Unsc Study Guide - Spmun 2016

Table of Contents
Chair Introductions
Historical Background & Scope of the Committee
The Situation in Kosovo
Topic Description
Background Information
Relevant Case Studies
14
Past UN Actions
17
Position of Major Nations and Blocs
18
Timeline of Events
21
Definition of Key Terms
27
Guiding Questions
30
Areas Resolutions Should Aim to Address
31
Further Research
32
Bibliography
35
The Kurds
36
Topic Description
36
37
Position of Major Nations and Blocs
43
Timeline of Events
44
48
Guiding Questions
49
Further Research
50
Bibliography
52
Chair Introductions
MATHEUS BEVILACQUA
Hello Delegates! Welcome to SPMUN 2016! My name is

Matheus Bevilacqua and it is with great honor that I will be
serving as one of the Chairs for the Security Council in this
years SPMUN. I am currently a senior at the American
School of Campinas and have been participating in MUN
conferences since 8th Grade. I have a true fascination for
MUN and, so far, I have attended a total of 11 MUN
conferences, six of which I have served as a Chair. Outside
of MUN, science, films, and television series are among my
greatest passions. I am also greatly interested in biology and plan on someday
becoming a doctor and being a part of the World Health Organization. If you have
any doubts or concerns, or would simply like to introduce yourself, please do not
hesitate to contact me at 17matheus.bevilacqua@eacstudents.com.br. Good luck
with your preparations and see you soon!
CAROLINA DO NASCIMENTO
Hello, my name is Carolina do Nascimento and I am a

senior in the American School of Brasilia. I am one of the
Security Council chairs and I'm thrilled to be serving in what
I expect to be a fun, intense, and memorable committee at
SPMUN this year.
Apart from leading the MUN program at EAB, I also run the
school newspaper and watch numerous documentaries on
Netflix. Some unique interests of mine include current
environmental implications on the fashion industry and both
19th and 20th century poetry. I am eager to meet you all in this year's edition of
SPMUN and hope that the delegates of the Security Council are as excited and
prepared for high-quality debate as we are. See you soon.
ISABELA SARTORI
My name is Isabela Sartori, I study at The British SchoolBarra da Tijuca, and I will be one of the Security Council
chairs for the SPMUN. There has always been a strong MUN
presence at my school, and after one single conference, as
most delegates will say, I was already completely
passionate about it. The active debate along with the
willingness of so many different students to defend their
arguments and represent a country with ferocity impressed
me immensely. Even though I enjoy MUN as a whole, the
Security Council has always been my personal favourite, as its interesting dynamic,
due to the veto power of the permanent members, and its ability to take immediate
action, make the entire experience seem more realistic.
UN SECURITY COUNCIL
Historical Background & Scope of the Committee

The Security Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations. Its primary
function is the maintenance of international peace and security by means of actions
approved through diplomatic negotiations between member nations and
implemented through the resolutions of the Council. The Security Council
investigates international issues, discusses the gravity of such matters and strives to
reach a solution to those conflicts through diplomatic pressure, imposition of
sanctions, authorization of military force, and assignment of peacekeeping forces
and mediators.
Charged with upholding international peace and security
according to the UN Charter, the UNSC is composed of 5 permanent members who

may choose to exercise veto power and 10 rotating members, elected by the
General Assembly for two-year terms. Its role is of paramount importance for the
neutralization of looming threats of violence and terror as to sustain peace in the
world.
This year, the delegates will be taking two intricate issues neither of which
has been brought to a satisfying conclusion. The answers that will be given, the
decisions that will be reached and the compromises that will be made (if any) will
set a strong and important precedent for the years to come after this meeting.
SPECIAL PROCEDURES
A common misconception is that the P5 members ought to use their vetoes

liberally and at the slightest threat to their national interest. This should not be the
case. The veto should serve as a last resort, and other methods of diplomacy (i.e.
negotiations, submission of Amendments, or simply abstaining from the vote)
should be considered first. Veto votes should only be cast if that specific part of the
Resolution is clearly against the interests of the P5 member and other attempts to
remove or modify it have been unsuccessful.
Additionally, the UNSC has the exclusive option to use the words
Condemns and Demands in addition to all other operative phrases in the
Operative Clauses of its Resolutions.
The stances of the P5 members on major issues brought to the UNSCs
attention are generally well-known. Significant deviation from these stances without
appropriate justification is not encouraged.
Finally, a P5 member abstaining from a vote on a Resolution does not count
as a veto. The veto power is used only in substantive votes on a draft resolution,
and cannot be used to veto procedural matters or amendments.
THE SITUATION IN KOSOVO

Question of the Situation and Status of Kosovo
Topic Description
The turmoil inside Kosovo is one that stems from a long history of conflicts
and currently bases itself on its perplexing status of independence from Serbia,
declared in February 2008 due to haggard relations between its Serb and Albanian
populations. After the declaration, a number of controversial reactions from the
international community left the Kosovar authority autonomous but not fully
recognized as a country. In this aftermath, while Kosovar forces engaged in several
armed conflicts with neighboring opponents to its authority such as Serbia, it has
been receiving numerous military and humanitarian missions from the international
community in an attempt to assuage tensions. In addition, Kosovo has struggled
with its integration into the EU, seeing as five member states do not recognize its
independence. Conversely, 108 UN member states acknowledge the authority as a

nation-state. The torn international situation of Kosovo is heightened by its internal
critical humanitarian crisis, with youth unemployment, human trafficking, and
extreme poverty being only some of the aggravating factors the country has yet to
tackle. Currently administered by the UN, Kosovo still aims to be fully integrated
into the EU and righteously recognized by all countries as its own state. To do that,
however, a number of influential countries, including China and Russia who support
Serbia's stance, have to concede. How can the Security Council, having passed
many resolutions aiming to aid Kosovo in the past, resolve this desperate situation
under agreement of the international community?
INTRODUCTION
Having declared its independence from Serbia in February 2008, the

Republic of Kosovo is a disputed territory and partially recognized state that has
been the center of much of the discussion within the United Nations over the past
decades. Despite Serbias recognition of Kosovos governance of the territory, it still
claims the territory as its own, refusing to acknowledge its complete autonomy and
recognizing the land instead as the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohijia.
The situation in Kosovo represents a complex historical and political
development that continues to challenge the ability of the international community
to maintain peace and security in the region, and it remains the responsibility of the
UN Security Council to deal with such difficulties and encounter the best possible
solutions for resolving the situation at hand.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The history of the dispute over Kosovo is both long and slightly convoluted,
yet it remains essential to understanding the current state of affairs in the region
and the issue as a whole. The relevant history for the region may be divided into
four larger periods: pre-WWII, post-WWII, the disintegration of Yugoslavia, and,
finally, the Kosovo War.
Pre-WWII History
Subsequently to the First Balkan War (1912-13), the Ottoman Empire ceded
the region of Kosovo to the Balkan League; the Kingdom of Serbia took the largest
portion (Eastern Kosovo) while the Kingdom of Montenegro had the western part of
Kosovo annexed to its territory, before both nations joined the Kingdom of
Yugoslavia after the First World War.
During this period, the Serbian majority within the government in Belgrade
moved to reinstate their control over Kosovo by reestablishing a Serb majority
within the chiefly Kosovo-Albanian state. In addition to these, discriminatory policies
were also practiced against the Kosovo Albanians, including the denial of their
rights to receive an education in their own language along with detrimental land
reform policies. Furthermore, agreements between the Yugoslavian and Turkish
governments were also under way to expatriate 240,000 Albanians to Turkey.
Post-WWII History
Following the events of World War II, Yugoslavia moved to establish a
constitution that mandated the formation of the Autonomous Province of Kosovo
and Metohijia, within the republic of Serbia, giving Albanians in these boundaries
and their established government the ability to design and implement their own
policies for the region. In spite of that, tensions between the ethnic Albanians and
the central Yugoslav government continued to rise, emerging mainly from the
political and ideological concerns generated by their relationship with neighboring
Albania, which was seen by Serbs and Montenegrins as a political and security
threat.
In addition to these, the fact that Serbs and Montenegrins maintained control
of most of the government and industry in Kosovo further escalated the already
high
tensions
between
ultimately
culminating
protesting
in
1981
the
in
groups,
Albanians
against
such
concentration of power and demanding

that
Kosovo
become
constituent
republic, alongside the other republics of

Yugoslavia. These protests, however, led
to Yugoslav territorial defense units being
brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared, resulting in both
violence and the protests being crushed.
In the aftermath of these 1981 protests, a number of rights that had been
recently been granted to Albanians were rescinded, culminating, years later, in the
amending of the Serbian Constitution, under Slobodan Milosevi and his harsh
stance towards the Kosovo Albanian, to give the Serbian Assembly exclusive rights
to decide on the powers and mandate of the respective institutions of the nation
and reduce Kosovos autonomy, in turn leading to Kosovo declaring its
independence as a sovereign state in 1991.
Disintegration of Yugoslavia
The disintegration of Yugoslavia had its roots in the aforementioned interethnic tensions in the region, which continued to rise throughout the 1980s. The
disintegration itself is considered by many an open manifestation of these
underlying tensions. Once Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic came into power in
1989, discriminatory policies gained even greater
traction and Kosovos special autonomous status
was drastically reduced. In spite of that, as
separatist parties in the various regions of
Yugoslavia prevailed, nationalist fervor reached
an all time high in 1991. This, coupled with anticommunist and pro-democratic sentiments, saw
the
fall
of
the
Communist
Yugoslavian
government. The Republics of Yugoslavia then began to proclaim independence

and the series of Yugoslav Wars ensued as Milosevic and the government
attempted to maintain the unity of the federation.
The Kosovo War
As a response to Serbia instituting in 1989, under Milosevic's leadership, a
new constitution that revoked Kosovo's status as an autonomous province of Serbia,
Kosovo Albanian leaders organized a referendum in 1991 that declared Kosovo
independent. While Serbia carried
out repressive measures against the
Albanians in the early 1990s the
unofficial Kosovo government, led
by Ibrahim Rugova, used passive
resistance in an attempt to try to
gain international assistance and
recognition
of
Kosovo
as
an
independent state. A numbers of Albanians, however, dissatisfied with Rugova's
passive strategy in the 1990s, established the Kosovo
Liberation Army (KLA),
launching an insurgency.
As a response to this movement, in 1998 Milosevic launched a military
operation in which Serbian military, police, and paramilitary forces conducted brutal
counterinsurgency campaigns that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of
ethnic Albanians (approximately 800,000 Albanians were forced from their homes in
Kosovo during this time).
Attempts by the UN and the international community to mediate the conflict
failed, and Milosevic's rejection of a proposed settlement led to a three-month
NATO military operation against Serbia beginning in March 1999 that forced Serbia
to agree to withdraw its military and
police forces from Kosovo.
Subsequently, in the same year,
the United Nations became responsible
for the administration of the province on
an interim basis through the UN Interim
Administration
Mission
in
Kosovo
(UNMIK), under the terms of UNSC

Resolution 1244, pending a determination of Kosovos future status. While the
resolution reaffirmed Serbias territorial integrity by recognizing Kosovo again as an
autonomous province in the country, the UN interim government was also required
to help Kosovo transition into autonomy. This establishment of a substantial
autonomy and self-government for Kosovo would help in the final settlement of
the contentious area.
CURRENT SITUATION
An UN-led process began in late 2005 to determine Kosovo's final status.

The negotiations ran in stages between 2006 and 2007, but ended without
agreement
between
Belgrade
and
Pristina. On 17 February 2008, the

Kosovo
Assembly
independence
declared
from
Serbia
Kosovos
in
proceeding in Pristina that was boycotted

by the 11 Serb representatives in the
Assembly. Since then, over 108 members
of the United Nations have recognized
10
Kosovo as an independent state, having also joined both the International Monetary
Fund and World Bank.
Following the declaration, violent clashes between the Serbs and Albanians
took place in Kosovo. UN Police and NATO forces had to reinstate order, as the
Serbs had caused considerable unrest in Northern Kosovo - including bombings,
the seizure of the UN Courthouse, and the occupation of border posts. In 2009,
around the same time when the NATO-supervised Kosovo Security Force was
launched, the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) also became
fully functional.
Serbia continues to reject Kosovo's independence, having sought, in
October 2008, an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on
the legality under international law of Kosovo's declaration of independence. Two
years later in July 2010, the ICJ released the advisory opinion affirming that
Kosovo's declaration of independence did not violate general principles of
international law, UN Security Council Resolution 1244, or the Constitutive
Framework. The opinion was closely tailored to Kosovo's unique history and
circumstances.
Since Kosovo declared its independence in 2008, Serbia and Kosovo have
avoided direct interactions, mostly using UNMIK and EULEX as mediators. In 2011,
however, pressure from the international community facilitated some normalization,
where Kosovo and Serbia were able to negotiate directly over issues such as border
control and ethnic clashes. In spite of that, conflicts between the Serb minority and
the Kosovar authorities remained common; in August, road blockades by the Serbs
prevented the flow of trade and necessities through Kosovar borders, leading to EU
forces being mobilized to ferry resources in helicopters to affected communities.
With regard to its economy, since the Kosovo War, Kosovo has displayed low
labor force participation and low employment rates in the region, in an economy
11
saturated with low added

value tertiary sector firms,
which further prevented
measurable
economic
growth. In 2012, however

the
Kosovo
Development
found
that
Human
Report
Kosovos
economic strategy thus

far (specifically pertaining
to job creation and the
expansion of the private
sector) has managed to better assist enterprise creation that encompasses mostly
micro-firms operated by low to medium skilled Kosovars.
As a result of these economic changes in addition to a number of other
successful state-building efforts, the International Steering Group, a group of
nations called upon to oversee Kosovos implementation of the Comprehensive
Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement, ended its mission in Kosovo later that
year, leaving UNMIK, NATO, and EULEX to continue monitoring the region.
In 2013, EU-mediated talks between Kosovo and Serbia resumed, further
encouraging normalization of relations. The talks led to the creation ratification of
the Brussels Agreement. The agreement intended to integrate Serb-majority
municipalities in Northern Kosovo
into the Kosovo legal system,
while making certain provisions,
such as ensuring that Kosovar
Serbs form the majority of certain
judicial panels. It also aimed to
reduce the funding of services and infrastructure by the Belgrade government in
Kosovos Serb enclaves and to stop both parties from blocking each others
progress toward accession into the EU.
Local elections were held later that year, the first since Kosovos declaration
of independence in which the Serbs in Northern Kosovo partake in as well. In spite
of that, the voting process was disrupted by voter intimidation, raids, and violent
attacks, leading to the conducting of a second round of voting, with an average
voter turnout of around 40%. The decent turn-out and considerable success of the
elections were praised by various countries and international bodies, such as the
12
European Union, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the
United States.
Under the Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance for the years of 2007 to
2013, the EU provided Kosovo with 673.9 million in financial assistance, and will
continue to provide an estimated 645.5 million from 2014 to 2020. This sum
would mainly go towards establishing law and order, boosting competitiveness in
the economy, encouraging education and social initiatives, and improving rural
development.
In 2014, although Kosovo displayed an economic growth of 3.4%, no
substantial improvements were observed in labor market conditions; according to
the European Commissions progress report that year, Kosovo must strengthen
fiscal planning and generate more jobs, such as through the facilitation of the
development of the private-sector through improvements in the business
environment. Furthermore, according to the World Bank, Kosovo remains one of
the poorest countries in Europe, with about 30% of its population below the
poverty line and about 12% in extreme poverty.
Kosovo began 2015 with a series of anti-governmental protests, in response
to scathing comments by Member of Parliament Aleksandar Jablanovic, who
offended many Kosovars by insulting a
group mainly consisting of the mothers
of victims of the Kosovo War. He
labelled them as freaks for protesting
outside
Gjakova
the
Orthodox
before
Church
Christmas
in
2014,
sparking a 10000-strong crowd protest

in the citys center. By the end of January, the protests had escalated to a crowd of
50000, turning violent as a result of clashes with the police.
Currently, according to the United Nations Development Program, Kosovos
unemployment rate stands at 35.1%. The rate for citizens between the ages of 15 to
24 years remains 56%, resulting a large numbers of youths emigrating to other parts
of Europe in search of better employment prospects. This large-scale emigration
poses an increasingly significant problem for Kosovo (an estimated 50000 Kosovars
have fled Kosovo since November 2014), as schools grow redundant, and many of
the emigrants end up being deported back, resigned after using up their savings in
their search for asylum.
Today, Kosovo remains a potential candidate for accession to the EU, having
signed a Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA) with the Union. In spite of
13
that, it is the only potential candidate in the Balkans that has been excluded from
the EUs visa liberalization scheme. In spite of it having been biding for membership
since the early 2000s and not having gained full accession yet, it appears to be
making steady progress toward this goal, with international contempt and the
meeting of certain standards set by the EU remaining its two most significant
obstacles in the road to membership.
Firstly, it should be noted that a number of global superpowers such as China
and Russia as well as a number of EU member states do not recognize Kosovos
status as a sovereign nation. The latter group includes larger EU nations such as
Greece and Spain, who contribute a fair amount to the organization. The reluctance
to fully assimilate Kosovo into the EU could stem from wariness regarding the
desires of such nations; upsetting
such global giants and influential EU
members could, on the long run,
prove detrimental for the Union as a
whole. Moreover, the EUs reluctance
in accepting Kosovo may also stem
from the fact the nation has yet to
entirely fulfill the accession requirements for the EU. As outlined by the organization
itself, these include ensuring that minority rights (along with human rights) are
heavily protected in accordance with the UNs Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. Kosovo, while having made significant progress by cracking down on drug
and human trafficking rings within its boundaries, has yet to make further progress
in other areas, including freedom of speech and minority rights.
Relevant Case Studies

Ahtisaari Plan
The Kosovo Status Process in 2005 was initiated by UNSC Resolution 1244
following the end of the Kosovo War. It was led by then UN Special Envoy and
former Finnish President, Martti Ahtisaari. The status settlement proposal made
various provisions for Kosovo that implied recognizing its statehood, though
without explicitly mentioning the term independence.
14
In the plan, Kosovar municipalities with a Serb majority would be granted

some self-rule in issues pertaining to healthcare, education, and social policies.
Other than providing for minority rights in society and political representation, it
sought to create a multi-ethnic and secular democracy with an open-market
economy.
Under the assumption that Kosovo and Serbia aim to resolve the conflict
non-violently, Ahtisaari laid out certain conditions:
1. The recognition of Kosovos independence (or lack thereof) should be
separated from the issue of regularizing life in Kosovo,
2. Kosovo retains political and territorial integrity, including over North Kosovo,
3. Serb-majority municipalities in Northern Kosovo maintain their local
administration and institutions,
4. The aforementioned institutions get to function as Serbian municipalities for
practical purposes,
5. There is consistency between self-rule in certain municipalities and national
frameworks,
6. Kosovar Serbs accept the responsibility of being Kosovo citizens,
7. Issues not covered in this plan should be resolved in a manner consistent with
the conditions here,
8. A foreign presence is required in Northern Kosovo until the region stabilizes.
The plan was rejected by Serbia for supposedly violating the UN Charter, and
was eventually discarded, even though it had been implemented to a small extent
in southern Kosovo and used as a general guide for Kosovos policymaking.
It was later adapted by Boris Tadic, the third President of Serbia, in his fivepoint presidential plan, yet was dismissed by the Kosovar Serbs in Northern Kosovo
due to the fact that it proposed Serbia would recognize Kosovos independence in
exchange for Kosovos government allowing for special protection of its Serb
minority.
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)
UNMIK was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244,

and is mandated to help ensure conditions for a peaceful and normal life for all
inhabitants of Kosovo and advance regional stability in the Western Balkans.
15
Its duties are in the areas of law and order, civil administration,
democratization, and economic development. While its efforts were extensive
following the Kosovo War, including facilitating the electoral process and
overseeing the establishment of the Kosovo Police Force, most of its powers were
handed over to the Kosovo Assembly following Kosovos declaration of
independence and the adoption of a new constitution in 2008. The transition of
authority from UNMIK to EULEX was limited in Serb-majority municipalities, due to
the Serbs opposition of EU presence. Currently, UNMIKs main duty in Kosovo is to
strengthen communication channels among the various levels of authorities in every
community.
European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX)
EULEX was launched under the EUs Common Security and Defense Policy in
2008, and its mandate has been recently extended to June 2018. Like UNMIK,
EULEX is legally based on UNSC Resolution 1244, and remains neutral.
During its initial deployment, it focused on law enforcement and the
implementation of democratic standards. Later on, its Special Investigative Task
Force, having been accused by Amnesty International for the lack of investigative
efforts, pursued the allegations that certain Kosovar politicians had engaged in
criminal activities such as organ theft. After reaching full operational capacity in
2009, EULEX prosecutors have been involved in over 2000 criminal cases. Aside
from judicial proceedings, EULEX also interacts with the communities on the
ground, and engages in seminars and other educational activities, such as the
Domestic Violence Seminar in North Mitrovica, where it has set up an office to
monitor the implementation of policies and initiatives in Northern Kosovo.
Other than operating in Kosovo, EULEX has also provided aid to Serbia,
especially during the floods, when it delivered food, water, and other necessities
such as electricity generators, and aided in victim extraction, evacuation, and
immediate rehabilitation of affected areas.
The International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), after being sought by the Serbian
government in 2008 for an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovos declaration
of independence, found it to not have violated international law. In other words,
Kosovos declaration of independence was not deemed illegal and no enforced
action had to be taken against Kosovo at that point in time.
16
The court ruled this in a 10-4 decision, on the grounds that the declaration (1)
in no way violated general principles of international law, (2) at no point in the
process violated any UNSC resolutions on the matter, in particular resolution 1244,
since its final political status had not actually been decided by the Council, and (3)
did not exceed the authority given to them by the Constitutional Framework.
Past UN Actions
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1160 (31 March 1998)
Upon the first outbreak of armed conflict, the members of the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC) gathered to call the parties involved to engage in the
relevant measures to achieve a peaceful solution, through the facilitation of
dialogue. The document also condemned the use of force by Serbian police against
civilians in Kosovo and the acts of terrorism committed by the Kosovo Liberation
Army. An arms embargo was also placed on Kosovo.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1199 (23 September 1998)
Given the lack of a cease fire or attempts to look toward a peaceful solution, the
UNSC passed Resolution 1199. It expressed concern about the excessive use of
arms and force, the escalation of violence, and serious human rights infringements
in the conflict, calling for another cease fire.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1203 (24 October 1998)
Recalling resolutions 1160 and 1199, this resolution called for the compliance of
Yugoslavia in the OSCE Verification Mission in Kosovo and the NATO Air
Verification Mission over Kosovo. The need for this was brought about by the
Gornje Obrinje massacre that took place in Kosovo in spite of the previous two
resolutions.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1239 (14 May 1999)
In response to the developments of the Kosovo War that saw thousands of Kosovar
refugees flocking to Macedonia, the UNSC moved to pass Resolution 1239. It
acknowledged the refugee situation and provided access to humanitarian aid and
17
relief for those affected by the conflict. It also called for help to be directed toward
internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the conflict. Finally, the document reaffirmed
the territorial integrity of the countries in the region and emphasized the need to
implement the principles adopted by the Foreign Ministers of G-8 on 6 May 1999
(some of the principles were: end of violence in Kosovo; withdrawal from Kosovo of
military, police and paramilitary forces; deployments in Kosovo of international civil
and security presence; establishment of an interim administration for Kosovo
decided by the Security Council of the United Nations; free and safe return of all
refugees to Kosovo; demilitarization of Kosovo Liberation Army; a political process
towards the establishment of an interim political framework agreement providing for
a substantial self-government for Kosovo).
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 (10 June 1999)
Following the inability of all prior actions taken by the Council to secure peace,
Resolution 1244 was passed, establishing the United Nations Mission in Kosovo
(UNMIK). This was done in an attempt to secure and enforce the withdrawal of
armed forces sent in by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Serbia as well as to
assure the demilitarization of the Kosovo Liberation Army and other armed Kosovo
Albanian groups, and in doing so bring an end to the conflict. The effectiveness of
the mission, however, has been questioned by many, given that it was only after an
intervention by NATO that the central government took a peaceful settlement with
the Albanians into consideration.
Positions of Major Nations and Blocs

EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
By mid-2016, a total of 23 out of 28 EU member states have recognized

Kosovo as a sovereign state, with the exception of Slovakia, Spain, Romania,
Greece, and Cyprus. Most EU members engage in trade and possess diplomatic
relations with Kosovo.
Meanwhile, Kosovo continues its EU enacted Stabilization Tracking
Mechanism (STM) program, aiming to gradually integrate and align its legal,
18
economic, and social policies with that of the EU, in a bid to one day qualify for EU
membership and gain the acceptance of other member states.
The EU also engages with Kosovo through actions taken under the umbrella
of the UNMIK. These mainly pertain to the deployment of police and civilian
resources to aid in ensuring security in the region. Various members, such as France
and the United Kingdom, had played key roles in supporting Kosovo in its path to
independence and international recognition. Some members, including Germany
and Italy, partook in the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia as well as the following
peacekeeping missions in Kosovo.
Making up a significant proportion of the countries to first recognize
Kosovos independence, a number of EU members have demonstrated and
continue to demonstrate a firm stance toward Kosovos recognition as an
independent sovereign state.
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO)
NATOs involvement with Kosovo dates back to 1998, when it issued an

ultimatum to Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic to halt a crackdown on Kosovo
Albanians. Later, in 1999, after attempts by the UN and the international community
to mediate the conflict failed and Milosevic rejected a proposed settlement, NATO
launched a series of air strikes against Serbia, lasting for 78 days before Belgrade
yielded and agreed to withdraw its military and police forces from Kosovo.
As a result, hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees poured into
neighboring countries, telling of massacres and forced expulsions which followed
the start of the NATO campaign.
In the same year, UN Security Council Resolution 1244 mandated that an
international security presence be deployed in Kosovo to deter renewed hostilities,
maintain and where necessary enforce a ceasefire, and provide for a safe and secure
environment. This presence was provided by the "Kosovo Force" (KFOR)
composed of more than 30 national military contingents from NATO allies and
partner countries under the command of NATO. Today, KFOR remains in the region
to provide a safe and secure environment and support the Kosovo Security Force
(KSF).
Out of NATOs 28 member states, 24 recognize Kosovo as an independent
state, with the exception of Slovakia, Romania, Spain, and Greece.
19
THE BALKANS
Most of the Balkan states recognize Kosovos independence from Serbia,

with the exception of Greece and Romania, with Bosnia and Herzegovina having
presented a mixed reaction although being generally in favor (with the exception of
the Serbs in its government).
Greece, in spite of not having recognized Kosovos independence, has
supported Kosovos integration into various international and intergovernmental
organizations, while Romania partook in NATOs peacekeeping missions in Kosovo.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The United States has had a long history of interventions in the region, made
most evident by its involvement in the region throughout the Yugoslav Wars. The
actions taken by the U.S. in its NATO campaigns in Kosovo without the approval of
the UNSC have been perceived by some as acts of aggression rather actions taken
to achieve the declared purpose of maintaining a safe and secure environment and
freedom of movement for all of Kosovos citizens, yet in present times the U.S.
aims to aid Kosovo in the establishment of social and political stability, democracy,
the rule of law, and economic viability.
In light of the Yugoslav Wars and the U.S.s recognition of Kosovos
independence, U.S.-Serbia relations have soured considerably; following the
recognition, while Kosovars honored the United States efforts in its NATO missions
by naming streets after prominent American politicians, Serbs set fire to the
American Embassy in Belgrade.
RUSSIA AND CHINA
Russia and China both back Serbia, and are likely to block Kosovos
membership to the United Nations. Both countries have presented strong
opposition to NATOs campaigns in Kosovo. Both nations firm stance against
Kosovos recognition lie, as does that of a number of other nations with a similar
position, on a strong belief in the inviolability of national sovereignty and in the
invalidity of unilateral declarations of independence under international law. In
addition, many argue, both countries opposition also stems from the fear of
establishing precedent and facilitating the secession of regions within their own
territories that would also be interested in gaining independence.
Both Russia and China have deepened relations with Serbia in recent years.
Belgrade and Moscow have signed various agreements pertaining to political and
20
economic partnerships, and are strong trade partners, especially with regard to
fuel, energy, and raw materials. Similarly, China enjoys strong political and
economic relations with Serbia. The Pupin Bridge, a Sino-Serbian venture
constructed by the China Road and Bridge Corporation that spans across the
Danube, is a symbol of Chinas increased economic and political interest and
activity in the Balkans, and especially in Serbia. Beijing and Belgrade have signed
various joint agreements, pertaining to strategic partnerships, finance, and other
bilateral matters.
Timeline of Events
12th century: Kosovo lies at the heart of the Serbian empire, under the Nemanjic dynasty.
The period sees the building of many Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries.
1389 (June 28): Epic Battle of Kosovo heralds 500 years of Turkish Ottoman rule. Over the
ensuing decades many Christian Serbs leave the region. Over the centuries the religious
and ethnic balance tips in favor of Muslims and Albanians.
1689-90: Austrian invasion is repelled.
1912: Balkan Wars: Serbia regains control of Kosovo from the Turks, recognized by 1913
Treaty of London.
1918: Kosovo becomes part of the kingdom of Serbia.
1941: World War II: Much of Kosovo becomes part of an Italian-controlled greater Albania.
1946: Kosovo is absorbed into the Yugoslav federation.
1960s: Belgrade shows increasing tolerance for Kosovan autonomy.
1974: Yugoslav constitution recognizes the autonomous status of Kosovo, giving the
province de facto self-government.
1981: Troops suppress separatist rioting in the province.
1987: In a key moment in his rise to power, future president Slobodan Milosevic rallies a
crowd of Kosovo Serbs, who are protesting against alleged harassment by the majority
Albanian community.
1989: Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic proceeds to strip rights of autonomy laid
down in the 1974 constitution.
21
1990 (July): Ethnic Albanian leaders declare independence from Serbia. Belgrade dissolves
the Kosovo government.
1990 (September): Sacking of more than 100,000 ethnic Albanian workers, including
government employees and media workers, prompts general strike.
1991: Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia break away from Yugoslavia and declare their
independence.
1992: War breaks out in the Balkans.
1992 (July): An academic, Ibrahim Rugova, is elected president of the self-proclaimed
republic.
1993-97: Ethnic tension and armed unrest escalate.
1998 (March-September): Open conflict between Serb police and separatist Kosovo
Liberation Army (KLA). Serb forces launch a brutal crackdown. Civilians are driven from their
homes.
1998 (September): NATO gives an ultimatum to President Milosevic to halt the crackdown
on Kosovo Albanians.
NATO INTERVENTION
1999 (March): Internationally-brokered peace talks fail.
NATO launches air strikes against Yugoslavia lasting 78 days before Belgrade yields.
Hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees pour into neighboring countries,
telling of massacres and forced expulsions which followed the start of the NATO campaign.
1999 (June) President Milosevic agrees to withdraw troops from Kosovo. NATO calls off air
strikes. The UN sets up a Kosovo Peace Implementation Force (KFOR) and NATO forces
arrive in the province. The KLA agrees to disarm. Serb civilians flee revenge attacks.
2002 (February): Ibrahim Rugova is elected as president by the Kosovan parliament after
ethnic Albanian parties reach a power-sharing deal. Bajram Rexhepi becomes prime
minister.
2003 (October): First direct talks between Serbian and Kosovo Albanian leaders since 1999.
2003 (December): UN sets out conditions for final status talks in 2005.
MITROVICA CLASHES
2004 (March): 19 people are killed in the worst clashes between Serbs and ethnic Albanians
since 1999. The violence started in the divided town of Mitrovica.
22
2004 (October): President Rugova's pro-independence Democratic League tops poll in

general election, winning 47 seats in 120-seat parliament. Poll is boycotted by Serbs.
2004 (December): Parliament re-elects President Rugova and elects former rebel
commander Ramush Haradinaj as prime minister. Mr. Haradinaj's party had entered into a
coalition with the president's Democratic League.
2005 (February): Serbian President Boris Tadic visits, promises to defend rights of Serbs in
Kosovo.
2005 (March): Mr. Haradinaj indicted to face UN war crimes tribunal in The Hague, resigns
as prime minister. He is succeeded by Bajram Kosumi.
President Rugova unhurt when explosion rocks convoy of vehicles in which he is travelling
through Pristina.
2005 (July): Nearly-simultaneous blasts go off near UN, OSCE and Kosovo parliament
buildings in Pristina. No-one is hurt.
2005 (August): Two Serbs shot dead and two injured when their car is fired at.
2006 (January): President Rugova dies in Pristina after losing his battle with lung cancer. He
is succeeded in February by Fatmir Sejdiu.
2006 (February): UN-sponsored talks on the future status of Kosovo begin.
2006 (March): Prime Minister Kosumi resigns following criticism of his performance from
within his own party. He is succeeded by former KLA commander Agim Ceku.
2006 (July): First direct talks since 1999 between ethnic Serbian and Kosovan leaders on
future status of Kosovo take place in Vienna.
2006 (October): Voters in a referendum in Serbia approve a new constitution which declares
that Kosovo is an integral part of the country. Kosovo's Albanian majority boycotts the
ballot and UN sponsored talks on the future of the disputed province continue.
INDEPENDENCE PLAN
2007 (February): United Nations envoy Martti Ahtisaari unveils a plan to set Kosovo on a
path to independence, which is immediately welcomed by Kosovo Albanians and rejected
by Serbia.
2007 (July): US and European Union redraft UN resolution to drop promise of
independence at Russian insistence, replacing it with pledge to review situation if there is
no breakthrough after four proposed months of talks with Serbia.
2007 (November): Hashim Thaci emerges as winner in general elections.
23
2008 (February): Kosovo declares independence. Serbia says declaration illegal. Europe's
major powers and the United States recognize independence.
2008 (March): Serb opponents of independence seize a UN courthouse in Mitrovica, and
more than 100 people are injured in subsequent clashes with UN and NATO forces. A UN
police officer is killed.
NEW CONSTITUTION
2008 (April): Parliament adopts new constitution.
2008 (June): New constitution transfers power to majority ethnic Albanian government after
nine years of UN rule. Kosovo Serbs set up their own rival assembly in Mitrovica.
2008 (October): The UN General Assembly votes to refer Kosovo's independence
declaration to the International Court of Justice.
2008 (December): European Union mission (EULEX) takes over police, justice and customs
services from UN. Serbia accepts EU mission.
Serbia arrests 10 former ethnic Albanian rebel fighters suspected of war crimes, including
murder and rape, prompting protests from Kosovo.
2009 (January): New multi-ethnic Kosovo Security Force launched under NATO supervision,
replacing a unit dominated by veterans of independence campaign against Serbia.
2009 (February): UN war crimes tribunal in The Hague acquits former Serbian President
Milan Milutinovic of charges that he ordered a campaign of terror against Kosovo Albanians
in the 1990s.
2009 (April): Serbian President Boris Tadic makes rare visit to Kosovo, coinciding with the
deadline for parties to submit arguments to the International Court of Justice on the legality
of Kosovo's declaration of independence.
2009 (August): Ethnic clashes break out in Mitrovica.
2009 (November): First post-independence local elections.
2010 (May): Serbs hold local elections in two Serb-controlled districts in northern Kosovo.
The vote sparks violent protests in the divided town of Mitrovica.
UN RULING
2010 (July): The Hague War Crimes Tribunal orders new trial for former PM Ramush
Haradinaj and two other ex-members of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) on charges of
war crimes, saying that an earlier trial was marred by witness intimidation.
24
The International Court of Justice rules that Kosovo's declaration of independence from
Serbia in 2008 was not illegal under international law, in response to a complaint from
Serbia that it had violated its territorial integrity.
2010 (September): President Fatmir Sejdiu resigns after court rules that he breached the
constitution by staying in a party post while in office.
2010 (October): Caretaker president Jakup Krasniqi calls early general election for February
2011. Fatmir Sejdiu's Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK) pulls out of governing coalition.
2010 (November): Parliament passes vote of no-confidence in minority government.
Election date brought forward to 12 December.
2010 (December): PM Hashim Thaci's Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) wins narrow
majority in parliamentary election.
Council of Europe publishes report alleging that Kosovo Liberation Army rebels then led by
Mr. Thaci were involved in organ trafficking and other crimes after 1999 conflict with Serbia.
Mr. Thaci rejects the allegations.
2011 (February): Kosovo-Swiss tycoon Behgjet Pacolli becomes president after winning
narrow majority in third round of voting in parliament. Hashim Thaci is re-appointed as
prime minister.
TALKS WITH SERBIA
2011 (March): Serbia and Kosovo begin direct talks to try end their dispute - their first talks
since Kosovo broke away from Serbia.
President Pacolli steps down after the high court rules parliament had not been in quorum
during his election. Parliament elects senior police officer Atifete Jahjaga to be Kosovo's
first female president in April.
2011 (July - October): Violence as Serbs resist efforts of Kosovo government to impose its
authority.
2011 (December): Kosovo and Serbia reach agreement on regulating border crossings.
Nonetheless, tension rises as the European Union's Eulex mission blocks a Russian aid
convoy to Serbian-dominated northern Kosovo on the Serbian border, saying it must accept
a Eulex escort or enter via a Kosovo government-controlled crossing.
2012 (September): The group of 23 EU countries, the US and Turkey overseeing Kosovo
since 2008 end its supervisory role over the government, although Nato-led peacekeepers
and EU rule-of-law monitors remain.
2012 (October): Kosovo Prime Minister Hashim Thaci and his Serbian counterpart Ivica
Dacic meet in Brussels for the first direct political contact between the two governments
since Kosovo proclaimed independence in 2008.
25
EU auditors say the EU police mission in Kosovo is inefficient and Kosovo itself remains
plagued by organized crime and corruption.
2012 (November): Former PM Ramush Haradinaj is acquitted for a second time by The
Hague War Crimes Tribunal.
NORMALIZATION
2013 (January): EU-mediated talks resume between Kosovo and Serbia days after
parliament in Belgrade approves support for minority Serb rights within Kosovo.
2013 (April): Kosovo and Serbia reach a landmark agreement on normalizing relations that
grants a high degree of autonomy to Serb-majority areas in northern Kosovo, while both
sides agree not to block each other's efforts to seek EU membership.
2013 (June): The EU gives the green light to the opening of talks with Kosovo on an
association agreement.
2013 (September): Gunmen in a Serb-majority area kill a member of the EU police force the first deadly attack on the mission since its creation.
2013 (November): The Kosovo government holds the first local elections supported by
Serbia since the 2008 declaration of independence, but a re-run is ordered in ethnic Serb
areas after masked men damage ballot boxes.
2014 (February): A war crimes court in Serbia finds nine members of a paramilitary unit
guilty of killing more than 100 ethnic Albanian civilians during the conflict in Kosovo fifteen
years ago.
2014 (May): Early election called for June after a plan to create a 5,000-strong national army
stalls due to a boycott of parliamentary proceedings by Serb-minority MPs.
INCONCLUSIVE ELECTION
2014 (June): Parliamentary elections give inconclusive result that leads to six months of
political deadlock.
2015 (June): Former PM and wartime commander Ramush Haradinaj is briefly detained in
the Slovene capital Ljubljana on the basis of a 2006 Interpol arrest warrant issued at the
request of Serbia.
*The timeline above contains extracts from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18331273
26

INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSON (IDP)
Internally displaced people, according to the UNHCR, are vulnerable persons who
have been forced to flee their home because of political or religious persecution or
a hostile environment, caused by a war for instance. They "stay within their own
country and remain under the protection of its government, even if that government
is the reason for their displacement."
INSTRUMENT FOR PRE-ACCESSION ASSISTANCE (IPA)
The IPA is a mechanism in the EU utilized for the sole purpose of funding EU
candidate countries and potential candidates, the latter category being that of
Kosovo.
SLOBODAN MILOSEVIC
A Serbian politician (1941-2006) who served as the president of Serbia from 1989 to
1997 and of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1997 through 2000. In 2002, a
United Nations criminal court charged Milosevic with crimes against humanity and
genocide, but the respondent passed away before the trial came to an end.
UN MISSION IN KOSOVO (UNMIK)
From 1999 through June 2008, the UN Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) administered
Kosovo until the authority's declaration of independence was implemented and the
constitution was firstly enforced. Through its work, the mission sought to create
autonomy and instruct self-governance and aid Kosovo with diminishing conflicts
that surrounded it, with actions such as initiating talks with Belgrade.
RAMBOUILLET ACCORDS
Drafted by NATO, the Rambouillet Accords was a peace agreement between

Yugoslavia and the Albanian population in Kosovo. Yugoslavia declined the
proposal outlined in the agreement, which included provisions too distant from
what was accepted under Serbian/Yugoslavian law.
27
KOSOVO LIBERATION ARMY (KLA)
The KLA is a Kosovar militant group formed during the 1990s to confront Serbia in
Kosovo's battle for independence.
NATO KOSOVO FORCE (KFOR)
Created in the UNSC Resolution 1244, the KFOR was created to become an
international security initiative to be present in Kosovo in order to retain any and all
hostilities. The military presence was composed of 50 nationalities, including NATO
members and partner countries. The aim is to continuously maintain and force
ceasefires when needed, provide a safe and secure scene and support the local
Kosovo Security Force (KSF). In fact, as of 2010, NATO had been issuing downsizing
instructions for two years for KFOR, as the group was able to significantly increase
safety in the region.
IBRAHIM RUGOVA
The first president of the Republic of Kosovo, Ibrahim Rugova, was in office from
1992 to 2006. He witnessed Kosovar resistance to Yugoslavia during the Kosovo
War.
EU RULE OF LAW MISSION IN KOSOVO (EULEX)
The EU Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX), aligned with the Ahtisaari Plan, has
the objective of monitoring and mentoring Kosovo law enforcement, including the
police force, justice branch and customs officers. Having the contribution of the
United Stated, EULEX is an external action by the EU aims to also capacitate
Kosovar authorities in judicial, prosecutorial and investigative areas inside its
amateur rule of law institutions.
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (ICJ)
Established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations, the International
Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). Its
role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to it
by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by
authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.
After being sought by the Serbian government in 2008 for an advisory opinion on
the legality of Kosovos declaration of independence, the ICJ found it to not have
28
violated international law. In other words, Kosovos declaration of independence

was not deemed illegal and no enforced action had to be taken against Kosovo at
that point in time.
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC)
The International Criminal Court (ICC), sited in The Hague, is "the court of last
resort for prosecution of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity"
according to the Human Rights Watch. Instances of war crimes involving Kosovo
that went under the ICC's jurisdiction include the Milosevic and Milutinovic cases.
INTERNATIONAL STEERING GROUP FOR KOSOVO (ISG)
In 2008, 25 nations that recognized Kosovo's independence formed the

International Steering Group, a coalition of nations with the intent of overseeing the
implementation of the Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement.
These member states also contributed with personnel to staff International Civilian
Office (ICO) in 2007 and in 2012, the ISG ended its mandate and rendered Kosovo
responsibility for its government.
OSCE MISSION IN KOSOVO (OMIK)
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Mission in Kosovo
(OMiK) seeks to run the progress of democratic institutions and civic input in
decision-making, as well as the awareness of human rights protection and the rule
of law inside the Kosovar authority.
COMPREHENSIVE PROPOSAL FOR THE KOSOVO STATUS SETTLEMENT
This proposal, also referred to as the Ahtisaari Plan, consists of protective methods
for the rights, identity and culture of Kosovo's non-Albanian communities. The plan
also suggests that Kosovo be recognized and independent while subject to a period
of international supervision. In its 2008 declaration of independence, the Kosovo
Assembly agreed to abide to the Ahtisaari Plan and is currently on the process of
acquisition of several parts of the outlined framework. Provisions set out by the
Settlement include systems of multi-ethnic democracy, minority rights and
participation, an integrated justice system, a plan for economic development and
international presence in Kosovo.
29
BRUSSELS AGREEMENT
In April of 2013, Serbia and the Kosovar authority signed an agreement to normalize
their relations and to also shape conditions for devolution of northern Kosovo and
its Serb inhabitants. The agreement also entails a pathway towards EU membership.
BALKANS
Term derived from the Balkan Peninsula and used to refer to the southeastern
region of Europe.
Guiding Questions
1. How would solving the humanitarian emergency in Kosovo assist in the
authority's socio-economic status and potential recognition as a country?
2. Taking into account past and current failed missions to Kosovo from the
international community, what other methods should be put in practice to
help the region recover from its many wars?
3. What further actions can be taken by the Kosovar authority to gain full
sovereignty? How can its 2008 declaration of independence be potentially
modified to that end?
30
4. How should the Kosovar government plan and act towards the goal of being
integrated into the EU?
5. To what extent does Kosovo's membership in the IMF and the World Bank
prove its credibility to become a nation-state?
6. At this point in time, what disqualifies Kosovo as a nation-state under
international law and how should the opposition seek to maintain these?
7. Consider if the EU benefits more from accepting Kosovo as a member state
or countering the position of several European nations against the
integration.
8. To what extent should countries contrary to Kosovo's recognition play a role
in the scope of international law (i.e. decision of the ICJ and UN)?
9. How can the Kosovar recognition incentivize separatist sentiments in
distressed regions around the world? Consider how that trigger may be
halted.
Areas Resolutions Should Aim to Address

A comprehensive resolution should generally address the political, economic
and social nuances of the issue. Despite the somewhat obvious political and
economic turmoil, much of the social issues Kosovars face remain hidden, such as
the spike in human trafficking and asylum seekers, disuse and ill maintenance of
public facilities, and low morale amongst its youth in light of high unemployment
rates and rampant poverty. However, the resolution should not interfere too directly
with national policy making.
It should also address whether it is believed that Kosovos actions up until
this pointthat is, following the release of the ICJs advisory opinion in 2010are
all sufficient for it to constitute as a nation under to international law. Delegates
should consider the grounds for which such a status was rejected by other nations.
Then, they should also move on to consider whether such a recognition will in turn
legitimize separatist tendencies in other parts of the world, should such separatist
groups believe the rule they are under to be illegitimate and inhumane.
31
Nation should also thereafter consider how to integrate Kosovo into both the
EU and the international community. Though a member of various international
organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund, Kosovo still faces difficulties
and opposition joining certain organizations, such as the EU, which may hinder
much-needed development for the region.
Further Research
For in-depth description of the Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status
Settlement.
http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/101244.htm
For detail on the international-supported missions in Kosovo.
http://www.state.gov/p/eur/ci/kv/c27789.htm
About EULEX
http://www.eulex-kosovo.eu/?page=2,44
About OMIK
http://www.osce.org/kosovo/
About UNMIK
http://www.unmikonline.org/pages/default.aspx
UN Briefing on Specific Actions in Kosovo

http://www.un.org/en/events/tenstories/08/kosovo.shtml
UN Documents on Kosovo
http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/kosovo/
SERBIA-KOSOVO RELATIONS
Serbia and Kosovo sign historic agreement. The Guardian.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/30/serbia-kosovo-historicagreement-brussel
Kosovo: Crisis Over Serbia Deepens. The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/19/world/europe/kosovo-crisis-overserbia-deepens.html
32
Kosovo: Current and Future Status. United States Institute of Peace.

http://www.usip.org/publications/kosovo-current-and-future-status
NATO's role, as stated by NATO, in Kosovo
http://www.nato.int/kosovo/history.htm
VIEWS OF NATO'S INVOLVEMENT IN KOSOVO
Was NATOs Intervention in Kosovo in 1999 Just?. E-International Relations

Students.
http://www.e-ir.info/2013/06/21/was-natos-intervention-in-kosovo-in1999-just/
NATO's "Humanitarian War" Over Kosovo. Columbia University.
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/sipa/S6800/courseworks/NATOhumanitaria
n.pdf
INTERNATIONAL VIEW AND INVOLVEMENT IN KOSOVO NOWADAYS
How Kosovo Was Turned Into Fertile Ground for ISIS

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/22/world/europe/how-the-saudisturned-kosovo-into-fertile-ground-for-isis.html
KOSOVO AND EU INSERTION
European Commission Progress Report: Kosovo 2015

http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2015/20151110_re
port_kosovo.pdf
European Commission Progress Report: Kosovo 2014
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2014/20141008kosovo-progress-report_en.pdf
KOSOVO'S LONG LASTING HUMANITARIAN CATASTROPHE
A Reporter Returns to Kosovo, 15 Years Later. The New York Times.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/24/insider/a-reporter-returns-tokosovo-15-years-later.htm
33
Kosovo: The day I was left without my mother. Amnesty International News.
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/09/kosovo-the-day-i-wasleft-without-my-mother/
Human Rights Watch: Serbia and Kosovo.
https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/serbia/kosovo
34
Bibliography
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18328859
https://www.theguardian.com/world/kosovo
http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/kosovo/
http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2016-05/kosovo_15.php
http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/kosovo/
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kv.html
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34059497
http://iacenter.org/bosnia/bkgndyug.htm
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/kosovo_back.htm
http://www.nato.int/kosovo/history.htm
http://www.historytoday.com/robert-bideleux/kosovos-conflict
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/kosovo/305008.stm
http://www.un.org/en/events/tenstories/08/kosovo.shtml
35
THE KURDS
Question of the Autonomy and Rights of the Kurds in the Middle East
Topic Description
Kurdistan: a fantastical nation pulled apart by history and a vibrant, strong
culture brought together by its people. The Worker's Party, The Democratic Party,
The Kurdish People's Defense Unita culture torn apart by political and military
interests. Kurdish people have, ever since the 1920's, been fractionated into
different nationalities inside countries of the same region. Iraqi, Turkish, and Syrian
Kurds are some denominations, as are those qualified by factions of Islam: Sunni,
Shia, and Yazidi. Nowadays, the political environment of Kurdistan (comprehending
36
northeastern Syria, northern Iraq, western Iran and southeastern Turkey) consists of
unrest and war; the region finds itself in the midst of clashing political parties,
pressure of external alliances, the threat of terrorism and the peril of international
attack at any time. The economic situation is also under distress, as Kurdistan
manages oil ducts but finds itself in a US$18bn debt. What is the Kurdish
administration to do at this time of turmoil? How is Kurdistan to reach its desired
sovereignty in the Middle East, and who is there to help?
INTRODUCTION
The Kurdish conflict is far from new, as a matter of fact, this ethnic group,
which is comprised of more than 30 million people, has been actively fighting for
autonomy for decades. Their continuous unity has caused tension with the countries
they currently reside on, which are mainly Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria. There, the
Kurds are persecuted as a group, for example during the Kurdish genocide of 1986,
which fuels their desire to unite in order to protect themselves. As this wish to
separate deepens, groups such as the PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party), which
originated in Turkey, have made it their goal to declare an independent state,
Kurdistan.
Their actions have been fought against by the Turkish government, with both
parties being accused of uncalled for aggression. The question of whether the PKK
should be considered a terrorist organization by
the United Nations, is one which has yet to be
decided upon.
Differently, in Iraq, after much tension,
since 1970 Iraqi Kurdistan has been established,
however its existence wasnt able to impede
atrocities committed against Kurds, especially
when Saddam Hussein was in power, which was
until the US led invasion of the country.
Not only is their autonomy to be debated,
the imminent terrorist threat of the Islamic State
37
must be considered, being that the Kurds are an integral part of the fight against
them, especially after the major withdrawal of Iraqi forces in 2014.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The Kurds have been conquered by several leaders since the seventh
century, when a tiresome battle for respect and acceptance emerged. After the end
of WWI, with the input of the then President of the United States Woodrow Wilson,
the 1920 Treaty of Svres was proposed to manage the territory of the Ottoman
Empire, following its collapse. This treaty was to grant the Kurds an autonomous
state, Kurdistan, however it was rejected and replaced by the 1923 Treaty of
Lausanne, which instead split the territory in question between the neighbouring
Iraq, Syria and Turkey.
Therefore, the people who were once to comprise a Kurdish nation, were
obliged to scatter themselves between their neighbouring countries, becoming
minorities, and consequently being oppressed by their rulers, fuelling much hatred
amongst the Kurds. Soon, riots against the governmental authority of these
countries arose, firstly in 1925 in
Turkey, and then in 1946 in Iraq, with
the creation of the Mahabad Republic.
Both of these were crushed by their
respective governments. During which
time, in Turkey the rights of the
Kurdish people were being completely
stripped away, with their language and
traditional costumes being prohibited
beyond the confines of their own homes, away from any form of mass media, such
as press or radio.
The tensions heightened in Iraq, as the fall of the Mahabad Republic gave
way to the formation of the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP), with Mustafa Barzani as
its leader, in 1946. The goal of fighting to finally execute the plan for Kurdistan
became the main focus of the Party, who after building up forces, were able to rise
against the military leader at the time, Abd al-Karim Qasim. This came after an
extended period of relative ease in Iraq. Qasim chose force to resolve the issue,
beginning a full military campaign against Kurdish forces, which are called the
Peshmerga. Nowadays, these forces are highly responsible for fighting against the
Islamic State, and their atrocities in the region. After years of tension, in 1971 an
38
agreement was finally reached, allowing for the creation of the independent state of
Iraqi Kurdistan.
At the time however, the KDP in Iraq began searching for profitable lands
which would give them the opportunity to develop and enrichen their people,
preferably ones full of oil. Upon setting their eyes on Kirkurk, a traditionally Kurdish
province, the Kurds received support from the United States and their ally, Iran. This
occurred due to the Cold War, which meant
the Western powers did not trust the leftleaning Iraqi government, backing the KDP
as a way of destabilizing them. However,
soon the Baghdad government agreed to
favour the American ally, Iran, by allowing
them increased control of the Shatt al-Arab
river, thus ending the western support to the
Kurds, and ending their revolt by starving them of supplies.
Meanwhile, in Turkey, the continued mistreatment of the Kurdish population,
which also include expelling them from their homes, and placing them into poorer
northern areas of the country, amount to the creation of the PKK (Kurdistan
Workers Party) in 1978 by Abdullah Ocalan (who was captured and sentenced to
death by Turkish forces in 1999, however
he remains imprisoned in Turkey, and from
there publishes several books and remains
actively engaged in the conflict). The party
has Marxist-Lenist roots, and officially
began an armed struggle with the Turkish
government
in
1984,
beginning
paramilitary action focused on not only

governmental targets, but also civilian ones. In the late 90s, the party gave up its
quest for independence, however continued to fight to gain more autonomy within
the country.
In 1980, another conflict began in the Middle east, this time between Iraq
and Iran, a war which was to last 8 years. In Iraq, the Kurds did not support Saddam
Hussein and the local government, but instead the KDP and the PUK (Patriotic
Union of Kurdistan) received the support of Iran when revolting against the
Baghdad government. This treason, as seen by Hussein, was responded with with
aggression, beginning the previously mentioned Anfal campaign, during which 25%
of the Iraqi Kurdish population was expelled from their homes, more than 100,000
39
Kurds were killed, and over 4,000 villages were decimated. More so, the Iraqi
government utilized chemical weapons against Kurdish Civilians, for instance in the
city of Halabja in 1988. Refugees from the persecution soon flee to Turkey, causing
a massive influx of Kurds into the country,
where the PKK under Ocalan remains
popular.
The Persian Gulf War in 1990 was
yet another instigator for a Kurdish unrest
in Iraq, whose forces were severely
weakened after weeks of combat against
Iran and its allies. This revolt was largely
encouraged
by
the
United
States,
however Iraq managed to recover and crush the rebellion, which did not receive any
aid from the United Nations forces. Even so, after the crisis, the UN Security Council
Resolution 688 gave way to a No Fly Zone in northern Iraq, which did not manage
to cease the friction immediately, as the Iraqi forces only fully withdrew in 1991. The
UNSC also enforced the need for humanitarian aid to be given to refugees fleeing
to Turkey, and civilians in Northern Iraq, aid was given in form of air dropped
supplies and troops to build resettlement camps. These areas in northern Iraq were
attacked by the Iraqi government soon
after, in both 1992 and 1995.
Iraqi Kurdistan was once again
independent, with its two main parties,
the PUK and the PKK, governing it. This
relationship was not void of friction, so
much so that the disagreements between
them
fuel
some
nations
arguments
against Kurdish independence due to their lack of unity, during the 90s, both
factions fought for autonomous control of the region.
The US led invasion of Iraq in 2003 was positive for the Kurds in many
aspects, as following Turkeys denial of support to the US, the Americans forged an
alliance with the Iraqi Kurds, meaning after Hussein was gone, the new government
was favourable to the Kurds. They now had political representation in the Iraq
Governing Council (IGC), two of which were Massoud Barzani and Jalal Talabani.
40
RECENT SITUATION
As Iraqi Kurdistan gains more strength, and there is a rise in the number of
Kurdish rebels, Turkey became increasingly concerned, and in 2007 air strikes
began in Northern Iraq, targeting rebel bases in the Iraqi Kurdistan region, followed
by a ground initiative. These were followed by shelling from the Iranian
government. Attacks from the Turkish government began once again in 2011,
however in 2012 a ceasefire was reached between the country and the PKK, one
which proved unsuccessful in avoiding conflicts, as already in 2013 more than 30
people were killed and other 200 wounded in explosions during fights all over the
country.
Politically, the situation in Iraqi Kurdistan has changed in recent years, as the
Movement for Change (Gorran) became the second most powerful political party in
the region in 2013, behind the KDP of regional president,
Barzani. Considering the fragile balance which was created
during the previously dual system between the KDP and the
PUK (which was weakened following a stroke suffered by its
leader, Talabani, in December 2012), the introduction of a a
third political party trying to expand may prove detrimental.
Also, the long time serving President Barzani, in his position since 2005, has been
accused of trying to curb any revisions of the constitution which could mean he is
not allowed to serve yet another term in office.
Economically, the Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan have relied upon the export of oil
to sustain themselves, which considering its plummeting price lately, has proven to
be extremely complicated. As there is a severe lack of funds, there is no way to pay
Kurdish
received
soldiers,
their
and
salaries
some
in
havent
months,
potentially disastrous situation, as they

have a pivotal role in fighting the Islamic
States advances. The Kurdish region has
also found itself at odds with Baghdad, as
even though the autonomous region is
required by law to share its oil revenues with the central government in exchange
for 17% of the national budget, they refuse to do so. This stems from the assertion
that they are not payed their promised share of the budget, and still need to pay
their soldiers. Baghdad argues they do not make payments as the Iraqi Kurdistan
region is selling oil illegally and doesnt meet the required production quotas.
41
As of 2016, approximately 18 billion dollars in debt has been accumulated by

the Kurdish region of Iraq, and Baghdad is looking to cut deals with The IMF and
World Bank for further loans, with the United States for more weaponry and with
energy conglomerates for more advantageous deals. These international bodies
must tread carefully, as not aiding the region in managing its economic crisis may
mean more poverty, which stimulates locals to join the terrorist organizations.
Also, the presence of Islamic
State troops only 30km from Erbil,
the capital of Iraqi Kurdistan, makes
securing foreign investment virtually
impossible. Adding to the pressure,
the influx of refugees from Syria has
also put a strain on the areas
resources, as the more than 500,000
refugees mean a strain on resources such as water, food and education.
The Islamic State and its threat have been a main concern of the Peshmerga
forces and the Kurds, who have even put their own referendum on independence
on hold to completely focus on fighting off the terrorist group. In 2015, after a twoyear long ceasefire, Turkey resumed its attacks on PKK bases in Northern Iraq,
leading the Kurdish government to plea that these bases be moved to remote
areas, lessening the civilian casualties from these attacks. More so, Turkey only
agreed to join the coalition against the Islamic State if its attacks are accompanied
by attacks on the PKK, which is already considered a terrorist organization by the US
and the EU alike.
During their pursuit, the Turkish government has not limited itself to northern
Iraq, and has also sought after Kurdish groups in Syria, specifically the YPG
(Peoples Protection Union), which is
the military branch of the PYD
(Democratic Union Party), a political
party in the country. On the contrary
to the PKK, the YPG is not deemed a
terrorist organization by most foreign
powers, receiving support due to its
fight against the Islamic State. Syria
has condemned the shelling of these Kurdish groups within its borders, having sent
letter to the UN Secretary General, and the Security Council chairman, as the
country considers these attacks as attacks against its sovereignty.
42
The alliance between the United States and the YPG has caused considerable
distress between the country and Turkey, who deems the group as dangerous
considering their ties to the PKK. This animosity created between allies further
complicates the fight against terrorism in the region.
Positions of Major Nations and Blocs

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The USA has long-lastingly supported Kurdistan, especially due to its

common stance against Iraq. In the late 1990s, President Clinton helped bring
closure to the Kurdish Civil War between the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and
the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) by mediating the Washington Agreement.
During the American intervention of Iraq, the United States instituted a no-fly zone
in Iraqi Kurdistan, as the people in the region had been living in repression by
Saddam Hussein. More recently, Iraqi Kurds aided in American-led airstrikes atop
ISIS territory in 2014. With a history of strong military presence in the region, the
United States has endorsed the Kurds in many of its militant offenses. This alliance
has caused America to have some distress with the Republic of Turkey.
IRAQ
Iraq has had a history of conflict with its Kurdish population and specially with
its economic activities, though they have also worked diplomatic relations in the
past. In the oil business, the Kurdistan Regional Government caused upheaval when
forging partnerships with major oil companies, which Turkey openly disapproved of
and caused an issue over. Iraq does account for its Kurdish region in many
components of its Constitution but has lately seen its diplomatic relations weaken
over business.
IRAN
Iran does not consider its Kurdistan population and aggressively demeans
infrastructural and socioeconomic care towards them. PJAK, an Iranian affiliate of
the PKK, has launched attacks against the Iranian government, who are believed to
43
prohibit religious or political opportunities towards the Kurdish minority (most Kurds
are Sunni and Iran's majority is Shiite).
TURKEY
The Republic of Turkey is a firm believer that the PKK is a terrorist threat and
has an ongoing military operation in Syrian and its own Kurdish region against it.
Most of the Turkish war on terror is sited in residential areas of Kurdish-populated
cities. With that, it has been reported to have been responsible for thousands of
civilian casualties and hence looked down on by the international community. The
conflict between Turkey and the KRG are extensive and severely damaging the
Middle East.
SYRIA
Similarly, in Syria, Kurds are discriminated and looked down upon. The Syrian
government has striped its Kurds inhabitants of basic human rights, such as
citizenship, education and voting. In the current scenario of the Syrian Civil War,
Kurds have opted for not publicly endorsing neither sides of the armed conflict, but
clandestinely supporting the opposition as they compose of mostly Sunni Muslims.
EUROPEAN UNION
Because EU-Turkey relations have been fragile lately due to the EU's view of
Turkey's careless and rapid approach on their war on terror, Kurds in Turkey
specifically care a great deal to the EU's influence on the country and even hope
that European states may be able to play a bigger role on pressuring Turkish
government to resolve the Kurdish issue.
Timeline of Events
7th Century: The Kurds are conquered by the Arabs, beginning centuries of living under the
rule of others. Their land is later occupied by the Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, the Safavid
dynasty, and, beginning in the late 13th century, the Ottoman Empire.
1920: At the conclusion of World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapses. The Treaty of
Svres proposes a division of the Ottoman Empire and its territory that includes an
44
autonomous homeland for the Kurds. The treaty, however, is ultimately rejected.
1923: Turkey is recognized as an independent nation, and the Treaty of Lausanne is signed,
replacing the Treaty of Svres. Under its terms, Turkey is no longer obligated to grant
Kurdish autonomy. The treaty divides the Kurdish region among Turkey, Iraq, and Syria.
1925: A Kurdish uprising against the new Turkish Republic is suppressed.
1946: Iranian Kurds set up the short-lived Mahabad Republic with Soviet backing. It is
swiftly crushed by Iran. The Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) is founded by Iraqi Kurd
Mustafa Barzani, and is dedicated to the creation of an independent Kurdistan.
1961: The Kurds of northern Iraq, led by Mustafa Barzani, leader of the Kurdish Democratic
Party, revolt against the government of Abdul Karim Kassem. Iraq puts down the Kurdish
revolt, and fighting between the Iraqi government and the Kurds continues for decades.
1970: A peace agreement is signed between the Iraqi government and the Kurds of
northern Iraq, granting them some self-rule.
1974: The KDP attacks Iraqi troops after the government refuses to give them control of the
oil-rich province of Kirkuk, which was traditionally Kurdish territory. The government
suppresses the crushes the revolt.
1975: Jalal Talabani, leader of the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP), leaves to found the
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). The two groups begin decades of conflict.
1978: In Turkey, Abdullah Ocalan helps to create the Kurdistan Workers Party, or PKK, to
seek Kurdish independence. He assumes leadership of the leftist organization.
1979: Iran's Islamic revolution sparks a Kurdish revolt in Iran that is then quickly suppressed
by Iran.
1984: On August 15, under Ocalan's direction, the PKK turns to armed struggle. Thousands
of Kurds in southeast Turkey join the cause, fuelled by nationalism and dissatisfaction with
living conditions.
1988: Iraq retaliates against the Kurds for supporting Iran during the Iran-Iraq war, and
through the "al-Anfal" ("spoils of war") campaign, slaughters thousands of civilians and
uproots 1.5 million from their homes. Thousands flee to Turkey.
1991: After the Persian Gulf War, Iraq's Kurds rise up against Saddam Hussein, encouraged
by the United States. Iraq quashes the rebellions, killing thousands. The U.N. coalition
forces do not come to the aid of the Kurds, but eventually establish a no-fly zone in the
north for their protection. Iraqi Kurds now control a 15,000-square-mile autonomous region
in Northern Iraq populated by 3 million Kurds.
45
Turkey lifts ban set by former military government on the use of Kurdish language in
unofficial settings. Kurdish remains illegal in schools, political settings, and broadcasts.
1992: A large-scale Turkish military operation attacks PKK bases in Iraq, where Kurdish safe
havens had been allowed to develop by international forces after the Persian Gulf War.
1993: The Turkish government grants limited autonomy to the Kurds, though Kurdish
political parties continue to be banned. Martial law is imposed to quell uprisings. Tens of
thousands of security forces are sent to south-eastern Turkey as the struggle intensifies.
1994: The two main political groups of the Iraqi Kurds, the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP),
led by Masoud Barzani (his father and grandfather were legendary Kurdish freedom
fighters), and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), headed by Jalal Talabani, begin
fighting each other for control of the Kurdish autonomous region.
1995: In a military operation similar to the one in 1992, about 35,000 Turkish troops invade
PKK bases in Iraq.
1998: The PUK's Talabani and the KDP's Barzani sign a peace agreement, ending the fouryear war between rival Iraqi Kurd factions.
1999: Abdullah Ocalan is captured, convicted of treason and separatism, and sentenced to
death. It immediately spurs a rash of bombings and other terrorist attacks both in Turkey
and abroad. Ocalan urges Kurdish rebels to pursue political rather than violent means.
2000: The Turkish government announces that Ocalan's sentence would be suspended until
the case is reviewed by a European court.
2002: The Iraqi Kurdish regional parliament meets for the first time in six years, indicating a
real sign of unity between Iraqi Kurdish factions since the 19941998 war.
2003: The Kurds join U.S. and British forces in defeating Saddam Hussein's regime. Four
Kurds are appointed by the U.S. to the Iraqi Governing Council, including Barzani and
Talabani.
2004: In March 2004, Syrian Kurds rioted and clashed with police for several days after a
brawl at a soccer game. It was Syria's worst unrest in decades.
A double suicide bombing in Erbil (northern Iraq/Kurdistan) leaves 56 people dead and
more than 200 injured.
2006: Massoud Barzani orders the Kurdish flag be flown in government buildings, but Iraq's
Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki has this to say: "The Iraqi flag is the only flag that should be
raised over any square inch of Iraq."
2007: Iran and Turkey both initiate offensives against Iraqi Kurdistan; Iran shells Kurdish
rebel bases, while Turkey launches air strikes and ground attacks against the Kurdish PKK.
46
2009: Massoud Barzani is re-elected president of Kurdish autonomous region. The

parliamentary election results confirm the two-party coalition, with a new opposition party,
Change Movement (Gorran), winning 25 of 111 seats.
2011: Turkey again launches air and ground attacks against the PKK in Iraqi Kurdistan.
2012: Turkish attacks continue.
Influx of Syrian refugees into Iraqi Kurdistan begins.

Oil exports are contested, with Kurdistanis hoping to open a new pipeline to Turkey in
2013.
2013: Dozens are killed and hundreds wounded in explosions throughout the region.
Increased numbers of Syrian refugees cause Iraqi Kurdistan to shut its borders.
Change Movement continues to gain ground in Kurdistan, winning 24 seats in the
parliamentary elections. It is now the second-most powerful political party after the
Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), which has 38 seats (and is the party of President
Massoud Barzani). The party of Iraqi president Jalal Talabani, the Patriotic Union of
Kurdistan (PUK), is now in third place.
In March, the PKK releases eight Turkish soldiers and civil servants. The captives were
kidnapped in 2011 and 2012 and held by the Kurdish militants in the mountains of northern
Iraq.
Abdullah Ocalan in March declares a cease-fire and orders Kurdish fighters to withdraw
from Turkey and retreat to Iraq's autonomous Kurdistan region. "We have reached the
point where weapons should be silent and ideas and politics should speak," he says in a
statement. The announcement is considered a historic breakthrough. The cease-fire falls
apart in September. The PKK claims that the Turkish government had not followed through
on promises to negotiate with the Kurds.
2015: Abdullah Ocalan calls on party members to hold a congress and declare an end to its
protracted insurgency against the Turkish government. "This struggle of our 40-year-old
movement, which has been filled with pain, has not gone to waste but at the same time has
become unsustainable," he said in a statement in March.
*The timeline above contains extracts from http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/ottoman-empire.html
47

THE KURDS
These are an ethnic group, the largest one in the world without a state of its own,
residing in the mountainous region between Iran, Syria, Iraq, Tukey and Armenia. In
their majority, they are part of the Sunni branch of Islam, however they do follow
different religions, also being unique in their culture and language. They originate
from the indigenous peoples of Mesopotamia.
SADDAM HUSSEIN
He was the President of Iraq for more than twenty years, from 1979 until the US led
invasion of Iraq in 2003, when he was captured and subsequently sentenced to
death by hanging. He was charged with several crimes against humanity, due to
violence and oppression of his people, especially ones who didnt share his Sunni
Islam faith, such as the Shiites who resided in Iraq.
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
This empire dates back to the 13th century, but after the end of World War I, its
widespread land, which was populated by people of different ethnicities and faiths,
was divided into new states, firstly by the Treaty of Svres, which was rejected, then
by the Treaty of Lausanne. Due to the many disparate groups, some larger and
some quite small, any new territorial organization was bound to pose complications.
KURDISTAN WORKERS PARTY (PKK)
Formed towards the end of the 1970s by Abdullah Ocalan, the party, which has
Marxist-Leninist roots, soon began an armed struggle with the Turkish government.
It is considered a terrorist organization by Turkey, the US and the EU, however it has
yet to be by the United Nations.
KURDISTAN DEMOCRATIC PARTY (KDP)
This is currently the largest political party in Iraqi Kurdistan, founded by Mustafa
Barzani, and now controlled by his son, Masoud Barzani, the President of the
regional government.
48
PATRIOTIC UNION OF KURDISTAN (PUK)
This began as the opposition political party in Iraq, which was founded only in 1975,
after disagreements within the KDP. There was intense fighting during the 70s PUK
insurgency, when the group separated itself from the KDP, however, even though
there are still disagreements, relationships have improved between the two, which
are now a two-party coalition.
DEMOCRATIC UNION PARTY (PYD)
This is one of the most important Kurdish political parties in all of Syria, controlling
mainly areas in the North of the country, and looking for political autonomy for the
Kurdish people. Its military is the Peoples Protection Unit (PYD), which is based on
democratic values and holds elections to appoint its officers, they also help in the
fight against the Islamic State.
MOVEMENT FOR CHANGE (GORRAN)
This is the newest political party, led by Nawshirwan Mustafa, having become the
second biggest party in Iraqi Kurdistan, and serving as opposition to the two-party
coalition. It was founded due to accusations of nepotism and corruption within the
existing system, and it looks to continue its increase in popularity, which has been
exponentially fast.
SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION 688
This 1991 resolution focuses on the repression suffered by the Iraqi population after
the end of the Gulf War, especially the Kurds, it condemns the actions of Iraqi
authorities and establishes a No-fly Zone over much of northern Iraq, as to protect
the Kurdish population and supply assistance to the people in need.
Guiding Questions
1. How can a consensus of interests (political, military and economic) be
reached between the conflicted Iraqi, Syrian, Turkish, and Iranian Kurds?
2. To what extent is the oil business in Kurdistan, its main source of funding,
feasible in the economic scenario of the Middle East and trading nations?
49
3. Why should Kurdistan be able, under international law, to qualify as a rightful

nation?
4. How should the ruling political parties of Kurdistan (i.e. PKK, YPG) be
handled in the run for national sovereignty? What are their strengths and
weaknesses while currently administrating Kurdistan?
5. Consider how the Kurdish forces can halt their bombings in order to initiate
diplomatic peace talks with all neighboring countries.
6. Consider how Kurdistan, in order to not be considered a terrorist
organization or hazard any longer by some nation, might plan to decrease
their military presence and broaden their political apparition in Middle
Eastern affairs?
7. What is the importance of convincing the Turkish government to cease fire
against Kurdistan?
8. How does the fact that only some regions of Kurdistan being bombarded,
due to its unequal distribution among countries' territories, affect the
possibility of a wholesome autonomy of Kurdistan?
9. To what extent does the international community play a role in the military
chaos of the Kurdish region? What should be done to halt this?
10. How should the administration of Kurdistan oversee its people currently of
different nationalities in order to bring together the entire Kurdish population
under one nation?
Further Research
Beginner's Guide on the Kurdish Political Scenario
Who are the Kurds? A user's guide to Kurdish politics. The Telegraph.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11198326
/Who-are-the-Kurds-A-users-guide-to-Kurdish-politics.html
Kurdish Political Parties. European Institute for Research on Mediterranean
and Euro-Arab Cooperation.
50
http://www.medea.be/en/themes/politics-of-arab-and-mediterraneancountries/kurdish-political-parties/
Major Kurdish factions. Al Jazeera.

http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2015/07/major-kurdishfactions-150728150924667.html
How the Middle East may change should the Kurds become a nation.
The World's Next Country. Foreign Policy.

http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/01/21/the-worlds-next-country-kurdistankurds-iraq/
View on Kurdistan's Political Ideology
Say It Again. Kurdish Independence Now. The Tower.

http://www.thetower.org/article/freedom-for-the-kurds-now/
On Kurdish History and Its Status: Being a People but not a Nation-State
The Kurds: The worlds largest stateless nation. France 24.

http://www.france24.com/en/20150730-who-are-kurds-turkey-syria-iraqpkk-divided
Who Are the Kurds. Fondation Institut Kurde de Paris.
http://www.institutkurde.org/en/institute/who_are_the_kurds.php
Here's the New Kurdish Country that Could Emerge Out of the Iraq Crisis.
Business Insider.
http://www.businessinsider.com/heres-a-map-of-the-kurdish-nation-20146
Political Chaos and Economic Crisis in Kurdistan
Dream on hold. The Economist.

http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21701773despite-string-military-successes-kurds-are-nowherenear?zid=308&ah=e21d923f9b263c5548d5615da3d30f4d
51
Bibliography
http://www.telesurtv.net/english/analysis/A-History-of-the-Turkish-KurdishConflict-20150728-0042.html
http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2011/04/22/the-kurdish-issue/2/
http://www.commondreams.org/views/2007/10/26/united-states-and-kurds-briefhistory
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29702440
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/29/kurdish-forces-big-pushislamic-state-iraq-syria
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/daily/feb99/kurdprofile.htm
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/kurds3.html
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/14/opinion/iraq-and-the-kurds-are-goingbroke.html
http://www.bbc.com/news/business-32220764
52

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Table of Contents

Historical Background & Scope of the Committee

The Situation in Kosovo

Relevant Case Studies

Position of Major Nations and Blocs

Definition of Key Terms

Areas Resolutions Should Aim to Address

Position of Major Nations and Blocs

Definition of Key Terms

Hello Delegates! Welcome to SPMUN 2016! My name is

Hello, my name is Carolina do Nascimento and I am a

Historical Background & Scope of the Committee

Charged with upholding international peace and security

according to the UN Charter, the UNSC is composed of 5 permanent members who

A common misconception is that the P5 members ought to use their vetoes

THE SITUATION IN KOSOVO

independence. Conversely, 108 UN member states acknowledge the authority as a

Having declared its independence from Serbia in February 2008, the

concentration of power and demanding

republic, alongside the other republics of

government. The Republics of Yugoslavia then began to proclaim independence

independent state. A numbers of Albanians, however, dissatisfied with Rugova's

passive strategy in the 1990s, established the Kosovo

Liberation Army (KLA),

(UNMIK), under the terms of UNSC

An UN-led process began in late 2005 to determine Kosovo's final status.

Pristina. On 17 February 2008, the

proceeding in Pristina that was boycotted

saturated with low added

growth. In 2012, however

economic strategy thus

sparking a 10000-strong crowd protest

Relevant Case Studies

In the plan, Kosovar municipalities with a Serb majority would be granted

UNMIK was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244,

Positions of Major Nations and Blocs

By mid-2016, a total of 23 out of 28 EU member states have recognized

NATOs involvement with Kosovo dates back to 1998, when it issued an

Most of the Balkan states recognize Kosovos independence from Serbia,

2004 (October): President Rugova's pro-independence Democratic League tops poll in

Definition of Key Terms

Drafted by NATO, the Rambouillet Accords was a peace agreement between

KOSOVO LIBERATION ARMY (KLA)

violated international law. In other words, Kosovos declaration of independence

In 2008, 25 nations that recognized Kosovo's independence formed the

Areas Resolutions Should Aim to Address

UN Briefing on Specific Actions in Kosovo

Serbia and Kosovo sign historic agreement. The Guardian.

Kosovo: Current and Future Status. United States Institute of Peace.

Was NATOs Intervention in Kosovo in 1999 Just?. E-International Relations

INTERNATIONAL VIEW AND INVOLVEMENT IN KOSOVO NOWADAYS

How Kosovo Was Turned Into Fertile Ground for ISIS

KOSOVO AND EU INSERTION

European Commission Progress Report: Kosovo 2015

KOSOVO'S LONG LASTING HUMANITARIAN CATASTROPHE

A Reporter Returns to Kosovo, 15 Years Later. The New York Times.

paramilitary action focused on not only

potentially disastrous situation, as they

As of 2016, approximately 18 billion dollars in debt has been accumulated by

Positions of Major Nations and Blocs

The USA has long-lastingly supported Kurdistan, especially due to its

2009: Massoud Barzani is re-elected president of Kurdish autonomous region. The

Influx of Syrian refugees into Iraqi Kurdistan begins.