and four longitudinally.

laterally,

The former
bearings,

tripods,

are the two little toe-

and the

latter the

Fig. 1 .

two great toe and the

two heel bearings, and the respective bearings and

parts of one foot correspond in form

of the other.

stand long
natural.

The

in,

This

size to those

position, however, is a painful one to

and therefore
is

and

it

cannot be considered

manifest, for the legs and thighs

are not in a vertical position,

and therefore they can-

not support the greatest weight with the greatest

b2

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

The

ease.

natural position

two legs and thighs are

ankle

evidently

is

parallel,

and the pelvic and

equidistant, the

articulations

when the
being

heels

turned inwards and the toes outwards, so that the

four lines formed by the four interior bearing-points

the

two heels behind and the

great

toes

angled
(fig.

in front

two

of the

make a rectangle, or

a right-

the annexed

diagram

parallelogram, as in

The two

2).

balls

triangles

formed by the three

bearings

on

or points

outline

are

position

in

The

scalene.

the

each

diagram

is

therefore, perhaps, the natural one,

both

when standing upon

But be

feet.

pothesis as
tion

is

it

this hy-

may, the posi-

evidently

one

that

exhibits in a very high degree

the beautiful normal form and bilateral

the two feet, while

nomy

of muscular

it

symmetry of

farther accords with the eco-

power in standing, the right-angled

parallelogram being the figure of greatest stability in

mechanical science.
In standing upon a plane surface, whether on one
or both feet, the tripod bearings (three or six, as the

case

may

evident

be) are also in one plane.

This

is

self-

but in standing upon an uneven surface,

the conditions are more complicated^ for the heel-

bearing rests upon, or rather forms one plane, while

THE TRIPOD BEARINGS OF THE FOOT.

two

the

anterior bearings

make

another, so

that

there are two planes involved, the one anterior,

the other posterior

more

or,

the one the heel, and the

practically speaking,

other

the

the

position

of each foot,

and the measure of the

which they form, are

are

also

The

tread.

bearing-points

three

geometrical

of

and

lines

and angles

different from

what they

when standing on a plane

surface,

and

this diver-

gence will be according to the unevenness of the

ground.

In walking, whether

be upon a plane or an un-

it

even surface, the heel and tread planes, and the lines

and angles which the tripod bearing-points of each

form, undergo an ever-varying change of posi-

foot

tion

while, in passing the weight of the body from

the one foot on to the other,

it is

chiefly borne

on the

anterior or tread plane.

In clothing the

may

foot, the sole of the

boot or shoe

be considered the pedestal to the ever-changing

mechanism

of the living statue, as above

shown

so

that, like the natural covering of the sole of the foot

itself, viz.,

the skin, the

movements and

positions of

the anterior and posterior planes of the one

sole of the

boot

should

the

correspond and harmonize

with the ever- varying movements and positions of

the anterior and posterior planes of the other

the

sole of the foot.

Thus

in walking,

shortly after

the

nude heel

begins to rise from the ground, the heel-plane,

if

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

produced, would intersect the tread plane or anterior

sole longitudinally in the direction of the

whereas,

when

middle toe

at the highest point, or just before the

weight of the body

is

thrown

the direction of

off in

the other foot coming up to take the lead in advance,

upon both

or as wdien standing

tiptoes, the

heel-

plane then intersects the sole transversely across the

instep;

and between these two positions in rising and

falling,

the line of intersection of the two planes,

heel and tread,

position,

the

number

In going up a steep
upwards, so that

it

at every

different

is

intermediate

of positions being indefinite.

hill,

again, the heel-plane bends

does not form a line of intersec-

tion inwards, but outw'ards (these positions will be

shown and explained under figs. 4, 5, and 6).

As it is with the nude sole of the foot, so must
be with the sole of the boot
tion of the

it

for the lines of intersec-

two planes, heel and tread, must be

similar before the normal health and usefulness of

the former

when

in

the

foot,

can be preserved, or restored

an abnormal condition.

In order that the

boot shall comply

sole of the

with the ever-varying position of the tripod bearings

and natural movements of the

foot, I engraft

between

the heel and tread an elasticated piece of leather, as

represented by the waist a b } c

,

diagram
posterior

(fig.

3),

in the

annexed

which allows both the anterior and

planes to bend and intersect inwards or

outwards, and to twist laterally, so as to intersect

THE TRIPOD BEARINGS OE THE

FOOT.

longitudinally, as described in the preceding para-

freedom of

to the

In addition

graph.

normal

its

functions, which the pliant elastic

waist thus secures to the foot,

it

also increases the durability of the

by

sole,

experienced on

action

when

the sole

is

grinding

the

obviating

tread

the

rigid throughout.

For the purpose of determining

the true position of the tripod bearings of the foot

the

boot,

more

upon the

sole

Fig.

of

two at the

especially the anterior

and

balls of the great toe

little toe, I

3.

take an outline

of the sole of the foot upon paper in measuring.

absolutely necessary

a proper

is this,

left

that, in order to secure

the outlines of both feet require to be

fit,

taken, as the right foot

as the

is

often not exactly the

and although the

must nevertheless be

fitting

each

of

taking

observation,

the

foot with a few girths

and not
I first

began

of the

human

my

length

eye, yet

attended

to

in

readily

will

common

that the

and

be

breadth of the

only in measuring

is

faulty,

sufficient to indicate the true position of the

tripod bearings.

and

naked

The medical reader

foot.

perceive, from this

plan

carefully

same

may

difference

so small as to be imperceptible to the

it

So

found out the truth of this when

to study the

foot

anatomy and mechanism

from a shoemaker's point of view

non-medical readers cannot

fail

to

see its

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

8
full force

from the accompanying diagrams, and an

own nude

appeal to their

examined

feet, if closely

both when standing and walking:.

The form

of the sole, considered as a question of

fashion, admits of

way deranging the

no

without in any

true position of the tripod bear-

and that of the eight subsidiary ones already

ings,

Asa

noticed.

professional question of shoemaking,

simply the fitting of the last to the outline and

it is

measurement of the
toe,

little diversity,

and waist

foot,

and then working the

heel,

as the fashion of the day or the taste

of the customer

may

The

order.

three points next

to the tripod bearings that call for

special attention

in fitting the last are the peculiar form and dimensions of the heel,
little

If a

toe.

these,

proper

is

fit

toe

and

secured for each of

good workman can as readily make the

heel, waist,

In

and those of the great

and

clothing:

toe of one form as of another.

the growing

youth, very great attention

foot of the

is

child

and

in order to

requisite

promote the normal development and true position

of all its eleven bearings.

An

equal degree of care

requires to be exercised on the part of parents and

nurses

in

teaching

children

uprightly upon their tripods.

cept of

Solomon

generation
as

it is

is

and

stand

The

oft-quoted

walk
pre-

relative to the training of the rising

as applicable here, in a physical sense,

in one social, moral,

social, moral,

to

and

religious

indeed the

and religious duty renders the physical


THE FUNCTION OF

In support of these conclusions nothing

imperative.

more requires

way

be said

to

unless

it

be added, by

of parenthesis, that the corrective authority of

the family doctor

is

more frequently required

often

and given than reduced

to

practice

tainly a blot on the character of

many
in

TIIE INSTEP.

our

none

cer-

is

it

the age that so

and play-grounds, with apparently

sympathize with them, under

to

cruelties

upon

called

for

innocents are to be seen limping about

streets

torting

to

which

they

endure.

the dis-

every rank

in

We

all

are

childhood to sympathize with Chinese

taught

women

are

from
;

but

ought we not, as Dr. Camper observes in his work

on The Best Form of Shoe/' already quoted, to
extend

that

sympathy

especially our little ones

towards

ourselves,

more

THE FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.

The

instep

is

a very complex piece of mechanism,

and has as complex a function to perform.

Its
work may be said to be of a fivefold character, as
follows

First.

Besides the large amount of elastic tissue

that enters into the structure of

culations,

to

its

numerous

arti-

prevent concussion of the bones, not

only of the foot, but also of the whole body, the

PHILOSOPHY OE SHOEMAKING.

10

antagonistic action of the muscles

The truth

same purpose.

illustrated in the case

wooden

leg

for

auxiliary to the

is

of this

walking with a

of a person

however well

with cork, india-rubber, or the

experiences a shock every time

very forcibly

is

may

it

be padded

the whole body

like,

placed upon the

it is

ground.

The instep makes

gating lever.
The wooden leg
Second.

the other, the natural one,

it

limb an

the

a lever

is

may

and

but

it

The

respects.

consequently,

ankle, knee, and hip joints bend so

the muscles which actuate them can shorten

that

limb,

the

at

perform the function of the other in these

to

it fails

and

does not elongate and shorten

the process of walking demands

as

like

be amply sup-

plied with elastic material both at the foot

the stump

elon-

and

But they make

length.

not an

lever,

restore it to its former

the

actuate
restore

it

the

limb

to its

elongate

shortening

The muscles

elongating one.
instep

or natural

the

normal length

limb,

that

and then

very different

function.

Third.

The

instep,

and allows the other

then

it

in walking, raises
foot to pass it

the body,

freely

and

throws the body forward on to the foot thus

much greater economy

muscular power than when the work is done by

planted in advance, with a

of

the ankle, knee, and hip joints alone.

Fourth. It

is

the instep

that

changes the heel

THE FUNCTION OF

11

TIIE INSTEP.

and tread-planes in the ever-varying positions which

they occupy in walking.

The

Fifth.

instep

chiefly

is

instrumental

in

going up-stairs, up-hill, in running, jumping, and

dancing, charging with the bayonet, pitching sheaves
in harvest,

&c.,

&c.

It

would take a world of

detail to do the instep justice in all the duties

it

which

performs.

The

following woodcuts,

figs.

4,

5,

and

6,

assist in illustrating the principal functions of

instep,

and

also the

manner the planes

will

the

of the tripod

bearings intersect each other.

Fig. 4 shows the position

the legs

and

feet

of

in going

obliquely up an incline, with

the

left side

The
is

towards the

inside of the right

leg
a
O

towards

the

inclination,

but the outside

one,

hill.

of

the

left

and both make an acute angle with the slope

of the ground
fig. 2,

upon

level

Both heels are

when standing erect, as in

ground, they make a right angle.

whereas,

off

the ground, the weight of the

body being borne on the tread-bearings. It follows,

therefore,

from these data, that the bearings of the

great toe

and

little toe

of each foot are

upon one

plane, viz., the surface of the incline or hill,

and that

the bearings of the heels are each in another plane

consequently the posterior or heel-plane of each foot

12

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.
obliquely in

or tread-plane

intersects the anterior

the direction of the toes, but that the intersection

of the right foot differs from that of the

These conclusions
the diagrams

but

to

will readily be understood

comprehend

two positions practically

to

under

all

this

from

and the other

the greatest advantage,

the reader should examine his

legs

left.

own nude

feet

and

the positions in which he can place

them.
Fig. 5 represents the position of the feet

and

legs

in going directly up-hill, the

being

step

that of the

foot foremost,

left

and the right

one hindmost. The heels are

again

off

the ground, so that

the weight

of the

body

borne as formerly, but

is

the

heel and tread-planes in this

case intersect transversely, those of the right inwards
across the instep in front of the toes, but

behind the

the left one outwards

tread.

Fig.

those of

6 shows the position

of the right foot

and

leg in stand-

ing on tip-toe, the heel-plane intersecting

the

tread-plane

inwards

transversely across the instep, but

in

front

of the

toes.

data apply to the

same

position as

left

when standing on both

The same
foot in the
tip-toes.

THE FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.

The diagrams

also illustrate the

13

extreme difference

that takes place in the curvature and elongation of

the span of the arch of the foot, the

left foot, fig. 5,

showing the minimum decree in the height of the

maximum length of the span, and

maximum degree of height, but minimum

arch, but the

fig.

6 the

of

length.

Thus from

measurement

actual

the

height of the arch, taken in the line between the

heel

and great

the gentleman,

bearings of

toe

engineer, whose feet are represented by

in

the position of the

eighths of an inch
ease,

foot

(fig.

5),

when

was four-

when standing with the

toes at

both feet being upon the ground, the height was

five-eighths
toes,

left

fig. 2,

an

when the arch was braced up by the

as in standing

upon one

foot, the

height was

and when in the position (fig. 6), the

height of the arch was fully an inch and a quarter or
six-eighths

ten-eighths.

The length

taken as shown
the toes

the

(fig.

of his foot

eleven inches,

is

2) with the arch braced up by

height of the arch being then six-

eighths, and proportionally less or

more

for the others.

In applying the data which the diagrams illustrate

to the daily experience of all classes, the

dent plan

is to

judgment

in

leave the reader to exercise his

the matter.

The

extreme

cases,

will be seen, are

principles
figs.

in

would have

three

illustrated,

4 and 5 been upon

fig.

more pru-

own

positions,

it

but the very same

had the

level ground,

6 only raised half the height

feet in

and the heel

shown

in the

14

PHILOSOPHY OP SHOEMAKING.

diagram.

In short, the data illustrated are of general

more

application, but

especially to those

suits in life are mostly performed

how

absolutely necessary

it

on

whose pur-

foot,

and prove

to attend closely to

is

the movements of the instep and tread-bearings in

the clothing of the feet and limbs, in order to preserve health and usefulness.

The form and dimensions

longitudinally

and

laterally,

different individuals,

of
are

the

instep,

very

both

various

and often not in proportion

in
to

the size of the body, or even to the length of the

foot

from heel to

primarily due to

and secondarily

Much

toe.

mode

of life

of this is evidently

and kind of clothing

to hereditary descent, or

to their children

for

from parents

some families and races have

finely-arched feet, others have comparatively flat feet,

while a third class have insteps in various inter-

mediate degrees of development between the former

two extremes. The

feet of our Celtic population, for

example, are better arched than those of our Saxon.

The

foot of the Negro, again, is very different

from

most of the other races in the angularity of the

heel,

In short,

as well as in the curvature of the arch.

there are not two races of

men whose

feet are exactly

alike.

finely- arched foot of

the normal type.

ples

are,

beautiful

on

the

The

medium length

flat

obviously

and intermediate exam-

contrary,

symmetry of

is

departures

nature.

The

from

the

clothing and

FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.

T1IE

15

cultivation of the former I shall notice in this place

but for the sake of brevity, and to avoid repetition,

the latter will be noticed under impeded circulation

from improper foot-gear.

In infancy the free use of the toes

is essentially'

necessary to the proper development of the arch of

the

The

foot.

five digital

bearings form in walking,

and in supporting a heavy weight when standing,

abutments

when

function

their

natural freedom,

them, as

it

their

were, thereby shortening the span of the

Thus

height.

enjoyment of

in the

is

they grasp the ground under

for

increasing

arch,

This

to the tread-piers of the arch.

fig.

and augmenting

strength,

its

its

2 shows the toes in the attitude

of bracing up the piers of the arch, &c.

This

is

very conspicuously exemplified in going barefoot up

a steep

hill,

exercise

and

and

it

may

be further observed that such

training, coupled with the bracing air

and highly tonic food of the Highlands of Scotland,

may in some measure account for the finely-arched
feet

of the clans in the olden

barefoot in early

life

was the fashion,

natural produce of the hills was the

all.

Such being the

case, it

structive practical lesson as to

should

common

how

the growing foot

be trained in order to develope

clothed at every period of

diet of

furnishes a very in-

beauty and usefulness, and also how

The

when going
and when the

times,

its

normal

it

should be

is

also essen-

life.

free use of the toes

and instep

16

PHILOSOPHY OP SHOEMAKING.
necessary

tially

formed brawny

development

the

to

This

leg.

of

a finely-

not only requisite as

is

regards the muscles, hut also as regards bone and

In support of this, Sir Charles Bell says, in

his Anatomy, That the whole apparatus of bones
nerve.

and joints being constituted in accurate

the muscular powers,
cise

it

is

relation to

preserved perfect by exer-

the tendons, the sheaths by which they are

restrained,

and the mucous bursas containing the

can be seen

lubricating fluid,

in

perfection

when the animal machinery has been kept

activity.

quoted in

my paper
;

and

to this paper I

had the honour

from Sir Charles, dated

1839

Ainslie-place, Edinburgh, 4th April,

Mr. Dowie,

my Anatomy

internal play
full

read before the Royal Scottish

to receive the following letter

from

in full

This passage, and the two farther on,

Society of Arts

6,

only

In what you have quoted

Sir:

you are

The

correct.

foot has

which should be preserved.

and natural motion of the

foot

On

an
the

depends the

shape of the leg/'

Dr.

Arnot,

also,

in

new

the

edition

of

his

Physics/' page 155, says, That men lose not a

little of the strength and command of their lower
limbs by being condemned to use too small or too
rigid shoes cannot be doubted

of small
result

and the

fact is not

importance to a military people, for the

in battle of a charge where bayonets clash

must depend almost

as

much on

the strength of the


THE FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.
leo-s

The

as of the arms."

and profane authors may

17

writings of both sacred

also

he quoted, showing

that the facts of the case have been noticed from

The feeble knees,"

Thus
immemorial.
My knees are weak through fasting,"
Job iv. 4

time

Psalm

Ezekiel
says

24

cix.

All knees

On

17.

vii.

shall be

weak

as water,"

the other hand, Theocrates

The time

and Horace

for actions

is

examples the cause of the weak

that which produces a relaxed or

state of the muscles

the strong

brawny

whilst the knees are vigorous.

in all these

knees

the knees are strong

And

Now

when

and

of the limbs,

and vigorous knee

atrophied

the cause

of

that which produces the

leg.

Much

does not require to be said in proof of these

conclusions.

Thus,

the

as

instep

has

to

raise,

support, and lower the weight of the body at every

step in walking,

it

that the

follows

number

of steps

in the journey, multiplied by the weight of the body,

gives the total
time.

amount

of

work done by

Such being the Herculean

tially necessary is it that the

and evenly distributed,

so that

it

task,

in a given

how

work should be

This

is

fairly

no individual muscle,

ligament, or bone shall perform more than

share.

essen-

its

own

more particularly the case with perc

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

18
sons

who have

burdens under circumstances

to bear

that relax the muscles, such as soldiers,

who have

often to carry their accoutrements under a burning

empty stomach. Indeed, in all

occupations where the work is performed

sun, with perhaps an

industrial

on

foot, the instep

and

for the

has to support more than the body,

most part under a relaxed state of the

In the case of

tissues towards the close of the day.

more

children,

especially

when they

walk, the weight of their bodies

begin to

first

greater in propor-

is

when the

tion to the strength of their muscles than

feet

and limbs have attained

To

provide for this, Nature has

but then

to maturity of growth.

this shortening of

increases the

number

made them

shorter

elongating lever

the

of steps in a given distance.

Hence one reason why they are so soon over-fatigued,

and why they are so unable to bear up under anything that has a tendency to relax the tissue.
The
patriarch Jacob was evidently alive to the full force
of both these conclusions relative to the disproportion
of the weight of the body to the

strength of the

muscles, and the relaxing effects of an eastern sun,

when he

refused to comply with the request of his

brother

Esau,

when he

said,

at

their

The children are tender, and

driven one day will

softly,

meeting of reconciliation,

according to

die.

the

endure/' as the passage

is

will,

foot

of

if over-

therefore, lead

the

children

on
to

rendered, according to the

marginal reading, Genesis xxxiii. 18, 14

and

to

THE FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.

this

day the example of the

19

Hebrew patriarch

is

highly instructive.

In the physical training movement in connexion

with schools sufficient attention

not being paid

This

the present time to the feet of children.

at
is

is

more

especially manifest

way

proper

in

when we

consider the im-

which they are generally shod

fact that exercise in the rigid foot-gear

the

worn often

harm than good and when w e further

bear in mind how much of their usefulness and comfort in after life depends upon the use they can make
The lower animals furnish
of their feet and legs.
mankind with an instructive lesson in this respect
r

does more

for they, in

accordance with a governing law which

the Great Creator has implanted in them, physically

train themselves in early life for the various pursuits

Many

they have afterwards to follow.

of the finest

figures of speech in the Sacred Scriptures

from this source.

the

Thus frequent

allusion is

The
;

made

to

manner lambs skip and gambol on the top of

every eminence to which they can climb.

4)

are taken

little hills

Thus,

skipped like lambs" (Psalm cxiv.

again the expressions, I bare you on eagles'

wings " (Exodus xix. 4)

up her

nest,

and

<c

As an

eagle stirreth

fluttereth over her young, spreadeth

abroad her wings, taketh them, beareth them on her

wings" (Dent, xxxii. 11), allude to the affectionate

manner the eagle teaches her young to fly, by taking

them on her wings, and then,

c

after bearing

them away


PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

20

by darting from under them, and thus

leaving them to support themselves, and if the wings
of the young eagle are unable to bear up the weight

from her

nest,

which

of its body,

is

generally heavy, the watchful

parent with maternal solicitude immediately darts in

below her falling offspring and bears

it

back in safety

her nest, and by repeating this interesting method

of physically training the wings of her young, she
to

never

fails

eventually of learning them to

The

fly.

ancient heathen poets likewise mention the operation

of the

same

law.

Thus we have

the

oft-

quoted lines

of Virgil as an example,
Butting with adverse horns

The

A
dren,

kids sport wanton

similar law

is

and manifests

implanted in the breasts of chilits

governing force at a very early

period, for they exercise not only their feet

if

and

legs

unrestrained, but also their arms and lungs in order

to cultivate their natural

growth and usefulness

fortunately for them, however,

how

un-

often is this law

rendered nugatory in consequence of their tender feet

being imprisoned in shapeless rigid shoes, and

silence sad imposed upon their lisping tongues

by ignorant parents, who do not comprehend the consequences their unnatural conduct thus entails upon
their offspring

In

all

public training schools, therefore, the proper

clothino' of the feet of the children is the first

work

that should be attended to by teachers, as this

may

FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.

TIIE

21

not unaptly be termed the foundation of the system

for if the toes

and instep are pinched in shapeless

and hence the whole

rigid shoes, the lungs

And

be affected.

tion will also

home

at

should enjoy every freedom in the exercise of

circula-

children
all their

functions, in accordance with the laws of Nature.

The

mechanism and movements of the

and toes in walking merit a separate

peculiar

instep, heel,

in order to understand fully their require-

notice,

ments in

their

Thus the body has a

clothing.

motion, both vertically and laterally, so

libratory

that the line of progression

words,

consists

it

of

is

curvilinear

in other

curve lines, so

of

series

united that the chord of each curve line forms the

What
line may

length of a step.

the mathematical nature

of

this

curved

to

say

but as the function of the boot ought to

be,

coincide with that of the foot,

movements
attended

of

to in

Walking

the

shall not

it

follows that the

require

latter

presume

to

be

closely

the clothing, as the sequel will show.

is

effected

partly

by

the

gravitating

weight of the body thrown forward, and partly by

muscular action.
Thus, when standing on one foot,
the line of direction or gravitation falls within the
sole,

but

during the

process of progression

kept between the two feet

is

raised from the ground,

the body has a tendency to

were, but

is

so that

it

when one

is

foot

and stretched forward,

fall

to

that side, as

prevented, and carried forward

it

upon

22

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

the foot that

the limb of

resting

is

upon the ground

because

forms

this foot, including the instep,

an elongating

lever,

and because the ground under

In this manner

tread

is

the principal fulcrum.

the body

is

carried obliquely in a curve line, both

vertically

and horizontally,

its

The

advance.

if left to

itself,

but the muscular

would be that of a
action

Again,

move

body would

horizontally
in a right

one foot to the other

of

limb

the

of

prevents this, so that the vertical curvature

parabolic.

in

which the body would

vertical curve

thus describe,
parabola

to the foot planted

not

is

the

sideways,

or

obliquely from

line

but the continuous action

the muscles of the limb and instep deflects

from a right

into a curved line,

or

curved

line.

alternately by each limb, so

that

approximation

lines,

right

line.

In

therefore,
force,

and
the

limbs, right

to

and

unite,

left,

driving

of

very close

This

is

done

the two curved

forming one
this

curved

curved

line,

both

are alternately engaged.

left,

the muscular action of each

and the two, two equal

it

is

If,

called a

forces, the hypothesis

involves the doctrine of a parallelogram of forces, in

which the diagonal would be the

This, however, although

line of progression.

it illustrates

a principle,

is

nevertheless, like the greater portion of elementary

teaching,

mere speculative theory, and not a true

for in biped progression the

exposition of practice

weight of the body

borne on one

other

is

is

foot,

while the

being brought up from behind, and planted

THE FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.

in front

two

the direction of gravity being between

the time

all

parallelogram

consequently,

of forces,

parallelograms,

is

or

in

this,

mechanism, there
central action

the

the doctrine of a
of a

rather

series

of

involved in the mechanical move-

ments of each limb and

besides,

23

as
is

in

And

foot at each step.

similarly

all

also involved

constructed

the doctrine of

numerous levers com-

so that, if the

prised in the complete system are

assumed

mov-

to be

ing freely and uniformly on their fulcra, then cycloidal curves would be described both vertically
horizontally.

But here

and

again, as in the case of the

parabola and zigzag right lines, the muscles interfere, so that neither

the problem of the horizontal

curvature, nor that of the vertical curvature, can be

solved

by any cycloidal

details of the curved line of

shall not go at present.

Farther

rule.

human

progression I

Enough has been

the medical student that as yet

the

into

it is far

said to

show

from being

exhausted, and that, in the mechanical movements

of progression,

right lines

are the exception,

and

curved ones the rule.

In this very general and imperfect outline of the

mechanical movements of the lower extremities and
body, the reader will readily perceive the important

function which the instep performs in walking

like-

wise the very large proportion of the work that

is

done by the interior part, or great toe-bearing, and

the consequent necessity of affording freedom to the
great toe in clothing.

He

cannot

fail also to

observe

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

24

that rigid sole leather, from heel to toe,

wholly

is

incompatible with the natural movements of the feet

and limbs, more

The

great toe.

and

especially those of the instep

twofold object I had in view,

of

inserting an elastic waist between the heel and tread,

must likewise appear manifest, and how

necessary such a waist

arched foot in early

mature

One

age.

noticed, viz., to

life,

so as to cultivate a finely-

and a healthy, useful one

accommodate the ever-varying

posi-

But

bearings in walking.

also allows the uppers to

so, it

at

use of the waist has already been

tions of the tripod

doing

is,

essentially

in

accommodate

the heel, instep, and toes, so as to enable them to

perform

their

functions normally, com-

respective

All clothing, of course, even

paratively speaking.

the stockings, less or more interfere with the natural

movements

with a strong
waist,

it

From experiments made

of the feet.

Army

Bliicher boot, having an elastic

required one and a half pound weight to

bend the heel upwards or downwards, whereas

no

less

than twenty-eight pounds to bend an

it

took

Army

pattern Bliicher boot of the same strength of material

having a rigid waist, such as

is

now worn by the

private soldiers and non-commissioned officers of the

British army.

twenty-eight

It would, however, take

pounds

the Wellington boots

are

to

more than

bend the waist of some of

now

in

worn by the metropolitan

bend the waists of such boots

common
police.
is

use, such as

Of

course, to

impracticable, for

it

THE FUNCTION OF THE INSTEP.

is

to

25

equivalent to upwards of fifty-six pounds fastened

the nude heels,

each heel

over twenty-eight pounds to

viz.,

a retarding

Hercules could walk

force with

which no modern

How,

freely.

then,

sion performed in such foot-gear, and at

of tear

is

progres-

what expense

and wear to nerve, muscle, and mind

for the

intellectual powers are affected as well as the physical.

This

many

one of the

is

to the practical solution of

which

questions involved,
I

wish to turn the

attention of the Medical Profession.

clastic waist

Moreover, an

can be made to wear out the strongest

material used in the heel and tread at less than the

above degree of
half pounds.

flexibility, represented

The

boots worn by Dr.

waist, for example, of a pair of

Rae, while travelling for four

months consecutively
with one pound.*

by one and a

in the Arctic regions,

is

bent

Generally speaking, as customers

* In reference to these boots, Dr. Rae says, in a note to me,

dated 20th December, 1860,
which I wore on my recent

A pair of your elastic-soled

boots,

Greenland, were in every

respect the most comfortable walking boots which during a long
experience I have ever worn.

visit to

I tried

them over

all

kinds of

rough ground, among rocks, in ascending and descending hills,

and among snow and in every case found them answer admirably.
On uneven ground the elastic sole was of more especial
benefit, as it'wliolly saved the foot from being chafed, as is very
usual with boots made of stout leather.
As you have the boots
T allude to, their appearance will speak for itself, as regards the
rough work they had to go through. Believe me, yours, &c.,
;

John Rae.

26

PHILOSOPHY OP SHOEMAKING.

become experimentally acquainted with the greater

durability of elasticated leather, as compared with

manner

ordinary sole leather, and the

in

which

it

increases the durability of the ordinary sole leather

at the tread,

thinner

they order

more

flexible waists

and

soles.

THE FREE, UNIMPEDED CIRCULATION OF THE

FLUIDS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.
If suitable provision

is

made

in the clothing for

the natural use of the tripod bearings and instep, the

unimpeded

free,

preserved.

circulation of the fluids will also be

If this is done, the arterial blood will be

sent to the capillaries as required for the reparatory

processes, the venous blood will be withdrawn,

and

the refuse matter (unfit to be returned into the circulation) discharged by the excretory ducts, of
refuse matter a very large
off

from

between the

lymph and the juice

amount

toes.

is

And

which

daily thrown

besides blood-

of the flesh, there is the

more

subtile circulatory electric fluid, of which, perhaps,

the less said the better in our present state of

know-

must not be altogether overlooked ;

for Liebig informs his readers that as some of the
above fluids have an acid reaction, and others an
ledge.

Still, facts

alkaline reaction, and as there

brane between them,

is

only a thin

mem-

there consequently exists in

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

27

the fluid economy of the extremities, as in those of

the rest of the body,

the conditions of a con-

all

Whatever,

tinuous electric current.

therefore,

may

be the peculiar function of this electric current in the

chemical laboratory of Nature relative to the repa-

and excretory

ratory,

circulatory,

will be

normally performed

As

clothed.

if

processes, it also

the feet are properly

Sir Charles Bell observes, in his

on Anatomy,

already

exercise of the

parts,

referred to

work

The natural

whether they be active or

the circulation through

passive, is the stimulus to

them, exercise being as necessary to the perfect constitution of a bone as it is to the perfection

of the

muscular power/

When, however, the shoe pinches anywhere, thereby

preventing wholly or

ments of the

part the natural

the condition of the fluids

and the

different,

atrophy,

foot,

in

distortions,

result

moveis

very

the numberless cases of

and impaired general health

which daily come under the notice of the shoemaker.

The above

distinguished authority gives a striking

illustration of a case of atrophy in the contrast be-

tween the lower extremities of an Irish reaper and

those of an English peasant. Thus, Exercise unfolds

the muscular system,

outline of

the

producing a

limbs, at the

joints are knit small

and

clean.

full,

bold

same time that the

Look at the legs of

a poor Irishman travelling to the harvest with bare

feet

the thickness and roundness

of the calf

show

28

PHILOSOPHY OP SHOEMAKING.

that the foot and toes are free to permit the exercise

Look again

of the muscles of the leg.

whose

of our English peasant,

tightly laced in a shoe with a

will

perceive, from

and ankle are

foot

wooden

manner

the

sole,

much

as

if

he went on

fore are his legs small

and

This unfortunately

and

peasantry,

if it

to

lifts

toes is

and there-

stilts,

shapeless.

applies

and you

in which he

his legs, that the play of ankle, foot,

lost, as

at the leg

more

than our

does not apply with greater force to

the upper than to the lower classes at the present

The

day.

patriarch Jacob appears to have been

fully sensible to the fatal

children

but

it is

consequences of foot-sore

very questionable

if

persons occu-

pying similar positions in society in our own day discharge with equal fidelity the sacred duties which
devolve upon them, or are even equally well informed
as to

how many

of the diseases

modern times are traceable

humanity

in

shoeing.

Certain

subject

is

it

is,

on fallen

inflicted

improper

to

speaking generally, that the

not sufficiently attended

to, for

the suffo-

cating smell of some feet, the excruciating pain

the handling of them

plained of

when walking, prove

that the fluids within

appearances sometimes indicate.

quire

in

when being measured, and com-

are even, if possible, in a worse

said,

felt

state
It

than external

may

be truly

using a popular expression, that such feet reto

be in a different world" from that in

which they are

at present imprisoned.

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

The malady,
national

one,

if

may

and the cure must

The soundness

formation.

speak,

so

29

evidently a

is

in better in-

lie

of this can

hardly be

called in question, for it were difficult to believe that

any reasonable person acquainted with the beautiful

external

human

symmetry and internal mechanism

would

foot,

distort his

own

of the

extremities in the

manner now so commonly done, impairing at the

same time his general health, and stamping indelibly
upon his offspring hereditary maladies which cannot
be described.

Cases

may

be divided into two classes

torted toes, deranged

tripod bearings, &c.

first,
;

dis-

second,

up of the arch of the

termed flat-foot in extreme

distorted instep, or the breaking

foot,

producing what

is

examples.

As

practical

illustration

accompanying three woodcuts

given.

The

diagrams.

latter class will

of the

(figs. 7,

8,

former,

the

and 9) are

be understood without

Fig. 7 represents the

anterior part of a

SO

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

cast of a distorted foot sent to

man

medical
case

is

me by

a customer, a

one of his patients, and the distortion was

The

attended with impaired health.

great toe rests

upon

its

rant

of a circle, placing the nail to the

edge, being turned round nearly the quad-

Fig. 8 represents a less deformed but

shoemaker

at

my

appeared in

an early period.
paper

in the

Philosophical Journal

outside.

more common

my own

example, one which came under

as a

The

in one of the midland counties.

experience

The figure
Edinburgh

itself

New

No. 52, in the year 18S9,

and the case very

forcibly impressed

solute necessity of

an improved method of clothing.

mewfiththe ab-

Fig. 9 shows a distorted foot of this class,

which has

been almost thoroughly cured by the wearing of

elastic-waisted boots

Of

my

general health not impaired.

the second class, viz., distorted insteps (includ-

ing those of atrophy referred to in the quotations

from Sir Charles Bell), cases are very numerous,

more

so, I

In

presume, than most people imagine.

infancy, for example, the bones of the tarsus often

do not grow equally as

time

to

the feet at this period are

shapeless foot-gear, the

arched

instep

crammed

when
and

into rigid

development of

finely-

becomes an absolute impossibility,

while in not a few instances

foot formed

consequently,

others suffer

improperly-formed arch.
neglected child goes over

it is

less,

broken, and a

and the

result is

flat

an

In a great many cases the

its

tripod bearings,

more


FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.
frequently to the inside than to the outside

with

perhaps,

girls

31

more

so,

Again, when the

than boys.

foot has attained to maturity of growth, the instep

is

atrophied

articulating

and

bones,

ligaments,

muscles are reduced both in volume and strength

hence are easily broken up, and the arch flattened.

Cases of this kind are
labourers,

soldiers,

specting surgeon of

common amongst

and

O'Leary, in-

Dr.

police.

the

recruits for

agricultural

Artillery

Woolwich, told me that of the number of

presented

themselves for examination

as

at

men who
recruits,

them had bad or distorted feet

from improper foot-gear worn by them in earlier life.
Corpulent people, and those of a weakly constitution,
who have daily to stand much on their feet for long
eighty per cent, of

periods

down

of time,

also

suffer

much from breaking

of the arch of the foot, and the diseases that

follow.

doubtless, also,
rally, if I

my subject, and
my readers gene-

more in harmony with

It will be

more acceptable

now turn from

to

the dark to the bright side

of the picture, viz., from deformities of the above

classes

to

their

cause

and

cure.

cause, by wearing improper foot-gear

to their cure,

First,
;

their

to

and, secondly,

by the simple means of proper clothing

foot-gear that preserves health and symmetry where

they exist, as well as restores usefulness and beauty
in very

many

in the third

cases where they have been lost

and

last place, to the

and,

urgent necessity of

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.
public opinion being plainly outspoken at the present

time in reference to the clothing of the feet of our

and

volunteers, our army, navy, police, letter-carriers,

other public servants, on sound principles, so as to

guarantee health and usefulness in time of need.

With
shall,

regard to the

2 and

fig.

sake

for the
fig.

of practical

and the

when the gentleman

some ten years

He

ago.

is

an outline

latter that of the

first

began
is

take

illustration,

The former

9 as a case.

recently taken,

of these propositions, I

first

to

wear

same

my

foot

boots,

a strong, active man,

rather thin than corpulent, but has

fleshy pads

full,

under his tripod bearings, which gives the outline

The

rather an opposite or corpulent appearance.

point of the second toe, as will be seen from the

(fig.

9),

was squeezed downwards and

wards, while

its

middle joint rose upwards.

diagram

The

met the point

the middle one, over the second and fourth, as

points of the great toe

of

and

in-

will

The

toe

be understood from the diagram.

also readily
lateral

little

arch was also ftjured, the metatarso-

phalangial bearing of the middle toe being pressed

down, and that of the

little toe

rather up.

Con-

sequently there were corns on the balls of the great

toes,

middle

toes,

surface of both
course, off his
lost

and

little toes,

and upon the upper

He

was, as a matter of

little toes.

tripod bearings to

both the nails of his great

now gone from the

the

toes.

outside

The

balls of the great toes

he

corns are

and

little

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

and nearly

toes,

upper surface of the

completely

nearly

being that the

from those of the middle and

also

and

joint

great toes are

only

the

recovered,

first

The

little toes.

divergence

nails are not so straight

as they originally were, although equally healthy

The middle

well formed.

not

down,

wholly

yet

shorter on the drawing

joint of the second toe is

that
(fig.

appearing rather

toe

2) than

should be, as

it

The gen-

the medical reader will readily perceive.

now walks

and

upon

his

tread-bearings,

wearing the sole of his boots

first

through in the

tleman
middle
heels,

but he

fair

wears down the outside of the

still

but not near so

much

as formerly,

and

is

determined eventually to set his posterior bearings

He

also fairly to the ground.

and

left or

now

to the latter,

them

fulness.

either right

digitated stockings, giving the preference

and considers such of the highest

importance in training injured

store

wears

to

their

the

of

as

so

to

re-

normal symmetry and use-

The development,

of the arch

feet,

foot

curvature, and strength

have also

been greatly

improved.

The deformity
tells

represented by

me, was begun by his

fig. 9,

the gentleman

wearing in early

and

life

lefts,

made,

he says, exactly on what has recently been

falla-

rigid-soled

lace-up

ciously termed Dr.

the sole given in

boots,

rights

Meyers principle, the shape of

his

pamphlet,

Why

the Shoe

Pinches/ being greatly in vogue amongst those of

34

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

the middle and upper classes

who wished

to be in

the height of fashion about forty years ago, when,

5

he resided in the north.

They were/ he further
adds, nicknamed by the common people
Ram'sc

horns/ from their extreme curvature as compared

with those then worn by themselves.

55

The

uppers,

every-day wear, were of strong cowhide

for

boot was

convex,
tread

made on a
both

the sole of

last,

longitudinally

and

the

which was

laterally, at

the

consequently, the inside of the sole of the boot

The

was dished liked the mouth of a spoon.

at the 'tread

was too narrow

ing, the broadest part

was squeezed up

sole

for the little toe-hear-

of the tread being too far

back, or close to the heel

toe

off its

consequently, the

little

natural bearing.

This will readily be understood from the annexed

diagram

(fig.

10), which represents the foot as

and

'p^ ace<^

shown

upon Dr. Meyer's

(fig.

2),

sole,

the dotted lines being a facsimile

taken from his pamphlet

(fig.

22, page

Subsequently, 55 he continues, the

abnormal extravagance of the
Ram's

horn fashion

gave way

to the bilateral

style of the toes of shoes

and
Fig. 10.

time,

as it

now

was in Paris in Dr. Camper's

which brought the point of the

great toe round to that of the middle one,

(fig.

9).

in vogue,

55

as

shown

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

The
larly

deformities

accounted

The second

for,

shown in

class of deformities, viz., the flattening

of the foot, is produced by the

and curvature of the

sole

For example, the rigid

First.

7 and 8 are simi-

figs.

generally speaking.

and injury of the arch

rigidity

35

under the instep.

boot

the

of

sole

checks, and not unfrequently wholly restrains, the

free play of

both the external and internal machinery

of the arch, thereby producing atrophy and general

weakness

and second, the longitudinal convexity

of the inner sole breaks

down the weakened

termed the spring of

as the case may be.
It is almost

Technically, this convexity

the last , or sole

arch.

is

invariably greater at the exterior side than

concavity of the sole of the foot above

is

the

consequently,

at every step in walking, the under-side of the arch

of the foot receives a stroke, as

continuous

if this

hammering was purposely intended

to force

up the

keystone, thereby bringing the whole architectural

down so as to form a flat foot

In my work on The Foot and its Covering/'

structure

comprising a full translation of Dr. Campers work on

The Best Form of Shoe, this will be found explained
at considerable length,

and

must refer

my readers

to

that work for details as to the objectionable shape of

the last on which such shoes are

made

which cannot be obviated so long as the

shoe
the

is
ic

made

spring

sole of the

of rigid leather throughout,

is

shape

because

absolutely necessary to enable those

D 2

36

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

who wear such curved

from one foot on

soles to walk, or rather to rock,

on the principle of a

to the other,

rocking-lever, or walking on stilts, as the late Sir

Charles Bell very forcibly illustrates this unseemly,

jolting,

With

abnormal process of progression.

regard to the style of the

last, as it

harmonize with the normal symmetry of the

should
foot, it

ought obviously not to be subject to the caprice of

fashion.

This

is

unquestionably one of those funda-

mental principles which ought not on any account

be departed from in practice.

whether studying

the

equally true,

It is

health of

to

the

from a

foot

medical point of view, or the clothing of the foot from

a shoemakers point of view;

were last-makers

for,

to abide by this rule, conforming their

the natural beauty of the foot,

it

workmanship

would do much

to
to

keep fashion within her own legitimate sphere of

action.

As

to the

remedy

kinds of distortions,

or

method of curing both these

simply by affording

it is effected

in the clothing free play to the

numerous parts of

the foot, including the fluids, which perhaps

termed the principle of leaving Nature

to

may

be

work her

oxen cure.

In cases of the
distorted toes,

fig.

2,

first

under

made

viz.,

compared with

practical illustration of

ing boots

class,

curing of

the
fig.

9,

shows a

what has been done by wear-

of a proper shape.

this head, fashion

interferes,

Unfortunately,

and

am

con-

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

sequently obliged to

make

the shape of the toe of

the boot according to orders

my

but, during the whole of

experience, reaching nearly forty years, fifteen in

and twenty-five

Edinburgh,
always

had

number

large

London,

in

have

customers

of

who

were willing to have the natural shape of their toes

preserved.

In curing cases of the second

class,

viz.,

injured

insteps from wearing rigid soles, fashion has been in

favour of

arch.

my

elasticated waist,

thirty

finely-formed

who have worn my

It follows that all

during the last

i.e.,

years

in

Edinburgh,

boots

and

twenty-five years in London, have had their feet less

or

more restored

to their natural

symmetry.

It will

be necessary for me, therefore, to divide the whole

into three classes, in order to enable

example in

me

to give

an

illustration of each.

who were

First, children,

previously shod, having

a steel or iron plate in the boot under the arch

second the case of an atrophied and weakened instep

,

slightly flattened,

and third a
,

but otherwise comparatively sound

foot so

lamed as

to be obliged to apply

for medical advice.

In the first example

my mode

lay aside the steel plates,

elasticated
afford

an

leather waists,

and

made

has always been to

to

wear boots with

of a form so as to

elastic yielding support

under the instep,

instead of the rigid waist and steel as before.

By

thus affording gentle exercise and training to the

38

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

weakened

parts, they soon regain their

normal sym-

metry when not otherwise diseased.

with a great

many examples

have met

of this kind

amongst

the children of European parents born in India, but

home

sent

This

educated in this country.

to be

plan of clothing injured feet of this kind, I

may

met with the approbation of the medical

men, both of London and Edinburgh
and I may
add, has

be allowed to instance the late Sir B.

Bart, who honoured

me

C.

Brodie,

with the shoeing of his

patients of this class.

Of

the second example

illustration, viz., fig.

2 and

have already given an

fig.

gentleman having been slightly

now much
notice

is

better arched,

the feet of this

flattened.

They

and what merits

are

special

the interesting fact that all the articulations

the language of Sir Charles Bell, already

quoted, knit small and clean

in other words,
are,

in

his boots require to be higher at the instep, but of

less

dimensions in every other respect than previously.

Others increase in

The change which takes

size.

place in this respect, as to the size of feet, puzzles

many

of

my

who

customers,

shoemaker, and not their

explained to them

but

it

are apt

to

blame the

feet, until

the matter is

will occasion

no mystery to

the medical reader.

The third example

of England.

He

is

a clergyman of the Church

holds the appointment to a society,

the duties of which require his personal visitation in

FREE CIRCULATION OF

89

TIIE FLUIDS.

r
succession to the respective parishes in connection

From some cause he found his

way; so much so that lie was obliged to

with his Church.

feet to give

apply for

wear a

He had

advice.

calico

been recommended to

bandage of two yards long bound tightly

round the arch of one foot that was more injured

than the other, and over this an

He

wore boots laced in

also

elastic stocking.

front,

made with an

extra rigid strong waist, put together with wooden

pegs

the soles turned upward at the toe, and having

In addition

high heels.
bone, or

to all this, a piece of

whale-

was placed on the inside of the

stiff leather,

quarter of the boot leg, thereby rendering the whole

After wearing these articles

a rigid leathern box.

some time, he found

and worse,

his feet

at length he

till

becoming daily worse

was obliged

to intimate

to his friends his inability to perform his duty,

intention reluctantly to resign his situation.

his friends, however,

Church,

to

advised

him

fit

whom

he

had named

my elastic
me in May last.

from the use of

his boots, elastic stocking,

when

of

his intention,

had received bene-

He

boots.
I at

accord-

once removed

and bandage, put on him

a pair of front-lace boots, having the

waists, which,

One

and another clergyman in the

to try me, as they

ingly consulted

and

elasticated

laced tight, braced up the arch,

allowing at the same time free play to the instep,

toes,

met him a few days after in the

when he stopped me, and said he felt his

and

street,

heel.

40

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.
After a fortnight's wear he

feet in another world/'

May

wrote to me,
say that

my foot

In a second

hope soon
it

is

13

am

gradually, but surely, improving."

dated 4th August, he says,

letter,

you at greater length

to write to

suffice

regard you as one of

for the present to say that I

my

very thankful to

greatest earthly benefactors."

From

reader will see that the whole

classes the medical

merit of

my plan

to a free

and

ankle,

review of these three

this very imperfect

simply to take away

is

movement

perfect

all

hindrances

of the whole foot

and thus leave Nature

to

and

work her own

cure.
I

now come

to

my

volunteers, soldiers,

last proposition, the shoeing of

and

on sound principles.

police,

The marchings-out and the marchings-in"

are

certainly telling in the highest degree beneficially as

to the health of the former, with one solitary exception, viz., the

poor feet.

To

volunteers, the physical

training of the feet and limbs

portance,

them

and

is

of the greatest im-

from the sympathy that exists between

the

eyes.

When

the

feet

are

im-

prisoned in rigid leather, the steadiness of the hand

and accuracy

of the sight in firing are both affected

hence the practical conclusion.

teer Medical Service

and therefore

it is

To

this the

Volun-

most unhesitatingly subscribe,

but reasonable to hope that their

thoughts professionally will be practically turned to

the subject, and an effort be

made

to

liberate

im-

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

41

prisoned feet from the thraldom of rigid sole leather

and

consequences.

its

The Army Medical

open

to his

feet are as yet cruelly

If

Office.

it

of the British

file

and

much more

ear of the volunteer

medical advisers, but

with the rank and

War

The

part to perform.

difficult
is

Service have a

otherwise

is

Army, whose

arbitrarily cobbled by the

ever there was

military history of the country

a period in the

when

the physical

training of soldiers feet took the form of a national

question,

being

has

made

its

feet

it

is

the present

for every

advance now

in the rapid progress of military science

increasing

and

legs.

demands upon the

activity of the

But, instead of cultivating the de-

velopment of muscle, health, and strength,

notorious that our Government

is

is it

actually

not

moving

The

in the opposite direction, from bad to worse

military foot-gear of the Ilomans in

time of

Hadrian was actually superior

to the foot-gear of the

British soldier at the present day.

Hadrian in the British

the

Museum

The

statue of

shows how faithfully

r

the natural form of the foot was preserved of old, and

the attention which the

Homans

paid to the physical

training of the extremities, they being experimentally

so

success of their
respect

with the fact of how much the

familiar

we

arms depended upon

are even a long

In This

it.

way behind our

Gallic

During the French war Marshal Saxe

recommended soles for the French army to be made in
neighbours.

the

Homan

fashion

and

at the present

day

am

told

42

PHILOSOPHY OP SHOEMAKING.

the French soldiers are actually wearing such foot-

We, on

gear.

the contrary, are continuing the old

abnormal process of atrophying and weakening the

limbs of our soldiers, when we should be increasing
their strength

and usefulness,

and in readiness

hour of danger, come when

for the

Our men

may.

it

effective a charge

so as to be prepared

are neither

make

to

so

with the bayonet, nor to ascend

steep hill for the purpose

able

of

storming the en-

trenchments of the enemy with such strength and

and duly

alacrity as they might, were they but well

In marching, our soldiers were behind those

shod.

of France at the battle of the

Alma, and

also in the

taking of some of the Russian strongholds at Sebastopol,

Is

during the Crimean war.

it

much

of these

and

to rigid sole leather

the

army pattern

hammer

high time to inquire how

therefore,

not,

similar shortcomings

all

The answer

Bliicher boot

applied by the

War

is

is like

is

due

manifest, for

a heavy steam-

Office to the

under side

of the keystone of the arch of the soldier's foot, so

as to break

it

strength of the

up,

thereby reducing the

man

to a

arrangements of the age

fice

so

anomalous as

During the
the

boots

minimum. In the
is

the

military

there to be found a sacri-

this

early part of the

for

physical

soldiers

in

a national sense

present century,

were

supplied

when

by the

Colonels of the Regiments, the pattern was straight,

not right and

left.

It

was a low-priced boot of in-

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

43

and workmanship, consequently the

in wear was short and uncomfortable, as the

ferior material

result

soldiers' feet forced the boots out of

accordingly

when the

but the feet suffered

more

suffer

boots

there

still,

by

a wrong principle.
the greater

although there

for

made on

is

may

workmanThe feet
of

the

more

sizes

rigidity

possibly be

Army

only one shape for the

ill

than now,

less

boots are of better material and

ship, but still

now

shape and wore

pattern

boot for Celt and Saxon, black soldier and white, for
all

enough

to

make common

the function and duty of the

Army Medical

climates and

all

seasons

sense blush.
If

it is

Service, as doubtless it

to reject

is,

recruits

whose

have been injured by wearing improper foot-

feet

gear, is

it

not also the function and duty of this

Service to examine every pattern boot, and to reject

patterns that would lame the soldier, and thus unfit

him

arduous task of active

for the

upon

to

perform

it ?

To

life

this there

when

called

can only be

returned one plain affirmative answer.

There

is

a good reason

why

the selection of the

on which the pattern boots should be

made ought to be vested in the Army Medical

principle

Service,

as

paragraph.

stated

in

the

conclusion

It is this, viz., the

of

the last

extra labour which

the present objectionable foot-gear throws upon them,

by greatly increasing the number of soldiers upon

the sick-list.

Were

they, on the contrary, responsible

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

for

the

would be

they

pattern,

of this extra labour in a

tical question, in

campaign

be the

whose solution they are themselves

believe cannot be answered

satisfactorily at

in

from imperfect

the last wars of foot-sore soldiers

maladies

It is one

army record kept

present, there having been no

foot-gear

all

a prac-

is

doubly interested with the general public.

which

for

What may

consequences arising therefrom.

amount

blame

to

of this class being too

commonly

erroneously ranked amongst those sometimes termed

But

unavoidable.

on the

sick-list,

and extra labour involved,

general credence,

officers,

far exceed

unquestionable.

is

however,

Instead,

that the increase of soldiers

and carrying

consulting

of

their

medical

into practice their counsel,

and

of being guided by the voice of experiment in the

wear of

my

elasticated sole boots, our

strange

to

say,

doctrines

taught

long

has

by

1.

The very

Medical Service in our

the

principal military colleges

rejected

Government,

2.

The counsel

of their most distinguished medical officers

what

is

worse, 3.

when General

On

of
;

some
while,

one occasion, during the time

Sir George

Brown was deputy adjutant-

general at the Horse Guards, the Report of a military

board of

officers,

of which General

Sir Alexander

Woodford was chairman, which had been appointed

by his Grace the late Duke of Wellington, commander-in-chief,

to

report on the wear

distinctive qualities of

my

boots,

and other

was positively falsi-

I'

REE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

fied, apparently to justify a

45

continuance of the present

objectionable system of shoeing the British soldier.

proposition, containing such sweeping censure

upon the Government, requires

evidence.

circumstantial

to

be confirmed by
sub-

therefore,

shall,

stantiate each of the above three charges separately.

Sir George Ballingal, Professor of Military

First.

Surgery in the University of Edinburgh from the

year 1836, used a pair of my boots to illustrate his
lectures on The Clothing of Soldiers/' and recom-

mended

In confirmation

their adoption in the army.

of this, I shall quote his letter to

me

on the subject,

dated Edinburgh College, 30th July, 1842:

my

hereby certify that

been

attention has

turned to the ease and comfort in walking afforded

by

Mr.

Dowie's

experienced
exhibited

that

them

which

shoes,
I

have

have personally

for several

years

past

and

in the Class of Military Surgery,

have pointed out

to the students

(when lecturing on

the clothing and equipment of the soldier)

how much

these shoes are calculated to promote the natural play

of the foot,

and

to facilitate his marching.

further add, that several of

and medical

officers,

recommendation,
them.

my

may

friends, both military

have tried these shoes on

and have reported favourably

George Ballingal,

M.D.,

Professor

my
of
of

Military Surgery."
Professor Tuffnell, in the year 1855,
to

me

the following letter

addressed

46

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.
Mr.

Regius

Tuffnell,

Royal

Surgery,

College

Professor

Dublin,

Surgeons,

of

Military

of

is

desirous of having a pair of Mr. Dowie's Regulation

same

Boots, the

making

as he is

for

some of the

Militia regiments, to exhibit to the class of students

attending his lectures.

<c

to

Mr. Tulfnell begs Mr. Dowie

him

to the

together with
letters

he

may

to send

them over

Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin,

any

certificates

or

recommendatory

have.

Dublin, October 19th, 1855."

As

requested,

my common

of

forwarded to Dr. Tuffnell a pair

<c

ammunition boots," on the 24th

of October, 1855.

And

further, in reference to this point, I

may

state

that, on the discontinuance of the Military Surgery

chairs in Edinburgh and Dublin

the
at

establishment

Fort Pitt,

Tuffnell

Army

the

of

removed

since

had forwarded

to

to

Universities,

Medical

and

School

Netley, Professor

Fort Pitt a collection of

patterns of clothing and accoutrements which he had

made, amongst which were the very pair of boots

referred to in his letter,

and which are now in the

possession of the distinguished Dr. Parkes,

them

to illustrate his

lectures in

the branch

which he has been specially appointed

namely,
clothed
efficiency

how
so
;

as

the
to

and in

soldiers

should

preserve

health,

his

who

be

to

uses
for

teach,

fed

strength,

and
and

work on Practical Hygiene


47

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

for the

Elastic

Army, he makes favourable reference to the

Waist, in the following words, page 363:

This bends easily with the foot, and thus

mus-

all

cular effort necessary for overcoming the resistance of

And in
gained for progression/'*
a foot note he says, Mr. Dowie has the credit of
the rigid waist

is

writing a very sensible work on

The Foot and

its

Covering/ some years ago, in which he incorporated

Campers well-known and philosophical treatise on

the Foot.
credit
point.

Why

To Mr. Dowie must

of having;

again

certainly be given the

directed

attention to this

Other works have lately been published,

the

Shoe

Meyers work

Pinches/ a

translation

and an excellent work on

of

Dr.

The Foot

and Hand/ by Humphreys, of Cambridge."

On

the second charge, while I can produce

many

me

out, I shall content

myself with one letter from a

most distinguished

valuable documents to bear

and old-experienced

Army

medical

authority,

Dr.

* The amount of this resistance was shown by me in a paper

read before the British Association, at Cambridge, in 1862, to be
281bs. with the rigid waist, and under 31bs. with the elastic one
what relative proportion this resistance bears to the locomotive powers of progression of a soldier, I shall not venture to
say, and shall at present leave the solution of this problem to
those whose duty it is to preserve the efficiency of the soldier.
As this loss on even one days march must be considerable, what
must it be in a long campaign ? But I venture to affirm that
in proportion to the absence of this resistance the boots wear a
much longer time ; indeed, from experiments made in reference
to this particular point, a saving in shoe leather would be
effected, which in the aggregate would amount to no less a sum
yearly than 40,000 for the British Army.


48

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

David Maclagan, Physician

to

to the Forces, addressed

me, dated Edinburgh, August 4, 1842:

My attention was first drawn to Mr. Dowie's

improvement in the construction of boots and shoes

in 1839,

when

it

was submitted

tish Society of Arts, of

of Council.

which

Eoyal Scot-

to the

was then a member

After careful examination

was much

impressed by the soundness of his views in reference

human

anatomical structure of the

to the

foot,

and

by the success with which he had adapted his boots

and shoes

to

the maintenance of

its

natural and

unconstrained movements.

have since that time had

sufficient personal

experience in the use of Mr. Dowie's shoes, as well

as

knowledge of the result of their use by

justify

me

in expressing the

conviction that their

adoption in the army would at

cially

add

others, to

all

times, but espe-

on a march, materially lessen the fatigue and

to the

comfort and efficiency of the soldier.

David Maclagan, M.D., F.RS.E.,

Physician to the Forces/'
Third.

My

boots,

after a fair trial,

by

official

order of the late Lord Hill, dated Horse Guards,

1838," and several favourable reports

sealed as an army pattern by comthereon, were

June

18,

mand

of

Field-Marshal his

Wellington, dated Horse Guards, July

The

Duke

Grace the

2,

reader will perceive that the period

of

1849."
of trials

extends over ten years, thus leaving only four years

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

my

of

During

patent unexpired.

boots were

my

time

this

much opposed by General

49

George

Sir

Brown, then Deputy Adjutant-General, who

said

much luxury for soldiers ! They

were highly commended by the several reports, and

that they reeve too

by the report of the Board of General

the contrary was stated in

official

Officers,

letters

from the

and the Deport of the

Adjutant- General's

Office,

Board was

in order to prevent

falsified

the

being sealed" as a pattern for the army.

acknowledged by the Secretary

but

to the

boots

This

is

Board, dated

Office for Military Boards, Whitehall,

6th April,

1852 " and also by the Right Hon. the Secretary

for War, the Hon. Fox Maule, in the House of Com;

mons, in May, 1849.

falsified

may be

This fact that the report was

considered in the light of a testi-

monial in their favour, and that

improvements were good,

my

else there

invention and

was no need of

making any untruthful statement to declare them

To give the whole of the misconduct of
otherwise.
.

the

officials at

the Horse Guards and War Office would,

however, be incompatible with

The statement

present

paper.

of facts already quoted from the Par-

liamentary Records
third charge.

my

is

F urther

amply

sufficient to prove

details will be

my

found at length

in the Parliamentary papers themselves, viz., No. 170,

No. 469, 1853 and No. 252, 1854 com1852

mencing 18th June, 1838, and ending 24th March,
;

1854, extending to seventy

folio pages.

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

50

my

Before passing on to

next proposition

not omit to mention two things.

boots were sealed as an

the monopoly of a patent

the eyes of not a few

some time ago,

amounted
that

it

so

First,

but

when my

army pattern

a very great

had

objection in

the patent has expired

that that objection,

if it

anything, no longer exists.

to

must

ever

Second,

has always appeared a strange anomaly to

that the Commander-in-Chief of the

Army,

me

or his

Adjutant-General, should be allowed to override the

Crown, as they have done, by preventing the soldier

from wearing

me

my

boots

for the

Crown, in granting

a patent, pointedly ordains that

all

in authority

under the Crown shall neither hinder, nor molest, nor

making and vending my foot-gear,

and any subject of the Crown from wearing the same
Moreover, when
not surely excluding the soldier.

obstruct

me

in

renewal of

I applied for a

my

patent, on the express

ground that the Government had wasted ten years of

the fourteen given

by the Crown,

General consented

but the President of the Judicial

the Attorney-

Committee of the Privy Council demurred, stating

that he did not see cause to
to grant a renewal, as

it

recommend Her Majesty

might

interfere with the

military authorities adopting the improvement in the

army

and now, when the improvement

property, the poor

its benefit

The

How

soldier continues

position of the policeman

is

be

to

can this be reconciled

is

public

denied

very similar to

FR EE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

mind he can

that of the soldier, neither having a

his

call

own

51

In other

in the clothing of his feet.

words, neither have the privilege of an appeal to their

respective medical officers relative to the

cruelties

they are called upon to endure in the wearing of

improper foot-gear.

Is this right in a country

which

The

ear of

boasts so proudly of its civil liberties?

who cannot recognize at a distance the heavy,

hammering footsteps of the policeman upon the
Now, what do
pavement must be dull indeed.
Government officials mean by all this noisy hammering, practically speaking ? Not surely the breakthose

ing up of the pavement, and the giving to thieves

a timely warning to be
then

The breaking up

arch of the
effect

off

foot.

produced.

out of sight

of the keystone

What
of the

Such at least is the ultimate

Hence the reason why so many

policemen suffer from lameness of this description.

Can anything be more

politan and other

discreditable to our metro-

manufacturing and com-

large

Were

mercial towns, or to the country at large?

the

Government

service,

and then

policeman

to

give

to

a weight

proper foot-gear to

attach
of

to

the heel

twenty-eight

of each

pounds,

anomaly would not be half so bad

case the policeman would doubtless ride
;

for

this

the

in this

at anchor/'

somewhat to the amusement of more than the

roughs/' but then the nation would not be brought
in guilty of laming for

life

e2

a public servant.

52

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.
Dr.

Meyer, in

pamphlet,

liis

Why

Shoe

the

Pinches/' objects to the practice of taking an outline

of the foot, as

do,

and have done

thirty years, in measuring.

He

The Best Form

into English,

and

of Shoe,"
to

fails

more than

also misrepresents, in

a very unbecoming manner, Dr.

for

Camper's work on

which

have translated

acknowledge the writings

A. C. Celsus, and other authorities quoted by

of

Camper, apparently

to give a colouring to his

own

plans and erroneous method of designing the shape

of the sole of a shoe.

Besides, he indirectly extends

very uncharitable reflections towards Dr. Hamilton,

Sir Charles Bell, Sir

Dr.

Arnot, and others

who have
and

Benjamin Collins Brodie,

to

of the

Bart.,

medical profession

written on the subject in modern times,

whom

lie

under many very great and

lasting obligations for information.

Such being the

character of Dr. Meyers pamphlet, I feel called upon

publicly to give

it

a formal reply, so far as

it

upon the education and professional duties

enters
of the

shoemaker.
First.

outline

Speaking of the propriety of taking the

(page 58), Dr. Meyer says

It

proceeds

on the principle that there are primary differences in

For
the structure of the feet.
This is an error."
healthy

feet

the

drawing

is

superfluous

it

is

have the length and breadth." And in

a third sentence he adds, The true form of the

sufficient to

foot is

never attained

by such a drawing.

It is

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

usually taken from a foot enveloped in
fitting stocking

and in

the great toe

'

twofold error.

fallen into a

%/

Every sound

example, no doubt has three

foot, for

tripod bearings, viz.,

the great toe

The

a tightly-

always oblique.'

is

Mever has here

Dr.

and

1.

3.

in

The heel; 2. The ball of

The hall of the little toe.

bearings

position of these

different

different

however,

is,

The

feet.

which they form are

lines

at

the

very

and angles

consequently

also

The breadth may be taken

little

different.
toe,

but

that does not give its true place upon the

sole

and by overlooking

design,

the

Dr.

little

this fact in his

Meyer consequently pinches

toe by placing its tread-bear-

shown in

ings too far back, as

fig.

10

as the reader will perceive from the

or,

an-

nexed woodcuts, composing the outline

of a sound foot
of the sole

(fig.

of

taken from his

Shoe Pinches,"
(fig.

o
o

the direction of

this case
-

*/

3),

shoe

the

(fig.

Why

both
the

Fig. 11.

it

latter (fig. 22).

error has reference to the

Meyer

From

is

simple an affair

and
it is

this it ap-

not experimentally

acquainted with right and

tated stockings

12),

former being in

narrow-toed stocking.
pears Dr.

and the outline

pamphlet,

and the

The second

11),

left

and

further, with
for the

digi-

how

shoemaker

Fig. 12.

54
to

PHILOSOPHY OE SHOEMAKING.
pull the toe of the narrow- toed stocking forward,

Query

so as to give freedom to the toes.

he not invent an inner covering to

foot

and second, his shoe

Why

why
first,

fit,

did
his

did he overlook

the fact, that if the stocking pinches, as he affirms

it

shoe

does, the

itself,

however well-shaped, would

not afford a relief to the pinched toes

The mechanical data on which he

Second.

the shape of the sole are not correct.

that

example,

He

says, for

through the

a line passing

bases

heel-

bearing
toe is in a line
O and that of the ball of the great
O
with the axis of the great toe and metatarsal bones,

and that in walking

ground

clusions

along this

in this place

from

the

Neither of these con-

line.

The former

sound.

is

the foot unrols itself

shall dispose of

the latter under erroneous method of

progression.

When

the foot

closely

is

nical point of view,

it will

numerous bones has

its

examined from a mechabe found that each of

own

axis,

its

and that there

are not two axes, either parallel or in a line.

Again,

the bones of the toes and metatarsus have a slight

play,

lateral

as

well

as

a vertical one

so

that,

granting, for the sake of argument, that those of the

great

toe

bearing
so in

are

when

vertically in

in one position,

any other

position.

a line

with the heel-

then they cannot be

Again,

have shown that

a rigid sole diverges the axes of the bones of the

foot

consequently, if those of the great toe and its

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

55

when

metatarsus are in a line with the heel-bearing

rigid soles are worn, they

when

are worn, or

But

injury.

cannot be so when elastics

the foot

is

sound and free from

besides this refutation of Dr. Meyer's

fallacious theory of the direction of the axes of the

bones of the

foot, I

have shown that in walking the

tread-bearings occupy different positions and planes,

shown

as

the diagrams

in

and 6)

(figs. 4, 5,

the

depth of the arch in one position, for example, being

half an

only

whereas in another
as in

fig.

in

inch, as

fully

it is

With such

6.

the

foot (fig.

left

Meyer

differences, the absurdity of

for the trade to follow,

acquainted with

evident

to

applied

mechanics

all

to

an inch and a quarter,

the dogmatical and mechanical data laid

Dr.

5)

down by

must appear

rudiments of

the

shoemaking

for

self-

were

our

steam-engines constructed in such a loose, faulty

manner, they would soon bring our

tall

chimneys

and princely buildings about the ears of our manufacturing classes.

Third.

As

to progression, the theory of unrolling

the foot in a line from heel to

toe,

each foot alter-

nately, is evidently the old, oft-refuted, fallacious one

the cart

have

fallen into this old

surmise.

ing"

and

on two wheels.

I
it

In

my work

How

Dr.

absurdity

Meyer should

is

me

not for

on The Foot and

its

to

Cover-

have given a general expose of

this fallacy,

would be superfluous

what

to repeat

there said, or even to give an outline of

it,

have

as I

have

56

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

already shown

and curved ones the

even when

roll,

are

that right lines

it

is

the exception,

and that the

rule,

foot does not

laced into a rigid-soled boot,

there being a grinding twist on the tread.

In reference to Dr. Campers work on

Fourth.

The Best Form of Shoe, Dr. Meyer says

Camper's suggestions attracted considerable atten:

tion, but his plans

found

little or

no encouragement,

because they were so very impracticable, and, above

because of the very clumsy form of shoe he recom-

all,

mended.

May my little work be found more practical.

Dr. Camper, in his work, does not give the draw-

ing of a shoe which he recommends, as Dr. Meyer

He

done.

lias

discusses the natural form

and pro-

portions of the length of the foot and toes, and in his

8 gives an outline of a sound one in accordance

fig.

with the best-informed authorities quoted on the

subject, as shown,

title-page of this

and which

work

and

have placed on the

show the manner the

to

toes were deformed in his time, he places that outline

upon the
latest

sole of a narrow-toed shoe, copied

Parisian fashion, as

he

tells

from the

his

readers

and had Dr. Meyer followed the example

more talented predecessor, of thus placing
upon

his sole

his

of

his

sound

22), as I have done

foot

(fig.

(fig.

10), or even placed them beside each other, as

3)

(fig.

11 and 12, he would not have fallen into the

error of pinching the little toes in the manner he

in

figs.

has done.

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

Dr.

Camper

shaped shoe
always

for

each foot

that

the sole right and

make

sensible, as it agrees exactly

:

They cut
is

most

regard to ease

article,

have to

a young master-cordwainer of the Hague/*

he says

broad as

it

with the natural form

In

His directions are general, and in reference

sole

they

say,

to

is

left.

and excellence of the

in walking,

commend

says

lie also

differently-

of the foot, which

of the form of the sole

of our feet.

Dutch pea-

making a

in the habit of

santry are

The

says:

farther

hi

is

The

possible,

ought always

sole

to

to the

be as

consistently with a becoming

appearance.

For further information

to

Campers work

to fact Dr.

and how unmerited the

Camper.

refer the reader

is to

sufficient to

Meyers statement

form of the

the

when shaped abnormally,

little toes,

foot,

in
as

be designated by Medical Authority

clumsy and impracticable, and

the shoe,

is,

upon Dr.

when shaped

If the sole of the shoe,

11 ,

is

reflection it casts

accordance with the natural

%.

must

The above

itself.

show how contrary

as

fig.

12,

is to

the sole of

so as to pinch

be termed in unison

with the claims of elegance, as stated in the preface to

the pamphlet

Why

the

Shoe

Pinches,

as if its author could improve Nature, then unques-

tionably Dr.

Camper

But the very

conclusion

is

is

wrong, and Dr. Meyer right.

reverse of this being the truth, the

very different, for

it

is

this caprice of

PHILOSOPHY OF SIIOEMAKING.

58
fas! lion

or false taste in

holding up anything and

everything but the natural shape of the foot as being

in unison with the claims of elegance/ which

the fundamental cause of

the misery

ail

perienced from distorted feet

now ex-

and therefore the

is

first

work of a thorough general reformation

is to do away with this false taste, and thus let well
alone, viz., the foot to grow as Nature designed it.
step in the

Dr. Meyer, in his claims to originality in

Fifth.

the form of the sole, which he gives in his pamphlet

with so
still

in

much

more open

dogmatical confidence, lays himself

mind the saying

of

thing under the sun.

prove that

He

to criticism.

since

Solomon
It

should have borne

There

would not be

is

no new

difficult to

the days of the patriarch Jacob

there has not been a single period in which soles

shaped according

to

the natural form of the foot

have not been made by shoemakers, and that since

the days of Hippocrates medical
period, in like

men

have, at every

manner written against the contrary

practice of distorting the feet by improper foot-gear.

I

have

already

shown how

attended to this form, which

at

is

closely

the

Itomans

evidently that aimed

by Dr. Meyer himself, although he has not, as a

shoemaker, been successful in carrying

Camper, as

it out.

Dr.

have already shown, acknowledges the

fact in his time as the exceptionary practice, while

he asserts sabots and sandals were the first kind of

foot-gear worn, and that they were shaped in accord-

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

ance with the form of the foot.
experience, the late celebrated

59

Coming to my own
Dr. James Hamilton,

of my native city, Edinburgh, studied practically the

He

physical training of his feet.

wore thin shoes,

broad-toed, so as to afford free play to the toes and

tread-bearings.

At

the instep or waist the sole was

reduced to the breadth and thickness of a shilling,

purposely to allow the natural change of position to

To have

the tripod bearings.

his shoes always free

from perspiration, or anything injurious

had a large stock

some

to health,

twenty-one pairs

he

so as to

have as many changes as circumstances demanded.

And what

is

more deserving of

special notice, this

eminent physician, in accordance with the doctrines

taught by himself, Sir Charles Beil, and other medical

men, used to exercise his

feet

and limbs

daily in all

the ways necessary for their proper physical training,

so that

when seventy

years of age and more he walked

with the elastic step of a

man

of twenty,

and with

limbs that had lost nothing of their symmetry.

Dr. Hamilton's Opera-sole shoes (as they were
technically termed

by the trade) afforded

instructive practical lesson, for I

stronger and

me an

saw that something

more durable was needed

to

meet the

daily requirements of the general public. Accordingly,

after

several

expense,

years'

experimenting,

succeeded in

no

little

manufacture of the

now use in the waist. To test

this new fabric, I put aside a few

elasticated leather I

the durability of

the

and

CO

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

pairs of boots

me

shoes,

which

have

beside

still

and these not only prove the elasticated leather

sound as when

to be as

of the boots
to

and

the

then made, a form which corresponds

and tread-bearings of the

outline

represented in

used, but also the form

first

fig.

which

3,

is

an exact outline of

Some

the soles on a reduced scale.

as

foot,

of the boots thus

new ones, so that they afford, both

to me and those who wore them, tangible proof of the
unjustifiable pretensions of Dr. Meyer, when he begins,
in I860, to teach shoemakers how to shape the sole.
In the year 1835 I read a paper before the Royal
preserved were not

Scottish

Society of Arts, on

my

improvements, for

which they awarded me their honorary medal

is

of

only doing justice

Edinburgh

them

for

to

me

medical

the

further

to

state

received every assistance and

advice and instruction.

soles, as

shown in the

at that date, for it

Indeed,
outline,

and

it

profession

that

much

from

valuable

owe the form of the

fig.

3, to

one of them

was shaped in accordance w ith

r

mathematical drawings given

to

me by

the late Dr.

Walter Adam, son of the distinguished author of

The

Roman

Antiquities/'

who

first

turned

my

attention to the true form of a sole required by the

human

foot

a method

of drawing that is free from

the objection into which Dr.

tive to

Meyer has

fallen rela-

the axes of the bones of the foot and the

tripod bearings
at the time

and what impressed me very

forcibly

was an experiment, which the Doctor

told

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

me

61

he tried with a brass hinge at the waist of a pair

of shoes, so as to allow his heel

to

rise,

and the

Of

instep thus to perform its vertical movement.

course the experiment was a failure, the articulation

of the instep being on the principle of a universal

Similar plans
and not a common hinge.
had been tried in the French clogs, the hinge being

joint/'

placed under the balls of the toes

filled

it

was found

mud and

that the snow' in winter and the

wet weather

but

clay in

the opening of the hinge, thus

causing the sole to curve more upward at the toe

?

rendering walking more

This principle, after

revived in what

same objection
this

difficult.

years, has

fifty

been again

Hythe Boot, with the

an improvement has been made in

is

styled the

by alternate bands of leather and vulcanized

leaving

rubber,

[less

opening

Neither of these, however,

altered position

make

snow

or

mud.

provision for the

of the tripod bearings, by the arch

and the

flattening

for

foot

elongating, causing friction

by internal motion of the foot within the boot, producing

blister, chaffing,

and

foot-soreness.

The late Sir Charles Bell also gave me the outline of

his own nude foot, pointing out the true form of sole
it

required.

Edinburgh
regret to

This drawing was mislaid when

for

London

say has not

in

since been

should have given a woodcut of

I

left

year 1839, and

the

Edinburgh, in the year 1839,

it.

recovered, or

Before

I
I

leavin'*'

read a second paper

PHILOSOPHY OF SIIOEMAKING.

62

before the above society, which appeared in their

printed Transactions of the time, and from which

have taken the woodcut,

The paper was

ledged.

large

number

seen

my paper

translated into

my

Eussian, and amongst

Dr. Meyer

do not blame

have done

him

for not

but the

may

German,

either in English,

nor have heard anything about

I

German and

continental customers a

German.

are

acknow-

as already

fig. 8,

my

boots,

not have

or Russian,

and therefore

acknowledging what

facts, nevertheless, tell

him, proving that he

is

march of improvement

against

a long way behind in the

and that

he, further, is not

sufficiently versed in the history

of shoemaking to

lay claim to originality of design in the style of the

In Dr. Camper's time elasticated leather was

sole.

not invented

or

at least, to the best of

mv knowledge

presume he would have acknowledged

and, with regard to the form of the

sole,

its

merits

he was too

shoemaking

well informed in the history of

to lay

claim to the discovery which Dr. Meyer has done of

the requirements of the

Such

my

is

Meyer has
Pinches."
to

human

foot

reply to the errors into

in his work,

fallen

First

Why

which Dr.
the

Shoe

have shown that his objections

shoemakers taking the outline of the foot are con-

trary to the requirements

of the trade, an outline

being essentially necessary to determine the true position

of the bearings

under

this

upon the

head in reference

sole.

His remarks

to stockings

have been

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

proved contrary to

and a long way behind the

Second His mechanical data

age.
sole

fact,

have been shown

63

for

shaping the

Third The

to be fallacious.

which he teaches, that the foot unrols

from the ground in the line of the axis of the

doctrine
itself

bones of the great toe and its metatarses, is the oft

refuted proposition of the cart with two wheels,

than which

it

were

difficult to

imagine anything more

Fourth His attack on Dr.

Campers work, on The Best Form of Shoe, also

ridiculously

falls to

absurd.

the ground as untenable and unmerited in the

highest degree.

Fifth His claims

,

the form of the sole have been

such being an old

form of the
tionable,

sole

affair

shown

to originality in
to be

and antiquated, while the

which he has designed

inasmuch as

it

unfounded,

objec-

is itself

pinches the

little toe,

and

otherwise does not correspond with the drawing of the

sound

foot

which he himself has given. In

short, Dr.

Meyer must study the history of shoemaking and

the internal and external anatomy of the human foot
more closely, before he again commences to teach
shoemakers Why the Shoe Pinches.

To

cultivate

an

artistic

acquaintance with the

natural beauty and functions of the

human

foot is

one of the grand propositions of the present day.

Much

has been said about the beauty and mechanism

of the hand, but comparatively nothing about the

foot in either of these respects, although equally de-

serving of attention.

This

is

all

the

more

to be


PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

64
regretted,

inasmuch as some of the leading charac-

teristics that distinguish

are to be found
feet,

man from

the lower animals

economy of

in the structural

his

such as his erect position in standing, so graphi-

cally described in the oft-quoted lines of Ovid, relative to the formation of

ruling

man

in the image of the

all-

God :

Whilst other creatures towards the earth look down,

He gave to man a front sublime, and raised
His nobler view to ken the starry heaven.

This erect attitude

mechanism

maintained by the peculiar

of the foot already described

tripod bearings

Dr.

is

and function of the

Humphray has

under the

instep.

justly observed, in his

work on

The Human Foot and Hand (page S) that the form

of the human foot constitutes one of the great characteristics whereby man is distinguished from the lower
animals.
As an instrument of support and of locomotion,

it

excels the foot of any other animal.

It evinces its excellence

by enabling

man

to stand

upright in a way that no other animal can do

so efficiently does the foot accomplish this,

and

and
per-

form the task of carrying the body, that the hand

is set at liberty to

minister to the

foot instrumental

in giving

will.

Thus

is

the

us an advantage over

other animals, and in enabling us to provide the

means

of defence

and thus

it

aids us to carry out

those wondrous works which are second only to the

marvellous results of creative power.

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

AVe are accustomed
agent by which
forget

all this is

how much

not reflect that,

to regard the

it is

attained,

tinguishing peculiarity,

the

man

as the great

and we are apt

indebted to the

the foot of

if

hand

65

We

foot.

to

do

presented no dis-

hand, like the corre-

sponding part in other animals, would be compelled to

share with it the task of carrying the body, and could
therefore not be devoted to the various
it is

now

free to perform.

which

oflices

Little right has the

hand

have no need of thee and

in page 91 he says, in reference to the distinctive
Its compactness and
characters of the foot

to say to the foot,

strength, the height

of the plantar arch, the short-

ness of the toes, are, like the size of the

marked

calf,

most

members of the human family

to say, who are gifted with the
Thus the formation of the foot

in the higher

in those, that

is

highest intelligence.

found to have a correspondence with the formation

of the head, and may, like it, be, to a certain extent,
is

taken, as

have before remarked,

intellectual as well

man, which

is

to be

an index of

as of physical conformation

here exemplified, and w hich

r

is

of

main-

tained throughout the frame, as a subject of extreme

and as one which has not attracted the

attention of anatomists and ethnologists so much
as

interest,

it

deserves.

We, on
speaking,

the contrary, of the present age, generally

are by imperfect shoeing destroying the

distinctive characters of
the
F

foot,

thereby impair-

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAK1HG.

66

the original image in which the body was created,

morally and intellectually, as well as physically

ino-

In this respect we are obviously far behind the

This is
inhabitants of the early ages of the world.
manifest from ancient history, both sacred and profane.
Amongst the Hebrews, for example, and other Oriental

nations,

much

of

acquaintance with the

this

natural beauty of the foot no doubt arose from the

sandals they wore, showing off the external anatomy
of the

nude

same kind

foot

of

to greater

foot

dress

advantage
to

were the

for

become the modern

fashion in England, the vast majority in fashionable

circles

in our

own times would

feel

How

their feet in broad daylight.

with Solomon,
dals,

How beautiful

prince's daughter

Jupiter,

beauty of her

feet,

to

show

few could say

are thy feet in san-

or with Homer, in his

description of Juno's dress,

captivate

ashamed

when she was about

to

with amongst other things the

when he

says

Last, her fair feet celestial sandals

grace

deformed and ugly feet

fair " ones. In short, we
instead of beautiful " and
have only as a thinking intelligent community to

for

we should have

to read

ourselves acquainted with the facts of the case,

proto become satisfied with the soundness of the
position and the practical solution it demands of all

make

classes.

In conclusion, have we not now got to an age of

the world when distorted feet, from wearing shapeless

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

67

and imperfect foot-gear, ought to be allowed

out a natural death

From

to the present day, medical

to die

the time of A. C. Celsus

men have now and then

spoken out against the abnormal practice of shoeing

and

it is

certainly high time that

the medical press

of every civilized nation under the sun were advo-

cating with stirring assiduity the claims of

to be

shod in accordance with their own comforts

and the laws of nature,

utilitarian

pretensions

to say nothing of the boasted

of the period in which

whim
human

It is a

holds that the

of unreasoning: fashion
foot,

as given by

improperly large, and requires to have

controlled by the use of tight shoes.

act

we

Dr. Arnot, in his Physics, already referred to,

live.

savs

all classes

on this notion often

bunions on their
effects of

feet,

the pressure

rendered a torment.

which

Nature,
its

is

growth

Persons

who

have painful corns and

and distorted

toes,

so that the act of

There

is

&c., as

walking

is

the farther evil that

the general health and spirits, and the bodily ap-

pearance and carriage, are seriously damaged from

want of the due amount of walking exercise

open air/'

in the

In a note from Sir James Clark, Bart.,

the eminent physician to her Majesty, dated Bagshot

Park, 28th February, 1861, he says:

The preservation of the feet in a sound state
of

much more consequence

is

generally believed

to the general health

and there

is

than

no doubt that

most of the disorders and deformities of the

F 2

is

foot are

68

PHILOSOPHY OF SHOEMAKING.

owing

to

form of the shoes, more

erroneous

the

especially in early

No

life.

one ought to have corns

In teaching medical men when

or twisted toes/

visiting their patients, Dr. Blundell, in his lectures on

medicine, page

obstetric

quotation from Dr.

300, gives the following

Mackintoshs unpublished

tures as a rule, viz.

You must be

in a comfort-

able situation yourself, so that nothing

reason

if

may

distract

your shoe pinches, therefore, take

your feet are cold, warm them and the

your attention
it off

lec-

if

why

is

manifest, for otherwise the

Natures laws

is

economy of

thwarted.

Again, a most distinguished statesman, who

well

known

is

shrewdness of his observations on

for the

me, in

our foot-

everything, said

to

clothing

do not get boots to look at: we

We

reference to

On another occasion, relative

No man can work with his
to fashionable shoes
mind or with his body if his feet are pinched. Two

get boots to walk in.

maxims which should be household words by

What

wear shoes.

world has yet seen

the

shoeing

of

said the greatest soldier

the

the

What
The

of Wellington

What

is

the

who
the

on
first

asked a friend of His

good pair of shoes, said the

spare pair of shoes.
What next?

spare pair of soles.

what then ?

Grace one day

Duke.
And

Duke

soldier

requisite for the soldier

all

A
A

higher,

late

what further testimony

lamented

Prince

is

wanted

Consort, in one of his

FREE CIRCULATION OF THE FLUIDS.

It

69

our bounden duty to

study the Laws by which the Almighty
governs the Universe. And the rationale of the

speeches,

said

precept obviously comes

is

home with

telling efficacy to

the physical training and clothing of our feet and

And

limbs.

further, it

comes home with tenfold

force to the cultivation of the intellectual faculties

now an

for it is

when the feet

the general health and powers of the mind

suffer,

established fact, that

are also impaired.

progress

in

Children and youth make, less

their

education

apprentices

slowly in their respective callings

get

on

servants of every

kind are unable to do what they otherwise would

;
in short, the whole industrial fabric of society, when
improperly shod,
great,

then,

teachers,

the

is

and

is

all in

out

of working order.

How

responsibility of governments,

authority

of shoemakers, of the

medical profession, who are the conservators of the

public health, and whose bounden duty
to

against
of

all,

all

how

foot

great

is

obviously

in its normal beauty

usurpations to the contrary

responsibility of

in

human

preserve the

is

the personal interest

Literary Men, more

But most
and public

especially those

connexion

with the periodical press, who have

daily to watch the pioneering efforts being made in

every branch of science and art in relation to the

welfare of society ; for if suffering from the effects and

consequences of improper shoeing, they are neither

in a position to do justice to themselves, their sub-

PHILOSOPHY OP SHOEMAKING.

70
ject,

whom

nor to those for

distorted feet"
intellect."

No

may

normal functions.

foot,
it

For

deranged

more deeply inter-

in the study

human

preserve and protect

this

figuratively be read

class, therefore, is

ested than they are

beauty of the

they write. In their case

of

the

natural

and in proper clothing

to

in the enjoyment of all its

it

is

only by attaining to

consummation that they can stimulate in the

highest

degree the general

enterprise

progress

and domestic happiness.

THE END.

of

industrial