PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

1. FOSSIL FUELS PROVIDE BOTH ENERGY AND RAW MATERIALS SUCH AS ETHENE,
FOR THE PRODUCTION OF OTHER SUBSTANCES
1.1.

CONSTRUCT WORD AND BAL ANCED FORMUL AE EQUATIONS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

AS THEY ARE ENCOUNTERED

TYPES OF REACTIONS
HALOGENATION OF ALKANES
These reactions occur between a halogen and alkanes. These reactions produce an alkyl halide and an
acid. These types of reactions are called substitution reactions, since the halogen is used to
substitute atoms in the alkane.

ADDITION REACTIONS
These reactions occur with unsaturated hydrocarbons (C=C or CC) since the double/triple bond
can be split and used to bond. Addition reactions add substituents to produce a new derivative
(variation of parent chemical).

1) Ethene + Hydrogen gas Ethane

2) Ethene + Water Ethanol
3) Ethene + Oxygen Water + Carbon dioxide

CH2=CH2 (g) + 2H2 (g) CH3CH3 (g)

CH2=CH2 (g) + H2O (l) CH3CH2OH (l)
CH2=CH2 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2H2O (l) + 2CO2 (g)

CONDENSATION REACTIONS
A condensation reaction occurs when monomers combine to form polymers. When the monomers
combine, molecules and atoms from both sides of the monomer are eliminated. These combine from
the eliminated molecules and atoms from the other monomer/s to condense a molecule. In cellulose,
a hydroxyl functional group and hydrogen atom are eliminated and combine to form water molecules.

Therefore the condensation polymerisation of cellulose produces water.

Condensation polymerisation of cellulose

1.2.

IDENTIFY AN INDUSTRIAL SOURCE OF ETHENE FROM THE CRACKING OF SOME OF THE

FRACTIONS FROM THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM

DEFINITION
Petroleum: Natural mixture of hydrocarbons formed over thousands of years from the remains of
fossilised marine organisms. High pressures and temperatures caused chemical changes that led to the
formation of the petroleum. These gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons were trapped for millions of years
in geological formations. Those deposits are now being mined to provide our society with abundant
energy and plastics.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION AND USAGES OF FRACTIONS
SEPARATION INTO FRACTIONS
Crude oil can be separated into various fractions by the process called fractional distillation.
Separation into fractions is based on differences in boiling points of the hydrocarbon components.
Crude oil is vaporised, and the short-chain hydrocarbons with lower B.P. rise further up before
condensation. Long-chain hydrocarbons condense sooner, hence producing the various fractions. Each
of these fractions contain a range of different length hydrocarbons.
USAGE OF FRACTIONS

Note: The lightest fractions are used as fuels (bottled gas, LPG, petrol) or used to manufacture
petrochemicals (plastics, solvents, refrigerants). Heavier fractions (kerosene, diesel) are used as fuels
and lubricating oils. These heavier fractions can undergo thermal or catalytic cracking, to produce
lighter molecular weight hydrocarbons.

ETHYLENE IS PRODUCED BY THERMAL AND CATALYTIC CRACKING

Ethene is one of the most commonly produced products by the chemical industry worldwide. It is
manufactured from the high and low molecular weight hydrocarbons. The process used to produce
ethene and other low molecular weight hydrocarbons is called cracking.
THERMAL CRACKING
In thermal cracking, higher molecular weight hydrocarbons are passed through extremely hot coils. The
thermal energy breaks the covalent bonds, resulting in the decomposition of the higher molecular
weight hydrocarbons into lower molecular weight hydrocarbons.
CATALYTIC CRACKING
In catalytic cracking, the higher molecular weight hydrocarbons are combined with a zeolite catalyst
(high SA aluminium silicate). The reaction produces lower molecular weight hydrocarbons, such as
ethene. These products, such as ethene and propene, are high useful as fuel components as they are
easier to react.
C30H16 C8H16 + C10H20 + C12H26
Ethene and propene, are the raw materials for the production of various plastics, such as polyethene
and polypropene.
1.3.

IDENTIFY THAT ETHENE, BECAUSE OF THE HIGH REACTIVITY OG ITS DOUBLE BOND, IS
READILY TRANSFORMED INTO MANY USEFUL PRODUCTS

Ethene is more reactive than alkanes, such as ethane. This is due to the high reactivity of its double
covalent bond. This allows it to be transformed into various products, including polymers (polyethene)
and other petrochemicals. Electronegative chemicals, such as halogens, or compounds with highly
electronegative elements, readily react with the C=C bond due to higher e - density.

REACTIONS THAT CAN OCCUR

BROMINATION
In non-aqueous solvents, bromine and ethene combine to form 1,2-dibromo-ethane, which is a petrol
additive.
C2H4 (l) + Br2 (l) CH2BrCH2Br (l)
In aqueous solvents, alkenes react with bromine water to cause the solution to decolourise rapidly.
This is called the bromine water test, which tests whether a hydrocarbon has saturated or unsaturated
carbon bonds. The bromine water will decolourise from a yellow-orange colour. Bromine water is an
equilibrium (LHS produces RHS, RHS produces LHS) mixture of bromine and hypobromous acid.
Br2 (l) + H2O (l) H+ (aq) + Br- (aq) + HOBr (aq)
When the drops of the test hydrocarbon are shaken with bromine water, the bromine water
decolourises rapidly if it is unsaturated. The reaction with ethene would be:
C2H4 (l) + HOBr (aq) CH2BrCHOH (l)
As HOBr is removed from the equilibrium, this causes more Br2 to react, resulting in decolourisation of
the bromine water.
HYDRATION

In the presence of an acid catalyst (sulfuric acid), water addition reacts across an unsaturated carbon
bond to form an alcohol.
C2H4 (l) + H2O (l)

Acid catalyst

CH3CH2OH

Ethene + Water Ethanol

HYDROHALOGENATION
Hydrogen halide reacts with an unsaturated carbon bond to form an alkyl halide.
C2H4 (l) + HCl (l) CH3CH2Cl (l)
Ethene + Hydrochloric acid Chloroethane
1.4.

IDENTIFY THAT ETHENE SERVES AS A MONOMER FROM WHICH POLYMERS ARE MADE

Ethene contains an unsaturated C=C bond, which can be split to form two places for bonding. This
means that ethene can become a free radical, and readily react with other radicals, such as another
ethene radical. This means that ethene can form chains of repeating units, called monomer units.
When these monomer units are combined, they form polymers.
1.5.

IDENTIFY POLYETHENE AS AN ADDITION POLYMER AND EXPL AIN THE MEANING OF

THIS TERM

Ethene undergoes addition polymerisation since it only adds monomer units, without condensing a
molecule which occurs in condensation polymerisation. Polyethene is produced from this, hence it is
called an addition polymer. The longer the polymer chains, the higher the dispersion forces due
increased surface area, resulting in a stronger polymer.

1.6.

OUTLINE THE STEPS IN THE PRODUCTION OF POLYETHENE AS AN EXAMPLE OF A

COMMERCIALLY AND INDUSTRIALLY IMPORTANT POLYMER

LOW DENSITY POLYETHENE

Low density polyethene (LDPE) was the 1st type of polyethene to be manufactured. It was
manufactured through heating ethene to 300oC under 1500 - 3000 atm, in a peroxide catalyst. An
activated monomer is formed, which reacts with other ethene monomers to form a polymer chain.
Heated initiator peroxide catalyst splits to form free radicals
R-O-O-R

Heat

RO + RO

Free radicals react with the C=C bond in ethene, producing an activated monomer radical. This is
called initiation
RO + CH2=CH2 ROCH2CH2
Activated monomer radicals combine with ethene monomers and build up chain length. Growing
chains can back bite, where the monomer radical bends back and take a hydrogen from one of its
own carbon atoms. This relocates where it bonds, resulting in branching chains.
1. ROCH2CH2 + CH2=CH2 ROCH2CH2CH2CH2
2. ROCH2CH2CH2CH2 ROCH2CHCH2CH3
3. ROCH2CHCH2CH3 +
ROCH2CH2CH2CH2
This process continues indefinitely if
left to proceed. This is called chain
propagation.
Chain growth eventually stops. This is called chain termination. This could occur if free radicals
combine together, or a hydrogen atom attaches to the end of a free radical.
RO + RO R-O-O-R

RO + ROCH2CH2 ROCH2CH2OR
ROCH2CH2 + H ROCH2CH3
The polymer formed is highly branched. These branches prevent the polymer chain from packing
together (hence low density) and forming crystals, so the dispersion forces between the chains are
weakened.
Properties:
Boiling point

~80oC

Soft/Hard

Soft

Rigid/Flexible

Flexible

Chemical
Yes
resistant?
HIGH DENSITY POLYETHENE

Applications:
Garbage cans
Flexible film wrap
Plastic squeeze bottles
Electrical insulation

High density polyethene (HDPE) is manufactured using various catalytic methods. One of these is a
low pressure (~20 atm), addition polymerisation of ethene on a titanium/aluminium catalyst @ 80100oC.
Surface polymerisation on the catalyst, produces linear polymers with little branching. Therefore, the
polymer chains are more packed together (high density) forming crystals, so the dispersion forces
between the chains are strengthened.
Properties:
Boiling point

~135
C

Soft/Hard

Hard

Rigid/Flexible

Rigid

Chemical
resistant?

Yes

Applications:
Plastic crates
Rubbish bins
Petrol tanks
Glove boxes
Rigid agricultural pipes

1.7.

IDENTIFY THE FOLLOWING AS COMMERCIALLY SIGNIFICANT MONOMERS

A wide variety of addition polymers are commonly used in the industry. Ethene monomers can be
modified by adding functional groups (X).
n(CH2=CHX) -(-CH2-CHX-)-n
COMMON
SYSTEMATIC NAME
NAME
VINYL
CHLORIDE

Chloroethane

STYRENE

Phenylethylene/ethenylbe
nzene

1.8.

DESCRIBE THE USES OF THE POLYMERS MADE FROM THE ABOVE MONOMERS IN
TERMS OF THEIR PROPERTIES

VINYL CHLORIDE (X=CL)

Vinyl chloride (Chloroethane) is the monomer used to manufacture poly (vinyl chloride) or PVC.
Since pure PVC is very hard and brittle, additives are added to improve flexibility, thermal stability or
UV stability (decomposes in UV).
Properties:
Boiling point

~160o
C

Soft/Hard

Hard

Rigid/Flexible

Rigid

Applications:
Guttering
Credit cards
Waste water pipes

Chemical
Yes
POLYSTYRENE (X=C 6 H 5 )
resistant?
Styrene (ethenylbenzene or Phenylethylene) monomers are used to manufacture polystyrene or PS.
The phenyl functional group, which is a benzene ring, is large and bulky. This causes the polymer to
be quite physically rigid, as well as form stronger dispersion forces due to increased surface area.
Properties:

Applications:
CD packaging
Boiling point
~240
Plastic drinking
C
glasses
Soft/Hard
Hard
Styrofoam
Rigid/Flexible
Rigid
Disposable drinking cups
Chemical
Yes
Fast food containers
resistant?
Packing material
Styrofoam is produced from the blowing of gases through molten polystyrene before cooling and
solidification (thermosetting). Styrofoam is lightweight and an excellent insulator.
o

2. SOME SCIENTISTS RESEARCH THE EXTRACTION OF MATERIALS FROM BIOMASS TO

REDUCE OUR DEPENDENCE ON FOSSIL FUELS
2.1.

DISCUSS THE NEED FOR ALTERNATIVES SOURCES OF THE COMPOUNDS PRESENTLY

OBTAINED FROM THE PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY

WHY DO WE NEED ALTERNATIVES?

Crude oil is the current source of fuels and petrochemicals including plastics. The worlds crude oil
reserves are finite and there is considerable debate as to how long current supplies will last. The rate
of consumption is likely to increase as nations modernise and populations grow. The development of
alternative fuels and feedstocks for the production of plastics, solvents and other industrial chemicals
is increasingly becoming a priority.
Australia has vast reserves of coal. The energy released from the combustion of coal is used to
generate electricity. While coal can be converted to liquid hydrocarbons, it is expensive and has
several issues. The removal of metallic minerals, oxygen and sulphur from liquefied coal would require
an alternative process to be economically viable.
BIOMASS AS AN ALTERNATIVE
Biomass is organic matter, which can be extracted from plants and animals. E.g. Dead leaves, mulch,
sugar, bacteria, fungi, wood scraps. Since it is organic, it is therefore a renewable resource.
Cellulose is a biopolymer of the monomer glucose, which is stored by plants. Glucose and oxygen is
produced from the photosynthesis of carbon dioxide and water. 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)

Sunlight

C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g). The solar energy is stored in the glucose, which means it can be used as a
source of energy. Furthermore, the combustion of biopolymer is carbon neutral since the CO2 is able
to be reabsorbed by other trees.
However, biomass is not ready for large scale production, since it faces several issues. The largest
concern faced by biomass production, is the scarcity of land. A plantation dedicated to biomass
production, would span a massive area which would be expensive. Furthermore, the land will
become infertile if unmanaged, due to the removal of local flora which removes a source of nutrients
from decomposing leaf matter.
These issues are further complicated by the hampered research into the development of alternatives
for crude oil, due to the low cost and current availability of oil.
2.2.

EXPL AIN WHAT IS MEANT BY A CONDENSATION POLYMER

Condensation polymer: A polymer formed from the combination of monomers, which condenses a
smaller molecule during each step of the polymerisation.
Biopolymer: A naturally occurring polymer such as cellulose, starch and gluten.
Cellulose is a condensation polymer, and is one of the most abundant in nature. It is a complex
carbohydrate or polysaccharide. Carbohydrates contain C, H and O atoms, as well as many alcohol
functional groups. (Glucose is a monosaccharide)
2.3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

DESCRIBE THE REACTION INVOLVED WHEN A CONDENSATION POLYMER IS FORMED

Monomers are not activated radicals yet

Eliminate atoms/molecules from each end
Transform into activated radicals
Eliminated atoms/molecules can combine
Activated monomer radicals combine to form polymers

2.4.

DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF CELLULOSE

AND IDENTIFY IT AS AN EXAMPLE OF A
CONDENSATION POLYMER FOUND AS A
MAJOR COMPONENT OF BIOMASS

STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE
Glucose (C6H12O6) is a ring molecule. The hydroxyl
function group (-OH), may be oriented above or below
the ring at the carbon atom. This produces alpha (down) and beta (above) glucose.

STARCH
Starch is a condensation polymer formed when alpha-glucose monomers condense together. Due
to the fact the alpha-glucose has its hydroxyl groups in the same orientation on both sides, the polymer
formed would be linear.

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF CELLULOSE AND HOW ITS FOUND AS A MAJOR COMPONENT
OF BIOMASS
FORMATION
Cellulose is a condensation polymer formed when beta-glucose monomers condense together.
During condensation polymerisation, a hydroxyl group and hydrogen atom are eliminated from
opposite ends of the glucose monomer. This leaves an oxygen atom to bond the monomers. Due to
the fact the hydroxyl function groups alternate in orientation in beta-glucose, each consecutive
monomer unit has to invert. Hence, cellulose would have a linear structure.

STRUCTURE
Due to the hydrogen bonding present within the molecule, cellulose is insoluble because the
intermolecular forces are extremely strong. Since cellulose is a relatively linear molecule, due to its
alternating nature of its glucose units, this means that it can produce a high density molecule.
Through higher density, means more surface area resulting in high dispersion forces.
MAJOR COMPONENT OF BIOMASS
Cellulose is a major component of biomass. It is formed from the condensation polymerisation of
glucose, and as such contains the solar energy captured from the sun. Through fermentation,
the cellulose can be converted to ethanol, where it can undergo dehydration: CH3CH2OH CH2CH2
+ H2O. This produces ethene which can be used as fuel.
2.5.

IDENTIFY THAT CELLULOSE CONTAINS THE BASIC CARBON-CHAIN STRUCTURES

NEEDED TO BUILD PETROCHEMICALS AND DISCUSS ITS POTENTIAL AS A RAW
MATERIAL

CARBON-CHAIN STRUCTURE
Cellulose contains a basic carbon-chain structure which is common in many compounds used within
the petrochemical industry. Since it is readily abundant and renewable, it serves as an alternative
to non-renewable fossil fuels. I.e. Petroleum, nature gas.
POTENTIAL AS RAW MATERIAL
Although cellulose can be converted into ethanol, the energy required to break the strong hydrogen
bonds prevent it from being economically viable. Currently, cellulose is an abundant raw material,
given advances in usage of E. coli to mass produce cellulose. If the cellulose can be broken down, it
may serve as a virtually unlimited potential given its abundance and chemical composition. (Alternative
to crude oil for a source of hydrocarbons)

3. OTHER RESOURCES SUCH AS ETHANOL, ARE READILY AVAILABLE FROM

RENEWABLE RESOURCES SUCH AS PLANTS
3.1.

DESCRIBE THE DEHYDRATION OF ETHANOL TO ETHENE AND IDENTIFY THE NEED FOR
A CATALYST IN THIS PROCESS

The dehydration of ethanol removes a water molecule, to produce ethene and water. However due
to the strong hydrogen bond between the hydroxyl functional group (-OH) to the CH3CH2 chain, the
activation energy would be too high to be economically viable. Hence a catalyst is required to lower
the activation energy of the reaction to occur, by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction.
Usually the catalyst used for the dehydration of ethanol is concentrated sulfuric acid.

3.2.

DESCRIBE THE ADDITION OF WATER TO ETHENE RESULTING IN THE PRODUCTION OF

ETHANOL AND IDENTIFY THE NEED FOR A CATALYST IN THIS PROCESS AND THE
CATALYST USED

The hydration of ethene addition reacts to produce ethanol. The C=C bond in ethene is split to allow
water to form bonds with the water. The water molecule splits into H and OH. The hydroxyl function
group drastically changes the property of the molecule due to the polarity of the hydroxyl (-OH)
function group.
However, unlike the dehydration of ethanol which requires the breaking of hydrogen bonds, the
hydration of ethene requires the breaking of the reactive C=C bond. Hence, the hydration of
ethene requires only a weak catalyst for the reaction to occur. Usually the catalyst used for the
hydration of ethene into ethanol would be dilute sulfuric acid.

3.3.

DESCRIBE AND ACCOUNT FOR THE MANY USES OF ETHANOL AS A SOLVENT FOR
POL AR AND NON-POLAR SUBSTANCES

The structure of ethanol, CH3CH2OH accounts for its use as a solvent for polar and non-polar
substances. The polar hydroxyl function group (-OH) allows ethanol to behave like a polar solvent,
as the electronegative species are able to dissolve through dipole-dipole interactions or
hydrogen bonding.
Furthermore, the non-polar CH3CH2 chain allows ethanol to also behave as a non-polar solvent, as the
long chain can dissolve through dispersion forces which are prominent in the chain.

3.4.

OUTLINE THE USE OF ETHANOL AS A FUEL AND EXPL AIN WHY IT CAN BE CALLED A
RENEWABLE RESOURCE

Ethanol is a renewable fuel source, which provides several advantages over its counterparts, such as
petrol, kerosene and diesel. Ethanol is able to combust with 3 moles of oxygen, which means it can
combust completely and avoid the production of toxic by-products, such as CO and C. In comparison,
octane fuel requires 12.5 moles of oxygen gas. As such, the use of ethanol increases the
chances of complete combustion, and carbon monoxide emissions can be reduced drastically.

Furthermore, ethanol is easily transportable and has a molar heat of combustion of 1360kJ/mol
which is a fairly high energy output per mole. It is also already being used as a 10-20% mixture with
existing petrol.
Ethanol is a renewable resource due to the fact it is derived from glucose, which can be extracted
from plant matter. Sugar cane farming produces high levels of glucose, and is an effective primary
source. Due to the fact glucose can be obtained from most plant matter, it can be easily
regenerated, hence renewable.
3.5.

DESCRIBE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH FERMENTATION OF SUGARS IS PROMOTED

CONDITION

REASON

GLUCOSE
SOLUTION

Glucose must be in an aqueous form for the yeast to catalyse the reaction

YEAST

Yeast secretes enzymes, which increase the rate of reaction by providing an

alternative reaction of lower activation energy

ANAEROBIC
CONDITIONS

If oxygen is present during the reaction, the products would be CO 2 and H2O

35OC 37OC

The maximum rate of reaction possible at 37oC since the yeast will die past
this point

3.6.

SUMMARISE THE CHEMISTRY OF THE FERMENTATION PROCESS

The fermentation of glucose involves the use of yeast, to produce an enzyme complex known as
zymase. This catalyses the processes of glucolysis, which is the chemical decomposition of
glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The maximum concentration possible using this
technique is 15% ethanol, after which the yeast will die (ethanol is toxic).

3.7.

DEFINE THE MOLAR HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF A COMPOUND AND CALCUL ATE THE
VALUE FOR ETHANOL FROM FIRST-HAND DATA

Molar heat of combustion: The amount of energy released in the form of heat when one mole of a
substance is combusted to form products at 100kPa and 25oC.
Ethanols molar heat of combustion = 1360kJ/mol
3.8.

ASSESS THE POTENTIAL OF ETHANOL AS AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL AND DISCUSS THE

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ITS USE

Advantages
Ethanol is a renewable resource, reducing
the consumption of non-renewable
resources.
Greenhouse gas emissions could be reduced
due to cleaner combustion of ethanol.

Disadvantages
Larges areas of land would be devoted to the
cultivation of suitable plants. I.e. Sugar cane.
This would lead to erosion, deforestation,
salinity, and several other issues.
Majority of produced biomass is unused,

 Brazil has achieved 100% compatibility with

100% ethanol fuels.
Ethanol-petrol blends produce less carbonemissions.
Ethanol combustion produces less toxic byproducts such as carbon monoxide.

resulting in waste.
Process of ethanol production requires energy,
which is sometimes higher that the energy
produced by the ethanol.
Ethanol is more expensive to obtain than
petrol.
Harvesting of crops and distillation of product
releases CO2.
Ethanol produces less energy per mole than
octane.
Engine modifications are required for 20% +
concentration.

4. OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS ARE INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT AS A SOURCE

OF ENERGY
4.1.

EXPL AIN THE DISPL ACEMENT OF METALS FROM SOLUTION IN TERMS OF TRANSFER OF
ELECTRONS

When a metal displaces a metal ion in a solution through displacement reaction. Zn (II) (s) + CuSO 4 (aq)
Cu (II) (s) + ZnSO4 (aq). This occurs because the metal is more reactive than the metal ion.
During a displacement reaction between two metals, a metal becomes an ion, and a metal ion
becomes a metal. Hence, a transfer of electrons has occurred.

4.2.

IDENTIFY THE REL ATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISPL ACEMENT OF METAL IONS IN SOLUTION
BY OTHER METALS TO THE REL ATIVE REACTIVITY OF METALS

In a displacement reaction between a metal and metal ions in a solution, if the metal is more
reactive than the metal ion, it will displace the metal ion. This is due to the fact that more
reactive metals will lend electrons more easily, called oxidation. Hence the metal will lend
electrons to the metal ion. The metal will lose charge, and become positively charged to become a
cation, whereas the metal ion will accept those electrons to become neutral, hence forming a metal.
4.3.

ACCOUNT FOR CHANGES IN THE OXIDATION STATE OF SPECIES IN TERMS OF THEIR

LOSS OR GAIN OF ELECTRONS

DEFINITIONS
TERM

DEFINITION

OXIDATION

To lose electrons

REDUCTION

To gain electrons

OXIDATION
STATE

The charge of a species (also called oxidation number)

REDOX

A reaction that has simultaneous oxidation and

reduction reactions

EXPL ANATION
Oxidation: When a species is oxidised, the metal loses electrons. When it loses electrons, it becomes
positively charged. Hence, its oxidation state increases.
Reduction: When a species is reduced, the metal gains electrons. When it gains electrons, it becomes
negatively charged. Hence, its oxidation state decreases.
CONCLUSION

4.4.

DESCRIBE AND EXPL AIN GALVANIC CELLS IN TERMS OF REDOX REACTIONS | OUTLINE
THE CONSTRUCTION OF GALVANIC CELLS AND TRACE THE DIRECTION OF ELECTRON
FLOW | DEFINE THE TERMS ANODE, CATHODE, ELECTRODE AND ELECTROLYTE TO
DESCRIBE GALVANIC CELLS

COMPONENTS OF A GALVANIC CELL

COMPONEN
T

PURPOSE

ELECTRODE
S

Strip of metal which allows for the redox reaction to occur.

CATHODE

Electrode which undergoes reduction (gains electrons).

ANODE

Electrode which undergoes oxidation (loses electrons).

HALF CELL

One of the two halves of the galvanic cell.

SALT
BRIDGE

Contains an ionic solution. The ions will flow into their respective half cells to prevent
charge accumulation. This would otherwise stop the redox reaction.

ELECTROLY
TE

A solution which contains ions. Allows for the redox reaction to occur.

GALVANIC
CELL

Undergoes redox reactions to produce a flow of electrons. This can be used to generate
current.

DIAGRAM OF A GALVANIC CELL

DEFINITIONS
TERM

DEFINITION

GALVANIC CELL

OXIDISING
AGENT
[OXIDANT]

Causes a species to reduce through

oxidation of itself

Zinc oxidises, causing copper to be

reduced

REDUCTION
AGENT
[REDUCTANT]

Causes a species to oxidise through

reduction of itself

Copper reduces, causing zinc to be

oxidised

5. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY PROVIDES A RANGE OF MATERIALS

5.1.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN STABLE AND RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND DESCRIBE THE

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH A NUCLEUS IS UNSTABLE

DEFINITIONS
TERM

DEFINITION

ISOTOPE

Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of

neutrons

STABLE ISOTOPE

Isotope with a nucleus that remains intact

UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE
ISOTOPE

Isotope with a nucleus that decays to become stable (release

radiation)

CONDITIONS FOR NUCLEUS INSTABILITY

Instability occurs when a specific number of protons and neutrons is reached. If the number of
protons exceeds 82 (lead) then the nucleus becomes unstable/radioactive. If a specific neutron to
proton ratio is exceeded the nucleus will become unstable/radioactive. For elements less than 20 the
threshold is 1:1, with the ratio increasing above 1:1 for elements above 20.
5.2.

IDENTIFY THE TYPES OF RADIATION RELEASED IN RADIOACTIVE DECAY

TYPE OF
RADIATION

PARTICLE/EMR
RELEASED

ALPHA ()

Helium Nuclei
0

He

BETA ()

Electron

GAMMA ()

Gamma radiation

5.3.

-1

PENETRATING
POWER

IONISATION
ENERGY

CHARGE

Low (paper)

High

2+

Moderate
(aluminium)

Low

1-

High (lead)

Low

DESCRIBE HOW TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS ARE PRODUCED

TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS
Transuranic elements are elements that have an atomic number greater than 92 (Uranium).
Transuranic elements are synthesised in nuclear reactors or high-energy particle accelerators. 93
(Neptunium), 94 (Plutonium) and 95 (Americium) are produced in nuclear reactors.
PRODUCTION OF TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS
NUCLEAR REACTOR VS PARTICLE ACCELERATOR
Nuclear reactor: Used for production of elements 93-95
Particle accelerator: Use for production of elements >95
PRODUCTION BY NUCLEAR REACTOR
Plutonium-239: 23892U + 10n [Neutron added] 23992U 23993Np + 0-1e [Beta Decay], then 23993Np
239
0
94Pu + -1e [Beta decay]
Note: Neutron bombardment of 23892U to produce 23992U, uses neutrons produced from fission within a
nuclear reactor.

PRODUCTION BY PARTICLE ACCELERATOR

Particle accelerators propel a light element into a heavier element. The two nucleuses merge to
produce a heavier element.
Hassium-265: 20882Pb + 5826Fe 265108Hs + 10n
Note: An isotope of iron was fired at a lead atom to produced Hassium-265.
5.4.

DESCRIBE HOW COMMERICAL RADIOISOTOPES ARE PRODUCED

Technetium-99: 9842Mo + 10n [Neutron Bombardment] 9942Mo + [Gamma Decay], 9942Mo 99m43Tc +
-1
0e [Beta Decay]
The technetium-99m (m=metastable radioactively decay), will then decay into technetium-99 through
gamma decay. The gamma rays will be used to treat cancers.

5.5.

IDENTIFY INSTRUMENTS AND PROCESSES THAT CAN BE USED TO DETECT RADIATION

INSTRUMENT

PROCESS

GEIGER
COUNTER

Argon gas is ionised, producing electrons to produce an electrical current, which is

used to produce clicks.

PHOTOGRAPHIC
FILM

Radiation causes silver salts in film to form silver crystals, which make the film
darker.

CLOUD
CHAMBERS

Radiation ionises air. An alcohol vapour condenses around the ions, producing visible
trails.

5.6.

IDENTIFY ONE USE OF A NAMED RADIOISOTOPE|DESCRIBE THE WAY IN WHICH THE

ABOVE NAMED INDUSTRIAL AND MEDICAL RADIOISOTOPES ARE USED AND EXPL AIN
THEIR USA IN TERMS OF THEIR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

TYPE

NAME

MEDICAL

Technetium99m

INDUSTR
IAL

Cobalt-60

USAGE
Half-life of 6 hours
Produces gamma radiation which can be used to image the human
body
Ideal for medical usage since it is not readily absorbed by the
organs
Half-life of 5.3 years
Produces gamma radiation which can be used to measure the
integrity of materials
Ideal for industrial usage due to long half-life, requiring less
replacement