Microcontroller

products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, oce machines, appliances, power tools, toys and
other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost
compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers
make it economical to digitally control even more devices
and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control
non-digital electronic systems.
Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate a frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit milliwatts or microwatts). They
will generally have the ability to retain functionality while
waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock
and most peripherals o) may be just nanowatts, making
many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performancecritical roles, where they may need to act more like a
digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds
and power consumption.

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes

a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of
EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.

1 History
The rst microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released
in 1971, with the Intel 8008 and other more capable microprocessors becoming available over the next several
years. However, both processors required external chips
to implement a working system, raising total system cost,
and making it impossible to economically computerize
appliances.
The Smithsonian Institution credits TI engineers Gary
Boone and Michael Cochran with the successful creation of the rst microcontroller in 1971. The result of
their work was the TMS 1000, which became commercially available in 1974. It combined read-only memory,
read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and
was targeted at embedded systems.[1]

Two ATmega microcontrollers

A microcontroller (or MCU, short for microcontroller

unit) is a small computer (SoC) on a single integrated
circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR ash or
OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as
a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are
designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the
microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete
chips.

Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS

1000,[2] Intel developed a computer system on a chip
optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048, with
commercial parts rst shipping in 1977.[2] It combined
RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would nd
its way into over one billion PC keyboards, and other numerous applications. At that time Intels President, Luke
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the
1

EMBEDDED DESIGN

most successful in the companys history, and expanded three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range authe divisions budget over 25%.
tomobile has as many as 30 or more microcontrollers.
Most microcontrollers at this time had concurrent vari- They can also be found in many electrical devices such
ants. One had an erasable EPROM program memory, as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.
with a transparent quartz window in the lid of the package to allow it to be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light,
often used for prototyping. The other was either a mask
programmed ROM from the manufacturer for large series, or a PROM variant which was only programmable
once; sometimes this was signied with the designation OTP, standing for one-time programmable. The
PROM was of identical type of memory as the EPROM,
but because there was no way to expose it to ultraviolet light, it could not be erased. The erasable versions
required ceramic packages with quartz windows, making them signicantly more expensive than the OTP versions, which could be made in lower-cost opaque plastic
packages. For the erasable variants, quartz was required,
instead of less expensive glass, for its transparency to
ultravioletglass is largely opaque to UVbut the main
cost dierentiator was the ceramic package itself.

Historically, the 8-bit segment has dominated the MCU market [..] 16-bit microcontrollers became the largest volume MCU category in 2011, overtaking 8-bit devices for the
rst time that year [..] IC Insights believes the
makeup of the MCU market will undergo substantial changes in the next ve years with 32bit devices steadily grabbing a greater share of
sales and unit volumes. By 2017, 32-bit MCUs
are expected to account for 55% of microcontroller sales [..] In terms of unit volumes, 32-bit
MCUs are expected account for 38% of microcontroller shipments in 2017, while 16-bit
devices will represent 34% of the total, and 4/8-bit designs are forecast to be 28% of units
sold that year.
The 32-bit MCU market is expected
to grow rapidly due to increasing demand
for higher levels of precision in embeddedprocessing systems and the growth in connectivity using the Internet. [..] In the next few
years, complex 32-bit MCUs are expected to
account for over 25% of the processing power
in vehicles.
IC Insights, MCU Market on Migration
Path to 32-bit and ARM-based Devices[8]

In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the Microchip
PIC16x84) to be electrically erased quickly without an
expensive package as required for EPROM, allowing
both rapid prototyping, and In System Programming.
(EEPROM technology had been available prior to this
time, but the earlier EEPROM was more expensive and
less durable, making it unsuitable for low-cost massproduced microcontrollers.) The same year, Atmel introduced the rst microcontroller using Flash memory,
a special type of EEPROM.[3] Other companies rapidly
followed suit, with both memory types.
In 2012, following a global crisis a worst ever annual
Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit sales decline and recovery and average sales price yearmicrocontrollers being available for under 0.25 USD in over-year plunging 17% the biggest reduction since
quantity (thousands) in 2009, and some 32-bit microcon- the 1980s, the average price for a microcontroller was
US$0.88 ($0.69 for 4-/8-bit, $0.59 for 16-bit, $1.76 for
trollers around US$1 for similar quantities.
32-bit).[8]
Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities around In 2012, worldwide sales of 8-bit microcontrollers were
around $4 billion because they were so useful that many
certain processors.
companies needed them to be able to progress into betIn the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microter technology. In 2012, 4-bit microcontrollers also see
controllers as it has innite endurance and its incremental
signicant sales.[9]
semiconductor wafer process cost is relatively low.
In 2015, 8-bit microcontrollers can be bought for $0.311
(1,000 units),[10] 16-bit for $0.385 (1,000 units),[11] and
32-bit for $0.378 (1,000 units but at $0.35 for 5,000).[12]
1.1 Volumes
In 2002, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were
8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors.[4] Over two
billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 1997,[5] and
according to Semico, over four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006.[6] More recently, Semico has
claimed the MCU market grew 36.5% in 2010 and 12%
in 2011.[7]

2 Embedded design

A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and peripherals and can be
used as an embedded system.[13] The majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinA typical home in a developed country is likely to have ery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peonly four general-purpose microprocessors but around ripherals for computer systems.

2.2

Programs

2.2 Programs
Typically microcontroller programs must t in the available on-chip memory, since it would be costly to provide
a system with external, expandable memory. Compilers
and assemblers are used to convert both high-level and
assembly language codes into a compact machine code
for storage in the microcontrollers memory. Depending
on the device, the program memory may be permanent,
read-only memory that can only be programmed at the
factory, or it may be eld-alterable ash or erasable readonly memory.

A PIC 18F8720 microcontroller in an 80-pin TQFP package.

While some embedded systems are very sophisticated,

many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software
complexity. Typical input and output devices include
switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or custom liquidcrystal displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for
data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks,
printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal
computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any
kind.

2.1

Interrupts

Microcontrollers must provide real-time (predictable,

though not necessarily fast) response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events
occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to
begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or interrupt handler) which will perform any processing required based
on the source of the interrupt, before returning to the
original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources
are device dependent, and often include events such as an
internal timer overow, completing an analog to digital
conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from
a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is important as in
batteried devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low-power sleep state where the processor
is halted until required to do something by a peripheral
event.

Manufacturers have often produced special versions of

their microcontrollers in order to help the hardware and
software development of the target system. Originally
these included EPROM versions that have a window
on the top of the device through which program memory
can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a programming (burn) and test cycle. Since
1998, EPROM versions are rare and have been replaced
by EEPROM and ash, which are easier to use (can be
erased electronically) and cheaper to manufacture.
Other versions may be available where the ROM is
accessed as an external device rather than as internal
memory, however these are becoming rare due to the
widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers.
The use of eld-programmable devices on a microcontroller may allow eld update of the rmware or permit
late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet shipped. Programmable memory also
reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new
product.
Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at the time of manufacture can be economical. These "mask programmed" parts
have the program laid down in the same way as the logic
of the chip, at the same time.
A customizable microcontroller incorporates a block of
digital logic that can be personalized for additional processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that are
adapted to the requirements of the application. One example is the AT91CAP from Atmel.

2.3 Other microcontroller features

Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens
of general purpose input/output pins (GPIO). GPIO pins
are software congurable to either an input or an output
state. When GPIO pins are congured to an input state,
they are often used to read sensors or external signals.
Congured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors, often indirectly,
through external power electronics.
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that pro-

HIGHER INTEGRATION

duce analog signals. This is the purpose of the analogto-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to
interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are
not able to do anything with the analog signals that may
be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form
that the processor can recognize. A less common feature
on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals
or voltage levels.
In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. One of the
most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). A PIT may either count down from
some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count register, overowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends
an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has nished
counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats,
Die of a PIC12C508 8-bit, fully static, EEPROM/EPROM/ROMwhich periodically test the temperature around them to based CMOS microcontroller manufactured by Microchip Techsee if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater nology using a 1200 nanometre process.
on, etc.
A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block
makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of
CPU resources in tight timer loops.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a
serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated onchip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats such as
Inter-Integrated Circuit (IC), Serial Peripheral Interface
(SPI), Universal Serial Bus (USB), and Ethernet.[14]

Higher integration

Micro-controllers may not implement an external address

or data bus as they integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer pins, the
chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.
Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single
chip and testing them as a unit increases the cost of that
chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that
has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the cost
of a CPU and external peripherals, having fewer chips
typically allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board, and
reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit
board, in addition to tending to decrease the defect rate
for the nished assembly.
A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:
central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex 32-bit or 64-bit processors

Die of a STM32F100C4T6B ARM Cortex-M3 microcontroller

with 16 kilobytes ash memory, 24 MHz Central Processing Unit
(CPU), motor control and Consumer Electronics Control (CEC)
functions. Manufactured by STMicroelectronics.

volatile memory (RAM) for data storage

ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for
program and operating parameter storage
discrete input and output bits, allowing control or
detection of the logic state of an individual package
pin
serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs)
other serial communications interfaces like IC,

Serial Peripheral Interface and Controller Area Net- languages, such as Python and JavaScript, are now also
work for system interconnect
in common use to target microcontrollers and embedded
systems.[16] These languages are either designed specially
peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM
for the purpose, or versions of general purpose languages
generators, and watchdog
such as the C programming language. Compilers for
clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz tim- general purpose languages will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the
ing crystal, resonator or RC circuit
unique characteristics of microcontrollers. Some mimany include analog-to-digital converters, some in- crocontrollers have environments to aid developing cerclude digital-to-analog converters
tain types of applications. Microcontroller vendors often
in-circuit programming and in-circuit debugging make tools freely available to make it easier to adopt their
hardware.
support

This integration drastically reduces the number of chips

and the amount of wiring and circuit board space that
would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips. Furthermore, on low pin count devices in
particular, each pin may interface to several internal peripherals, with the pin function selected by software. This
allows a part to be used in a wider variety of applications
than if pins had dedicated functions.

Many microcontrollers are so quirky that they eectively

require their own non-standard dialects of C, such as
SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools
(such as code libraries or static analysis tools) even for
code unrelated to hardware features. Interpreters are often used to hide such low level quirks.

Interpreter rmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example, BASIC on the early microcontrollers Intel 8052;[17] BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog
Micro-controllers have proved to be highly popular in Z8[18] as well as some modern devices. Typically these
embedded systems since their introduction in the 1970s. interpreters support interactive programming.
Some microcontrollers use a Harvard architecture: sepa- Simulators are available for some microcontrollers.
rate memory buses for instructions and data, allowing ac- These allow a developer to analyze what the behavior of
cesses to take place concurrently. Where a Harvard archi- the microcontroller and their program should be if they
tecture is used, instruction words for the processor may were using the actual part. A simulator will show the inbe a dierent bit size than the length of internal memory ternal processor state and also that of the outputs, as well
and registers; for example: 12-bit instructions used with as allowing input signals to be generated. While on the
8-bit data registers.
one hand most simulators will be limited from being unThe decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difcult. The microcontroller vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design exibility against timeto-market requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers have to balance the
need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality.

able to simulate much other hardware in a system, they

can exercise conditions that may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation, and can
be the quickest way to debug and analyze problems.
Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with onchip debug circuitry that when accessed by an in-circuit
emulator via JTAG, allow debugging of the rmware with
a debugger. A real-time ICE may allow viewing and/or
manipulating of internal states while running. A tracing
ICE can record executed program and MCU states before/after a trigger point.

Microcontroller architectures vary widely. Some designs

include general-purpose microprocessor cores, with one
or more ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated onto the
package. Other designs are purpose built for control applications. A micro-controller instruction set usually has
many instructions intended for bit manipulation (bit-wise
operations) to make control programs more compact.[15] 5 Types of microcontrollers
For example, a general purpose processor might require
several instructions to test a bit in a register and branch if
See also: List of common microcontrollers
the bit is set, where a micro-controller could have a single
instruction to provide that commonly required function.
As of 2008, there are several dozen microcontroller arMicrocontrollers typically do not have a math coproceschitectures and vendors including:
sor, so oating point arithmetic is performed by software.
ARM core processors (many vendors)

Programming environments

Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in

assembly language, but various high-level programming

ARM Cortex-M cores are specically targeted

towards microcontroller applications
Atmel AVR (8-bit),
AT91SAM (32-bit)

AVR32 (32-bit),

and

6 INTERRUPT LATENCY
Cypress Semiconductor's M8C Core used in their When an electronic device causes an interrupt, during the
PSoC (Programmable System-on-Chip)
context switch the intermediate results (registers) have to
be saved before the software responsible for handling the
Freescale ColdFire (32-bit) and S08 (8-bit)
interrupt can run. They must also be restored after that
interrupt handler is nished. If there are more processor
Freescale 68HC11 (8-bit), and others based on the
registers, this saving and restoring process takes more
Motorola 6800 family
time, increasing the latency. Ways to reduce such con Intel 8051, also manufactured by NXP Semiconduc- text/restore latency include having relatively few registers
in their central processing units (undesirable because it
tors, Inneon and many others
slows down most non-interrupt processing substantially),
Inneon: 8-bit XC800, 16-bit XE166, 32- or at least having the hardware not save them all (this fails
bit XMC4000 (ARM based Cortex M4F), if the software then needs to compensate by saving the
32-bit TriCore and, 32-bit Aurix Tricore Bit rest manually). Another technique involves spending
microcontrollers[19]
silicon gates on shadow registers": One or more duplicate registers used only by the interrupt software, perhaps
MIPS
supporting a dedicated stack.
Microchip Technology PIC, (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, Other factors aecting interrupt latency include:
16-bit dsPIC33 / PIC24), (32-bit PIC32)
Cycles needed to complete current CPU activi NXP Semiconductors LPC1000, LPC2000,
ties. To minimize those costs, microcontrollers tend
LPC3000, LPC4000 (32-bit), LPC900, LPC700
to have short pipelines (often three instructions or
(8-bit)
less), small write buers, and ensure that longer instructions are continuable or restartable. RISC de Parallax Propeller
sign principles ensure that most instructions take the
same number of cycles, helping avoid the need for
PowerPC ISE
most such continuation/restart logic.
Rabbit 2000 (8-bit)
The length of any critical section that needs to be
Renesas Electronics: RL78 16-bit MCU; RX 32-bit
interrupted. Entry to a critical section restricts conMCU; SuperH; V850 32-bit MCU; H8; R8C 16-bit
current data structure access. When a data structure
MCU
must be accessed by an interrupt handler, the critical section must block that interrupt. Accordingly,
Silicon Laboratories Pipelined 8-bit 8051 Microinterrupt latency is increased by however long that
controllers and mixed-signal ARM-based 32-bit miinterrupt is blocked. When there are hard external
crocontrollers
constraints on system latency, developers often need
tools to measure interrupt latencies and track down
STMicroelectronics STM8 (8-bit), ST10 (16-bit)
which critical sections cause slowdowns.
and STM32 (32-bit)
Texas Instruments TI MSP430 (16-bit), MSP432
(32-bit), C2000 (32-bit)
Toshiba TLCS-870 (8-bit/16-bit)

Many others exist, some of which are used in very narrow

range of applications or are more like applications processors than microcontrollers. The microcontroller market
is extremely fragmented, with numerous vendors, technologies, and markets. Note that many vendors sell or
have sold multiple architectures.

Interrupt latency

In contrast to general-purpose computers, microcontrollers used in embedded systems often seek to optimize
interrupt latency over instruction throughput. Issues include both reducing the latency, and making it be more
predictable (to support real-time control).

One common technique just blocks all interrupts for the duration of the critical section.
This is easy to implement, but sometimes critical sections get uncomfortably long.
A more complex technique just blocks the interrupts that may trigger access to that data
structure. This is often based on interrupt priorities, which tend to not correspond well to
the relevant system data structures. Accordingly, this technique is used mostly in very
constrained environments.
Processors may have hardware support for
some critical sections. Examples include supporting atomic access to bits or bytes within
a word, or other atomic access primitives like
the LDREX/STREX exclusive access primitives introduced in the ARMv6 architecture.
Interrupt nesting. Some microcontrollers allow
higher priority interrupts to interrupt lower priority ones. This allows software to manage latency

7
by giving time-critical interrupts higher priority (and
thus lower and more predictable latency) than lesscritical ones.
Trigger rate. When interrupts occur back-toback, microcontrollers may avoid an extra context
save/restore cycle by a form of tail call optimization.
Lower end microcontrollers tend to support fewer interrupt latency controls than higher end ones.

List of open-source hardware projects

Microbotics
MCU with built in WiFi
Programmable logic controller
Single-board microcontroller

9 References
7

Microcontroller embedded memory technology

Since the emergence of microcontrollers, many dierent

memory technologies have been used. Almost all microcontrollers have at least two dierent kinds of memory,
a non-volatile memory for storing rmware and a readwrite memory for temporary data.

7.1

Data

[1] Augarten, Stan (1983). The Most Widely Used Computer

on a Chip: The TMS 1000. State of the Art: A Photographic
History of the Integrated Circuit. New Haven and New
York: Ticknor & Fields. ISBN 0-89919-195-9. Retrieved
2009-12-23.
[2] Oral History Panel on the Development and Promotion of
the Intel 8048 Microcontroller (PDF). Computer History
Museum Oral History, 2008. p. 4. Retrieved 2016-04-04.
[3] Atmels Self-Programming Flash Microcontrollers
(PDF). 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2008-10-25. by Odd
Jostein Svendsli 2003

From the earliest microcontrollers to today, six-transistor

SRAM is almost always used as the read/write working
memory, with a few more transistors per bit used in the
register le. FRAM or MRAM could potentially replace
it as it is 4 to 10 times denser which would make it more
cost eective.

[4] Jim Turley. The Two Percent Solution 2002.

In addition to the SRAM, some microcontrollers also

have internal EEPROM for data storage; and even ones
that do not have any (or not enough) are often connected
to external serial EEPROM chip (such as the BASIC
Stamp) or external serial ash memory chip.

[7] Momentum Carries MCUs Into 2011 http://semico.com/

content/momentum-carries-mcus-2011

[5] Tom Cantrell Microchip on the March. Circuit Cellar.

1998.
[6] http://www.semico.com

A few recent microcontrollers beginning in 2003 have

self-programmable ash memory.[3]

[8] MCU Market on Migration Path to 32-bit and ARMbased Devices. April 25, 2013. It typically takes a global
economic recession to upset the diverse MCU marketplace, and thats exactly what occurred in 2009, when
the microcontroller business suered its worst-ever annual sales decline of 22% to $11.1 billion.

7.2

[9] Bill Giovino. Zilog Buys Microcontroller Product Lines

from Samsung. 2013.

Firmware

The earliest microcontrollers used mask ROM to store [10] http://www.mouser.com/ProductDetail/

Silicon-Labs/EFM8BB10F2G-A-QFN20/?qs=
rmware. Later microcontrollers (such as the early versGAEpiMZZMu9ReDVvI6ax9sqO0qrXlDW4ZuhKcnb2c%
sions of the Freescale 68HC11 and early PIC microcon252bQvyUXU1UbuQ%3d%3d
trollers) had quartz windows that allowed ultraviolet light
in to erase the EPROM.
[11] http://www.mouser.com/ProductDetail/
Texas-Instruments/MSP430G2001IPW14R/?qs=
The Microchip PIC16C84, introduced in 1993,[20] was
sGAEpiMZZMvfhsTlJjecML5mLnp8Cec4esZ6%
the rst microcontroller to use EEPROM to store
2f1aK7FQ%3d
rmware. In the same year, Atmel introduced the
rst microcontroller using NOR Flash memory to store [12] http://www.mouser.com/ProductDetail/
rmware.[3]
Cypress-Semiconductor/CY8C4013SXI-400/?qs=
sGAEpiMZZMuI9neUTtPr752e7iT1qQqS4inl2jxeWgxWqjKLOdzceQ%
3d%3d

See also
List of common microcontrollers

[13] Heath, Steve (2003). Embedded systems design. EDN series for design engineers (2 ed.). Newnes. pp. 1112.
ISBN 9780750655460.

10

[14] David Harris & Sarah Harris (2012). Digital Design and
Computer Architecture, Second Edition, p. 515. Morgan
Kaufmann. ISBN 0123944244.
[15] Easy Way to build a microcontroller project
[16] Mazzei, Daniele; Montelisciani, Gabriele; Baldi, Giacomo; Fantoni, Gualtiero (2015). Changing the programming paradigm for the embedded in the IoT domain. Internet of Things (WF-IoT), 2015 IEEE 2nd World Forum on. Milan: IEEE. pp. 239244. doi:10.1109/WFIoT.2015.7389059.
[17] 8052-Basic Microcontrollers by Jan Axelson 1994
[18] Edwards, Robert (1987). Optimizing the Zilog Z8 Forth
Microcontroller for Rapid Prototyping (PDF). Martin
Marietta: 3. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
[19] www.infineon.com/mcu
[20] Microchip unveils PIC16C84, a reprogrammable
EEPROM-based 8-bit microcontroller 1993

10

External links

Microcontroller at DMOZ
Embedded Systems Design magazine

EXTERNAL LINKS

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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11.2

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