TEXTS

CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY

OF

IN

THE

ROUSSEAU

THOUGHT

POLITICAL

Series editors
RAYMOND

Professar

in

Gauss

I/niverxity ofCmriIm'dgt
Il1il0so[il1y,

The Social

QUEN'1IN
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CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY

PRESS

BY

CAMBRID

U\lI\ER3ITY

GE

PRPSS

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Press

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The

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on

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introduction

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publication is in Copyright. Subicct

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1424462

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1997

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reprodtxctjon of-any part may take place without
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no

the

Ninth

in the United

priming

Kingdom

at

the

2009

University Press, Cambridge

retordtrt/m'pztblit'tttron is ttvzti/ablefrom the

/1 r/tlalague

Contents
vii
page

Preface

ix

Imrorlzwtion

pul)lisll(l r997

First

Printed

SRU,UK

CB2

Library Dfclltlgrtss Cntulugzmzg lit Pal;/inmmz

British

Lilzmry

data

Rousseau
Chronology of]ean]ncqztes

xxxu

lzriefguizle further reading

Xxxv

note

on

the

note

on

the zrnnslrtliotzs

note

on

the editorial

to

Xlii

text:

xliv

notes

liv

and index

Rottsseau,_lean_lacqucs,
17124778
[Selections
The

social

and other

contract

edited
cm.

p.

Victor

texts

Political

41382

521

6.

Gourevitch.

in the

(Cambridge
includes bibliographical

ISBN
1.

by

English. 1977]
later political \VllllngS/RUUSSCRU;
history

references

ISBN

2.

Social

contract.

Victor.

ll.

Title.

Ill.

JU79-R7
320.1: dc2o
tsnN
ISBN

and

I.

on

Political

Of the Social

Contract

41

Book

11

Book

In

S7
82

Book

IV

(par)
Gourevitch,

From

9638953ClP

the

Geneva

persistence

ofURLs
accuracy
in this publication, and does not

the accuracy

of such

information

Contract

Bk. 1, ch. 2; from

on

known

Bk. 11, ch. 4

as

the

153
162

the Government

of Poland

177

Letteri

Letter

to

DOffrcville

261

Letter

to

Usteri

265

Letter

to

Mirabeau

268

Letter

to

Franquircs

272

or

thereafter.

of the Social

ofVVar

Considerations

that any content

on
such websites
or
guarantee
is, or will rcmain, accurate
appropriate.
Information
regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information
given in
this work are correct
at the time
ofrst printing but Cambridge University Press does

guarantee

early

version

Manuscript:

Seleztezi

not

I21

State

The

978-0-521-41382-4 hardback
978-o52r~4z4462
paperback

to

39

Series.

the

ba

index.

1997

ias
no
Cambridge University Pt
responsibility for
for external
or Ll1irtl~partyintcruet websites
rcferrcd

Economy

Book

political thought)

42446

521

science.

of

Discourse

List

and
textual
ofzzbbrevintions

Ifzlittrrinl
Index
General

mnoerttions

286

annomtort

323

notes

of ezlitorr, tmnslntorr, and

index

325

Poliliml

poor.
Whom
their

trouble

But
the
very
to

such

ideas

sovereign

must

be

commits

Economy

rejected.
the

{he

of

government

peoples enemies,
must
do
to
What
they
inquire
station

nation

If in every
it would

make

the

peoples
not

those

by

were

be worth

[00 111,347]

to

the

people happy.

OF
THE

CONTRACT

SOCIAL

OR

PRINCIPLES
OF

POLITICAL

RIGHT

BY

JEAN JACQUES
Citizen

ROUSSEAU

of Geneva

Dicamus

wderis aequozs
leges
Aeneid,

39

Xi

[3511

L349]

BooK

NOTICE

umlemzleen
a
_)/61175
it
work,
Mung!
treatise
This small
larger
Ll1tllD1Zfl0Wl
the
time
olrmllloneiz.
and
Of
zuizlzout
long
strength
consulting my
ago
is
this
who!
did
get done,
various sections that L01ll(lbe exmzcterlom
the

most

mnsiz/emhle, and the

mlrmitlezl
zmzvorl/1y0/being

to

one

the

tho!

publir.

has
The

seemezl
rest

no

to

me

longer

the
exisls.

/east

I want

[I]
legitimate
and

to

Whether

inquire

civil order

in the

there

can

be

some

men
as
of administration,
they are,
taking
laws as they can be: In this inquiry I shall try always to
that
so
What right permits with What interest
prescribes,

the

combine

and

rule

sure

and

be

disioined.
of
1
shall
the
subject.
my
importance
proving
I am a prince or a lawgiver that I write on Politics?
he asked whether
If I
I reply that I am not, and that that is why I write on Politics.
not
waste
were
a prince or a lawgiver, I would
my time saying what
needs doing; 1 would do it, or keep silent.
of
the
a member
Born
a citizen
of
a free State, and
sovereign,
[3]
the right to vote in it is enough to impose on me the duty to learn
about public affairs, regardless of how weak might be the influence
I meditate
about Govern
of my voice on them. Happy, whenever
for
that
of
reasons
find
in
new
to
loving
ments, always
my inquiries
my country!
utility
justice
I
without
[2] begin

not

CHAPTER

SUBJECT

[1]

Man

and

free,

the others

himself
did

is born

this

change

legitimate?

or

and

can

FIRST

everywhere

master,
come
about?

I believe

THIS

ONE

solve

BOOK

he is in chains.

One

believes

a slave
than
How
is
more
they.
yet
can
make it
I do not know. What

this

question.

that
the
effect
and
only force,
as a People is compelled
long

follows

from

it,
[2]
to
and
does
as
I
would
obey
say;
[352]
the
and
does
off
as
as
it
can
shake
it
does
soon
yoke
well;
obey,
its
freedom
the
in
for
shake it off, it does even
recovering
by
better;
of
either
the
it
was
robbed
as
the
which
same
it,
right by
right
it
it
was
of
or
founded
take
it
is
Well
to
deprived
back,
people
But the social order is 21 sacred right, which
without
foundation.
this
does
not
come
Yet
the
basis
for
all
the
others.
right
provides
The problem
founded on conventions.
from nature; it is therefore
are.
Before coining to that, I
is to know what these conventions
must
establish What I have just set forth.
Ifl

4.0

considered

41

Colftlft

Social

Of!/1e

SOCIETIES

FIRST

THE

then, is humankind, divided

who tends it to devour
it.

Two

CHAPTER
OF

Bank

The
[1,]

of all societies

ancient

most

liven

of the

one
natural
only
bound to the lather

remain

children

is that

only

as

family.
that
need
as
As
soon
their
for
him
need
as
preservation.
they
long
the
from
The
dissolves.
exempt
bond
children,
natural
the
ceases,
he
cares
the
from
the
father
the
exempt
owe
father,
obedience
they
If
to
return
they
all
independence.
the
owed
equally
children,
volunbut
so
no
are
naturally
longer
remain
united, they
convention.
itself
maintains
the
only
by
and
even
family
tarily,
His
nature.
mans
of
is a consequence
freedom
common
This
[2]
rst law is
he

attend

to

his

he is sole

reason,

his

becomes
The

own

judge

first
his
preservation,

own

himself, and since,

owes

[3]

to

so

as

of the

as

soon

means

reached

he has
to

proper

are

cares

preserve

those

the age of
he
himself,

family is, then,

if you

will,

first

the

model

of

political

the
are
the
the
people
is
father,
chief
the
image
societies;
alienate
and
born
free,
and
equal
the
of
being
all,
children,
image
difference
The
their
sake
of
the
only
for
utility.
freedom
their
only
for
him
his
children
for
love
fathers
repays
the
in
the
that
is
family
the
the
State
in
that
and
pleasure
on
he bestows
them,
the cares
his
for
love
lack
of
s
chief
the
of
the
takes
of commanding
place
of the

peoples.
[4]

Grotius

denies

that

all human

is established

power

he
the
of
sake
the
gives slavery
governed:
establish
to
is
of
mode
always
argument
frequent
not
one
but
consistent
method,
could use a more
as

an

for
His

example.
fact.'*
right by
more

[353]
One

favorable

to

Tyrants.
whether
it
is
an
to
question
open
Grotius,
So
according
that,
[5]
hundred
those
whether
or
a hundred
to
men,
humankind
belongs
to
he
his
book
and
appears
to
throughout
men
humankind,
belong
sentiment.
Hobbess
is
also
Here,
that
rst
to
the
incline
opinion:

Slaves

of
ancient
the
but
history
nothing
Learned investigations of public right
to
the
trouble
taken
to
have
and it was a
singlemindedness
are

4.2

each

cattle,

too

so

lose

in their

the desire

there
their

everything

slaves

were

to

contrary

even

made

Force

nature.

are

to

be

the rst

them.

cowardice

slaves,
perpetuated
or
about
l
have
said
about
Adam,
King
emperor
[9,
nothing
div
monarchs
who
themselves
father
of
three
Noah,
among
great
of Saturn, whom some
ided the uni[354]verse, as did the children
in
I
moderation
will
believed
them.
hope my
they recognized
of
descendant
from one
be zi preciated; for since I am a direct
elder
for
all
I
I
and
from
the
branch,
know,
Princes,
perhaps
these
I
the
of
find
am
verification
of
titles,
legitimate King
might, upon
humankind.

Be that

as

it may, it
as Robinson

that Adam

be denied

cannot

was

he
as long as
island,
Sovereign
made this empire convenient
was
was
its sole inhabitant; and what
nor
that the
on
his throne, had neither
secure
rebellions,
monarch,
nor

wars,

to

conspirators

is

stronger

he transforms

never

his force

of his

fear.

CHAPTER
IHr. RIGHT
or
The

was

THREE
THE

be forever

enough
and
obedience
right,
to

strong
into

STRONGER

into

Her
did.

its chief

with

his

to

a nature

often

misplaced
Relation
to
in
Frame
17lle1'eSIS
the
on
Mr
Trezmre
0/
too
closely."
what
Grotius
This
is
M.
precisely
(VA/rgemvri].
Mfurqtiisj
L[e]
Neighbors; Ivy

abuses,
study them

of

chains,
certain.
rid o them; they love their servitude, as the companions of Ulysses
are
it
is
love
their brutishtiess.*
if
there
slaves
Hence,
by nature,

[1]
*

is of

of the world

most

herds

because

master.

into

superior
lloclts,
shepherd
to
the s epherds of men, who are their chiefs, of a nature
superior
their peoples. This is how, according to Philo, the Emperor Calig
well from this analogy that kings
ula reasoned; concluding rather
were
beasts.
were
or
that
Gods,
peoples
that
of
Hobbes
and
of
Grotius.
amounts
to
[7 Caligulasreasoning
are
not
Aristotle
before all of them had also said that men
naturally
for
and
others
for
domination.
but
that
some
were
born
slavery
equa
the
cause.
but
he
mistook
the
effect
for
Aristotle
was
[8
right,
could
be
more
man
born
in
is
born
for
Any
slavery, nothing
slavery
As

[6

and the

C/mplerg

I,

See

small

treatise

by

Plutzirch

T/ml Ream

entitled:

43

Dre

Reason.

master,

duty.

unless
Hence

Contract

Social

Ofthe

B00/e 1,

understood
is
which
a
apparently
right
the right of the stronger
one
no
But
in
and
really
principle
ever
ironically,
established: will
see
fail
I
a
is
Force
power;
to
us?
word
physical
this
to
explain
0
.

vvthai

morality
necessity,

result

can

of Will;

not

it become

can

from

its

effects.
act
it

most

at

is

duty?

right
alleged muddle.
unintelligible

this

I say
f

moment.
1*
once

or

for

[2]
in
an
result
can
only
effect
the
changes
right,

it

that

keg

mil
0IfCL
the
[0gCtl1ClVV\lIll
Vim
tgrce
eve?
Once
inherits
right.
first,
one
the
and
do
legitimately,
St11;)ngCYh1:
the
be
stronger.
need only make
t

cause,

iso

can

its

the

overcomes

to

<

assume

us

ls

Zntime
fore;
prudence.

of

an

Let

yield

To

ey

so

impunity,
one
always right,
is a right that perishes
can

one

since

to

sure

when

ut

force ceases?
if
one
and
duty,

If

has

one

obey by

to

longer forced
wor
this
then,

no

is

obey by
so.
do
to
no
is
one
obliged
longer
Clearly,
obey,
here.
all
at
means
it
nothing
to
force;
adds
nothing
right
the
to
means
force,
lf
this
he.
yield
that
the
powers
[3] Obey
force,

need

one

precept

is

not

good

but

A11 power
be violated
mean
this
Does
illness.

takes
to

me

hand

by
over

even

over

also

[4]

it
at

surprise

is

also

but

purse,

my

forbidden
the edge of

all

does

brfigan

lpnot
on

V351
Yh
obliged in COHSCIBHLLILD
an
am

awoods:

he holds

pistol

all,

after
is,

agree

then

obey

to

only
back.
coming
keeps
question
D

force

that
.

does

right,

make

not

that

and
.

legitimate

Thus

powers.

my

Original

FOUR
CHAPTER
Or SLAVERY

[1]

Since

since

force

no

man

has

produces

no

natural

authority

conventions
right,

over

his

remain

and

fellow~man,
all
the basis of

as

men.

among
authority
legitimate
and
his
alienate
can
individual
an
Grotius,
freedom,
If,
says
[2]
a whole
not
could
why
enslave himself to a master,
peoplealienate
a
are
There
a
to
quite
itself
king?
and
its freedom
subiect
few
confine
us
let
but
for
call
which
here
explanation,
words
ambiguous
.

44

the word aliemzte. To alienate

himself,

himself

the

another

to

for

least

is
does

his

to

sell.

Now,
give
he
not
give himself,
to

or

but

subsistence:

people,
what does it sell itself for? A king, far from furnishing his subiects
and
to
takes
his
own
from
them,
subsistence,
entirely
according
Rabelais
a king does
not
live modestly. Do the subjects then give
their persons
on
condition
that their goods will be taken as well? I
do not see what they have left to preserve.
civil
for
his
The
it
will
be
said, guarantees
tranquility
[3]
despot,
them
if
the
wars
his
All
but
what
does
it
subjects.
right;
profit
if
the
harassment
ambition
on
his
insatiable
by
them,
greed,
brings
at

his administration
sion

would
is

one

them

done?

of their
to

very

cause

have

quility
that enough
Cycl0pss cave

What

more

does

miseries?

feel

well

lived

(here

Life

distress
it

than

them
prot

their

own

if this
in

is also

very

dissen
tran~

is

tranquil
dungeons;
in them? The Greeks
imprisoned in the
while
their
turn
awaiting
[956] tranquilly,

be devoured.
To

himself

is

say something
gratuitously
and
an
act
is illegitimate and null, for
absurd
the simple reason
that whoever does so is not in his right mind. To
the
to
assume
a people of madmen;
same
of
a
whole
is
say
people
madness does not make right.
alienate
liven
if
could
alienate
he
could
not
himself,
[5]
everyone
and free; their freedom belongs to
his children; they are born men
it.
has
the
to
of
no
one
but
themselves
them,
they
right
dispose
their father may in their
Before they have reached the age of reason,
for
their
wellname
conditions
for
their
preservation,
stipulate
and
uncona
but
he
cannot
them
irrevocably
being;
give
away
nature
and
such
a
is
to
the
ends
of
for
ditionally;
gift
contrary
exceeds the rights of paternity. Hence, for an arbitrary government
have
to
be
to be legitimate, the people would, in each
generation,
master
of accepting or rejecting it, but in that Case the government
would no longer be arbitrary.
is
to
renounce
ones
as
To
renounce
ones
freedom
[6]
quality
There
can
be
no
the
of
and
even
its
duties.
man,
rights
humanity,
who
renounces
for
someone
everything.
possible compensation
Such a renunciation
is incompatible with the nature
of man, and
to deprive ones will of all freedom
is to deprive ones actions of
all morality. Finally, a convention
that stipulates absolute
authority

[4]

W111 CV

so

man

sells

to

obliged

is

one

to

it? For the

if I could withhold

power.
Let us

l admit it; but

call the doctor.

God,

from

comes

'

l355l
thatIf

l warrant

superfluous,

lg

to

who enslavcs

ourselves

Chapter

say

gives
inconceivable; such
a

T112111

45

to

Contract

the Social

Of

Book

is vain

and

other,
side,
toward
no
is
under
that
one
clear
it
not
Is
obligation
contradictory.
and
demand
to
the
one
has
whom
everything,
from
a person
right
without
and
without
this condition
equivalent
does not
alone,
have
slave
can
F
or
what
the
act?
against
my
right
exchange, nullify
his
and
to
he
has
being
right
me,
since
belongs
everything
me,
is
an
mine
meaningless
of
utterly
this
myself
against
right
mine,
and

one

on

obedience

unlimited

the

on

expression?
and

Grotius

the

rest

from

derive

another

war

origin

of the

[7]
has
the
victor
the
to
of
them,
according
Since,
slavery.
alleged right
at
the
his
life
back
can
the
latter
kill
the
to
buy
vanquished,
right
more
all
the
as
convention
legit~
cost
of his freedom; a
they regard
that
it
is
clear
But
to
both
parties.
imate because it proves protable
the
from
results
in
no
way
this alleged right to kill the vanquished
when
if
because
Men are not naturally enemies,
only
of war.
state
relation
the
among
in
their
[357]
live
independence
primitive
they
of
a state
either
constitute
to
stable
peace
them is not sufficiently
not
between
and
between
relation
is
the
war.
It
of
things
or
a state
constitutes

that

men

war,

simple personal
war
between
or
war
private

state;

of

nances

King

God, they
to

all

[9]

War

but

was

stable

no

the

fights, duels, skirmishes,

and as for the private wars

relations,
nor

property,

authority
acts

are

neither

exist

can

in the

of the laws.

that

authorized

do not

by

con-

the ordi'

of
the
Louis IX of France
peace
suspended by
if
an
absurd
feudal
abuses
of
system
government,
natural
of
the
to
both
right
principles
one, contrary
and

good polity.
is then

not

between

relationship
State

relationship
enemies only by accident,
are

uals
5*

are

there

ever

is

arise

cannot

war

property

another

and

of nature, where
where everything is under

social state,
Individual
[8]
a

one

of

state

only from

man

there

in the state

stitute

the

since
but

relations

from

and

and

one

not

and another,
and another, in which individ

between

as

the

one

not

men,
of

man

citizens,*

even

as

better

than any nation

right
respected
not
allowed
to
was
that
a
citizen
in
this
so
regard
in the world were
scrupulous
and
the
enlisted
without
enemy,
as
a volunteer
specifically against
serve
having
Cato
the
in
which
ct
When
name.
Younger
as
such
Legion
one
by
designated
wrote
to
Elder
Cato
the
was
under
first
his
reorganized,
Popilius
campaign
fought
he
ttnder
to
serve
continue
his
son
to
have
him,
was
if
he
that
willing
Popilius
oath
the
first
oath
a
new
having
because,
would have to have him take
military
Cato
And
the
same
the
arms
bear
enemy.
against
been vacated, he could no longer

The

Romans

who understood

and

46

war

but

as

of different

between

things
This
[to]
principle

all ages and

ations of war

the

to

can

it

conforms

even

not

prince,

of war,
that
territory
midst

the established

to

all
civilized
of
practice

constant

is

not

an

founded.

are

Since

tnaxirns

of

much

so

enemy,
well
may

the

to

peoples.
powers

the

aim

of

as

Deelar~
their

to

king, private individual,

without
declaring
subjects
he is a brigand. Even in the
seize everything in enemy
2

just prince
the
but
he
the
to
respects
public,
belongs
the goods of private individuals; he respects rights on
own

its

natures.

are

their

on

as

but

fatherland,
not
and
have
other
States,
only
relation
is impossible to fix a true

warnings
whether
he
be
subjects. Theforeigner,
detains
or
or
a people, who
kills,
robs,
war

the

of

members

soldiers;
State
defenders.
Finally, any
as
as
inasmuch
enemies,
men,
not

as

C/uiptw

I,

war

person
which

kill its defenders

his

of the

destruction

is the

and

they
long
right
and surrender
their arms
as they lay down
bear arms; but as soon
and
become
to
enemies
or
the
cease
be
enemys instruments,
they
a right over
their
has
one
no
men
and
once
longer
more,
simply
a
without
kill
the
State
to
life. It is sometimes
killing single
possible
and [358] war confers no right that is not necesof its members:
one
are
of
are
not
those
to
its
end.
These
Grotius; they
principles
sary
the authority of poets, but follow from the nature
not
founded
on
reason,
on
of things, and are founded
foundation
it
has
no
other
the
of
As
right. conquest,
[11]
regards
If war
does not give the victor the
than the law of the stronger.
which
he
does
then
this
to
massacre
right
vanquished peoples,
right
of the right to enslave them. One
be the foundation
not
have cannot
him
a
cannot
make
when
one
has the right to kill the enemy
only
slave. Hence the right to make him a slave does not derive from the
him
to
make
an
to
kill
him:
it
is
therefore
iniquitous exchange
right
of
at
the
cost
has
no
his
over
which
one
right whatsoever,
life,
buy
Is it not clear that by establishing the right of life and
his freedom.
death by the right of slavery, and the right of slavery by the right
of life and death, one falls into a vicious circle?
State,

enemy

wrote

new

to

oath.

has the

one

be careful
I know that the siege

his

son

but

to

I cite

to

not

to

appear

of Clusium

me,

47

without

and other individual

Romans

The

laws, practices.
quently transgressed their laws, and they
ones.
H782 edn]
against

in battle

as

are

the

are

only

the
ones

as

having
facts

people
to

can

who

taken

this

be

urged

least

fre

have had such ne

Social

Oft/ze
[12]

Even

in

made

war

Contract

this terrible

right
assuming
a conquered people is not
or

their

toward

to

except

master,

B00/e I,

slave
kill all, I say that
bound to anything at all
are
forced
as
as
they
long

to

him

obey

did not

the victor

of
his
equivalent

spare
life,
taking
So
him
he
killed
him
far,
usefully.
it: instead of killing
unprotably,
associated
over
him
is
be
from
authority
any
acquired
having
then,
their
as
war
in
of
a
state
continue
that
before;
with his force,
they
of
war
of
the
the
exercise
and
its
pre
relation itself is
right
effect,
:1
conven
made
have
a
of
the
absence
peace treaty. They
supposes
the
state
from
far
but
that
destroying
convention,
tion; very well:
to

do

In

so,

of war,

an

presupposes
from
Thus,

its continuation.
the

right

things,
angle
[13]
is
because
it
but
it
is
because
not
is
illegitimate,
only
null,
slavery
are
contra
and
These
Words
absurd and meaningless.
rig/it
slavery
one
man
and
between
exclusive.
Either
are
mutually
dictory; they
will
the
and
a
man
a
following speech
people,
another, or between
is
with
whiclz
1
males
(1
07ZL'E1Zlf011
absurd,
be
you
equally
always
I
shall
observe
W/zit/2
to
and
at
entirely my prot,
entrfre/,y your ex/)mse
I
as
as
shall
0!/serve
W/zit/2
I
and
as
as
long
plcaxe.
you
please,
long
whatever

looks

one

at

to

CIIAI-"FER

OF
I

THAT

ONE

HAS

ALWAYS

TO

Go

BACK

TO

thus

far

grant everything
of despotism would be no better
if l

were

That

body politic.
world, still remains nothing
good,

nor

even

man,

if he had enslaved

the

half the

his
individual;
interest,
private
but a private
remains
still
of
the
that
from
others,
nothing
separate
left
behind
scatis
his
man
When
this
same
interest.
dies,
empire
into
a
and
dissolves
like
an
oak
a
tered and without
collapses
bond,
re.
consumed
on
of
ashes
by
being
heap
but

48

having
their preservation

with

resistance

the forces

over

himself

in that

longer subsist,
of
way
being.
[2] Now, since

refuted,
[1]
will
be
There
off.
always
abettors
a
and
a
multitude
between
difference
a
ruling
subiugating
great
are
suc
their
of
When
scattered
number,
men,
regardless
society.
:1
master
but
this
I
in
see
to
a
enslaved
nothing
single man,
cessively
it
if
its
in
it
a
and
I
do
not
see
and slaves,
chief; is, you will,
people
neither
is
here
there
an
but
not
public
an
association;
aggregation,
Even

I have

to

So

that

state.

humankind

Six
PACT

SOCIAL.

reached

and

Fmsr

CoNvi~.N'rION

to

their

THE

men

assume

maintain

FIVE

itself

can

[360]

interfere

CHAPTER

C/tapter

give
king.
[2]
people, says Grotius,
a
before
itself
to
to
Grotius
a
is
a
people
giving
according
people
deliberThat
a
civil
it
a
is
act,
presupposes
public
king.
very gift
ation. Hence
before examining the act by which a people elects a
the
act
which
a
is
21
it
would
be
well
to
examine
by
king,
people
true
For
this
to
the
is
the
other,
act, being necessarily prior
people.
foundation
of society.
the
if
there
unless
were
no
[3] Indeed,
prior convention, then,
were
election
unanimous, why would the minority be obliged to
Submit to the choice of the majority, and why would a hundred
on
behalf of ten who do
who want
a master
have the right to vote
not
want
one? The law of majority rule is itself something estab
at
least
once.
lished by convention, and presupposes
unanimity

[Il

[mil

the

point

in the

which

that

the obstacles

of

state

each

prevail by

nature

individual

muster

can

that

primitive

perish

if it did

Then
would

where

state

to

can

no

change

not

its

unite

but

forces,
only
engender
of
and direct those that exist, they are left with no other means
that
than
:1
sum
of
forces
to
form, by aggregation,
selpreservation
motion
over
to
set
them
in
those
obstacles
resistance,
might prevail
in
them
act
concert.
a
and
make
by single impetus,
of
arise
from
the
This
sum
of
forces
can
only
cooperation
[3]
are
since
each
rnans
and
freedom
his
but
force
primary
many:
them without
of sclpreservation, how can he commit
instruments
the
cares
he
owes
himself?
and
without
himself,
harming
neglecting
This difficulty, in relation to my subject, can be stated in the following

cannot

men

new

terms.

[4]

To

find

the person
and
and by means

form

goods

of association
of each

of which

associate

each, uniting
49

that
with
with

will
the

defend
full

all,

and protect

common

nevertheless

force,
obey

and remain

onlv himself

problem
[5]
the

the social

which

to

of this

clauses

The

of the

nature

free

as

as

Contract
are

the

is the fundamental

before. This

contract

solution.
the
provides
determined
so
completely

the slightest modication would

that

act

Cor/Irtm

Social

Ofthe

Book

by

render
been

have

although they may

the
tacitly
are
everywhere
same,
everywhere
vio
been
the
social
compact having
admitted and recognized; until,
and
his
to
restored
rights
original
is
lated
thereupon
everyone
freedom
the
conventional
while
freedom
his
natural
losing
resumes
and

null

void;
formally stated, they

them

never

that

so

for which

all

clauses, rightly understood,

down

come

to

the

rest.

since

[7] Moreover,

the

alienation

without

made

is

reservation,
has

anything
perfect
some
left
were
then,
individuals
rights,
if
For
to
claim:
further
who
common
might adjudicate
be
no
superior
since there would
On
0Wn
Case
in
his
them and the public, each, being judge
between
nature
of
the
state
on
to
be
so
claim
soon
would
all,
some
issue,
or
become
tyrannical
would subsist and the association necessarily
union

is

as

as

it

be, and

can

empty.
himself
[8] Finally, each, by giving
whom
over
associate
is
no
there
and since

right

of all

associate

no

one

as

one

grants

loses, and

[9] If, then,

one

more

sets

him

force

aside

himself
all, gives
one

oneself,

over

to

preserve

everything

nds that it

to

same

But

another;
used

these

it is

in their

terms

enough

be able

to

confused

often

are

assumes

of

and

distinguish

to

for

mistaken

them

where

they

one

are

precise

sense.

can

one

does

what

that

is

one

not

be reduced

to

no

one,

the

not

gains

acquire
the

equivalent

has.

of the
to

essence

the follow~

of the social compact, one

in
rormnon
his
and
his
us
power
Each
full
terms:
person
put:
of
ing
remve
We
a
in
and
holly
under the supreme dirertion ofthe gzherhl mill;
whole.
an
imlivisih/6
each memher its
part nfthe
each
of
the
contracting
of
in
At
person
private
once,
place
[to]
collective
and
moral
a
body
act
of
association
this
produces
party,
and
which
has
the
as
voices,
assembly
made up of as many members
and
its
its
life
common
its
its unity,
act
xelf,
receives by this same
others
of
all
the
union
the
will. The public person thus formed by

50

CHAPTER

to

the

State.

now

rust one,

all of his

with

of each associate

alienation

the total

to

that

[362]
formerlysassurned
when
it
is
members
call
State
or
of
which
its
Rrpuhhk
hozifypolitzr,
similar
when
it
to
when
Power
active,
comparing
passive, Stzvereign
the name
bodies. As for the associates, they collectively assume
in
the
Citizens
call
themselves
as
and
people
individually
participants
of
the
and
to
the
laws
as
subjected
sovereign authority,
Suhjerts
name

rights
him
since
first
gives
place,
the whole community: For, in the
each the conand
for
is
all,
self entirely, the condition
[361] equal
since
it
burdenin
interest
has
making
any
dition is equal for all, no one
some

and
City

it.

he renounced

These

[6]
namely

Chapter

1,

OF

[1]

This

formula

himself

SOVEREIGN

THE

shows that the

cal engagement
between
that each individual, by
in

SEVEN

of association

act

the

public
contracting, so

and
to

involves

recipro

and
individuals,
private
speak, with himself, nds

twofold relation:

member

of the

namely,
engaged
and
as a member
of
the
State
toward
private individuals,
Sovereign
of civil right, that no
toward
the Sovereign. But here the maxim
toward himself, does not apply; for
one
is bound by engagements
there is a great difference
between assuming an obligation toward
which
one
a
toward
a
whole
of
and
oneself,
assuming responsibility
is

part.
It should

also be noted

[2]
toward
all
obligate
subjects
"

The

as

that
the

the

deliberation

public
because
Sovereign

of the

effaced among
the
Citizen.
They do

of this Word is almost

which
two

can

differ-

moderns;

entirely
not
know that
take a city for a City, and a bourgeois for a
the
error
once
cost
houses
make the City. This same
make the city but Citizens
of
Prince
were
ever
I
have
not
read
that
the
dear.
given
subjects
any
Carthaginians
the title (fiver, not even
the Macedonians
in ancient times nor, in our days, the
the
French
than
all
the
others.
are
closer
to
freedom
Only
English, although they
assume
the name
Citizen casually, because they have no genuine idea of it, as can
be
the
crime
of
would
be seen
in their Dictionaries; otherwise
committing
they
not
a right.
it:
for
name
a
virtue
and
in
them
this
expresses
Lese-Majesty
usurping
a bad
When Bodin wanted to speak of our Citizens and Bourgeois, he committed
blunder in taking the one for the other. M. dAlembert made no mistake about it,
and in his article Geneva be correctly distinguished the [362] four orders of men
are
two
if
are
there
in
our
and
only
(even five, simple foreigners
included)
city,
of which make up the Republic. No other French
author has, to my knowledge,
understood
the true meaning of the word Cilia. z.
true

sense

51

most

Of

the Social

of which

Hook 1,

C01ztmn

each

is viewed

for

cannot,
subject
and
that
toward
the
the opposite reason,
itself,
Sovereign
obligate
for
the
the
the
nature
of
to
it is therefore
body politic
contrary
break.
Since
the
law
which
it
cannot
on
itself
a
to
Sovereign
impose
one
and
the
same
in
terms
of
itself
can
consider
only
Sovereign
individual
eon
situation
as
a
then
in
the
same
it
is
private
relation,
nor
can
there
that
there
is
which
shows
himself:
with
not,
tracting
the
of
is
for
law
that
kind
of
fundamental
body
obligatory
be, any
This does not mean
the social contract.
the people, not even
[363]
with
into
well
enter
that this body cannot
engagements
perfectly
for
from this contract;
others about anything that does not detract
individual,
a simple being, an
with regard to foreigners it becomes
it
owes
its
since
or
But
the
being
Sovereign,
body politic
[3]
never
even
the
can
the
of
to
itself,
contract,
obligate
sanctity
solely
from
that
that
detracts
to
toward
original act,
another,
anything
such as to alienate any part of itself or to subject itself to another
would
be
to
anniwhich
it
exists
the
act
To
violate
by
Sovereign.
hilate itself, and what is nothing produces nothing.
in
one
one
is
thus
united
this
multitude
As
soon
as
body,
[4]
and
the
the
members
without
one
of
cannot
body,
attacking
injure
affeew
the members
still less can one injure the body without
being
alike obligate the contracting parties to
ted. Thus duty and interest
to
combine
in
this
men
must
strive
and
the
same
one
another,
help
it.
on
two--fold relation all the advantages attendant
of
the
individit
is
formed
the
since
Now
entirely
Sovereign,
[5]
ent

relations

in

terms

lead

may
a

him

to

look

gratuitous contribution,
its payment
constitutes

than

that

burdens
the

what

upon

State

he

loss

the
him

Chapter

to

owes

of which

the

common

will

harm

and, by considering
of

as

cause

less

others

the moral

because

it is

the

state

person

being
he would enjoy the rights of a citizen without
man,
being willing
of which
to fulll the duties
of a subject; an injustice, the progress
would cause
the ruin of the body politic.
not
to
be
an
for~
Hence
for
the
social
compact
empty
[364] [8]
which
alone
can
it
includes
the
mula,
following engagement
tacitly
the
will
refuses
to
force
to
the
that
whoever
obey
general
rest,
give
means
which
shall be constrained
to
do so by the entire
body:
the
be
forced
to
be
for
this
is
other
than
that
he
shall
free;
nothing
the
condition
each
Citizen
to
Fatherland, guaran
which, by giving
him against all personal dependence; the condition
which is the
tees
device and makes for the operation of the political machine, and
which
would
otherwise
alone renders
civil
engagements
legitimate
enormous
abuses.
be absurd, tyrannical, and liable to the most
as

reason

not

CHAPTER EIGHT
()1-"mt
CIVIL STATE

[1]

This

transition

from

remarkable

the

of

state

in

nature

to

civil

pro

for

Sovereign
theirs; consequently
for
the
it
is
because
toward
the
body
impossible
subjects,
guarantor
to harm
all of its members, and we shall see later that it
to want
harm any one of them in particular. The Sovereign, by the
cannot
fact that it is, is always everything it ought to be.
mere
relations
to
the
the
is
not
the
ease
But
this
subjects
regarding
[6]
the
the
common
and
interest,
Sovereign
notwithstanding
Sovereign,
of the subjectsengagements
would have no guarantee
if it did not
their delity.
to ensure
nd means
have
a
will
individual
as
a
Indeed
each
man,
particular
may,
[7]
has
as
a
Citizen.
the
will
he
or
different
from
to
general
contrary
him
from
the
to
His particular interest
may speak
quite diflerently
existence
his
absolute
and
common
naturally independent
interest;

change
by substituting justice
instinct
in his conduct, and endowing his actions with the morality
when
the
voice
of
succeeds
lacked.
duty
they previously
Only then,
does
who
until
and
succeeds
man,
appetite,
physical impulsion
right
then had looked only to himself, see himself forced to act on other
incli~
his
reason
before
to
his
and
to
consult
listening
principles,
nations, Although in this state he deprives himself of several advan
in
he
has
from
he
such
return,
nature,
great
advantages
tages
gains
his faculties
are
exercised
and developed, his ideas enlarged, his
to
an
soul
is
elevated
such
sentiments
his
entire
extent,
ennobled,
did not often degrade him
that if the abuses of this new
condition
to beneath
the condition
he has left, he should ceaselessly bless the
a
him
from
it
and
out
of
moment
which
wrested
forever,
happy
an
and
a man,
and
bounded
animal
made
intelligent
being
stupid
Let
to
terms
to
us
reduce
this
entire
balance
[2]
easy
compare.
is his natural freedom
and an
What man
loses by the social contract

K2

S3

uals who make

to

it up,

has

not

and

cannot

the

have any interests contrary

has
no
need
of
power

duces

most

man

Of!/ze
right
is
gains

unlimited
he

what

In order

sesses.

has

[3651

to

that

freedom
be mistaken

to

distinguish clearly

to

him

tempts

and

civil
not

Crmmm

Social

everything

Boole I,

in

property
about

these

natural

between

he

and

reach;

can

he pose

everything
compensations,

has

which

freedom
civil

one

freedom

individuals
forces,
the
than
bounds
other
no
which
between
and
possession
the
will,
limited
is
which
general
by
and
first
the
of
the
occupant,
or
force
of
effect
right
is merely the
title.
a
on
founded
be
positive
can
which
only
property
state
civil
the
of
credit
the
to
add
one
To
the
might
preceding
[3]
of
master
the
himself;
man
makes
truly
which alone

freedom,

moral

for the
law

said
word

and

one

of

irnpulsion
has prescribed

too

much

on

freedom

is

appetite

mere

oneself

to

and the

this

not

is slavery, and obedience

But I have
is freedom.

topic,
my subject

to

the

already

philosophicalmeaning

of the

here.

NINE
CHAPTER
Or Rr.AL PROPERTY
himself

everything
of
prietor
received

he

needs;

some

his share,

the

but

good

positive

excludes

he must

him

be bound

54

act

community [of goods].

in the

occupant,-so
living
what

civil

in

In

as

to

it

at

the

that makes

him

all

rest.

from

the

he
has
and
by it,

the

pro

Having
no

further

is

That

of nature,
In this right

society. [366]

is anothcrs

state

is

what

not

ones

why
right
is respected by

one

not

respects

everyone

much

so

own.

of the first

the

authorize

of the first

the

to

any
right
[3]
general,
that
this
must
conditions
of
the
apply. First,
land,
following
piece
that
one
land not yet be inhabited
occupy
only
by anyone; second,
as much
of it as one needs to subsist: In the third place, that one
but by labor and
of it not by a vain ceremony,
take
possession
to
which
others
the
of
respect
ought
cultivation,
only sign
property
in the absence of legal titles.
the
first
to
of
the
does
not
occupant
right
[4] Indeed,
granting
need and to labor extend it as far as it can go? Can this right be left
land
unbounded?
Shall it suffice to set foot on a piece of common
Shall having the force to drive
to claim
to be its master?
forthwith
suffice to deprive them of the right
other men
off it for a moment
to

return?

to

How

can

man

or

seize
people

occupant

immense

an

terri-

punishable usurpby
deprive
tory and
of
a place to live and
of
the
rest
since
it
ation,
deprives
Nunez
When
to
all
in
common?
foods which nature
Balboa,
gives
and
of
the
southern
seas
of
on
the
took
shore,
possession
standing
of Castile, was that
in the name
of the crown
all of South America
all the
and to exclude
to dispossess all of its inhabitants
enough
were
Princes
of the world? If it had been, then such ceremonies
had
to
do
catholic
all
the
and
King
repeated quite unnecessarily,
to take possession of the
all at once
councilchamber
was fromlhis
from
his
afterwards
entire
for
empire
subtracting
universe;
except
before.
what the other Princes
already possessed
and
combined
individuals
It
is
how
contiguous
[5]
intelligible
the
of
and
how
the
become
right
public territory,
pieces ofground
to
the
land
from
they occupy,
subjects
extending
sovereignty,
in
at once
real and personal; which places the possessors
becomes
their very forces into
a position
of greater dependence, and turns
not
to have
the guarantors
of their fidelity. This advantage seems
them-~
ancient
monarchs
been
who, only calling
appreciated
by
fully
selves Kings of the Persians, of the Scythians, of the Macedonians,
all mankind

community

of the

the

weak

ever

gives
[1]
his
all
with
he
himself
then
he
as
such
is,
of its formation,
moment
that
not
It
is
are
a
by
he
part.
the
which
of
possesses
goods
forces,
and
hands,
nature
in
changing
by
this act possession changes
the
as
But
the
of
just
hands
Sovereign:
in
the
becomes
property
a private individuals,
than
are
forces
greater
incomparably
Citys
irrevoa
more
and
is
force
has
fact
in
greater
so
public possession
or
F
for
least
at
foreigners.
more
legitimate,
without
any
being
cable,
their
of
all
master
is
State
goods
the
its
members,
with regard to
within
all
of
basis
the
as
rights
serves
which
contract
social
the
by
its
of
of
all
is
master
it
Powers
other
to
with
the State; but
regard
it
which
the
rst
of
the
occupant
right
members goods only by
derives from private individuals.
the
than
real
more
first
the
although
of
The
occupant,
right
[2]
of
the
after
true
a
right
only
becomes
right
the
of
stronger,
right
to
the
has
man
right
naturally
established.
been
Every
has
property
Each

member

right

to

Chapter

seem

as

to

masters

have

looked
of

the

upon

of it except
of mankind

themselves

country.

as

chiefs

Present~day

55

of

men

monarchs

rather

[367]

than
more

Oft/26

the

holding

Contract

of

lingland,
Spain,
France,
Kings
its
of
sure
are
holding
quite
land, they
of

of

call themselves

shrewdly
thus
etc.
By

Sorml

[OC111,368]
BOOK

11

inhabitants.

[6]

is remarkable

What

far from

munity,
them, only

usurpation

despoiling

into

their

genuine right,

since

and

com~

goods by accepting
legitimate possession, changes
into property.
use
Thereupon
of their

individuals

them

to

secures

the

is that

alienation

this

about

considered

be the

to

of the

trustees

CHAPTER
THAT

ONE

SOVEREIGNTY

INALIENABLE

1s

they
of
all
the
members
are
since
their
by
respected
rights
good,
public
the State and preserved by all of its forces against foreigners, have,
more
so
and
even
the
to
that
is
a
surrender
public
advantageous
by
The
have
given.
to themselves, so to speak acquired everything they
the
the
between
the
distinction
is
rights
by
easily
explained
paradox
as will be seen
to the same
have
and
the
land,
proprietor
Sovereign

[1]

below.

point
Now it is solely in terms
of this common
to be governed.
it
but
the
I
that
since
is
nothing
[2] say, then,
sovereignty,
be alienated, and that the
exercise of the general will, can never
collective
be
which
is
b11t
a
can
being,
only
sovereign,
nothing

the

possessors,

are

or

according

of
the
Regardless
ual has

over

proportions
of this acquisition,

manner

his
has

established

to

community
neither solidity in
Sovereignty.
I
shall
close
[8]

own
over

the

this

is

land

always

social

bond,

chapter

and

the

which

real force

nor

this book

Sovereign.
individ

every
the

right

the

would

be

in the exercise

of

subordinate

without

everyone,

by
right

the

to

there

with

that

comment

the
it
is
that
social
as
the basis
system;
should serve
the
on
natural
than
rather
equality,
fundamental
destroying
pact,
for
whatever
and
moral
a
substitutes
legitimate equality
contrary
that
and
have
between
nature
men,
placed
may
of the

entire

physical inequality
while they may be unequal in force
and
convention
by right?
equal by

or

in

genius, they

all become

and the

first

of the

principles
important consequence
established
so
far is that the general will alone can direct the forces
of the State acc01'ding to the end of its institution, which is the
while
of
interests
made
common
for
the
particular
good:
opposition
the

most

establishment
which made
interests

same

have

in

is what

common

some

on

which

forms

the social

is

Under bad governments

equality only apparent
the poor in his misery and the rich in his
to maintain
this

and illusory; it

usurpation.

serves

only

In fact the laws

have
who
those
useful
to
those
are
possess something
always
men
for
the
social
state
is
that
only
Whence
it
follows
advantageous
nothing:
has too much of anything.
insofar as all have something and none
who

and harmful

to

interests

if there

bond,
could
exist.
no
agree,
society
interest
that society ought

all interests

by itself; power
while
it
is
not
[3] Indeed,

and

well be

but

were

will.

transferred,
will
that
a
agree
impossible
particular
it
is
in
with the general will on some
event
impossible
point,
any
for this agreement
to be lasting and constant;
for the particular will
its nature,
to partiality, and the general will to equality.
by
tends,
It is even
such
an
even
if
more
to
impossible
agreement,
guarantee
it did always obtain; it would be an effect not of art, but ofchance.
The Sovereign may well say, I currently will what a given man
wills
this
or
at least what
he says he wills; but it cannot
what
man
say:
is going to will tomorrow,
I too shallwill it; since it is absurd for
the will to [369] shackle itself for the future, and since no will can
consent
to anything contrary
to the good of the being that wills. If,
it
the
to
dissolves
itself
this
then,
by
people promises simply
obey,
represented

can

it
its
a
as
loses
of
very act,
quality being people;
the
there
is
no
more
and
master,
sovereign,
body
*

of these

it
is
the
necessary,
agreement
it possible. What these different

of societies

not

before
to
unite
men
that
also
they
pos
It
begin
happen
[7] may
for
land
sufficient
a
of
all,
they
and
sess
piece
seizing
that,
anything
either
it
or
divide
in
common
themselves,
its
use
among
enjoy

equally

The

soon

politic

not

as

there

is

is

destroyed

forthwith.

[4]

This

be taken
them

and

is

for

not

to

general

does

not

that
say
wills as

do

so.

commands

the

long

the

as

In such

57

case

of the

chiefs

may

not

sovereign is free to oppose

the peoples consent
has

Social
Oflhe

be

to

presumed

will be

This

silence.

universal

from

Book II,

Comma,

explained

@
By examining

more

fully.

that

whenever

is mistaken, that
are
all

one

sovereignty
SOVEREIGNTY

THAT

which

Two

wills,
precision

the

For

[1]

For

ible.

same

either

sovereignty

that

reason

the will is

general*
that

or

is

inalienable,

it is not;

of

it is in(livis

it is either
In the

the

first

will

only part.
constitutes
and
act
of
an
will
is
of this
sovereignty
the declaration
an
act
or
a
case
it
is
the
second
will,
in
merely
particular
law;
of the

of the

body

people,

it is

or

case,

fall back

child
what

most

of

decree.

That

alive and all reassembled.

down

is

more

or

less

the
social
dismembered
like; having
the
of
the
put
they
fairgrountl,
worthy
sleightofhand

tricks
politicians

our

are

body by a
how.
knows
no
one
back
together
pieces
notions
of
framed
not
from
This
error
comes
precise
having
[3]
mere
ema~
what
were
taken
from
and
having
sovereign authority,
itself.
this
of
Thus,
for
from
this
authority
nations
authority
parts
have
that
of
war
and
of
the
act
for example,
making peace
declaring
neither
for
are
which
not;
been regarded as acts of sovereignty,
they
a
of
the
an
but
acts
is
a
law
of these
law, particular
application
only
act

attaches

decides

which

For

:i

to

will

necessary

the word

case,

will

clearly

be

seen

once

the

idea

that

law has been fixed.

it is

be general,
be
that all votes
to

as

that

always necessary
exclusion
formal
counted; any
not

unanimous, but it is
destroys generality.

it be

same

one

the

believes

rights

one

would

one

way,

which

sovereignty divided,

sees
one

takes

for parts

and always presuppose

it,
subordinate
rights simply implement,
to

be difficult

has clouded

how

to

exaggerate
the conclusions
of writers

when

much

learned

man

and

his

translator

Barbevrac

of this
supreme

this

lack

of

ofpoliti
respective rights of
established.
Anyone
matters

on

to adjudicate the
they
sought
calright
kings andpeoples by the principles they had
can
in
see
three
and four of the lirst Book
chapters

that

inagistraey;
in
its
to
divide
unable
prin
But
our
sovereignty
ans,
politi
[2]
into
and
into
force
it
divide
its
will,
divide
it
in
object;
they
ciple,
and
of
into
and
executive
taxation,
justice
rights
power,
legislative
conduct
to
the
and
administration
foreign
into
domestic
power
war,
and
sometimes
these
all
mix
they
sometimes
affairs:
parts
up
they
is
fantastia
that
into
turn
the
being
Sovereign
them;
they
separate
if
were
as
it
is
of
putting
they
cal and formed
pieces;
disparate
another
had
of
which
one
bodies
man
out
of
several
eyes,
together
said
to
are
else.
and
another
corijurors
Japanese
nothing
feet,
arms,
all
of
the
a
child
before
then,
throwing
carve
eyes,
spectators
up
the
make
the
after
air
one
into the
[370]
other, they
its members
at

these

[5] It would

INi)ivis1i3i.r.

is

in the

divisions

discover

CHAPTER

the other

Chapter3

get

of Grotius

how

entangled

and

constrained

by their sophisms, fearful of saying too tnuch or not

saying enough according to their views, and of offending the in[Cl'~
ests
had
to
reconcile.
a
in
they
Grotius,
refugee
France, discona
tented with his fatherland, and wanting to pay court
to Louis
XIII
to
his book is dedicated, spares nothing to despoil peoples of
whom
all their rights, and to invest kings with them as artfully as possible.
This would certainly also have been to the taste of Barbeyrae, who
dedicated his translation
to King George I of England, But unfortu~
the
of James II, which he calls an abdication, forced
nately
expulsion
him to be on his guard, to equivocate,
to be evasive, in order
not
to make :1 usurper
of William.
If these two Writers had adopted the
true
all
their difficulties
would have been solved
and
principles,
would
have
been consistent; but they would have sadlv
they
always
told the truth and [371] paid court
only to the people. Now, truth
does not
lcad to fortune, and the people confers
no
ambassa
dorships, professorships or pensions.
,

Wiiizrnrii

CHAPTER THREE
THE
GENERAL VVILL CAN

ERR

[1] From the preceding it follows that the general will is always
and
upright
always tends to the public utility.but it does not follow
from it that the peoples deliberations
are
always equally upright.
One always wants
ones good, but one
does not always see it: one
can
never
the
corrupt
people, but one can often cause it to be mis-
taken, and only when it is, does it appear to want what is bad.
59

Ofzhe
[2]

is often

There

all and the

general

difference

considerable

will: the latter

B00/e II,

Contract

Social

looks

only

to

the will of

between
the

but

is

CHAPTER

interest,

common

former

looks

private interest,

to

sum

[1]

in

If the State

the

Each interest, says

mam

between

the

Mlarquisl

iritemt:
irl(fi1f1fLlllf

union

two

is/Zirmezlby opposition
between

the

everything

In truth,

says

Machiavelli,

some

divisions

harm

is formed
the
cotnrnon
interests,

to

be

Republics,
and

an

and

by

obstacles:

encounter

the

benefit
benecial

parties;
accompanied by
the
founder
since
and
to
factions
Therefore,
those that do not give rise
parties.
are
best
make
the
must
he
possible
provision
enrnities,
ofa Republic cannot
prevent
Bk.
VII {ch. 1].
factions.
HfSl[0?j/] vfF/omie],
against
them; harmful

are

those

that

factions

are

60

POWER

of
for its

City

is

only

moral

if the

members,

its

life consists

important

most

and

whose

person

of its

cares

care

members,
all of its

power
name

of sovereignty.

1373] [2]
the

But in addition

PT1Vate

are

persons

who

the

to

make

public

it

independent of

consider

must

we

person,
and whose

up,
It is

it.

itatgirally
between
clearlyk

life and

therefore

freedom

important

dis-

to

the respective
of
the
Citizens and of
rights
well as between
duties which the former have to
and the natural right which they must
enjoy as

tilnggis
tfIelloveieign,
subiects,
as

as

men.

[3] It is agreed that each

FllalP0"U01_1
for
the

important
be

alienates

the

social pact only

by
his goods, his freedom, which it is
power,

Of his

man

be able

to

community

to

use,

but

it should

also

of
that importance.
judge
_?1.Tdthe Sovereign
a Citizen
can
render
the State, he owes
to it
[4] All the services
as
soon
as
the Sovereign
but
the Sovereign, for its
them;
requires
cannot
burden
the subiects with any shackles
that are useless
part,
to the
even
will to do so: for under the law
community; it cannot
of reason
is
done
without
than under the
nothing
cause, any more

tory
4
<

that

I0

is alone

nature.

The

commitments
because

bind

which

they

onlythem

to

us

the social

mutual, and their

are

body

are

is such

nature

obliga~
that

in

work for others without

cannot
also working for
fullling
one
the
and why do all
Wh.V
general
always
upright,
5?lf~WillIS
Will
each
if not because there is no one
happiness,
ories

51:TCnll3'
A
0

art.
some

SOVEREIGN

or

and it is this same

members,
absolute
power
the
as
I have said, the
VVh1Ch7
by
general
will,
bears,
directed

interest.
lhi711[7m'ty'5

all interests

that
added
have
agreement
might
no
different
there were
If
interest.
each
ones
to
opposition
never
it
would
since
sensible
be
would
interest
scarcely
would run by itself, and politics would cease
He

{L

the

or

over

The
zigree
principles.
zlif]L''ent
to

FOUR

it
then
has to have some
universelfptescrvation,
sal and coercive
force to move
and arrange
each part in the manner
most
conformable
to the whole.
Just as nature
gives each man abso~
lute power over
his
the social pact gives the body politic
is

[5]
has
tlr\[i'geiisoii],

of

law of

'*

TIlF.l.IMI'1S

Or

nothing
the
takes
one
same
from
these
away
but
wills,
if,
wills;
particular
left
what
is
each
other
cancel
which
miniises
out,*
the
and
pluses
will.
is
the
differences
of
the
general
as the sum
the
Citi
informed
deliberates,
an
when
people
adequately
[3] If,
will
the
themselves,
general
had no communication
Zens
among
and
of
small
number
differences,
would always result from the large
factions
when
But
be
arise,
would always
the deliberation
good.
the
will
of
of
the
at the expense
large association,
small associations
to
its
relation
in
becomes
of these associations
general
each one
no
then
can
there
the
to
State;
and particular in relation
members
but
are
there
as
voters
as
men,
be
to
be
said
[372]
many
longer
less
become
differences
The
associations.
are
as
there
as many
only
of
these
one
when
result.
and yield a less general
Finally,
numerous
the
result
the
all
over
it
rest,
associations is so large that
prevails
but
one
small
of
single
a sum
differences,
is
no
have
longer
you
and
the
a
is
no
opinion
there
will,
then
general
longer
difference;
that prevails is nothing but 21 private opinion.
will
the
to
have
that
in
order
general
It
is
then,
important,
[4]
and
in
the
no
State,
every
be
there
society
partial
expressed well,
sublime
the
was
Such
single
Citizen state only his own
opii1ion.*l
there
are
if
That
societies,
the
partial
of
institution
great Lycurgus.
them
and
be multiplied,
pre
must
inequality among
their number
the
are
These
Servius.
only
done
as
was
Numa,
Solon,
by
vented,
will
is
the
that
enlightwill
ensure
always
that
general
precautions
mistakes.
make
no
the
that
and
people
ened,

the

and

Chapter

es

himself

as

Wt

he

the
aPP1'0p1llt

word
:11]! Which

for

votes

each

proves

and

himself,

to

that

the

equality

think

of

of

right

Arte

beennaglg
geaders
pleasch
(lo
ly,
I

avoi

it

yer

not iush

in

view

to

accuse

me

of the poverty

61

of L0n[rI(l1Cll0l1. I have not

of the language; but wait,
,

Boole H,

Sorizzl Contract

Ofthe

which
of
notion
the
)LlStlC
and
and hence
himself
for
preference
.

general will,

it must

that
its essence,
that it loses its natural

follows

have

We

whenever

[6] Indeed,
a point
regarding
the affair

gmws

fore,

as

will which

1V1

to

foreign

is

us,

and

such
and
-

an

_
_

fact
particular

general

can

which

issue

express
try
one
of
decision
the
be
only
is
other
the
as
far
party
to

stances

is

one

invoke

1 [1

35

us.

of the parties,
followed
be
should
law
It would be ridiculous,

to

35

to

what

judging

judgment

pronounce

C
r

to

guide
equity
at
is

prior

suit,

right

or

convention,

interested

wherethe

the public
what judge
or

other,

ld

shou
circum

under these
decision of the general will,
thereand
is,
of the parties,

@
+
nothing
concerned,
foreign;
to
inclined
occasion
3

IS

this

lIl]1lhtlC6tatY1le
particular
hus,
just
will
subject
a
rieprestenh
will
the
en
general
will,
general
changes
am
Id
general,
and
being
cannot,
particular object,
ll:(AE}:
pfO1lOul1C1C
the
when
pcop
fact.
example,
0_
particular
U15}cashiered
chiefs,
honorsIon
appointed
bestowed
1mP0e
g
m
of
multitude
particu
and by
another,
penalties
the
of
the
all
government, peope
crgmimtely performed
:0
longer
called;
Wlll
had
properly
general

particular

'1

error.

cannot

to

on

as

in

so

nature

vi

it

on

E or

or

man

its

or

on

is

int

ccrees

ar

acts

longer

but

it

so

as

Sovereign
held
ideas,
monly

magistrate.

no

will appear contrary

to
time
the
be allowed

own.

a.

the

to

This

I must

but

actc

com

[7]

In view

the will is not

interest

which

of this
so

much

unites

one

has

to

forth

set

my

the

them:

generalizes

that what
.

11 S

Wmmo

the

oi .v01C.S,f15
nutnbel
neceseveryone
for
thisinstitution,
hers?
he
in

which

1mP05C5
submits
sarily
which
and
interest
justice
between
admirable agreement
is
seen
that
character
a
equity
deliberations
common
of
a
for
affair,
of
discussion
the
any particular
want
with
the
of
rule
the
judge
identies
and
which unites
to

the

conditions

of

confers
to

an
on

vanishll:

intprte}:
cornmtiln

party.

[8]
ciple,

at

side
From whatever
reaches
one
always

one

traces

the

same

62

the

among
under
the

ones way back to the prin

the
that
conclusion:
namely,

the

Citizens

same

the

Thus

equality

an

and

conditions
of

such

that
all

must

the

all

enjoy
of

rights.
by
pact every
act
of
the
that
is
to
say every genuine
general will,
sovereignty,
either obligates or favors all Citizens equally, so that the Sovereign
knows only the body of the nation and does not single out any one
of those who make it up. What, then, is, properly, an act of soverbut
It
is
of
with
the
not
a
convention
the
inferior,
superior
eignty?
of its members:
A
of the body with each one
a convention
L375]
convention
which is legitimate because it is based on the social con~
and
because
the
it
is
common
to
secure
because
all,
tract, equitable
its
So
as
force
and
the
are
long
power
guarantors.
public
supreme
to
such
as
are
conventions
these, they obey
subjects
subjected only
no
one, but only their own
will; and to ask how far the respective
the
is
to
ask
how
far
Citiof
and
Citizens
extend
rights
Sovereign
and
all
to
each
to
zens
can
commit
themselves
to one
another,
all,
same

nature

act

each.
it
that
the
this
is
Sovereign power, absolute,
[9]
apparent
not
and
cannot
exceed
the
and
it
does
inviolable
sacred,
though is,
dislimits of the general conventions, and that everyone
may fully
From

of such

pose
conventions:

of his
so

that

and

goods
it is

never

freedom

right

as

for the
it then

are

left

him

by

Sovereign

to

into

these

burden

particusubject
another,
is no longer competent.
lar affair, and its power
it
is
so
false
These
once
distinctions
admitted,
[evidently]
[to]
on
the
renunciation
that the social contract
involves
any genuine
the
contract
their
situation
as
a
result
of
of
individuals, that,
part
and
had
been
that
to
to
what
it
be
before,
preferable
really proves
made
an
of an alienation
have
instead
advantageous
only
they
favor
of
of
in
a
of
an
and
uncertain
being
exchange
precarious way
in
favor
of
of
natural
more
secure
and better
one,
independence
favor
of
their
own
of
the
to
harm
others
in
freedom,
security,
power
in favor of right
and of their force which others could overwhelm
made invincible by the social union. Their very life which they have
dedicated
to the State
is constantly protected by it, and when they
risk it for its defense, what are they doing but returning to it what
would
have
received
it?
What
are
that
from
they doing
they
they
at
in
the
state
of
not
have done more
and
frequently
greater peril
nature, when, waging inevitable ghts, they would be defending the
one

more

than

because

understand

themselves

commit

the

in

are

One

man;

HS

in

in

regulated by
In
contentious,
[374]

what

see

be

not

individuals
private
I do not

to

what

establishes
pact

social

tllilat
Oblect
so
order
all
afd
.a1li,'
apply
some
tower,
tends
it
,

for then,

of

principle

mm

no

of

nature

issue from
when
rectitude

object;

ual and determinate

the

from

must

truly such,

be

to

produces

it

each

from

Chapter

63

turns

Of

Bank

Czmtmrt

the Social

SIX
CHAPTER
OF LAW
the
social
pact
[1] By
is
life: the task now
the initial

to

which

by

act

have

we

undetermined

the

given

it motion

give
this body

assumes

what

it

them

toward

existence

and

body politic
and will by legislation. For
form and unity still leaves

do

must

[5]
people

itself.

to

preserve
entirely
of
is
so by the nature
to
order
is
and
conformable
What
[2]
good
comes
All
human
conventions.
and
of
justice
independently
things
of
but if we were
from God, he alone is its source;
receiving
capable
not
laws.
No
it from so high, we would need neither
government
reason
but
from
doubt there is a universal
alone;
justice emanating
Con
has
to
be
this justice, to be admitted
us,
reciprocal.
among
vain
are
the
laws
of
in
human
among
terms,
justice
sidering things
the
to
men
for want
of natural
sanction; they only bring good
them toward everyone
wicked and evil to the just when he observes

while

no

observes

one

therefore

combine

to

tice back

the

common,

those

recognize

owe
as

nothing

to

anothers

only

state
to

what

are

bring juswhere everything is

of nature,
whom I have promised nothing.
is of

all

where

and

duties

with

rights

necessary
to its object. In

and laws

Conventions

him,

no

use

myself.

to

fixed

to

It is

not

law.

by
rights
it
at
as
one
leaves
is
a
law?
So
But
long
what, then, nally,
[3]
will
continue
this
one
ideas
to
word,
attaching only metaphysical
once
it
has
and
even
one
without
another,
understanding
reasoning
have
been
will
not
one
been stated what a law of nature
brought
is,
the
State
is.
What
a
law
of
closer
to
knowing
any
about
a par
no
will
said
that
there
is
I
have
general
[4]
already
ticular object. Indeed, this particular object is either within the State
or
outside the State. If it is outside the State, a will that is foreign
the State,
to it; and if this object is inside
is not general in relation
so

in the civil

it is

part

state

of it: Then

are

is formed

relation

its part that makes them into two separate

is [379] one, and the whole, less that part,

less

there

part
is no

follows

that

relation

to

is

not

the

longer
neither

whole,

and

whole

but

is the

will

as

two

of

the other.

66

the whole

between

beings,
this

long
unequal parts;
one

of these

the part
But the whole

of which

the other.
as

and

relation
from

parts

persists
which

general

it
in

But

when

the

11,

Chapter

whole

statutes
for the whole
people enacts
it considers
only itself, and if a relation is then formed, it is
between
the entire object from one
of
view
and
the
entire
point
from
another
object
point of view, with no division of the whole.
Then the matter
with regard to which the statute
is being enacted
is general, as is the enacting will. It is this act which I call law.
I
When
that
the
[6]
say
object of the laws is always general, I
mean
that the law considers
the subjects in a body and their actions
in the abstract, never
as an
individual
or a particular action.
any man
Thus the law can very well state
that there will be privileges, but it
cannot
confer them on any one by name;
the law can create
several
Classes of Citizens, it can even
specify the qualicationsthat entitle
to membership in these classes, but it cannot
nominate
this person
or
that for admission
to them; it can
establish a royal government
and hereditary succession, but it cannot
elect a king or name
a royal
in
a word, any
function
that relates to an individual
does
family;
not fall within
the province of the legislative power.
On
this
idea
one
sees
that
one
need
no
[7]
immediately
longer
ask whose province it is to make laws, since they are acts of the
nor
whether
the Prince is above the laws, since it is a
will;
general
member
of the State; nor
whether
the law can be unjust, since no
man
can
be unjust toward
nor
how
one
is
both
free
and
himself;
subject to the laws, since they are merely records of our wills.
[8] One also sees that since the law combines the universality of
the will and that of the object, What any man, regardless of who he
orders
on
his
own
is
not
a
be,
may
authority
law; what even the
Sovereign orders regarding a particular object is not a law either,
but a decree, nor is it an act of sovereignty but of magistracy.
I
[9] therefore call Republic any State ruled by laws, whatever
for then the public interest alone
may be the form of administration:
and
the [;8o] public thing counts
for something. Every
governs,
is republican?I shall explain in the sequel
legitimate Government

what

Government

By this word

is.

1 understand

only an Aristoeracy or a Democracy, but in general

any government
guided by the general will, which is the law. To be legitimate,
the Government
must
not
be confused
with the Sovereign, but be its minister:
Then monarchy itself is a republic. This will become clearer in the following book.
not

67

Social

the
[10]
the

Laws

civil

properly speaking, nothing

are,

The

association.

Boole II,

Contract

but the conditions

the laws ought to

the

of

and hidden

Individuals

evils.

see

in another?

one

be

gods to give men laws.

[2] The same reasoning Caligula made as to fact, Plato made as
to right in dening the civil or royal man
he seeks in his book on
if
it
but
is
true
that
Prince
is
a
a
rare
what of a
ruling;
great
man,
great Lawgiver? The rst need only follow the model which the
other must
He
is
the
mechanic
who
invents the machine,
propose.
the first is nothing but the workman
who assembles
and operates it.
At the birth of societies, says Montcsquieu, it is the chiefs of repub-

the

against
danger
not
see.
All
are
the
wills
the
it
does
good
good they reject,
public
to
The
first
conform
in
need
of
must
be
obligated
equally
guides:
the other must
their wills to their reason;
be taught to know what
it wills. Then public enlightenment results in the union of underthe
Social
from
this
union
results
and
will
in
the
body,
standing
smooth cooperation of the parts, and finally the greatest force of the
whole. Hence arises the necessity of a Lawgiver.
remote

of

eople subject
their author; only those who are associating may regulate the conditions of the society; but 10w will they regulate them? Will it be
Has
the
common
a
sudden
body poli~
by
inspiration?
by
agreement,
tic an organ to state
its wil s? Who will give it the foresight necesor
how
will
it
to
and
to
them
in
form
its
acts
advance,
sary
publish
declare them in time of need? How will a blind multitude, which
often does not know what it wills because
it rarely knows What is
as
a
for
out
an
unc
as
as
difficult
it, carry
system
good
ertaking great,
of legislation? By itself the people always wills the good, but by
itself it does not always see it. The general will is always upright,
but the judgment that guit es it is not always enlightened. It must
he made to see objects as they are, sometimes
as they should
appear
the good path which
it is seeking, secured
to it, shown
against
seduction by particular wills, bring together places and times within
its purview, weigh the apaeal of present,
perceptible advantages
to

and

C/mjner

century

lics who

that form

make

the

enjoy

the

reward

and

institution,

the chiefs

of

after

that

It

would

it is the

require

institutions

republics.

who dares

to institute
a people must
feel capable of,
[3] Anyone
so to
human
of
nature;
speak, changing
transforming each individ
ual who by himself
is a perfect and solitary whole into part of a
whole
from
which
that
individual
would
as
it were
receive
larger
his life and his being; of weakening mans constitution
in order to
of
a
and
moral
existence
for
the
strengthen it;
substituting
partial
and
existence
we
have
all
received
from
independent
physical
ln a word, he must
nature.
his own
take from man
forces in order
to give him forces
which [382] are foreign to him and of which he
cannot
make use without
the help of others. The more
these natural
forces are dead and destroyed, the greater and tnore
are
the
lasting
acquired ones, and the more solid and lasting also is the institution:
So that when each Citizen is nothing and can
do nothing except
with all the others, and the force acquired by the whole is equal or
to
the
sum
of
all
the
natural
forces
of
the
the
superior
individuals,
be
said
to be at the highest pitch of perfection it can
legislation may

reach.

[4]

[381]
CHAPTER
OF
To discover

[1]
require

the best

rules

of

society
who

suited

to

each Nation

all of mans

would
and

passions
superior intelligence
to
our
who
had
no
relation
nature
none
of
them,
yet
experienced
of
knew it thoroughly,whose happiness was
us
and
independent
one
who was
to
care
for
nevertheless
ours;
nally,
who,
willing
in
the
could
work
in
his
distant
of
times,
preparing
glory
progress
a

68

saw

Lawgiver

While

he

must

is in every respect an extraordinary man

be so by his genius, he is no less so

in the

by

his

not
magistracy,
sovereignty. This ofce which
the
has no place in its constitution:
gives
republic its constitution
It is a singular and superior function
that has nothing in common
with human
men
over
empire; for just as he who has command

office.

SEVEN

LAWGIVER

THE

State.

The

ought

It is

not

to

has command
*

it is

not

have command
over

people becomes

how many

centuries

before

rest

the

the

over

laws,

the laws have command

famous

only

once

the institution

of Greece

took notice

its
of

so

neither

over

men;

should

he who

otherwise

the

legislation begins to decline. No one knows

made
for
the Spartanshappiness
Lycurgus

of them.

69

S/mitzl
Conmwt
Off/16

ministers

laws,
injustices,

and

the sacred

character

as

[5]
cating

When
the

the

to

his

he could

avoid

never

only perpetuate his

views
vitiate
having particular

Lycurgus gave
It
was
Kingship.
establishment

the

laws,

laws

began by
Greek

of most

custom

of their

he

The

abdi~

cities

to

modern

foreigners.
the
of
of
imitated
this
often
Republic
practice:
Republics
ltaly
Geneva did so as well and to good effect? Rome in its nest period
the rebirth
of all the crimes of Tyranny in its midst, and
witnessed
found itself on the verge of perishing, for having united the legis
hands.
lative authority and the sovereign power in the same
to
themselves
Yet
the
Decemvirs
themselves
never
arrogated
[6]
the right to have any law passed solely on their authority. Not/ting
to
the
can
Izemme
law
without
used
to
we propose,
say
they
people,
authors
the
laws
that
be
the
mnsent.
Romans,
of
[383] yourselves
your
are
to make nyour
}ll[)j)i1lS$.
or
should
have
no
Thus
he
drafts
the
laws
who
has, then,
[7]
divest
itself
of
this
and
the
itself
cannot
people
legislative right,
if
it
because
even
wanted
to
do
non~transferable
so;
according
right,
the
will
to the fundamental
obligates particulars,
pact only
general
that a particular will conforms
be any assurance
and there can never
to the free suffrage of
to the general will until it has been submitted
the people: I have said this already, but it is not useless to repeat it.
and
time
two
So
that
one
nds
at
one
the
same
apparently
[8]
an
work
of
in
the
undertaking
legislation:
incompatible things
that
is
nil.
to
execute
it
an
human
and
authority
force,
beyond
The
wise
who
further
which
deserves
attention.
A
difficulty
[9]
rather than in the vulgar
would speak to the vulgar in their own
there
are
a
thousand
will
not
understood
them.
Yet
he
by
language
into the language
kinds of ideas which it is impossible to translate
aims
that
are
too
too
and
of the people. Views that are
general
are
its
each
remote
individual, appreciating
reach;
equally beyond
of government
than that which bears directly on
no
other scheme
entrust

to

only a theologian fail to appreciate the range of

his genius. The framing of our wise Edicts, in which he played a large part, does
time may bring
him as much honor as his institution. Regardless of the revolutions
and freedom is not extinguished
about in our rites, so long as love of fatherland

Those

among

who

us,

look upon

the memory

Calvin

of that

particular interest, has difficulty perceiving the advantages he is

supposed to derive from the constant
privations required by good
laws. For a nascent
people to be capable of appreciating sound
maxirns of politics and of following the fundamental
rules of reason
of State, the effect would have to become
the cause,
the social spirit

of his work.

his fatherland

Chapter

his

often

would

passions,

Book II,

which

is

to

be the

the institution

work

of the

itself, and

institution
would

would
have

have

to

be

preside

laws
prior
what
to
become
means
of
them.
since
the
o
ught
by
Thus,
they
Lawgiver can use neither force nor reasoning, he must of necessity
have recourse
to an authority of a different
order, which might be
able to rally without
violence and to persuade without
convincing.
[to] This is what has at all times forced the fathers of nations to
over

resort

to

their

the intervention

wisdom,

men

of heaven

and

that

to

honor

to

to

the

Gods with
the laws of the State

peoples, subject
as to those
of nature,
and recognizing the same
in
the forma
power
tion of man
and in that of the city, freely obey the yoke of public
and
bear
it
with
felicity,
docility.
which rises beyond the reach [384] of
[t 1] This sublime reason
vulgar men it is whose decisions the Lawgiver places in the mouth
of the immortals, in order to rally by divine authority those whom
human
prudence could not move.* But it is not up to just anyone
to make
the Gods
or
to have
them believe him when he
speak
proclaims himself their interpreter. The great soul of the Lawgiver
is the true
miracle
which must
his
mission.
man
can
prove
Any
carve
tablets
of stone, bribe an oracle, feign secret
dealings with
some
a
train
bird to speak in his ear, or nd other crude
divinity,
who can do only that much
ways to impress the people. Someone
even
chance
succeed in assembling a ock of tools, but he
might
by
will never
found
an
and
his extravagant
work will soon
empire,
perish together with him. Empty tricks form a passing bond, only
wisdom can
make it lasting. The Jewish law which still endures,
own

so

to

that of lshrnaels child which has ruled half the world for ten centuries, still proclaim today the great men who dictated them; and
while prideful philosophy or blind party spirit regards them as

as

great

man

70

will

never

cease

to

be honored

in it.

The

truth

is,

says

giver who

has not
accepted. A wise
in

way that

will

there has never

been in any country a law
for otherwise
his laws would not have been
useful truths which cannot
be demonstrated

Machiavelli, that
invoked
the deity;

man

knows

persuade

many
other people.Discourses

71

on

Livy, Bk.

1, ch.

11.

the
Social
@B

nothing

B001: 11,

Czmlrzzrf

the

politician
lucky impostors,
the great and powerful genius which

but

institutions

true

presides

which

over

establishments.

enduring
that
Warburton
with
all
this
conclude
from
[12] One should not
rather
that
but
a common
have
and
us
object,
religion
politics
among
of the other.
as the instrument
the one serves
at the origin of nations

EXGHT

CHAPTER

Or

[1] just
and

tests

architect, before

an

the

ground

to

putting
whether

see

up
it can

were

good

laws

more

than

to

[2]
never

does

institutor

and

large building,
support

the

discipline

:1

nations

A thousand

have

not

tolerated

in Crete, for Minos

vice~ridden
people.

wicked

men

on

weight,
laws good
so

good laws,

had done

no

brilliant which could

those which could have

have been

earth

and

even

brief

in

period
very
only
are
like
the course
of their entire lifetime.
men,
docileonly
Peoples,
customs
are
in their youth, with age they grow incorrigible; once
established
and prejudices rooted, it is a dangerous and futile under~
their
tolerate
the
cannot
to
to
reform
having
them;
people
taking try
even
if only to destroy them, like those stupid and
evils touched
at the sight of a doctor.
tremble
who
cowardly patients
mens
overwhelm
illnesses
as
some
to
This
is
not
say that, just
[3]
of the past, there may not
minds and deprive them of the memory
lifetime
of
States
in
the
of
violence
occur
also sometimes
periods
when revolutions
do to peoples what certain crises do to individuals,
when horror of the past takes the place of forgetting, and when the
is so to speak reborn from its ashes and
State aflame with civil wars
deaths embrace. Such was
recovers
the vigor of yout_has it escapes
the
after
such
was
Rome
at
the
time
of
Tatquins;
Lycurgus,
Sparta
after the expuland such, among us, were Holland and Switzerland
sion of the Tyrants.
tolerated

them

could

have

done

so

are

rare;

always found in
could
not
even
twice
with
the
same
question. They
happen
people,
for a people can free itself as long as it is merely barbarous, but it
can
no
do
so
once
the
civil
is
worn
Then
out.
longer
mainspring
troubles
may destroy it while revolutions
may not be able to restore
to
it, and as soon as its chains are broken, it falls apart and ceases
exist:
then on it needs a master,
not
a liberator.
Free
peoples,
From
this maxim:
remember
Freedom
can
be gained; but it is never

which

observes

begin by [385] drawing up

for
he
whom
the
examines
whether
but
first
in themselves,
people
intends them is t to bear them. That is why Plato refused to give
and Cyrenians, since he knew that both
laws to the Arcadians
that
is
there
not
tolerate
could
were
rich
and
why
equality:
peoples
the wise

for
they
exceptions the reason
the particular constitution
of the State in

are

is

[386] [5]
as

events

recovered.

PEOPLE

rm:

But such

[4]

in their

admires

C/miner

for

one

maturity

of

too

soon

the

at

birth,

siztns

For

Nations

has

to

wait

there

men

is

before

time

them

subjecting
people is not always easy to recognize,
work is ruined.
One people is amenable

another

will

for

as

is

amenable

not

to

it after

ten

to

of

maturity
laws; but

and if
to

centuries.

one

for
the
acts

discipline
The

Rus

be

truly politically organized because they were

politically organized too early. Peters genius was imitative; he did
not
have true
and makes everything
genius, the kind that creates
out
of nothing. Some of the things he did were
good, most were
He
saw
that his people was barbarous, he did not see
misguided.
that it lacked the maturity for political order; he wanted
to civilize
it when

first

never

all it needed

to

was

warlike.

be made

He wanted

from

the

make

Germans, Englishmen, whereas he should have begun

by making Russians; he prevented his subjects from ever becoming
what they could be by persuading them that they are what they are
not. In the same
a
French Tutor forms his pupil for a moments
way
brilliance
in childhood, and to be nothing after that. The Russian
will
to
Empire
try
subjugate Europe, and will itself be subjugated.
The Tartars, its subjects or neighbors, will become
its masters
and
ours:

to

This

Europe

are

revolution

working

to

seems

in

concert

to

CHAPTER

inevitable.

me

hasten

All

the

Kings of

it.

NINE

CONTINUED
of a wellformed man,
[I]_]11Stas nature has set limits to the stature
beyond which it makes only Giants and Dwarfs, so, too, with regard
to the best constitution
of a State, there are bounds to the size it

the Semi]

Of
can

have in order

too

small

be either

to

Book

be well

large
body politic
to

too

In
selfsustaining. every
from
of force which it cannot
and
exceed,

mum

by

not

Cmzzmct

dint

of

looser

the

be

to

stronger

growing

The

too

it grows, and
than a large one.

A
thousand
['2]
[387]

tration

grows

heavier

at

large.
in general
reasons

difficult

more

the end

of

larger

small
this

prove

at

the

more

there

which
social

State

is

just

great
lever, It also grows

is

maxi

it often strays
bond stretches,

proportionately
First, adminis
a weight grows

maxim.

distances

governed,

or

as

burdensome

more

each
with,
city
multiply; for, begin
has its own [administration] for which the people pays, each district
for which the people again pays, then each province,
has its own
the Satrapies, the V iceregencies, which
then the large governments,
be
more
the
one
and
have
to
climbs,
always
always
paid
higher up
as

the levels of administration

to

of the wretched

the expense
administration

the supreme

people, finally
which crushes everything. All these taxes upon taxes
the
far
from
better
exhaust
being
governed by
steadily
subjects;
these various agencies, they are less well governed than if they had
for
Yet
resources
are
left
over
one
over
them,
emerghardly any
just
encies, and when they have to be drawn on, the State is always on
at

the brink
Nor

comes

of ruin.
is this

is the Government

for its chiefs

is

as

{big as]

not

and

less

whom
the
to

it

never

world,
it. The

strangers
with
different
provinces

are

unable

tolerate

for

sees,

and for its fellovsucitizens

laws

same

different
the

cannot

suit

morals, living

in its eyes
of whom

which

fatherland

most

such
in

variety
different
widely
a

of

Different
of government.
and confusion
among
peoples

form

climates,
laws give rise to nothing but trouble
with
under
the
same
chiefs
and
in
constant
contact
one
who, living
back and forth from their own
another, move
territory to their
since
then
to
different
are
and,
subject
neighbors,intermarry,
they
is
theirs.
never
know
whether
their
customs,
quite
patrimony
really
Talents are hidden, virtues unknown, vices unpunished in this mulwho do not know one another, and whom the seat of
titude of men
has brought together in one place, The
the supreme
administration
see
Chiefs, overwhelmed
affairs,
by public
nothing by themselves,
to

same

74

the State.

In the end

the

10

which

have
to
be
govern
to maintain
the general authority, an
authority which so many
distant
Ofcials want
either to elude or take advantage
of, absorb
all public attention, there is none
left for the peoples
happiness,
scarcely any left for its defense in an emergency,
[388] and that
is how
a
body too large for its constitution
collapses and perishes,
crushedunder
its own
weight.
measures

taken

and

Again,
[4]
solid, so that

State

it

and the efforts

peoples
act against

has

provide itself with

to

withstand

can

it will be

have

kind

the shocks

compelled

of

and

base

some

it is bound

make

to

to

sustain

to

so

be

to

as

experience
itself: for all

force

centrifugal

one

tend

by which they constantly

enlarge themselves at their

another
like
vortices.
Thus
expense,
DSC2lItS"S
geighbors
of
swallowed
to

the weak

in

are

before
being
and
none
up
can
long,
anger
preserve
a kind of
except
by
with
all
establishing
the others,
equilibrium
itself
which would more
or
less equalize the pressure
all around.
[5] This shows that there are reasons
to expand and
reasons
to
contract, and it is not the least of the politiciaiistalents to find the
between

proportion

of the

preservation
they

since

all;
vigorous
only
less prompt in enforcing the laws, preventing provocations, corwhich
be
seditious
undertakings
may
gotrecting abuses, thwarting
less
affection
in
but
also
the
has
hatched
areas;
outlying
people
ting

[3]

clerks

Chapter

II,

to

are

these

two

State.

In

merely
which

theothers,

is the first
constitution
on
vigor born of

the

may

most

be said

that

favors
the

the

first,

to

relative, should be subordinated

and absolute, a healthy and
strong
strive for, and one should rely more

good government,

which

and

internal

thing

reasons

general it

external

are

of

sets

than

on

the

resources

provided by a large territory.

[6] Still, States have been known which were so constituted
that
of conquests
entered
necessity
into
their
very constitution, and
the
which were
forced constantly to expand in order to maintain
them~
have been very pleased by this
They
may
happy necessity
selves.
which, together with the limitation on their size, however, also
showed

them

the itievitable

of their

moment

fall

CHAPTER TEN
CONTINUED

ll]

lmdy politic

can

itsterritory andby

be measured

the number

ratio

has

to

obtain

between

these

in

of
ways, by the extent
of its people, and an
appropriate
two

two

measures

for the State

to

be

Of
its

given

can

ratio

its
inhabitants,
support
feed, It is in this proportion

and

the

feeds

thus

men;

to

of

number
is

size:

consists;
its cultivation

burdensome,

up
that

requires
as

the

State,
be

there

the

much

is

given

of defensive

cause

carious

wars;

it

Either

and brief existence.

if there

of land

and

differences

in

amount

of the
the

of its

nature

because
men

little

different

fertile
One

of the

fertility

country,
also has

what

women,

the

ratio

each
its

because

of

fertility,

degrees
of climates, as

soil,

who

may

among

the greater
offer that is
the

t in

wit

consume

account

country

of

much

as
whom
much consuiie

observes

some

the

between

requires;

men

climates,

take into

to

llXCl

but
storms;
the
State.
destroy

temperaments
others

or

lesser

more

or

of

number

people
population,
growth
insti
the
the
to
the lawgiver can hope to contribute
population
by
his
not
base
he
should
so
that
iudgment
he establishes;
tutions

less

favorable

he

what

present

sees

state

to

but

of

the

on

of the

what

he

foresees,

population

as

on

nor

the

as

much

on

focus
natura
state
should
when
it

in
rue
y

particular
or
a
features
of
dental
permit taking up more
given place require
in
deal
a
will
out
men
Thus
needed.
good
land than appears
spread
natural
the
where
woods,
namely
a mountainous
produce,
country
women
that
teaches
where
less
expeI'1I1C
Work,
p,,S,u1.eS, require
of
stretches
where
and
fertile than in the plains,
more
large
are
alone
which
band
small
a
leave
terrain
only
sloping
horizontal
available for vegetation.
as land
should be counted
By contrast,
an
of
the
at
the
can
draw together
sea,
edge
evenarnong rocks
can
in
there
because
large
sand that are 1390] nearly barren;
llSl11l'lg
reach

Finally there

are

thousand

occasions

acci-

meg

76

disorder

such

influence

and

which

cannot

than

at

time of fermentation

when

everyone

preoccupied with his rank rather than with the peril. If a war, a
a
sedition
were
to arise in such
a time
of crisis, the State
famine,
will inevitably be overthrown.
Not
that
have not been established
[4]
rriaiiy governments
during

om

ree

preserve

one

live in these

soil

harsh

properties
the
products,

of the differences

of the

can

for

is

changes
subjugates
iiltlk
its fits
It

of

number

the

in

who
in

is

of absolute

and

nothing.
subjugated
ation,
or
small
very large.
only by being very
calculate
to
it
is
therefore
impossible
[2]
and

it is

or

not

is

10

replace any other, but without which

all the rest are useless:
the enjoyment of prosperity and peace; for
when a State is being organized, like when a battalion
is drawing
up in formation, is the time when the body is least able to resist
and easiest to destroy. One would offer better
resistance
at a time

defense

land,
enough
proximate
the
for
at
its
supplement
the State nds itself
neighborsdiscretion
wars.
offensive
of
cause
the
Any
people
this
is
proximate
[it needs];
comthan
alternative
other
has
no
of
its
because
location,
which,
its
on
it
is
war
neighbors;
or
is inherently weak;
merce
dependent
a pre-~
but
have
never
it
can
any
it is dependent on circumstances;
is the

has to be added

this
superuous;

decient, its produce

Chapter

have to
products of the earth, because men
live more
closely assembled to repulse pirates, and because, besides,
it is easier to rid the country
of its excess
population by colonies.
for the institution
of a people, one more
{3} To these conditions

land

it

maximum

substitute

measure

enough

inhabitantsof
force.
land its

the
too
there

the

and

as

many

that

for if

people

make

men

the

land

land

genuine [389]

T he

1300/6 11,

Conmzrl

the Social

then

it is those

themselves
that
governments
Usurpers invariably bring about such times of
trouble or Choose them and, taking advantage of the public panic,
laws passed which the people would never
get destructive
adopt
when calm. The choice of the moment
of institution
is one
of the
reliable

features

by which to distinguish the work of the Law

giver from the Tyrants
[5] What people, then, is t for legislation? One which, while
itself
nding
already bound together by some union of origin, inter
est, or convention, has not yet borne the true yoke oflaws; one with
neither
nor
deeprooted customs
deep-rooted superstitions;
one
which is not in fear of being overrun
a
sudden
by
invasion;
which Without takiiig part in its neighbors quarrels can resist each
one
of them by itself, or enlist the help of one to repulse the other;
one
whose every member
can
be known to all, and where one is
not
forced to charge a man
with a greater burden
than a man
can
one
which
can
do without
all other peoples and without
which
hear;
other people can
every
do;'* One which is neither [391] rich nor
most

lf

of

neighboring peoples could not do witliout the other, the situation

would be extremely hard hit the first, and extremely dangerous for the second.
wise
nation
Any
would, in such a case, try promptly to relieve the other of this
dependence. The Republic of B91] Tlaxcala, an enclave in the Empire of Mexico,
preferred doing without salt to buying it from the Mexicans, and even to accepting
saw
the trap hidden
any free of charge. The wise Tlaxcalans
in this generosity,
They preserved their freedom, and in the end this small State, enclosed within
that great Empire, was the instrument
of its ruin.
one

two

77

Social
0/il/IL

and

poor,

stability
has

which
be selstifcient; nally,
of
the
with
ancient
docility
people

an

the

makes

What

work

be established

to

the needs

all of these

conditions
is

what

has

amply

rather

that

deserve

suspect

what

is

why

reason

one

makes

of

it is difcult

that

what

much

so

destroyed;
the
nding
simplicity

The
to

small island

this

valor

nature

to
one

nd
sees

steadiastness

and
teach

man

will

receiving legis-

one

it

day

with

its freedom

and defend

recover

wise

some

of

Europe capable

left in

one

that

not

people.

new

and

true

the

combines

States.

country
lation; it is the island of Corsica.
which this brave people was able
would

is

be

to

impossibility
of society. It is
This
together.

few wellconstituted
There
[6]

difcult

legislation
of

with

linked

of
as

is the

rare

so

success

Cmzmut

one

can

of

Boole II,

it. I

to

preserve
astound liurope.

is

trade

can

for

rich

the

foods

and

fertile

occupy
plains
Devote
few inhabitants?

OF

THE

[I]
sists
one

into

inquires
which
in,
ought
one

will nd that

it

precisely
be the

to

comes

much

freedom

force

from

away
it.
without

the greatest

good

any

the

of all

con-

individual

dependence
because
State; equality,

to
with
is;
equal~
regard
already
[2]
that degrees of power
to mean
not
be
understood
this
word
must
ity,
it
for
but
as
the
should
be
and wealth
that,
power,
same,
absolutely
of
virtue
exercised
be
and
never
of
all
violence
short
except by
stop
rank and the laws, and that as for wealth, no citizen be so very rich
that he is compelled
so poor
that he can buy an[392]other, and none

said what

I have

civil freedom

sell himself: Which assumes,

in goods and inuence and, on
to

avarice

i"

the part of the great, moderation

in
the part of the lowly, moderation
on

and covetousness.*

the

want

to

give

the State

78

extremes

as

Do

you,

slopes?

Have

you

you

to

the

on

contrary,
soil but too

good
agriculture,

of its

occupy
cultivate

brief

few

inhabitants

and convenient

shores?

territory

extensive

and

commerce

existence.

Does

rocks

inaccessible

the

navigation;

the

along

wash

sea

shores?

your

will
the
live
more
eaters; you
certain[393]ly the happier, In
to

all,

is within

there

each

you

would

which

arts

the

will have

in

Remain
for

brilliant

makes

few

ships,
a

nearly
sh~

and

better, and

the

the maxirns

common

orders

which

you
and

but

barbarous

it, perhaps

tranquil
a word, besides
some
cause
People

just
with

sea

against nothing

up

only

have? Do

it does

Cover

which

its

these

suited

legislation
particular
and recently the Arabs had
itself alone. Thus formerly the Hebrews
Athenians
their
the
as
letters, Carthage
principal object,
religion
and
Rome
Rhodes
and Tyre commerce,
war,
seafaring, Sparta
of the Spirit of the Laws has shown in a great
virtue. The Author
the
directs
institution
the
art
which
the
instances
by
lawgiver
many
toward each one of these objects.
solid
and
of
a State
makes
the
constitution
What
genuinely
[5]
to that
well
attended
natural
when
what
is
is
so
is
appropriate
lasting
maxims

in

and

manner

to

close

together
stability? bring
which
two
nor
These
neither
rich
tolerate
states,
as possible;
beggars.
people
very
come
from
one
the
common
fatal
to
are
are
good;
equally
naturally inseparable,
these
two
it
is
between
from
the
other
abettots
of
and
the
always
tyrants;
tyranny,
it.
the
sells
one
other
in
there
is
that
buys it,
public freedom;
trafficking
Do you, then,

lack.

population,
the
country completely by concentrating
depopulate

of every system of legislation,

two
to these
principal objects,

because

taken

subsist

cannot

end

down

freedomiandequality. Freedom,
is that

what

all of your efforts

and drive out the

the

increases

points
If

which

of

chimera

speculation
equality, they say,
cannot
exist in practice: But if abuse is inevitable, does it follow
the
that it ought not at least be regulated? It is precisely because
force of things always tends to destroy equality, that the force of
it.
to
maintain
tend
to
legislation ought always
institution
must
be
these
aims
of
But
general
every
good
[4]
arise
as
much
from
each
to
the
relations
that
in
country
adapted
from the character
of the inhabitants, and it is
local conditions
as
that each people has to be assigned a
on
the basis of these relations
in
the
of
institutions
which
is
best, not, perhaps,
particular system
For
is
it
is
intended
for
the
State
for
which
but
example,
itself,
too
small for its
the soil unprotableand barren, or the country
T urn
inhabitants?
to industry and the arts, the products of which
This

[3]

you

CHAPTER ELEVEN
SYS'l'l:".MS or LEGISLATION
VARIOUS

Clmpter

I]

branch

of

a kingdom
the
dA[rgenson],provides
says
M[arquis]
than a deceptive benet;it may enrich a few individuals,

foreign trade,

Any
in general with little more
even
a few cities, but the nation
is

no

better

as

whole

off for it.

79

gains nothing

from

it,

and

the

people

Scum!

Off/re
relations
latter

the

and
it

laws

only

always

Boo/e II,

Czmmm

the

on

agree

and

points,

same

and

the former.

the
But

rectify
if the Lawgiver mistakes his object, if he adopts a principle different
from that which arises from the nature
of things, if one
principle
tends toward
servitude
while the other tends toward
freedom, one
toward wealth, the other toward population, one toward peace,
the
as

other
to

\vere

toward

weaken,

conquests,
the constitution

free of turmoil

until

has resumed

nature

secure,

accompany

the laws will be lound

then

deteriorate,
it is either destroyed
its empire.

and the State

to

CHAPTER

imperceptibly

or

altered,

will

be

not

invincible

and

TWELVE

CLASSIFICATION

or

THE

LAWS

[1] To order the whole, or to give the commonwealth the best form
possible, Various relations have to be considered.
First, the action
of the entire body acting upon itself, that is to say the relation
of
the whole to the whole, or of the Sovereign to the State, and this
relation
we

shall

is made
see

up of the relation
in the sequel.

between

intermediate

terms,

Chapter

I2

not
at
are
so
which
bottom
laws,
establishing
for all the others.
much a particular kind of law as the sanction
be
added
a fourth, the most
To
these
three
sorts
of
laws
must
[5]
in
or in bronze, but
not
in
marble
of
which
is
all;
graven
important
the hearts of the Citizens; which is the States genuine constitution;

occasion

which

criminal

for

when

as

[2] The laws which regulate this relation bear the name of politi
cal laws, and are
also called
fundamental
laws, not altogether
if
these
laws
are
wise.
For
if
there
is
but
one
unreasonably
good
way of ordering any given State, the people that has found it ought
to abide
if
it:
but
the
established
order
is
would
bad,
by
[394]
why
one
laws
which
it
from
as
fundamental
regard
prevent
being good?
to change its laws,
Besides, a people is in any case always master
even
the best of them; for ifir pleases it to harm itself, who has the
it
to
from
so?
right
prevent
doing
The
of
with
second
relation
is
that
the
members
one
another
[3]
or
with the entire
this
be
and
relation
should
as
small
as
body,
with
to
the
and
as
as
with
possible
respect
first,
large
possible
to
the
second:
so
that
Citizen
be perfectly independent
respect
every
of all the others, and excessively dependent on the City; which is
always achieved by the same means; for it is only the St-.1tes force
that makes
that

for its members

the civil laws

are

freedom.

It is from

this second

of relation

between

relation

born.

[4] One may consider

the law, namely that of

third

sort

disobedience

80

to

penalty,

and

man

this

the

other

laws

force; which,
daily gathers
the
die out, revives or replaces them, and imperceptibly substitutes
and
force of habit for that of authority. I speak of morals, customs,
to our
above all of opinion; a part [of the laws] unknown
politicians
of all the others depends: a part to which
but on which the success
to restrict
in secret,
while he appears
the great Lawgiver attends
himself to particular regulations which are but the ribs of the arch
of which morals, slower to arise, in the end form the immovable
Keystone.
constitute
which
these
various
Classes, political laws,
[6] Among
to my subject.
the form of Government, are the only Class relevant
new

and
is the

81

age

or

Boole III,

[OC 111,395]
BOOK

speaking
fix the precise meaning
far.
so
explained

of Government, let us try to

which has not been adequately

forms

of the various

Before

[11

of this term,

ONE

CHAPTER

OF GOVERNMENT

[1]

I lack the

that

that

reader

the

warn

of

art

this

being

has

chapter

clear

GENERAL

IN

and

be read

who

those

to

to

carefully,
to be
willing

not

are

attentive.

has

free action

[2] Every
one
moral, namely
it,
the
power
cal, namely
it
is
necessary,
object,
that
the second
lace,
let

run,

limber

The body politic

is drawn between
the
ormer
power,

two

in the
my

place,

feet carry

to

me

I walk

I will

it. Let

same

do so, both
motive causes;

their

concurrence.

will not

man

first

that

to

producing

the other

it,

it. When

executes

in

concur

determines

the will which

which

which

causes

stay

phys1~

towardan

to

go

to

paralytic
where

in

it;

will

to

theyare.

distinction

here,
force and will: The latter being called legislative
executive power. Nothing is or should be done in

has the

without

too,

body politic
the
to
that
the
seen
people,
We
have
belongs
power
legislative
[3]
the
on
to
see
It
is
to
it,
contrary,
by
that,
and can be ong only
easy
cannot
executive
the
power
the princip es established
above,
belong
or
in
its
the
Sovereign
the generality [of
Legislative
to
people]
are
acts
which
in
consists
this
for
solely
particular
power
capacity;
within
that
of
the
within the province
not
law, nor, consequently,
can
be
acts
the
all
of
only
of the [396 Sovereign, since
Sovereigns
the

laws.
,

[4]
unites

The

and

general
the

wil

vublic

person

it

nuts

which

State and
what

force

the
the

therefore

has

have

work in accordance

to

serves

as

Sovereign,
union

of soul and

in

which

own

of communication

means

which

its

agent
with the directives

to

body

sense

does

of the
between

does for the

in man.

This

within

the

82

An intermediate
estabv
[5] What, then, is Government?
body
lished between
and
so
that
conform
subjects
Sovereign
they might
to one
and
with
the
execution
of the laws and the
another,
charged
maintenance
of freedom, both civil and political.
of this body are called magistrates or Kings,
[6] The members
that is to say Governors, and the body as a whole bears the name
Prime.* Thus those who contend
that the act by which a people
itself
to
chiefs
is
not
a
contract
are
It
is
subjects
perfectly right.
absolutely nothing but a commission, an office in which they, as
mere
officers of the Sovereign, exercise in its name
the power it has
vested in them, and which it can limit, modify, and resume,
since
alienation
of such a right is incompatible with the nature
of the

social

bond

and

to

the aim of the association.

contrary
I therefore
call Govemment

or
administration
the
[7]
supreme
legitimate exercise of the executive power, and Prince or Magistrate
the man
or
the body charged with that administration.
that are
located
the intermediate
[8] It is in the Government

forces

whose

relations

constitute

the

relation

of the

whole

to

the

whole, or of the Sovereign to the State. This last relation can be

of a continued
represented as the ratio between the extremes
prov
the
is
Government.
The
portion of which the mean
proportional
Government
receives
from the Sovereign the orders
which
it gives
the people, and for the State to be well balanced it is necessary
that,
all other things being equal, the product or power
of the Govern~
merit
taken by itself be equal to the product or power of the citizens
who are sovereign on the one hand, and subjects on the other.
[397] [9] What is more, none of these three terms could be altered
without
the
If
the Sovereign
immediately destroying
proportion.
wants
to
or
the
to
or
the
govern,
magistrate
give laws,
subjects
refuse
to obey, disorder
replaces rule, force and will no longer
act
in concert,
and the dissolved
State thus falls into despotism or
anarchy. Finally, since there is only one mean proportional between
each pair, there is also no more
than one good government
possible
in any one
State: But since a thousand
events
can
change the
relations of a people, not only can different
be
governments
good

public
is the

there
is
Government, improperly
State,
why,
minister.
the
it
is
which
of
the
fused with
merely
Sovereign,
reason

C/wpter

eon-

'*

Thus
the

in

Doge

Venice,
is

not

the

college [of Senators]

in attendance.

83

is called

7/ZIISI

serene

Prince

even

when

Sorta!
O/the

for different
at

but

peoples,

different

they

Boole III, Chapter

Czmmwt

also be

can

good

for the

people

same

times.

[to] To try
obtain between

to

give

idea

some

these

of the

various

relations

which

may

extremes, I shall take as an example the

number
of the people, as this relation is easier to express.
the
Let
us
assume
that
State is composed of ten thousand
[til
Citizens. The Sovereign can only be considered
in
and
collectively
a body: But
his
as
a
in
is
every particular person
subject
capacity
considered

Thus

individually:

thousand

is

but

has

two

to

That

one:

is

the

Sovereign is

each
that
say
of the Sovereign

tcnlthousandth

to

the

subject

member

of the

to

as

ten

State

his own
authority
share, although all of him is subject to it. Let the people be comof
a
hundred
state
thousand
the
does
not
posed
men,
subjects
change, and each one bears the full empire of the laws equally,
whereas
his vote, reduced
to a hundred
thousandth, exercises ten
times less inuence in drafting the laws, Thus, since the subject
always remains one, the ratio of Sovereign [to subject] increases in
to
the
of
the
number
Citizens.
Whence
it
follows
that
proportion
the State expands, the more
more
freedom
contracts.
When
1
that
the
ratio
I
that
mean
it moves
[:2]
say
increases,
farther
from
Thus
the
the
ratio
is
in
the
away
equality.
greater
of the term, the smaller it is in the ordinary sense;
Geometers sense
in the first sense, the ratio considered
in terms
of quantity is meas
ured by the quotient, and in the other sense,
in terms
considered
of identity, it is gauged by similarity,
[:3] Now, the smaller the ratio of individual wills to the general
that
is to say of morals to the laws, the more
does the repressive
will,
force have to increase. Hence in order to be good, the Government
has to have relatively more
force in proportion as the people is more
a

as

numerous.

[398] [14] On the

offers

the

more

the

means

Government

more

contain

force

of the

trustees
to

does

hand, since the expansion of the State

more
and
public authority
temptations

other

misuse
has
the

their
to

it follows

power,
have in order

Sovereign

the Government.

am

have
not

to

here

to

have

that

contain

in its

the
the
turn

about
Speaking

does
precision

[17]

The

people,

the

in order

to

absolute

in moral

obtain

is

it is

on

on

large

of the

nature

quantities,
small

scale.

it is

the

what

scale

body politic
endowed

moral

person
the
like
like
the
active
with certain
Sovereign, passive
faculties,
from
similar
into
which
can
be
relations,
further,
State,
analyzed
within
it
and
which a new
yet
proportion consequently arises,
another proportion corresponding to the judiciary, until an indivise
is reached, that is to say a single chief or supreme
ible middle term
of
this
of
in
the
middle
conceived
who
be
pro
magistrate,
might
and
of
the
series
of
fractions
the
series
as
the
between
unity
gression
of integers.
of
in
this
involved
Without
proliferation [399'l terms,
getting
[18]
in
as
a
new
the
Government
let us leave it at considering
body
from both the people and the Sovereign, and
the State, distinct
The

an

not

Government

contains

which

intermediate

force, but about the relative force of the various parts of the State.
It
from
follows
this double ratio that the continued
[15]
pro
of
and
Prince
is
not
an
idea
but
portion
Sovereign,
people
arbitrary
84

It
further
politic.
body
necessary
consequence
the
as
sub~
of the extremes,
follows that since one
namely
people
time
the
doubled
fixed
and
is
jects,
represented by unity, every
or
increases
or
the
ratio
ratio increases
decreases,
similarly
single
This
term
and
the
middle
is
correspondingly changed.
decreases,
of Governe
shows that there is no unique and absolute constitution
in
Governments
ment
but that there may be as many
differing
as
there are States differing in size,
nature
it
were
said
to
order
this
in
to
reduce
ridicule,
[16] If,
system
and
to
this
mean
forming
proportional
that, according
me, nding
the
than
no
more
the body of the Government
taking
requires
am
that
I
I
would
of
the
root
of
the
number
reply
people,
square
the
ratios
about
that
as
an
here using this number
only
example;
of
numbers
not
which I am speaking are measured
men,
only by
is
the
which
combined
amount
of
the
but more
activity,
generally by
if
in
order
to
result of a great many causes;
besides,
express
that,
of
the
borrow
I
words
mvself in fewer
language
momentarily
that
of
the
fact
not
unaware
I
am
nevertheless
geometric
geometry,

of the

force

more

[to]
State

exists

between
essential

them.

difference

between

and the Government

these

exists

by itself,
the Prinees dominant
the Sovereign. Thus
will
the
the
or
but
laws;
general
nothing
in
concentrated
the
force
but
public
nothing
and independent
derive
absolute
to
some

bodies

two

it:
act

the

only by [virtue of]

is

will
the

is that

or

should

Prinees
as

soon

from

force
as

be
is

it wills

itself, the

Of!/ze

Social

Cunlmrt

nally
pass
begins
the
active
than
will
more
a
Prince
had
the
that
Sovereigns
private
in
its
force
it
used
the
will
that
and that in heeding
public
private
one
two
so
to
would
that
there
so
by
Sovereigns,
be,
speak,
power,
union
would
the
social
in
the
other
and
instantly
vanish,
fact;
right
and the body politic be dissolved.
a real
have
to
the
Government
of
Yet
for
the
existence,
body
[20]
for
all
of
its
the
the
of
it
from
life which distinguishes
State,
body
and to assume
in concert
to be able to act
members
responsibility
have
a
it
has
to
it
is
end
for
which
for the
particular self
instituted,
that
will
of
its
own
a
a
to
its
common
a sensibility
force,
members,
tends to its preservation. Such a particular existence
presupposes
to
to
decide, rights, titles,
deliberate,
assemblies, councils, power
make
the
Prince
and
to
the
which
belong exclusively
privileges
as
it
is
more
in
more
honorable
proportion
magistratesposition
this
subordinate
consist
in
The
difficulties
ordering
demanding.
the
not
weaken
it
does
so
that
the
whole within
general
whole,
the
that
it
its
parconstitution
always
keeps
own,
strengthening
by
cohesion

ticular

public

of the

force
force

whole

intended
intended

slacken.

to

for

its

for the

If it

preservation
the
of
State,
preservation

sacrice

from
and
the

that,

the
in

people,
ready
and not the people to the Government,
is
of
the
Government
articial
the
body
[21] However, although
a
boras
it
and
articial
of
another
the work
were, only
has,
body,
able
to
it
from
not
this
does
and
subordinate
being
rowed
keep
life,
to
a
to
so
or
less
or
act
more
speak,
enjoy,
promptly,
vigorously
health. Finally, without
or less robust
more
directly departing [400]
or
from
it
more
deviate
it
its
less,
from the goal of
institution,
may
it
is
constituted.
on
how
depending
arise the various
that
these
differences
all
of
It
is
from
[22]
and
the
the
Government
between
to
obtain
which
relations
ought
and
accidental
the
into
account
of
the
particular
State,
taking
body
the
Government
For
often
is
modied.
that
State
which
relations
by
if
its
the
most
become
the
best
will
in
itself
is
vicious,
which
to
which
of
the
to
the
defects
are
not adjusted
relations
body politic
it belongs.
a

word, it is

ever

to

the Government

to

OF

to

the

out

set

general

distinguish
between
I
as
above
ment,
distinguished
the
The
of
magistracy may
[2]
body

the State
be

it is

differences,
and

Prince

the

VARIOUS

THE

of these

cause

between

here

to

necessary

and the
of

composed

Govern

the

Sovereign.
greater

or

the
ratio
of
that
said
Sovereign
lesser
the
number
of
as
the
was
to subjects
people
proportion
the
we
can
obvious
an
and
more
say
was
analogy
numerous,
by
to the Magistrates.
in relation
about the Government
same
that
is
the
Government
of
the
total
force
since
always

of

[3] Now,
the State,
force

this

the who

[4]

it
e

it

its

on

it follows

which

from

Varies:

never

uses

the less it has left

members,

own

the

that

of

more

to

act

on

people.
the

Hence

the

numerous

more

the

Magistrates,

is fundamental,

this maxim

Since

Government.
it

We have

of members.
in
greater

number

let

us

the

weaker

try

to

clarify

ully.

more

different

wills

in the

essentially
distinguish
which
own
the
individuals
of
the
will,
First,
Magistrate:
person
will
the
common
tends so ely to his particular advantage; second,
the
advan~
with
concerned
which
is
of the Magistrates
exclusively
which
is
the
be
called
and
tie
will,
of
corporate
Prince,
may
tage
to
in
relation
and
the
Government
relation
to
in
particular
general
the
third
in
the
is
a
Government
of
which
the
the State
place,
part;
in
is
which
general
will of the people or the [401] sovereign will,
the
and
to
the
as
considered
relation
aoth to the State
whole,
[5]

We

Government

three

can

considered

as

In

the
whole.
of
part
the particular or individual

will should

[6] a perfect legislation,

subor
be
will
should
very
be null, t e Governrnents own corporate
or sovereign will should
the
always
and
general
dinate,
consequently
be dominant

concentrated
Thus

the

to

these

the

natural

different

will is

general
and
second
pies
place,
in the

of all the

and the sole rule

[7] According

that

86

THE

In order

[1]

Two
CHAPTER
CONSTXTUTES
WHICH
PRINCIPLE
GOVERNMENT
Forms
or

to

came

distinct

own

Chapter

B00/e III,

Government

others.

order,

on

the

are,

the

more

wills

contrary,
active

the

they

more

grow.

will
occua
the
weakest,
corporate
always
the particular will the rst place of all:
the

each

member

87

is first

of all

himself,

so

and

Conlmtl

2116 Solid]

Of

1300/6 III,

that

direct

is the

gradation
Magistrate,
order.
social
the
of
that
required by
opposite
in
the
the
entire
Government
now
assume
this
Let
be
given:
[8]
will
will
and
the
The
man.
of
a
hands
corporate
particular
single
at
will
is
the
and
are
then perfectly united,
corporate
consequently
of
the
use
since
can
attain.
it
the highest degree of intensity
Now,
Governments
since
the
and
of
the
on
force depends
will,
degree
active
of
that
the
most
it
follows
force
never
absolute
varies,
is that of a single man.
Governments
the
with
the
Government
let
us
combine
the
On
contrary,
[9]
and
the
Prince
into
the
us
turn
let
Sovereign
authority;
legislative
Then
the
into so many
all the citizens
corporate will,
Magistrates:
and
leaves
than
more
active
no
is
with
the
it,
general will,
merged
and

then

the
the

will

individual
same

absolute

then

full

in its

force,

citizen.

will be

at

the

Thus

force.

its minimum

Government,
of relative

with

force

or

activity.
other
considerations
and
are
These
relations
beyond dispute,
[to]
that
each
it
is
evident
For
them
further.
conrm
example,
only
each
citithan
his
within
active
is
more
[corporate] body
magistrate
far
more
will
has
that
a
in
and
zen
is
particular
consequently
his,
inuence
the

in the actions

Sovereign;

for each

than

of Government

magistrate

is almost

it has in the actions

of

always responsible

for

citizen

taken

by
Government,
the
the
more
of
himself exercises no function
sovereignty, Besides,
does
it
force
its
real
the
more
State expands,
increases, although
some

not

function

increase

in

proportion
regardless

each

whereas

of the

to

[402]

its

but

if the State

remains

magistrates multiply,
because
real
does
not
Government
force,
the
thereby gain greater
is still the same.
this force is the force of the State, whose extent
diminishes,
force or activity of the Government
Thus the relative
increase.
while its real force or activity cannot
less
business
that
is
certain
it
gets dispatched
[11] Again,
that
of
are
in
as more
in
it,
charge
people
proportion
expeditiously
to
is
conceded
not
much
to
too
enough
prudence
by conceding
of
that
the
fruits
and
to
is
allowed
escape,
fortune, that opportunity
are
often lost by deliberating too much.
deliberation
in
slack
the
Government
that
I
have
progrows
just proved
[12]
more
that
the
I
and
earlier
as
proved
magistrates multiply,
portion
must
the repressive force increase.
numerous
the people, the more

the

same,

then

of how

88

much

the

From

should
to

it follows

which

the

the

State

much

that

more

of

the ratio

of the ratio

inverse

be the

say that

that

Chapter

of

magistrates
to
Sovereign:
subjects
the

grows,

Government

to

should

more

Govern-

the

should

of chiefs

the number

is

That

diminish

shrink; by
of people.
in proportion to the increase
about
the
relative
force
I
am
here
speaking only
[T3] However,
of the Government, and not about its uprightness: For, on the eon
the
more
of
the
more
numerous
the
the
magistrates,
body
trary,
whereas
the
does
the
will
will;
general
corporate
approach
closely
as
l
will
have
under a single magistrate this same
is,
said,
corporate
side
what
be
on
one
will,
Thus
is
lost
a
might
merely
particular
in
consists
the
and
the
art
of
the
on
knowing
Lawgivcr
other,
gained
the point at which the force and the will of the
how to determine
can
be
com
are
which
Government,
always inversely proportional,
the
to
State.
most
bined in the relation
advantageous
[or ratio]

ment

so

THREE

CHAPTER

CLASSIFICATION

GOVERNMENTS

or

the
various
kinds
or
why
preceding chapter
[1]
to
the
number
of
are
forms of Government
distinguished according
it
remains
in
the
who compose
the members
them;
present chapter
In the

to

be

how

seen

of Government
that

there

classication

this

The

[403] [2]
so

Sovereign

be

more

citizens

simple particulars.
Demzmmy.
else
it
can
restrict
Or
[3]
small number, so that there
this

[4] Finally,
hands

of

power.

This

or

range;

it

can

bears

the
be
the

third

form

the

is the

entrust

simple

more

the

into

Government

hands

magis

than

Citizens

of

/lrislocmry.

name

the

concentrate

single magistrate

whom

from
most

in the

of Government

whole

all the

derive

rest

and is called

common,

their

Monarchy

Government.

royal
It
should
[5]

two,

form

is made,

charge
place,
of
the
the
or
to
majority
people,
people
who are magistrates than citizens who
is given the name
form of Government

This

and

seen

in the rst

can,

the whole

to

are

trates,

have

we

admit

of

be noted
more

for Democracy

or

that

less,
can

all of these
and

they

encompass

39

do
the

forms,
so

within

whole

least

at

or

the first

rather

people

or

wide

restrict

Ofthe

C()u[l

Social

B00/e 111,

itself to as few as half. Aristocracy, in turn,

the
smallest
to
half
the
from
people
anywhere
extent.
to
a certain
shared
admits
of
being
alty

Roy>
Sparta consistently

Empire
Kings by constitution,
at
without
as
have had as many
once,
eight Emperors
there
was
divided.
Thus
that
the
to
Empire
say
possible
had

at

that

evident
of

each

which

as

under

forms

different

many

is

What

[6]

of Government
three
these
just

form

itself into

subdivide
in

result

can

another
a

way,

forms,

can

cases,
If in each State

and

it is

admits
in certain

of which

each

one

forms

three

of these

simple
multiplied by
about
much
been
There
has
argument
always
[7]
that
each
one
of Government, without
considering
some

be

can

forms.

all the

best in

being
point

administered

one

parts,
combination

of mixed

multitude

is

to

Citizens.

has

different
the

its

the

Government

same

is known

next,
Government

headings,

the State
this

Since

more:

respects
other
the
way,

as

into

merges

to

Even

number.

and the Roman

two

itself

restrict

can

the best

is the

should
be
of supreme
magistrates
number
of Citizens, it follows that

the number

[8]
the
to
inversely proportional
suits small States, Aristocratic
Government
in general Democratic
suits [404] mediumsi7.ed ones, and Monarchy large
Government
ones.
This rule is directly derived from the principle; but how is
to

one

the

enumerate

exceptions

to

many

which

circumstances

can

for

make

rule?

the

FOUR
CHAPTER
Or DEMOCRACY

[1]

who

He

could

executive

precisely

no

better

interpreted.

better

distinct,

and

person,

than

It would

constitution

the
with
combined
power
this
Government
what
makes

respects,

be

and

law knows

than

anyone
therefore
one

in

else

how

that

seem

which
But

it

this

the
is

legislative:
certain
in
inadequate
are
not
to
be
distinct
which
kept
kept
ought
things
the Prince and the Sovereign being nothing but the
without
but
a
Government
so
to
speak, nothing
form,
is

for

same

makes

be executed

should
there

the

Government.

90

good

that

he who makes

the laws

them,
that the body of the people turn
its attention
from
away
general
considerations, to devote it to particular objects. Nothing is more
than
the
inuence
of
interests
on
dangerous
private
public affairs,
and abuse of the laws by the Government
is a lesser evil than the
of
corruption of the Lawgiver, which is the inevitable consequence
in its
particular considerations.
Then, the State being adulterated
all
reform
becomes
A
which
very substance,
impossible.
people
would never
misuse
the Government
would
not
misuse
indepen
denee either; a people which would always govern
well would not
need to be governed.
In
the
strict sense
of the term, a genuine Democracy never
[3]
has existed, and never
will exist. It is against the natural order that
the greater number
and the smaller number
be governed. It
govern
that

execute

the people remain

unimaginable
constantly
attend
to public affairs, and it is readily evident
that
establish

in others.

and the worst

not

is

form

of them

lt
F is

Chapter

commissions

do

to

so

without

the

form

nor

assembled
it could

of the

to
not

adminis-

tration

changing.
[4] Indeed, I believe

functions
the least

only

of Government
numerous

because

leads them

to

ease

acquire

can
are

sooner

of the

or

in

principle that when the

divided among
several
[405]
tribunals,
later acquire the greatest authority; if
dispatching business, which naturally
posit

as

it.

[5] Besides, how many things difficult to combine does not this
Government
presuppose? First, a very small State where the people
is easily assembled, and where every citizen can easily know all the
busi
rest; second, great simplicity of morals to preclude excessive
ness
and thorny discussions; next, much equality of ranks and fortunes, without which equality of rights and authority could not long
subsist: Finally, little or no luxury; for luxury is either the effect of
riches, or makes them necessary; it corrupts rich and poor alike, the
one
it sells out the father
by possession, the other by covetousness;
land to laxity, to vanity; it deprives the State of all its Citizens
by making them slaves to one another, and all of them slaves to
opinion.
virtue to Republics
[6] That is why a famous Author attributed
as their
for
all
these
conditions
could
not subsist
without
principle;
virtue: but for want of drawing the necessary
distinctions, this noble

91

Social
Ofl/1e

genius
to

principle

same

precision,

sometimes
is

Sovereign authority

since

that

see

in

lacked

often

to
it
is
true, according
less,
that
there
Let
us
add
[7]

and he failed

in

clarity,
the
everywhere

the

same,

State,

welhconstitutetl

in every

obtain

must

Book III,

Comma!

or

more

to

age
the

in its form.

maintain

Citizen

must

It is in this

constitution

with

and

himself

arm

force

to

as

above

all that

and

steadfastness,

his
heart
of
bottom
in
the
life
of
his
say
every day
I
a
of
Poland:
Diet
in
the
said
}alatine*
prefer

virtuous

perilous

freedom

what

servitude.

quiet
[406] [8]

to

themselves
to

of

people
So
perfect
democratically.
If there

were

would
govern
Gods, they
is not suited
Government

men.

FIVE

CHAPTER
OF

[1]

have

We

here

two

ARISTOCRACY

very

distinct

moral

and

the

namely
general wills,

persons,

consequently
members
the
for
the
other
the
to all
only
citizens,
the
Government
may regulate
of the administration.
Thus, although
the
to
never
it
it
as
people
its internal
may
speak
pleases,
policy
name
of
in
the
to
that
is
the
of
in
the
name
say
Sovereign,
except
be forgotten.
the people itself, which should never
The
themselves
The
first
societies
aristocratically.
governed
[2]
the
about
themselves
families
deliberated
public
chiefs of
among
of
the
to
cxperi
authority
business; young people readily yielded

Government
in relation
one

the

Hence

ence.

and the

Sovereign,

Priests, eltierx, senate,

themselves
still govern

names

America

of northern

*
**

are

The

Palatine

It is clear
but

the

geronm.
this way

The
in

savages

day,

our

hereditary.
the

are,

The

of all

worst

then, three kinds

Aristocracy: natural, elective,

first is suited only to simple peoples; the third is
The second is the best; it is Aristoc
Governments.
called.

properly
In
addition
[5]

so

racy

of

the

of

between

distinguishing
having
advantage
the two powers,
the
of
mem
has
its
advantage
choosing
Aristocracy
all Citizens are born tnagis
bers; for in |4o7] popular Government
whereas
this Government
restricts
them to a small number,
trates,
and they become
a
means
clectedfl
magistrates only by being
by
which probity, enlightenment, experience, and all the other reasons
for public preferment and esteem
further
are
so
many
guarantees
of being well governed.
assemblies
are
more
business
is
[6] Moreover,
easily convened,
and
in
a
more
and
discussed
better,
orderly
diligent
dispatched
fashion, the States prestige is better upheld abroad by venerable
than by an unknown
senators
and despised multitude.
In
a
the
order
is
to
best
and
most
natural
have the
[7]
word,
wisest govern
the multitude, so long as it is Certain that they will
it
for
its
and
govern
advantage and not for their own; institutions
should
not
be
nor
should
procedures
multiplied needlessly,
twenty
men
be employed to do what a hundred
well chosen men
thousand
can

do

even

interest

to

better.

But

it

must

be noted

that

here

the

corporate
less in accordance
with

guide the public force

the standard
of the general will, and that another inevitable
decline
the
laws
of
a
of
the
executive
deprives
portion
power.
[8] With regard to suitable particular circumstances, the State
should not be so small nor the people so simple and upright that
the execution
of the laws follows directly from the public will, as it
does in a good Democracy. Nor should the nation be so large that
begins

to

well

governed.
they
very
as instituted
in
But
[3]
proportion
was
or
riches
power**
inequality,

and

two

There
174]

civil

subject
or
as
Democratic
turmoil
and
intestine
wars
popular Government,
to
and
so
so
tends
which
there is none
constantly
because
strongly
and
cour
which
its
nor
vigilance
greater
requires
form,
any
change
is

Government

elective.
Aristocracy
Finally, power bequeathed to the chil
dren
with
the
made
families
fathers
together
goods
patrician,
Government
became
and
there
were
hereditary,
twenty-yearold
became

Senators.

the form of the Government.

no

C/zzzpter5

that

most

of

Posnania,
among

father

the ancients

of the
the

inequality prevailed
over
given preference
King

of Poland, Duke

term

does
Opzinmres

over

natural
age,

of Lorraine.
the
not
mean

and

best,

[t is very

regulate by laws the form of electing magistrates; because

if it is left to the will of the Prince, hereditary Aristocracy is the inevitable conse
as
it was in the Republics of I/mire and of Bfllf. Indeed, the rst has
queriee,
been
a dissolved
since
whereas
the
second
maintains
itself
State,
long
through
and a most
the extreme
wisdom of its Senate; it is a most
honorable
dangerous
exception.

powerful.
92

important

to

the chiefs, scattered in order

each
the
of
behalf
Sovereign,

to

it,
govern
in his own

make

can

decisions

on

launching
his
erning

and

somewhat
Aristocracy requires
[9]
are
which
others
also
it
requires
popular Government,
contentment
and
the
rich
moderation
as
such
among
own;
would
be
a
that
for it seems
the
rigorous equality
while

But

properly

poor;

it

in

not

observed

even

Aristocracy;
form
this
while
[408] [10] Besides,
does
so
it
of
certain inequality
fortune,
was

of the

the administration

public

than

virtues

there

its

among
of place

out

in

Sparta.
[of Government]
that
so
primarily
be entrusted

business

to

involves
in

who

Aristotle
as
and
contends,
not,
devote
it,
can
best
it
is
the
On
be
important
contrary,
so that the rich always
preferred.
that
the
teach
people
choice should occasionally
that an
time

all of their

to

opposite

mens merit

offers

more

important

for

reasons

preference

than

do

riches.

CHAPTER SIX
Or MONARCHY

[r]

So far

person,

united
within

power
ered in the

considered

have

we

by
the

hands

the Prince

the force
State.
of

exercise

it

of

We

natural

laws,

now

and the

have
person,

as

to

of

moral

trustee

and

collective

of the executive

this power gath

real man, who alone has

consider
a

the laws.

He is what

is called

according
right
a King.
or
Monarch,
a
in
which
other
to
the
administrations,
contrast
In
direct
|,2]
an
administration
in
this
an
individual,
collective being represents
the
moral
that
so
collective
a
unity
individual
being;
represents
in
a
time
same
is
at
the
Prince
the
physical unity
which constitutes
so difficult
which
it
is
the
faculties
all
combined
\vhich are naturally
for the law to combine in a collective being.
and
the
the
will
of
and
the
Prince,
the
will
of
Thus
people,
[3]
the
Governforce
of
the
and
the
force
of
the public
State,
particular
the
machines
all
of
same
to
the
mover,
ment, everything rcsponds
the
same
toward
levers are in the same
hand, everything proceeds
kind
of
conand
no
one
cancel
motions
no
another,
opposing
goal,
effort
would
less
in
which
cnn
be
greater
produce
stitution
imagined

the

to

to

)4

Vessel

for

represents

and

shore

me

skillful

effortlessly

monarch

gov~

and

is

where

his

from

States

vast

move

and

will has greater

the

more

sway
particular
toward
the
dominates
the
other
wills; everything proceeds
easily
and
the
is
not
but
that
same
it
is
very
public felicity,
goal
true,
goal,
of
the
to
the
works
force of the Administration
prejudice
constantly
none

State.

general

those

large

sitting quietly

the

on

making everything
study
while himself appearing to be unmoving.
that
is
more
no
Government
while
there
is
But
vigorous,
[409] [4]

masters.

fewer

Archimedes

action.

begin
department,
the
end
to
becoming
up
only
independent

themselves

by making

Contract

Social

Oftlur

Boole 111, Chapter 6

[5] Kings
that

the

want

be

to

best

way

The

maxim

absolute,
be

to

and from

is

so

peoples.
true.
Unfortunately

is very
it will

Machiavellis

is the book of

fine,
always

and

call

men

in

some

he

to

them

by

their

out

loved

themselves

make

to

afar

even

respects
at in Courts.

very
The

laughed
the
love
is
that
comes
from
the
greunquestionably
peoples
power
will
never
be
and
Princes
and
but
it
is
conditional,
atest;
precarious
if
to be able to be wicked
satised with it. The best Kings want
sermonizer
A
to
be
masters:
without
political
ceasing
they please,
their
their
force
is
the
tell
them
that
since
well
force,
peoples
may
formi
the
interest
is
to
have
numerous,
people ourishing,
greatest
Their
this
is
not true.
that
well
know
personal
dable; they
perfectly
interest
is first of all that the People be weak, wretched, and never
able to resist them. I admit that, assuming always perfectly submissthat the people be
ive subjects, it would be in the Princes interest
him
formi
render
that
this
so
being his, might
power,
powerful,
dahle to his neighbors; but since this is only a secondary and suborv
natu
it
is
are
and
the
two
dinate interest,
incompatible,
assumptions
that
is
most
the
maxim
ral that Princes
immediately
always prefer
useful to them. This is what Samuel forcefully represented to the
shown.
While
has
it
is
what
Machiavelli
preconclusively
Hebrews;
lessons
to
he
to
to
teach
lessons
peoples.
taught great
Kings,
tending

honest man
Medici, he was forced

Machiavelli
of the

Prime

was

an

and

republicans?

citizen:

but

good
the
oppression
during
a

being

attached

of his fatherland

the house

to
to

disguise

Hero suffices to exhibit his

his love of freedom.
The very choice of his execrable
Book
on
the
the
maxims
of
his
between
and
the
contradiction
secret
intention,
Titus Livy and of his history of Florence
on
Prince and those of hisdiscourses
Read
or
far
had
has
so
that this
corrupt
only supercial
politician
proves
The
ers.

it would:

profound

Court of Rome
it is the Court

has

severely prohibited
he depicts most
clearly.

95

think
that
and
I
should
book,
[Note added in the l78Z edn.]

his

Sorml

Ofthe
found

We

the

basis

B00/e

Conmwt

of

relations

that

[6]
general
[or ratios]
be
is
suited
to
and
we
nd
it
to
monarchy
only
large States,
again
so
in
The
more
the
itself.
numerous
upon
examining monarchy
the
the
ratio
of
Prince
to
more
administration,
subjects
public
decreases
and approaches equality, so that in Democracy this ratio
is one [to one] or equality itself. This same
ratio increases
in pro
as the Government
is
at
its
when
and
it
maximum
contracts,
portion
the Government
is in the hands of a single man.
[410] The distance
between
Prince
and People is then too great, and the State lacks
cohesion. To form such cohesion, intermediate
orders are therefore
to ll these, Princes, Grandees, nobility are
needed:
needed.
Now,
none
of this is suited to a small state, which all such gradations
on

ruin.

[7]
much

and

if it is difficult

But

knows

everyone

State

large

to

it is

and

essential

rnonarchical

inevitable
inferior

government

in

voice

the

which

defect

those

who

almost

who occupy
in monarchies
are

knaves, petty

make

is that

government
elevates to the

never

succeed

but

always

republican

to

Republics
public
and
but
men
any
places
enlightened
capable
whereas

will

highest

them

with

often

most

schemers

whose

nothing
petty bunglers, petty
Court
serve
which
at
access
to
give
high places, only
petty talents,
as
to show the public their ineptitude just as soon
have
acceded
they
much
less
often
mistaken
in
this
to these high places. The
is
people
choice than the Prince, and a man
of true merit in a [royal] ministry
is almost

as

Indeed,

when

rare

as

by

fool

at

the head

happy

some

of

accident

republican

of those

one

government.
men
who are

takes the helm of affairs in a Monarchy which has

govern
is
been almost ruined by those crowds of fancy managers,
everyone
amazed
at
the
resources
he
and
it
marks
an
discovers,
utterly
epoch
born

in

to

country[s history],
For
a
monarchic
State
[9l
a

would

have

governs.

lever,

21

to

single nger

can

to

always

be well

be commensurate

It is easier

of Hercules
almost

to

to

conquer
move

governed,

its size

with

the faculties

of the

than

to

the

hold
too

world,

it up. If a State
small, On the other

96

is

rule.

Given

an

or

extent

one

who

adequate

but it takes the shoulders

at

hand,

all
when

large,

the

the State

Prince

happens

the

measure,

tration

run

[to]
single

The

for its

State

no

man

others

C/mpter

which

chief,

is very
forever

it
the
is
still
case,
rarely
his
own
pursuing
large

stable

have

can

boundaries

and

the

adminis

less well.

most

perceptible

inconvenience

is the

lack of that

continuous

forms

an

bond.

of Government

succession

unbroken

When

by

which

in the

King dies, another

is needed, elections
leave dangerous intervals, they are
stormy,
and unless
the Citizens
are
disinterested
and upright to an extent
scarcely compatible with this [form of] Government, intrigue and
will
It
is
their
that
he
to
whom
the
play
corruption
part.
unlikely
two

sell it in turn, and that he will not seek

at
the
of
the
for
extorted
Weak
the
compensation
expense
money
rom
him by the powerful. Sooner or later everything becomes venal
has sold itself

under

such

Kings
[11]

is

an

worse

What

will

not

and

administration,
than
has

the disorder

been

done

to

of

then

the

peace

enjoyed

under

Crowns

have

interregna,

prevent

these

evils?

an
of
and
order
Succession
families,
hereditary
1218 been
established
which prevents any dispute upon the death of
is
to
inconvenience
of
That
the
Kings:
say that, by substituting
regencies for that of elections, apparent tranquility has been given
over
Wise administration, and the risk of having children,
3reference
to
imbeciles
for
chiefs
was
to
monsters,
preferred
having
dispute
of good Kings; they failed to consider
that by
about the choice
all
thus taking a chance on this alternative
almost
the
odds
they put
remark
the
themselves.
It
was
a
sensible
very
Younger
against
made
for
a
when
his
him
shameful
father, reproving
3ionysius
Did
such
an
the
son
said:
I
set
action,
example? Ah,
you
father
was
not
a
King!
repliet, your
of
and
reason
a
man
to
justice
[I2] Everything conspires
deprive
to
Great
are
so
command
others.
taken,
rought up
pains
they say,
een

to

is

small

too

badly governed because the chief,

the
them
and
makes
no
less
interests,
views, )rgets
peoples
a
his
excess
of
than
would
chief
unhappy by misusing
talents,
stupid
for want
of the talents he lacks. A kingdom should, so to speak,
each
to
the
or
contract
with
Princes
expand
[gin]
reign according
the
of
a
Senate
of
a
more
settled
talents
scope; by contrast,
being

State

proxies.
[Sl One

honor:

be well

governed,
for it to be well governed by a single man,
what happens when the King rules through

difficult

more

for

be

to

III,

made

teach

education
the

art

young

in certain

Princes

prots them.
of obeying.

the

art

It would

The

of

ruling;
be better

greatest
97

it does not

appear

that this

begin by teaching them

in
renowned
Kings
history
to

Coflllil

Social
O/the

it is

Boole 111,

science

less

rule;
brought up
better
one
and
which
it
to
than after having learned
acquires
excess,
and
most
The
than
[412]
practical
commanding.
by
by obeying
to
is
bad
is
con~
what
is
and
what
to
shortest
good
distinguish
way
to

not

were

sider

what

would

you

would

or

have

not

never

one

wished

possesses

another

is the

instability
another,

lack of coherence

of this

consequence
[13]
now
now
one
of royal government
plan,
which, following
who
of
those
or
Prince
of
the
the
character
on
ruling
depending
a
consistent
or
a
have
fixed
Cannot
rule for him,
objective
long
the State to drift from
causes
forever
a mutability which
policy:
in
the
not
occur
and
does
to
from
maxim to maxim,
project project,
Thus
one
same.
the
the
Prince
is
where
other Governments
always
is
there
at
there
is
more
while
Court,
sees
that in general,
cunning
their
in
that
and
wisdom in a Senate,
goals
more
Republics pursue
more
and
held
more
are
views
that
closely
the light of
steadily
the
in
revolution
whereas
adhered
[royal] Ministry pro
every
to,
all
maxim
of
the
common
for
it
is
the
in
duces a revolution
State;
of
the
to
do
in
all
all
and almost
Ministers
opposite
things
Kings
what their predecessors did.
a
to
the
solution
also
sophprovides
[14] This same incoherence
to
not
that
is
ism common
only
compare
among
royalist politicians;

civil

Government
of

father

domestic

to

family,

Government

which

fallacy
this magistrate
a

has
with

been

already

all the virtues

and all it lacks

with

general
But
if, according
[15]

what
It is
ment

corporate

will

Plato,*

King by

nature

he would
is

also

need,
be:

should

the

an

evidently

the strongest,

more

consonant

will.

the

person,
and if

is

be also the best

to

but

refuted,

liberally to endow
he
the
Prince
is
what
that
to
assume
and always
which
Government
of
the
with
royal
help
assumption
it
is
because
to
incontrovertibly
other,
preferable any
to

Prince

and the

how

often

will

to
nature

and

fortune

is such

rare

him,
those who receive it,

concur

to

crown

necessarily corrupts
royal
to
rule?
of men
can
be expected of a succession
brought up
Govern
to
confuse
deliberate
therefore
royal
seldeception
of a good King. In order to see what
with the Government
a

education

Tacit[us], I'Iitr[0rie5],

St/1t.3rmmz.

Bk.

1.

is in

Government

stupid

itself,
for
Princes;

wicked

or

accede
they
be.

the

to

throne,

it has

to

it is what

or

be considered

that

either

is what
the

they

throne

it is under

as

will be when

will make

them

but
they
difficulties,
[413] [16]
to
is
The
them,
have not been disturbed
obey
remedy, they say,
by
without
a murmur.
God in his wrath sends bad Kings, and thcy

Our

for under

Prince.*
One

this

Chapter

be endured

Authors

noticed

have

from

these

Such

Heaven.

discourse

punishments
more
not
be
whether
it
would
I
wonder
but
no
doubt, edifying;
is,
would
What
on
than
in
a book
in
the
politics.
pulpit
appropriate
whole
whose
and
a
who
about
one
Physician
promised miracles,
say
in exhorting his sick to be patient? Everyone knows
art
consisted
it
has
to be put
a bad government,
well
that
when
there
is
perfectly
the
to
nd
a good one.
is
problem
up with;
must

as

SEVEN

CIIAPTFR
Or

[1] Properly speaking,

has

Chief

has

have

to

have

to

is

simple
Magistrates;

subordinate

Chief.

GOVERNMENTS

lVlIXED
there

Thus

no

Government.

popular

Government

of executive

distribution

in the

single
power

smaller

number,
larger
on
number
the
sometimes
difference
that
with this
larger
depends
the smaller depends on the larger.
the smaller, and sometimes
either
when
the
constituent
the
is
times
distribution
At
equal;
[2]
of
as
in
the
Government
on
one
are
Enganother,
dependent
parts
but
is
when
the
of
each
or
imperpart
independent
authority
land;
the
bad
because
Government
is
This
latter
form
in
Poland.
as
fect,
is without any unity, and the State lacks cohesion,
The
Government?
or
a mixed
is
a
Which
ques
better, simple
[3]
tion is much debated by politicians, and it should be given the same
there

is

answer

I gave
In itself

always

gradation

above

about

from

the

to

the

of Government.

all forms

simple.
best, iust
Power is not sufficiently dependent on the
But when the executive
of
Prince
to Sovereign is
the
ratio
that
is
to
when
say
legislative,
to
has
this
lack
of
that
of
to
than
proportion
People Prince,
greater
then
its
several
for
the
be remedied
Government;
[414] by dividing
division
the
and
their
no
less
over
have
subjects,
authority
parts
their combined
force against the Sovereign.
reduces
[4]

simple

is

Government

99

because

it is

[5]
lishing

The

inconvenience

same

the

balance

to

serve

two

used

be

can

means

cies. In the first

3

in the

and

of

and

force

case

to

in order

weakness

are

make

forms

Government

to

not

uphold
mixed,

their
it

TO

is

in order

for the

found

both

incon~

to

weaken

nmxiiriimz

it;
simple Governments,

in

of

force.

for moderate

EIGHT
ls

GOVERNMENT

SUIT!-.D

the
within
is
not
of every
Clinic,
meditates
more
one
upon this principle
The
one
senses
the more

fruit

a
being
[1] Freedom,
reach of every people. The
established
by Montesquieu,
1tS.t1\ltl1.
conto
one
more
the
provides
more
one
opportunities
challenges it,
rm it with new
proofs.
consumes
the
the
world
of
all
Governments
person
ln
public
[2]
it
it
the
substance
does
get
but produces nothing. Where, then,
It
is
the
labor.
members
its
surplus
From
consumes?
particulars
that
the
it
follows
Whence
necessities.
which produces the publics
of
in
excess
mens
labor
as
as
yields
civil state can subsist only
long

needs.

the

of the

in every

not
is
country
this
overplus
[3] Now,
in
others
in
others
nil,
it
is
moderate,
world. In some
considerable,
on
the
This
relation
fertility
depends
in others negative. [415]
of
its
nature
the
the
soil
labor
the climate, the kind of
requires,
same

of

products,
they
make

[4]
nature;

the

need

to

of its inhabitants,
various
on
and
consume,
force

the

or

lesser

greater
similar relations

it up.

On
some

butions
This

this

on

from

move

burden

far

how

by
they

came;

does

not

further

should

have

they
when

amount

that

go

other

the
are

more

hand,
and

Governments
some

less

100

are

rapacious,

that

source,

the

be measured

not

travel

to

this

to

circulation

whether

matter

Chapter

principle

their

one

return

the

more

farther

public contriburdensome
are.
they

the

of
but
taxes,
by
into the hands from which
amount

efcient,
the
much;
people is
order.
By contrast,
good

is prompt
pays little or

and

then

it

always rich, and the nances always in

of
if
it
never
this
little
how
little
the
regardless
gets
People gives,
it
is
soon
the
State
is
never
exhausted
back,
by constantly giving;
rich, and the people is always destitute.
From
it
the
distance
between
which
follows
that
the
[5]
greater
the people and the Government
the
more
burdensome
do
grows,
taxes
become: thus in a Democracy the people is least burdened, in
an
21
it
bears
the
it
is
burdened
in
Aristocracy
more,
Monarchy
greatest weight. Hence Monarchy is suited only to opulent nations,
to
as
well
as
in
DemocStates
moderate
in
wealth
Aristocracy
size,
small
and
racy
poor States.
one
reects on this, the greater does the
[6] Indeed the more
difference
free and mon
which one nds in this respect between
to

F,vi'~:RY COUNTRY

not

their

based

are

opposite
remedy
can
be
is too slack, Tribunals
is the practice of all Democra

reinforce

to

CHAPTER
FORM or

EVERY

Nor

THAT

by

the

is divided

the Government

second

mixed

whereas

is

estab-

the
Government
when
and
venience,
This
it
concentration.
to
set
give
up

it

the

and

Powers

Government

the

Then

respective rights.
tempered.
Similar
[6]

also

can

forestalled

be

magistrates who, leaving

intermediate

whole, merely

Crmiracz

Social

Oflhe

B00/e III,

not

all 01 the

and their

same

differences

to

archical

States

in the

former

govern

them.

natural

causes

is used

for the

he;
everything
and
forces
are
public utility;
latter, public
particular
recipro
and
one
increases
the
others
cal,
weakening. Finally, despotism,
by
instead of governing subjects in order to make them happy, makes
miserable

them

[7]
one

prove
in the

can

Here

in order

then

determine

of the

climate

should

have.

to

are

to

some

the form

directs
Barren

it,
and

of Government

and

even

sterile

in every
toward

tell what
where

kind

the

clime
which

by

which

the

force

of inhabitants
is

it

product
worth the labor should be left uninhabited
and deserted, or peopled
the
Places
where
rnans
labor
bare
only
only by Savages:
yields
necessities
barbarous
since
should he inhabited
peoples,
by [416]
the
would
there:
where
excess
of
be
any polity
places
impossible
an
over
labor
is
moderate
suit
free
those
where
produce
peoples;
abundant
and fertile soil yields much produce in return
for little
labor lend themselves
to being governed monarehically so that the
Princes luxury might consume
of the subjects surplus;
the excess
for it is better that this excess
be absorbed
by the government than
are
I
individuals.
There
squandered by private
exceptions,
know;
places

IOI

not

Of
these

but

Boole III,

Contract

the Soriol

in
that
rule
the
conrm
exceptions

very

which

revolutions

they produce

things

restore

the

to

later

or

sooner

of

order

nature.

Let

[8]
ticular

with

covered

Republics

be

it would

States

the
pargeneral
effect. Even if the entire south

always distinguish
which can modify their

us

causes

were

laws and

between

less

no

true

and

the

that

in

with

north

entire

of climate

of the elfect

terms

despotic

and
countries,
good
countries,
despotism
the
that
one
I
do
also
see
intermediate
might
grant
regions.
polity
that
some
hold
one
the
but
might
application:
dispute
principle
ones
some
warm
and
countries
are
extremely
cold
extremely fertile,
suits

cold

barbarisrn

warm

is

difficulty only

barren.

But this

matter

in all of its relations.

of labor, of forces,

of

who fail

for those

As I have

consumption,

to

the

already said,
all have

etc.

to

look

at

the

relations
into

be taken

account.

[9]

Let

the other

second

nine,

yield

the

1/

of the

double

equal pieces

two

of the first

of land

yields five,
the
and
four,

consume

1/
and
will
be
5
product
the ratio of these two excesses
first

Since, then,
their products,

of

surplus

ducing
But
[to]

excess

10.

of that

inverse

of

one

If the inhabitants

ten.

the second

that

assume

us

that

of

is the
five will

producing only
that of the surplus yielded by the land pro
the

land

I do

not

there

is

no

question

of

would

that

believe

anyone
is in general

getting

double
to

venture

hold

that of

and
product,
that the fertility

the

countries.

equal
if
let
us
an
assume
such
wish,
let
us
you
equate,
equality;
However,
will
south
we
Farther
with
and
Poland
with
Egypt.
Sicily,
England
more.
we
will
have
farther
north
the
Africa
and
have
nothing
Indies,
in
culti
what
a
difference
of
this
For the sake of
equality product,
what
the
in
to
it
scratch
is
vation. In Sicily
soil;
England
enough
are
needed
more
hands
till
where
to
it!
efforts it takes
Now,
[417]
be
less.
must
the
to get the same
necessarily
supertlux
product,
consume
number
of
that
the
same
people
It I] Consider, further,
one
that
climate
There
the
warm
countries.
much less in
requires
live
want
to
who
moderation
to
Europeans
stay
healthy;
practice
We
and
die
at
all
of
do
home
there as they
indigestions:
dysentery
of cold countries

tire,

says

Asians.

foot

that

the
inhabitants
bemzzse
ronzrrioililies
izbimrlant
in
is
less
their
that
roiinlry
were
an
he
their
offer! oflhe roiiritr)/5
goes on,
rzeeilfower.If
frugality,
in
ml
whereas
l()LX,
the
would
little,
everyone
general
poor
poverty, only
the
on
or less in clifferenz
and one would but more
provinres ilepomling

morleroiion
is
the
some
whereas
the
throughout
mnii
land,
of
fertiliiy
thin
their
in
mlee
the Kingzlom.They
way of living, saying
great pride
their
Wlufll
to
see
how
look
their
need
at
one
superior
complexion
only
their
is
Persiims'
the
complexion clear;
way is lo the Christians! Inrleczl,
the
/lrnienions,
of
delirole,
smooth,
complexion
fiiir,
and
is
who
live
in
the
worse,
their subjects,
hlotchy,
liuropenn manner,
their bodies are for and heinzy.
live
less
do
the
to
the
one
draws
The
closer
peoples
equator,
[12]
off. They eat almost no meat, rice, maize, couscous,
millet, cassava,
men
of
are
millions
there
In
the
Indies
food.
their ordinary
are
we
in
Even
a
than
a
no
more
whose food costs
Europe
day.
penny
the
of
the
in
between
differences
notice sensible
peoples
appetite
a
a
on
live
for
week
will
A
of
the
south.
and
those
north
Spaniard
wlierens

slain is

Gcrtnans

Chardin,
There
their

are

carnivorous

to

even

the
with
wolves,
beasts,
by L0Wl[)(/l}lS0?1

the Persians morlerniion to the

is less riillivrltetl,but I believe on the ronmiry

those who attribute

country

warm

I02

In the

dinner.

the

where

countries

are

men

more

voracious

In
luxury.
England
objects
consumption
objects
are
in
laden
with
on
a
table
you
regaled
meat;
Italy
luxury appears
also become

of

with

sweets

of

and owers.
in

also exhibits

similar

differences.

In cli~

clothing
are
clothes
and
the
seasons
mates
where
violently,
change rapidly
where people dress for display they
better and simpler, in climates
themselves
and
the
clothes
for
than
more
for
effect
strive
utility,
the
see
men
will
are
a luxury. In Naples you
strolling along
daily
The
holds
hose.
same
and
no
in
Posilippo goldaembroidered jackets
consideration
is
the
true
only
regarding buildings; magnicence
In Paris,
when there is no [418] damage to fear from the weather.
In
and
to be housed
in London, one
wants
comfortably.
warmly
that
no
windows
but
have
Madrid
superb drawing rooms,
they
close, and they sleep in hovels.
in warm
counand
succulent
substantial
are
more
Foods
far
[14]
the
to
inuence
fail
cannot
that
a
third
difference
tries; this is
second. Why do they eat so many vegetables in Italy? Because they
are
where
In
and
are
France,
they
tasty:
nutritious,
extremely
good,
for
and
count
all
are
not
at
but
fed nothing
nutritious,
water, they
at
and
are
no
less
take
at
Yet
table.
almost nothing
land,
up
they
the
that
matter
of
It
is
a
much
trouble
to
least as
experience
grow.

[I3_l Luxury

ten.

Chapter

I03

Ofthe
wheats

of

much

Barbary yield
although they are inferior
wheats

in turn

yield

Social

Book

Crmmut

flour than

more

do those

of

France,

them in other respects, and that French

than do those of the North.
From which

to

more

it may be inferred that a similar gradation going in the same

direction generally obtains from the equator to the pole. And is it not a
manifest disadvantage to get a smaller amount
of nourishment
from

equal
To
[15]

of

amount

an

follows

these

them

from

produce?

various
and

considerations

reinforces

add

can

it is that

which

another

countries

them;
need inhabitants
less than do cold countries, and Could feed more
of them; this produces a double surplus which invariably redounds
to the advantage of despotism. The
the
area
which
a
constant
larger
number
of inhabitants
the
more
difficult
it
is
to
rebel;
occupy,
because it is impossible to rake concerted
action quickly or in secret,
and it is always easy for the Government
to get wind
of plans and
to cut communications:
but the closer together a numerous
people
from
the
draws, the less can the Government
usurp
Sovereign;
as
chiefs deliberate
in
their
chambers
as
the
Prince
does
in
securely
his council, and the crowd assembles
in
as
public squares
quickly
do in their

troops
therefore to
the support
as

In

barracks.

this

tyrannical Governments
which

groups
like that of levers?

it

sets

up,

warm

distances
are
great
respect
advantage. With the help of
force

its

the

increases

force
peoples

with

the

dis

By contrast,
only when concen[4I9]trated, it evaporates and is lost as it spreads,
like the effect of gunpowder scattered
on
the ground and which
The
least
countries
are
thus
ignites only grain by grain.
populous
the most
suited to Tyranny: wild beasts reign only in wildernesses,
tance,

CHAPTER
OF

THE

SIGNS

or

NINE
Goon

acts

GOVERNMENT

prefer,

it has

nations

in the

But if

[1]
*

This

of

the

question,

contradict
States; for there

does

large
members,

not

and here

what

which

is

absolutely

the

best

Government,

I said

above, Bk, 11, ch. 9, about the inconveniences

it was a question of the Governments
authority over its
it is a question of its force [419] against its subjects. Its scab

tcrcd

it as fulcra for acting on the people at a distance, but it has

members serve
no
fulcrum for acting directly on these members
themselves.
Thus in the one case
the length of the lever makes for its weakness, and in the other for its force.

104

to
as

[2]
given people

solution

absolute

one

solutions

the

and
to

were

is well

or

if
or,
you
combi
possible

it is indeterminate:

because

good

many

as

there

are

of

relative

positions
peoples.
ask by what sign one might tell whether
it
would
be
a different
badly governed,
of fact

and the

can

be resolved.

question
it
because
wants
to
Yet
is
le
unresolved,
everyone
[,3]
Citizens
in his own
tranquility,
way. Subjects praise public
ual freedom; one prefers security of possessions, and the
matter,

resolve

it

individA
other

that

to be the most
one
of persons;
wants
the best Government
severe,
crimes to
the other maintains
that it is the mildest; this one wants

and

that

them

thinks

it

prevented;
punished,
ne thing to be feared by neighbors, the other prefers to be ignored
the
other
demands
one
is
when
satisfied
circulates,
money
by them;
reached
on
were
that the people have bread. Even if agreement
off?
these points and others like them, would one be any better
if there were
Since moral qualities lack a precise yardstick, even
to
reached
about
how
be
about
the
is
sign,
agreement
agreement
it?
applying
should
I
am
astonished
that
For
own
my
always
people
[4]
part,
fail to recognize so simple a sign, or have the bad faith not to agree
It
is
the
it. What
is the aim of the political association?
on
[420]
the
And
what
is
surest
and
of
its
members.
prosperity
preservation
It
is
their
and
that
are
themselves
prospering?
they
preserving
sign
and their population. I look no further, then, for this much
number
Government
under
which
All
the
other
things equal,
disputed sign.
naturaliza
to external
without
resort
the Citizens, without
means,
fail
the
and
is
without
without
multiply,
colonies, populate
tions,
and wastes
is
the
best: that under
which a people dwindles
away
now
worst.
it
is
to
compare?
up
you: count, measure,
Calculators,
be

The
with

Hence

admit

does not

Clmpter

III,

should

be used

principle
respect to the prosperity
same

wants

one

to

judge

ofhurnanltind.

one

which

People

centuries

have

too

deserve

have

letters

seen

and

the

arts

preference

much

ourish, without inquiring

their cultivation, without considering their fatal effect, rm}; nzzir
we
wax
u oegiunizzg
Shall
M/1511
what
0fm1.'imz/c.
they
f1mmz11[t_y
that

dLlmi1'ed those
of
into the secret
their igmnmzrethat
never

discern

in

the Authors
to speak? No,
that causes
its
a
of
when
for
all
of
brilliance
what
country
gets
regardless
they may say,
an
that
and
one
income
then
it
is
not
true
all
is
well,
poets having
depopulated,
/ivrex is not enough for his to be the best of all centuries,
of a hundred
thousand
the
than
and
on
chiefs
on
One should focus less on apparent
repose
tranquility
the

the

maxirns

of books

well-being

of entire

the

coarse

nations

interest

and

above all of the

to;

most

numerous

estates.

Hail

Conzmrt

the Social

Of

Boa/a 111,

[421]
Or

be said

TEN
CHAPTER
GOVERNMENT
or

Anusn

rm:

TENDENCY

or

AND

ITS

its

the

general
incessantly
against
Just
particular
[ll
Sovereffort
a constant
makes
the
Government
so
against
will,
does
the
more
adulterated
the
this
effort
The
grows,
greater
eignty.
the

as

acts

will
to
no
other
is
here
since
there
and
constitution
corporate
get,
it
sooner
or
must
so
to
balance
Prince
and
will
of
the
the
resist
it,
the
ends
the
Prince
to
that
come
Sovereign
later
up
oppressing
pass
and
inevitable
the
inherent
This
is
the
Social
and breaking
treaty.

from

the

the

body politic
destroy
relentlessly
a
mans
and
death
as
old
its
of
body.
moment
destroy
age
birth, just
a Government
in
which
are
two
There
degener
ways
general
[2]
dissolves.
the
State
or
when
it
when
contracts,
ates, namely
a
from
a
to
it
when
Government
contracts
The
large
passes
[3]
and
to
from
is
to
that
Aristoeracy,
small number,
Democracy
say
If
it
inclination?
natural
This
is
its
to
from Aristocracy
Kingship.
vice

tends

which

to

retrogress

but

to

if

Now

force

would

but
few cantons,
chiefs, but they do not

alarm

it

experience

rarely

causes

Riots, civil

famine.

wars,

greatly

miseries of peoples, which may even

them.
Their
will
who
the
about
tyrannize
disputes
respite during
or
calamities arise from their permanent state; it is when every-

some

real

prosperitics
crushed
remains
thing
at their
them
destroy

cause

the

true

chiefs
when
everything
yoke,
it
11 akrulatimz, they [all
make
tubers
and
peaier
ease,
they
When the bickerings of the Great caused turmoil in the lngdom of France, and
it
did
not
in
his
with
a
Parliament
the Cardinal Coarljutor attended
pocket,
dagger
free
well
honest
and
numerous
in
and
from
the
French
living happy
people
keep
blood
owed
cruel
amidst
the
most
ourished
Greece
wars;
freely,
Formerly
being.
It seemed, says Machiavelli, that our
was
full of men.
the entire

yet

country

Republic
tions, civil

all the

grew

more

to

reinforce

freedom.
The slow formation

wastes

away;

murders, proscrip
being
its citizens, their morals, their independence, did
dissensions had done to weaken it. A little agitation
is not so much peace
the species truly to prosper

powerful

more

what

and

that

the

the virtue of
all
than
its
it,

wars;

energizes souls,

under

causes

in the midst

for

of

as
*

offers
than

notable

twelve

and

example

hundred

the

of the

progress

and it is rather
still to be
seem

of this sequence:
V enetians

the

years

Republic

of Venice

in its

lagoons

astonishing that for

only at the second

more

stage,
invoked

Dukes
I 198. As for the ancient
(Ii
in
with
the
Serrm
Ctmriglm
began
in challenge to them, it has been proved that, regardless of what the squilliniodo/in
which

Zibmti vmettz may

People will not
gress,

they

say about

fail

will say,

to

them, they

cite in

followed

were

not

Venetians Sovereigns.
the Roman Republic whose pro-

objection to me
directly opposite
106

the

course,

passing

from

monarchy

reverse

it

weak

too

to

when

form

its

changes

never

except
form
the
preserve
even

grow
it would

more

be

even

the

has

it

slack, its
less

likely
tighten

be done, therefore, is to rewind and

in proportion as it gives way, otherwise
the State
to

which

spring
it upholds will fall into ruin.
in
come
about
two
of
the
State
The
dissolution
ways.
may
[5]
the
accord
administers
State
First
when
the
Prince
no
[6]
longer
Then
a remarkable
the
and
the
to
sovereign power.
ing
laws,
usurps
but
the
that
State
it
is
not
the
Government,
change occurs; namely,
another
is
dissolves
and
1
that
the
State
mean
contracts;
large
of the Govern
formed within it, composed solely of the members
of
the
but
to
the
rest
and
which
is
no
People
ment,
longer anything
Aristoctacy,
this opinion.
to

Romuluss

and
tial

from

Aristocracy

establishment

into

Democracy.

to

was

mixed

am

Very

far from
which

Government

sharing
promptly
perished

the State

particular
Despotism, Owing
child sometimes
dies before reaching manhood.
before its time, just as a newborn
the genuine period of the Republics birth.
The expulsion of the Tarquins was
degenerated

devastates

this

it

large number, might

is
progression impossible.

mainspring
it were
to expand, it would
become altogether null, and

What

subsist.

to

the
[422]

the small to

leaves

wornout

has.
will

from

slaeken,
a
Government
Indeed,
[4]

DEGENERATE

TO

to

were

Chaplet

[D

to

some

causes,

first, because the failure to abolish the

in
this
the
For
since
left
the
work
half
done.
hereditary
[422]
way
only
patriciate
in
conflict
remained
the
which
is
worst
of
administrations,
legitimate
Aristocracy,
and unstable
with the Democracy, the form of the Government, forever uncertain
the
establishment
of
the
not
settled
until
as
Machiavelli
has
Tribunes;
was,
proved,
the
a genuine Democracy. Indeed,
true
and
then
was
there
a
Government
only
the
Senate
was
but
also
and
was
then
not
magistrate
judge,
only Sovereign,
people
the Government,
no
more
than a subordinate
tribunal to temper or to concentrate
and oven the Consuls, although Patricians, although the first Magistrates, although
in Rome, no more
than the presidents of the
in war, were,
absolute Generals
people.
But it did

From
and

to

not

assume

stable

form

from the

was
also
that time on the Government
tend strongly toward Aristocracy. With

seen

to

follow

the Patriciatc

its natural

inclination

abolishing

itself

as

if

as it does
the Aristocracy no longer resided in the body of Patricians
in Venic
and in Genoa, but in the body of the Senate which was composed of
once
in the body of the Tribunes
both Patricians
and Plebeians, and even
they
and
the
when
to
active
for
words
do
not
people
change things,
began usurp
power:
on

its own,

has chiefs who g

em
on
it is still an Aristocracy.

its behalf

then, regardless of the

name

these

chiefs

bear,

Aristocracy arose the civil wars and the Triumvirate.

in
and
under
became
lylonarchs
fact,
finally
Caesar,
Sull:t,]ulius
Augustus
genuine
the Despotism of Tiberius
the State was dissolved. Roman history thus does not
belie my principle; it confirms it.
From

the abuse

of the

ro7

Social

Of!/zc
its

and

master

So that

tyrant,

the

the

the

B00/e III,

Commcl

the

moment

social

is

[423]
and
all
broken,
ordinary
to
are
forced
freedom,

words.

mous

In

order

different

things
the usurper
of the royal authority,
The Tyrant is one
of the Sovereign power.
to
the
laws
and
contrary
governs
according
[to]
Tyrant

is

may

who

one

not

or

be

give

to

above

himself
puts
a

all those

Despot,

are

but

the laws

Despot

is

different
and

I call

names,

Despol

the

usurper

who insinuates
the

laws;

themselves.

Thus

to

always

himself

the
a

Dcspot
Tyrant

Tyrant.

and considered
tyrants who exercise perpetual power in
freedom."
C0rn[elius] Nep[os], Life 42/Ulliltiiziles:It is true

called

to
city accustomed
that Aristotle, /vit'mu[azIzemt]
Eth/its/, Bk. VIII, ch, 10 [IO60b I-3], distinguishes
for
his
own
and
between
and
in
that
the
rs:
only
Tyrant
King
governs
advantage
the second solely for his subjectsadvantage, but besides the fact that generally all
Greek authors
as is apparent
above all
used the word Tyrant in 2 different
sense,
that
from the Him; of Xenophon, it would follow from r\ristotles distinction
a single
of
there had never
existed
since
the
the
world.
beginning
yet
King
a

108

[424]

Government

pact
sovereignty,
to
their
natural
restored
Citizens,
by right
to
do
so.
but
not
obey
obligated
when
of
the
State
comes
about
the
members
Dissolution
also
[7]
to
exercise
of the Government
the
severally usurp
power they ought
a
is
no
an
infraction
of
the
as
which
less
serious
laws,
only
body,
there
as
and produces even
disorder.
Then
so
to
are,
speak,
greater
the
Princes
there
are
and
no
less
divided
as
State,
many
Magistrates,
than the Government, either perishes or changes its form.
of
Government
whatsoWhen
the
abuse
State
dissolves,
[8]
any
of anarchy. To distinguish, Demomuy
ever
takes the general name
I
would
add
into
into
Oligzzrrhy;
Or/zlomwy, Aristomuy
degenerates
that Kingship degenerates into Tyranny, but this last word is
and
calls
for
explanation.
equivocal
who
In
the
of
the
a
is
a
sense
Tyrant
term,
King
[9]
vulgar
and
for
and
the
laws.
with
violence
without
justice
governs
regard
who
of the term, :1 Tyrant is an individual
In the precise sense
to
the
to
himself
without
arrogates
royal authority
having any right
the word Tyrant: They gave
it. That is how the Greeks understood
whose authority was
it indiscriminately to good and to bad Princes
two
and
are
not
Thus
perfectly synony
legitimate?
Tyrant
usurper
usurps

Chapter

II

ELEVEN

CHAPTER
THE

DEATH

BODY

THE

or

POLITIC

consti
tendency
tuted Governments.
If Sparta and Rome perished, what State can
let
to
forever?
If
we
want
to
form
a
last
hope
lasting establishment,
us
therefore
not
dream of making it eternal. To succeed one must
the
flatter
that
work
of
men
not
nor
oneself
the
attempt
impossible,
can
with a solidity human things do not allow for.
be endowed
the
a
to
die
The
like
of
[2]
body politic, just
body
man,
begins
Such

natural

and

inevitable

it is born

and

carries

destruction.

But either

body

less

robust

and

constitution

of

worl: of

It is

[T]

as

is the

soon

as

art.

suited

to

within

not

by giving

capacity

brings

to

its doom

it

can

than

tnore

or

if

is

less

time.

more

State

prolong

their

as

no

far

as

or

The

is the

life, it
possible

the best

consti

unforeseen

acci

Even

another,

that

of the

States life
have.

of its

causes

its time.

before

life resides

of

The

the

prolong

end, but later

about

the

Constitution

of nature, that
mens capacity to

it the best constitution

dent

itself

is the work

man

will

it for

preserve

their

State

within

have

can

is within
tuted

of the best

in the

auth-

Sovereign
[3]
principle
political
heart
of
the
the
executive
The
is
the
State,
legislative power
ority.
The
is
movement
to
all
the
brain
its
which
brain,
power
gives
parts.
A
man
can
become
and
the
individual
still
live.
may
paralyzed
remain
as
the heart has stopped to
imbecile and live: but as soon
animal
is
dead.
the
function,
the
It
not
laws
that
the
State
it
is
is
subsists,
legislative
[4]
by
by
tacit
consent
is
law
does
not
but
obligate today,
power. Ycsterdz1ys
to
be
con
from
and
the
is
assumed
Sovereign
presumed
silence,
it
does
when
it
can
the
laws
which
not
abrogate
stantly conrming
to
do so. Everything which it has once
declared it wills it continues
it
unless
revokes
it.
will,
For
are
ancient
laws
accorded
so
much
respect?
[5] Why, then,
but
the
that very reason.
must
believe
that
[425]
People
nothing
excellence

long;

of the

if the

ancient

Sovereign

tary

it would

why

the

force

in

have

had

revoked

wills
not

could

preserved
them
consistently recogni7,cd

them

laws, far from

every

them

have

thousand

times

over.

for
as

so

salu~

That

is

new
weaker,
constantly
acquire
growing
wellconstituted State; the prejudice in favor of

:09

Of
antiquity
laws

grow

longer

any

renders

them

weaker

as

legislative

Cor/mm

the Swizz!

daily
they grow

venerable;

more

older

and that

power,

B00/e In,

it is
the

proof
is

State

that
no

there

longer

CHAPTER

the

wherever

whereas

is

How

rm".

[1]

It is

the

constitution

enough

not

In

NlAINI'A1NED

legislative power,
Sovereign, having
[1]
but
laws
and
the
of
the
means
acts
being nothing
laws,
only by
of the general will, the Sovereign can act only when
acts
authentic
What
will
be
said!
it
The
is
assembled.
the people
people assembled,
thousand
so
two
it
was
not
but
a
It
is
chimera
a chimera!
today,
in
nature?
men
Have
changed
years ago:
narrow
are
less
matters
in
moral
the
bounds
of
The
possible
[2]
that
our
our
think:
It
is
our
than we
prejudices
weaknesses,
vices,

assemblies

vile slaves

As

The

constrict
smile

[3]
been

other

no

them.

souls

at

the word

mockingly
Let

us

do

Base
consider

done, I shall

not

what

speak
it

force

believe

not

the

in great

men:

freedom.
can

be done

of the ancient
to

in the

light
of

of what

has
but

Greece,
republics
the city
a large State, and

me,
Republic was,
hundred
thou
four
census
last
showed
The
a
of Rome
large city.
the
last
count
of
the
in
and
arms
sand Citizens bearing
Rome,
not
four
million
more
than
subjects,
including
Citizens,
Empire
slaves.
children,
foreigners, women,
about
one
not
frequently
imagine
[4] What difficulty might
Yet
its
environs?
and
of
this
capital
assembling the immense people
and
not
was
the
Roman
went
when
weeks
assembled,
few
people
by
of
the
not
It
exercised
times.
even
several
sove[426]r
rights
only
It
with
well.
dealt
as
of
Government
a
those
but
of
part
eignty,
this
entire
and
on
the
tried
some
some
square
cases,
public
business,
it
was
Citizen,
as
as
often
was
magistrate
nearly
people
of Nations, one
times
to the earliest
were
to go back
If
one
[5]
monarchical
ones
ancient Governments, even
would nd that most
and the Franks, had similar Councils.
like those of the Macedonians
all objecBe that as it may, this one indisputable fact alone answers
me
seems
to
is
what
is
to
what
inference
from
The
tions:
possible

the Roman

seems

IIO

people
by giving

to

have

settled

once

sanction
to a body of laws:
of the State
a perpetual Government
for it to have established

which

for all for the election

be

must

abolish

of

magistrates.
be required by
and
periodic

may

xed

nothing
prorogue,
is
summoned
people legitimately
can

the

which

assemblies
there

circumstances,

appointed day

or

of any further formal convocation.

these
which
But
for
assemblies
[2]
except

so

that

the

on

by law,

without

need

their

lawful

date

by
the
of
the
not
convoked
magistrates
alone, any assembly
by
People
the
must
end
and
to
forms
to
that
prescribed
appointed
according
be held to be illegitimate and everything done at it to be null;
because

the order

to

assemble

itself

must

from

emanate

should

assemblies

whether

are

the law.
less

legitimate
[3]
that
it
is
considerations
on
so
this
many
frequently,
depends
in
it.
it
can
said
rules
about
be
to
impossible
Only
give precise
frethe
more
that
the
more
force
the
Government
has,
general
show
itself.
the
quently ought
Sovereign
but
I
told
that
be
for
a
shall
be
this
[4]
may
good
single city;
several cities? [427] Is
what is to be done when the State includes
the Sovereign authority to be shared, or should it be concentrated
in a single city, and all the rest be placed in subjection?
I
done.
the
answer
that
neither
should
be
First,
Sovereign
[5]
without
it
cannot
be
divided
is
and
and
authority
simple
single,
a city can
no
more
be
ln
the
second
legit
being destroyed.
place,
essence
a
because
the
to
another
than
can
Nation,
imately subjected
and
of obedience
of the political body consists in the concurrence
are
corv
the
and
identical
and
that
words
sovereign
freedom,
subject
in the single word Citizen.
relatives whose idea is combined
an
evil
unite
cities
I
answer
further
that
it
is
to
several
[6]
always
such a
into a single City, and anyone
to bring about
who wants
union

to

should

veniences.

objection
States

sound.

assembled

for the

enough
to have provided once
and
addition
to extraordinary

unforeseen
than

THIRrr.r:N

alive.

or

Is

13

CONTINUEI)

no

it is not

TWELVE
CHAPTER
AUTHORITY
SOVEREIGN

Chapter

to

The
to

be

flatter

not

abuse

someone

himself

of
who

given enough

large
Wants

force

that

he

States

only
to

III

can

avoid

should
small

resist the

meet

not

ones:

large

or

more

incon-

its natural

be
but

urged
how

are

ones? In the

as

an

small
same

Social
Of!/It,

that
way

formerly
Holland

one

if the

State

alternately

Estates
countrys

in each

be reduced

not

in

in

allow

to

each

it

also

once

extend

Remember

have
that

entire

an

much

the walls
For

of farmhouses.
see

as

each

countryside

there
seat

assemble

to

the

force and be
of cities
Palace

before

But

the
the

their

an

reduced

CHAPTER

the

as

well

are

only

see

rise

to

hovels.

is how

that

governed

built

with

in the

the

as

the

capital,

unes

into conflict

these
even

given

Or
As

[1]
business,

functions
if all

perish

Government

arbitrary
Sovereign authority
which
itself
sometimes
interposes
power

this

would

jurisdiction

I12

term

have
had

DEPUTIES

soon

as

has

to

be

as

in the

English Parliament.

brought the Consuls

been suspended.

FIMEEN
RF.PRl:.SF.NlATIVlS

on

and

service

public
they prefer
State

the

person,

battle?

assembled

to

and

to

seem

Founrrm

is

sense

fall

and

CHAPTER

The

and the Trib

to

to

ceases

close

is

already
is
stay home;

and

rather

with their

serve

Citizens

be the

principal

purse
ruin. Is there

to

there

with

than
a

to

call

to

Coun

they pay troops

dint
of
and
cil? they name
[429]
stay home.'Finally,by
Deputies
and
to enslave
the
fatherland
soldiers
laziness and money
have
they
sell
it.
to
representatives
it
the
and
the
is
of
commerce
It
is
the
hustle
and
bustle
arts,
[2]
that change
avid interest in gain, it is softness and love of comforts
ones
a
of
One
services
into
profit
money.
gives up portion
personal
in order
the
from
very

odds

[3]
takes
There

In

increase
The

it
word

at

Give

leisure.

summons

and

money,

soon

you

will

in
slaves word; it is unknown
the citizens do everything with their

is
ntmce

free State

truly
Far from payingto be exempted
and nothing with money:
I am
their duties, they would pay to fulll them themselves.
to be less
far from the commonly held ideas; I believe corvees

City.

hands

at

to

chains.

have

with
The

freedom

precedence

no

one

the

State,

business

the

contributes

share

public

more

minds

in the

private
private business, because,

happiness
he
needs
happiness,
well-conducted
city
Government

taxes.

over

is less

even

than

constituted

better

common

since
to

the

each

business

of Citizens.
sum

of the

individuals

greater
to seek less of it in his personal pursuits. In a
under
a
bad
to
the
flies
assemblies;
everyone
likes

to

take

is done

step

to

them;
go
because it is
to

because

no

there,
predictable
that the general will will not prevail in them, and nally because
laws
lead
to
Good
domestic
concerns
are
making
allabsorbing.
As soon
as
someone
ones.
better ones, bad laws bring about worse
one

the

between

possible.
wreckage

..

Approximately in
similarity between

Cities

most

State

People legitimately
[1]
Sovereign
all
of
the
Government
the
executive
ceases,
jurisdiction
power
body,
of the last Citizen is as sacred
is suspended, and the [428] person
as
that of the first Magistrate, because
whe:'
and inviolable
there
no
is
a
Most
of
the
longer
Representative.
Represented is,
in the comitia in Rome came
that arose
from ignorance
commotions
or neglect of this rule.
On those occasions the Consuls were
nothing
of the People, the Tribunes
were
mere
but the Presidents
Speakthe
Senate
was
at
all.
ers,*
nothing
the
These
intervals
of
Governments
suspension
[of
powers]
[2]
when the prince recognizes or has to recognize an actual superior
of the
have always been threatening to it, and these assemblies
which
are
the
shield
of
the
and
the
curb
of
body
people
politic
have at all times been the dread of chiefs: indeed they
Government
nor
nor
nor
never
to
spare
cares,
objections,
obstacles,
promises
Citizens against them. When the Citizens
are
turn
greedy, cowardly,
more
enamored
of
than
of
repose
freedom, they do
pusillanimous,
not
efforts of the Government;
long hold out against the redoubled
*

and

rights throughout

same

CONTINUED
instant

constantly increasing,

time.

[3]
intermediary

their

The

the Sov-

discussed.

territory evenly,
[8] People
and
life
abundance
it, spread
throughout it,
at

to

force

the

how,
opposing
ereign authority nally vanishes,

turn.

the

will

just
capital,

and

city,

bounds

to

with

this is

the great King, and more

the House of Austria.

resisted

cannot

it is

recourse;

Government

cities resisted

Swit7.erland

and

recently
[7] However,
remains

the Greek

Bonk III, C/u1j)ler 15

Conmwt

takes

an

interest

in what

U3

Ofzhe
says

about

sidered

affairs

of State

Social

Boole In,

Comma

W/mt do I care? the State

has

to

be

conv

lost.
the

of
[4]
fatherland,
Cooling
activity
private
the
of
the
abuse
of
Govern~
interest,
immensity
States, conquests,
ment, have led people to imagine the expedient of Deputies or Rey
The

of the

resentativcs

love

of the

of

in the

Nations

This

assemblies.

is what

people
in some
the
Third
countries
dare
call
Estate.
Thus
the
they
private
interest
of two orders is assigned first and second places, the public
interest
only third place.
cannot
for
the
reason
that
it
be
same
[5] Sovereignty
represented
cannot
be alienated; it consists essentially in the general will, and
the will does not admit of being represented: either it is the same
or
it is different; there is no middle
ground. The deputies of the
its
therefore
are
not
and
cannot
be
people
representatives, they are
conclude
its
cannot
merely [430]
agents; they
anything denitively.
law
ratied
in
is
which
the
has
not
is
it
null;
Any
People
person
not a law. The English people thinks
it is free; it is greatly mistaken,
it is free only during the election of Members
of Parliament; as soon
as they are
it
is
it
is
The
use
it
makes
of
enslaved,
elected,
nothing.
its eedom
the
moments
it
has
it
its
brief
warrants
during
fully
losing it.
The
is
modern:
it
idea
of
comes
to
us
from
[6]
Representatives
feudal
that
and
absurd
Government
in
Government,
iniquitous
which the human species is degraded, and the name
of man
dishonored. In ancient Republics and even
in monarchies, the People never
had representatives; the very word was unknown.
It is quite striking
that in Rome, where the Trihunes
were
so
sacred, no one ever so
much
as
that
the
functions
of
the
imagined
they might usurp
and
that
in
the
midst
of
such
a
multitude
never
people,
great
they
to
a
Plebiscite
on
their
own
alone.
attempted
pass
single
authority
Yet the trouble the mob sometimes
caused may be judged by what
at
the
time
of
the
when
a
of
the
Citizens
Graechi,
happened
portion
cast
its vote from the rooftops.
Where
and
freedom
are
inconveniences
are
[7]
everything,
right
nothing. Among this wise people, everything was given its just due:
it allowed

its Lictors

it did

to

fear that

do;
[8] However, in order
the
one
represent
people,
to

not

do what

its Tribuncs

its Lictors
to

would

would

wish

to

how
the
Tribunes
explain
need

only
114

consider

not

have

dared

the declaration

but

law is

Since

nothing
Sovereign.
represents
be represented
of the general will, it is clear that the People cannot
be represented in its
but it can and must
in its Legislative power;
to
Law.
This
force
which
is
but
executive
applied
power,
nothing
the

shows

closer

that, upon

examination,

have laws. Be that

found

to

being

no

of the

part

it may,

as

executive

very
it is certain

could

power,

of their

the

few Nations
that

the

never

be

would

Tribunes,
the

represent

office, but only by

usurp
rights
people by
the
of
the
Senate.
some
of
rights
ing
it
did
to
do
had
the
all
the
by itself;
Greeks,
People
[9] Among
It lived in a mild
in the public square.
it was constantly assembled
its
its
chief
busidid
was
not
slaves
it
work,
climate,
greedy, [431]
how
its freedom.
No longer having the same
ness
was
advantages,
for
climates
make
the same
Your
harsher
we
are
to preserve
rights?
out
on
the
cannot
six
months
of
the
more
stay
needs,*
year you
make
themselves
heard
cannot
muted
languages
public square, your
more
for your gain than for your freedom,
in the open, you care
and you fear slavery less than you fear poverty.

Roman

[to]

What!

Perhaps.
has its inconveniences,

in nature
In

unfortunate

some

be

only

can

The

servitude?

rest.

Freedom

two

own

extremes

maintained
meet.

and civil

circumstances

with

the

help

that

Everything
more
than
society
can

one

is

not

all the

ones

preserve

of

own

the
can
and
Citizen
someone
the
of
elses,
only
expense
Such was the
be perfectly free only if the slave is utterly enslaved.
situation of Sparta. As for you, modern peoples, you have no slaves,

freedom

but

are

Well

at

their
freedom
for
slaves;
you pay
yourselves
in
it
I
find
boast
of
this
preference;
may you

with
more

own.

your
cowardice

than

humanity.
have
to
slaves
that
it
is
I
not
mean
all
this
do
necessary
[It]
by
that the right of slavery is legitimate, since I have proved the
or
modern
which
I
state
the
reasons
peoples
why
simply
contrary.
free have representatives, and why ancient
believe
themselves
the
instant
a
it
not
have
them.
Be
that
as
did
may,
People
peoples
it
ceases
to
be.
ceases
to
be
it
itself
free;
Representatives,
gives
us
the
SoverA
I
not
see
that
All
do
among
[12]
things considered,
the
of
its
unless
the
exercise
can
henceforth
rights
preserve
eign

it.

represent
did sometimes

how the

Chapter 15

Government

To
assume

adopt

in cold

their

climates

chains;

it

is

the
to

luxury

submit

to

and
them

115

softness
even

more

of Orientals

inevitably

is to

choose

than

do

they.

to

Comma!

Social

Ofthe

B00/c III.

it
not
be
But
if
it
is
will
is
small.
subjugatedP
very small,
City very
of
a
No. I shall show below* how the external
power
great People
and the good order
with the simple administration
can
be combined

[5] Moreover,
would
persons
specic

of

that

small

State.

[432]
THAT

THE

SIXTEEN
THE
Govtr

CHAPTER
or
INSTITUTION
A CONTRACT

it is clear

that

this

it remains

also

legislative

to

[3]
was

contract

the

one

Some

have

claimed

this

that

between

the

this

odd

is
will agree, I am sure, that
this opinion is tenable.
But let us see whether
one

the
supreme
[4] First,
be alienated, to limit

an

way

of

contracting!

be modied

than

it

authority
and contra
it is to destroy it. It is absurd
can
itself
to
oneself
to
a
for
the
obligate
superior;
dictory
Sovereign give
to ones full freedom.
to obey a master
is to return
ll

That

of

act

is

only

ation; and

is what I had planned

I would

foreign relations,
new
and its principles

can

to

do in the

have

have yet

come

to

no

more

with
in
this
work
when,
dealing
sequel
The subject is entirely
to confederations.

be established.

Ir6

to

civil

an

or

it follows

which

of

act

people

with

sovereignty,

and

Since

state:

whoever

controls

the

well

call

execution,
might
who said to another, I give you all my

a man

that

will
you

one

contract

itself

it, by
alone,
Contract
any
public
imagine

as

one

give
in the

excludes

that

back

as

much

State, the

contract

me

of it

as

you

of associ

others.
It is impossible to
any
of the
would not be a violation

rst,

CHAPTER

Or

SEVENTI-ZEN
GOVERNMENT
INSTITUTION
or

TH]-.'

is the

[I What, then,
of the act by which
that
this
act
noting
2] By

establishing Government
the chiefs it gives itself;

From

act.

of the

master

condition

goods
please.
There
[7]

of

act

People and
which
the
conditions
under
for
the
two
parties
stipulating
to
itself
to
and
the
other
command,
obey. Every
obligated

contract

the

the establishment

Government.

law

of the

contract

be

the

with

way
is invariably

contract

is well

Power

odds

at

force

established,
which
since
this
establish the Executive
latter,
operates only
power;
is
is
of
the
essence
of
the
not
former,
naturally
by particular acts,
considered
it.
If
it
were
for
the
from
Sovereign,
separate
possible
so
fact
would
be
and
have
the
executive
as
to
power,
right
such,
and
tell
what
is
law
could
no
confounded
that
one
longer
utterly
fall
would soon
what is not, and the body politic thus denatured
which
it
was
instituted.
the
violence
to
prey
against
all
the
social
all
T
he
Citizens
contract,
may
equal by
being
q
the
to
all
but
no
one
has
what
to
do,
right
require
prescribe
ought
do what he himself does not do. Now, it is specically
that another
this right, indispensable for endowing the body politic with life and
the
to
Prince
the
the
that
by instituting
motion,
Sovereign assigns
[I]

the

be

not

17

consequently
illegitimate.
It
is
that
with
to
one
another
the
cone
further
evident
[6]
respect
alone and without
tracting parties would be under the law of nature
their
which
is
in
of
any guarantor
[433]
reciprocal engagements,

on

Once

this

particular

it would

every

Is NOT
Govtr

that

be

could

contract

Chapter

the

of this form
is

first,

of which

terms

is instituted?

Government
is

complex

I shall

begin by
others, namely

of two

composed

or

conceive

should

one

of law,
of law, and the execution
that a body of Government
the Sovereign enacts

that

or

in

idea

shall

be

it
and
is
clear
established;

that

this

who

will

act

law.

:3] By
entrusted

the

the

second,

with

the

People appoints

established

appointment

is

consequence

of the first and

4]

The

Government

which

is

particular

difficulty

is

before

the

only

either

to

act
a

the

Government.
it is

not

function

understand

Government

Sovereign

or

second

chiefs

since

Now

be

this

law, but merely

of Government.
how

there

can

be

exists, and how

can
become
subject,

an

the

act

of

People,

Prince

or

Magistrate in certain circumstances.

Here
is
revealed
one
of
those
5]
again
astonishing properties
of the body politic by which it reconciles
apparently contradictory
For
a
this
reconciliation
is
sudden
accomplished
operations.
by
I17

Social

Ofzhe
conversion

Commit

Book 111,

into

of

without

that

Sovereignty
Democracy;
a new
of
all
to
and
relation
[434] all,
simply by
perceptible change,
to
become
from
the
Citizens
Magistrates pass
general
having
to
and
from
the
law
its
execution.
acts,
particular
withnot
some
of
relation
is
This
subtlety
speculative
[,6]
change
in
the
Parliament
in
It
takes
out
place every day
practice:
example
turns
itself
of England where the lower House on certain occasions
into a Committee
of the whole, the better to discuss business, and
rather than the Sovereign Court
thus becomes
a simple commission
it had been an instant before; so that it subsequently reports to itself
what it had just settled
in its capacity as the House of Commons
on
anew
under one name
of the whole, and deliberates
as a Committee
about what it had already decided under another.
of
Government
that
It
is
the
distinctive
Democratic
advantage
[7]
in fact by a simple act of the general will. After
it can be established
which

this

is the

form

either

Government
provisional

in order.

adopted,

Government
It is

other

legitimate

lished

above.

MEANS

is

that
the

Sovereign
thus

so

not

CHAPTER
PREVENTING

or

in

the

of the

name

is
and
everything
prescribed by law,
in
to
Government
establish
any
possible
without

manner

in ofce if such

remains

it establishes

or

any

renouncing

the

principles

estab-

EIGHTEEN
THE

USURPATIONS

GOVERNMENT

[1]

From
that

these
the

16,
a Law, that the
but

masters

it

clarications
which

act

its

it

trustees

is

of the executive

it
that
ofcers,

that there

Government

is

can

power
establish
or
of their

not

are

remove

not

of

chapter

contract

the

them

but

peoples
when-

contracting, but of
the State imposes

question
in assuming the charges which
without
in
them they are only fullling their duty as Citizens
on
the
to
the
conditions.
any way having
right
challenge
it
the
institutes
a hereditary
Thus
when
that
[2]
happens
People
in
aristocratic
either
monarchical
one
or
Government,
[435] family,
it enters
in one order of Citizens, this is not an engagement
into; it

pleases,
and
that
obeying,
ever

no

118

it

until

the

administration,
provisional
gives
it pleases to order it differently.
that
are
It
is
true
such
always dangerous,
[3]
changes

should

touch

never

to

established

an

such

and that

one

it becomes

unless

Government

time

this

is

circumspection
public good;
maxim of politics and not a rule of right, and the State is no more
it is
bound
to leave the civil authority to its [current] chiefs, than
to leave the military authority to its [current] generals.
too
careful
in
such
a case
one
cannot
be
It
is
further
true
that
[4]
to
a
about observing all the formalities
distinguish
regular
required
an
entire
and
the
will
of
and legitimate act from a seditious
tumult,
is
above
all
in
such
cases
the
a faction.
It
from
clamors
of
people
incompatible

with

that

should

more

no

it

be refused

gation

that
in

power
the Prince

the

but

be conceded

by right
Prince

derives

spite

of the

people,

has

usurped

the Prince

that

the

to

in all its

the

what

odieux than

M5

cannot

this obli~

and it is also from

rigor,

its

in

preserving
great advantage
without its being possible to say that
a

in

For

appearing
them
and,
easily expand
power:

to

only

use

its

the

pretext
rights,
very
to restore
intended
of public calm, prevent assemblies
good order;
of a silence which it prevents from
so that it takes advantage either
it
causes
to
he
commit
or
of
which
the
broken,
irregularities
being
whom
fear
has
silenced
assent
those
to
that
the
of
ted,
presume
favors it, and to punish those who dare to speak. That is how the
and
then
for
one
after
been
elected
rst
year,
Decemvirs,
having
can

for another

petuity, by
this simple

follows, in conrmation

institutes

as

form

continued

THE

BY

is

C/mpter

18

do

not

to

forestall

public force,

require
them

prevent
and an enemy
These
[6]

assemblies

or

formal

without

hold

the

to

sooner

or

of which

postpone
convocation:

to

of the

this

power
meet; and

world,

later

openly declaring

the

spoken

above

are

above

all if

they

the Prince

could

not

misfortune,
itself

they are
Sovereign

once

usurp

I have

for then

in per
it is by

their

to

on

comitia

all governments

that

means

authority.
The
[5]
periodic
suited

to

longer permitting

no

with the

invested

year,

tried

on

of the

violator

laws

of the State.
which

have

assemblies,
tain the social treaty, ought always to
to omit,
it should be impossible ever
on
separately:

in;

no

other
with

object

open
and which

two

than
motions

ought

to

to

tnain~
which

be voted

Oftlte
first; whether

The
[436][7]

Social

it

Contmet

the
please

Sovereign

/0

retain

[00

the pre-

BOOK

C(1vernm.ent.

form of
leave
The
znlzether
it
the
to
it: atlmlni5
[8]
second;
please
People
mmfon to those 127/10are lt777lIl_)/
with
it.
r/tttrgetl
I
here what l believe l have demonstrated, namely
[9] assume

sent

in the State

that

revoked,

not

assemble

to

doubt

that

thinks

that

could

break

recover

do what

fundamental

pact;

pact by
be most
can

everyone

Now
country?
not

this

no

social

the

even

it would

member, and
the

is

there

his natural
each

one

for if all the

common

the

be

State

and his

absurd

if all the

separately

there

Grotius

can

goods

on

Citizens

is

leaving
united

do.

he is

[3]
which

that one does not leave in order to evade ones duty or to avoid
being understood
serving the Fatherland when it needs us. In such cases ight would be criminal and
it
would no longer be withdrawal
but desertion,
punishable;
It

I20

WILL

GIZNERAL

Is

TNDESTRUCTIBLE
themselves

single body,
[I]
long
with
their
common
have
but
a
which
is
concerned
will,
they
single
the
of
the
Then
all
of
and
the
welfare.
springs
general
preservation,
State are vigorous and simple, its maxims are clear and perspicuous,
common
it has no confused, contradictory i1'1[C1SlS,Eh
good is
be
sense
to
and
evident
perrequires only good
everywhere fully
are
enemies
of
subtleties,
ceived.
Peace, union, equality
political
because
of
their
and
men
are
difeult
to
deceive
simple
Upright
and
taken
in
sham
are
not
special pleading; they
by
simplicity, they
the happiest
not
even
are
clever enough to be dupes. When, among
to
affairs
in
are
seen
the
of
attending
world, troops
people
peasants
an
oak and always acting wisely, can one help
of State underneath
which
make
themselves
other
nations
the
renements
of
despising
illustrious
and miserable with so much art and mystication?
and
as
it
becomes
A
needs
few
State
thus
Laws,
very
[2]
governed
is
seen.
new
this
to
universally
ones,
necessity
necessary
promulgate
what all have already
to propose
The rst one
them only states
to
secure
or
no
need
for
and
there
is
eloquence
sensed,
intrigues
to
soon
as
resolved
do
as
law
of
what
each
has
into
already
passage
So

no

even

he

THAT

THE

ONE

to

be

can

IV

CHAPTER

be

not
were

of which

freedom

of them

could

Citizens

accord,
broken.
legitimately

renounce

it would

law which

111,437]

as

sure

What

that

several

men

the others

misleads

united

consider

will do

so

ratiocinators

constituted

as

well.

is that

from

their

since

States

they only
origin, they are struck [438]
see

badly
in
an
them.
the
of
such
administration
impossibility maintaining
by
:1 clever
knave
the
of
which
as
all
nonsense
They laugh they imagine
or
the
of
Paris
an
talker
could
or
people
persuade
insinuating
con
would
have
been
do
not
know
that
Cromwell
London.
They
to
hard labor by the people of Berne, and the Due de
demned
Beaufort to reformatory by the Genevans.
and
the
State
to
to
loosen
But
when
the
social
knot
begins
[4]
to
make
themselves
interests
when
felt,
weaken;
particular
begin
influence
the larger society, the common
and small societies
to
are
no
and meets
with opposition, votes
interest
diminishes
longer
are

I21

Off/It

Saritzl

Contrtm

Baal:

unanimous, the general will is no longer the will of all, contradictions and disagreements arise, and the best opinion no longer carries
the day unchallenged.
when
the State close to ruin subsists
in
an
[5] Finally,
only
and
vain
form, when the social bond is broken in all hearts,
illusory
when the basest interest brazenly assumes
the sacred name
of public
good; then the general will grows mute, everyone,
prompted by
secret
motives, no more states opinions as a Citizen than if the State
had never
existed, and iniquitous decrees with no other goal than
interest
are
under
the
name
of
Laws.
particular
falsely passed
or
[6] Does it follow that the general will is annihilated
corrupted?
No, it remains constant, unalterable, and pure; but it is subordinated
to others
that prevail over
it. Each person,
in detaching his interest
from the common
sees
he
that
cannot
interest,
clearly enough
separate
them entirely, but his share of the public evil seems
to him as nothing
compared to the exclusive good which he seeks to make his own.
Except for this particular good, he wills the public good in his own
interest just as forcefully as anyone else. Even in selling his vote for
he does not extinguish the general will within
money
himself, he
evades it. The mistake he commits is to change the state of the quesand
to
answer
other
than
what
he
is
asked: So that
tion,
something
instead of saying with his vote, it is azltinntzzgenus
to the State, he says,
it is at/orttttageousto this man or to this party that this or that opinion pass.
Thus the law of public order in assemblies
not
consists
so much
in
upholding the general will in them, as in seeing to it that the general
will is always consulted
and that it always replies.
I
[7] could offer quite a few reflections here on the simple [439] right
to vote
in every act of sovereignty; a right of which nothing can deprive
the
and
on
Citizens;
right of voicing opinions, proposing, dividing, dis
which
the Government
takes
to
care
cussing [motions],
always
great
allow only to its own members; but this important matter
would require
a separate
treatise, and I cannot say everything in this one.

of the
The

Or

Two
SUFFRAGF.

[1] From the preceding chapter it is evident that

business
is
conducted
a
general
provides
fairly
122

that

in

concord

tnore

in

of the
is

body politic.
the

which

to

closet

under

the

maxims

that

Senate

the

expressed opinions
so
Tacitus
Sometimes
it
did
with
ridiculous
precautions:
Emperors.
notes
that under Otho, the Senators
execration
on
V
itellius
heaping
took care
at the same
time to make a frightful noise, [440] so that,
could
if by chance he were
to become
he
not
tell what they
master,
manner

had said.

each

[4]

From

these

should

various

the

arise

considerations
in which

the

counted
and opinions
regulate
more
or
account
of
whether
the
will
is
general
compared, taking
less easy to know, and the State more
or
less in decline.
There
is
which
nature
unanimous
one
law
its
[5]
requires
only
by
manner

votes

are

T hat is the social pact: for the civil association

is the most
act
in
born
master
the
man
free
and
world,
being
voluntary
every
consent.

himself,

out

his

to

decide

no

consent.

that

one

may

To

on

pretext
that the

the

born
time

whatsoever

any

decide

he is not

son

among

the

Citizens.

Once

of the

the

of

subject

slave is born

him witha

slave is

man.

social

[6] If, then,

their
does
not
it,
oppose
opposition
them
from being included
only keeps
at

the way in which

reliable
indication

and the health

of the morals

state

assemblies,
reigns
say
come
the
will
also
to
the
more
opinions
unanimity,
general
pre~
dominates; whereas long debates, dissensions, disturbances, signal
the ascendancy of particular interests
and the decline of the State.
is
when
more
make
less
evident
two
or
orders
[2] This
up its
constitution, as did in Rome the Patricians and the Plebeians, whose
often
the
in
the
nest
times
of
the
disturbed
comitia
even
quarrels
but
this
is
more
than
real;
Republic;
exception
apparent
so
for by the vice inherent
to the body politic there
are
to
then,
two
true
of
the
States
in
What
is
not
two
one; [and]
together
speak,
in the stormiest
is true
of each separately. And indeed even
times
the peoples plebiscites always passed quietly and by a large
when
the
did
interfere:
The
Citizens
Senate
not
majority,
having
but a single interest, the people had but a single will.
At
the
other
of
the
returns.
That
is
end
[3]
cycle, unanimity
when the citizens, fallen into servitude, no longer have freedom or
will. Then
fear and attery turn
into
no
acclamations;
they
voting
curse.
the
or
Such
was
vile
deliberate,
longer
they worship
they

of

CHAPTER

current

Chapter

IV,

State

123

is

who
there
are
some
pact
invalidate
the contract,
it
in it; they are
foreigners

instituted,

consent

consists

Of:/ze
in

residence;

dwell

to

Sotial

the

in

Comma!

B00/e IV,
is

territory

submit

to

to

the

ClPlCSby which

sovereignty.'*
this

[7] Except

primitive

the

contract,

of the

vote

majority

both

opponents
consented?
I

[8]
sents

to

those

to

free

and

subject

to

laws

to

which

they

have

Which

that

answer

steady
it is through
posed [44t]
not
exactly

is

question

all the laws, even

that punish him

The

those

to

badly
passed

he dares

when

will of all the members

it that

citizens

to

in

Citizen

The

framed.

spite

violate

of him, and even

any one of them.

is the

of the State

that

are

I would

When

not

have

I showed

earlier

will

the

and free.

hen

been

how

particular

wills

were

substituted

to

free

its violation.
In Genoa the word Libmas can be read on the front of prisons and on the chains
it is only the
is line and just. Indeed
of gallcy~slaves. This use of the motto
from being free. In a country
who keep the Citizens
evildoers
from every estate
he
freedom
would
in the Galleys, the most
where all such folk were
perfect
his consent

*5

with

to

the

contract

or

to

politic into account

general maxims can
im

more

help

regulate these ratios

to

more

<

T;

idl
P
3
be the

ra

one

dehbemmns

arc the

more

be

that

Oplmon

be concluded

to

iighfvziy

str

rsipf

'

21\

ratosI

it is by a
d eci d111g

f Ora

determined.

I4421

(iii./wrnn
OF

ll]

With

regard

THREE

ELECTIONS

the elections

to

of the Prince

and

the

are

I 116

as

[here

acts)

b ) rrlzliiimdl
nanicly
ahmpllcx
hm
be
X
B
.tl
it
aid 3-
Reptiblics
of the
mmpilcated
ic 6

..

found

Magistrates

which

lrcs
p

at

.cnt

in

two

are

or

Mt),
election
t

majority
bet?
appafs

are

majoiity

one

'

he
prcvallsi
Ollie):
@
6
at hand
has to be resolved, the
usiness
prescribed difference in weighting opiniong

_-

one

any

and the needs

state

#
unanimouiosilthmldlnlil
Sehmm

at

'

of the

two

pI0.~

ml

mature

I0

Ways

VS

"1

Still be

can

Doge

of Venice.
[2] Vlllmg5.3/01, Says Montesquien, is in the mum'e
r)fDemorn1c'
I agree, but
why is it? Drawing 1015,he goes on it at [my
W 4/t?
mg
710 0716 it leave:
Kveijl Citizen a
/i 0 e 0 f serum g
lhese are not reasons.

0/g],,,Ct:3(

misolmib/e

'

Ihfvll/1?/@714.
,,

l3]

If

in
keeps mind that the election of chiefs is a function
Of Government
d not of
one
will See Why CIECUOI1
hv lot is more
in
e na
0
1.
where
the
administration
Lite
emocraey,
is an the hen er in
as its acts
are
one

Sfogmgmyl

fewer.

[4] In

proportion
genuine
DmCT3CYa
maglstracv

every

but an onerous
b ttrten,
l
which
3
ind ividual rather than another
'

the

on

one

I f or

C( Illa

1
vh

to

all and

is

one

cannot

Only the

jaw

helot

Impose
impmc [1its

distort

'

can
~

125

one

b ur d en
.

the

on

the
a

can

advantage

}us[ly

falls. }()I then, since

the choice does not
depend on
Om

'

In

not

'

Piilllcular application
124

'

enjoyed.

can

ceed'

in

be understood

should

are

on

betwcc

but

should
f~
The
these maxlms
suited to Law S,
e second
to business.
Be that as it
may,
combination
of these two 1]l2D(llI1S
that the best

law is prois
asked
being

free.

aiiidaastligtlleiqualied majorities,

deliberations which have

of

;0
(mere
1:/arfious
1X(,(l,talnngthc
p %

Vote

Opponent.destmyb.

in

sinuje

unanmmy;

narrovvershould

for
elsewhere
State;
regard
always
in
an
inhabitant
lack
of
asylum, necessity, violence, may keep
family, goods, the
no
residence
in spite of liimsel and then his mere
the country
longer implies

This

the

general will;

I
indicated
clearly
deliberations,
general
public
more
have
I
shall
this
to
the
abuse;
prevent
practicable ways
enough
votes
number
of
for
the
later.
As
on
this
to say
subject
proportional
the general will, I have also provided the prin
to declare
needed

for

of

<
.

this

that the

con-

the
the
characteristics
of
that
all
it
is
This
true,
presupposes,
[9]
then
no
in
the
once
will
are
still
are,
longer
they
majority:
general
is
freedom.
no
one
takes
there
of
which
side
longer any
regardless

[10]

that

A difference

I dy
30
1")

[Ill

not

they
in the Peoples assembly, what they are
but
or
the
whether
reject
it,
proposal
they approve
is
which
the
conform
to
does
not
it
does
or
whether
general will,
his
this
about
his
states
ballot,
casting
by
everyone
opinion
theirs;
of the general will.
and the tally of the votes yields the declaration
it
to my own
when the opinion contrary
Therefore
prevails, proves
I took to
that
what
a mistake
and
that
I
more
than
nothing
made
be the general will was not. If my particular opinion had prevailed,
I would have done something other than what I had willed, and it
is then

of th

nearly
the

tie

unanimity

of
the
contract
this
a consequence
the
is
all
rest;
always obligates
and
both
free
a
man
can
be
raised
how
the
is
itself. Yet
question
the
How
are
his
own.
which
are
not
to
wills
to
conform
forced

be ascertained.

can

'

breaks

for

it

C/mpier 3

universality of

coridmgn

human
the law

Wm

,5
l

Ho

Off/76

Book

Contract

Social

Government
the
the
Prince
In
Prince,
Aristocracy
[5]
is
where
that
is
and
itself
voting
appropriate.
itself,
by
perpetuates
far
from
of
of
the
the
election
of
The
Venice,
Doge
example
[6]
form
suits
it:
This
confirms
this distinction,
composite
chooses

the

destroying
a

For

Government.

mixed

it is

error

an

While

of

take the Government

to

has

the

share

is

than

ours.

genuine Aristocracyi

difference
need
the same

entire

The

is that

since

for election

have

we

no

chiefs

lot.

by
life, we have
in
a genuine
inconveniences
few
entail
lot
would
Elections
by
7]
of
morals
virtue
as
Democracy where, everything being equal by
make
would
choice
maxims
and
it
is
as
and talents
fortune,
by
there
is
no
that
said
I
have
But
difference.
genuno
almost
already
ine Democracy,
lot
are
and
election
choice
election
combined,
Where
by
by
,8]
as
such
that
choice should fill the positions
require specic talents,
for
the
for
lots
is
positions
mi itary offices; drawing
appropriate
as
such
judicial
suffice,
which
integrity
justice,
good sense,
these qualities
State
in
a wellaconstituted
because
responsibilities,
for

are

not

common

9]
ment.

Neither
Since

Magistrate,

to

all Citizens.

lot
the
the

not

voting

Monarch

choice

is

has any

place
the
by right

of his

lieutenants

in

monarchical

sole Prince
is his alone.
the

Councils

and

Govern
the

When
of the

only
the

King
proposed multiplying
not
realize
he
did
of France and electing their members
by Ballot,
he was proposing to change the form of the Government.
be
votes
should
the
about
for
me
to
It
remains
way
speak
[10]
cast
and collected in the assembly of the people; but perhaps the
Abbe

de St. Pierre

126

sketch

administration

of Roman
all the

which

maxims

concretely
of
a
reader
unworthy
judicious
and
was
business
public
particular
more

hundred

thousand

in this

matter

might

establish.

consider

in

some

conducted

in

to

will

explain
It is

detail

Council

not

how

of

two

men.

in

People
multitude
of
A
the
itself
of
is
the
the Government,
people,
nobility
all
and
close
to
never
came
they
Barnabites
magistracy,
any
poor
and
the
title
of
is
the
noble
for
Excellency
[443]
empty
being
get
is
Council
this
Since
Council.
at
the
be
it
to
great
great
present
rig
memits
illustrious
in
Council
as
our
as numerous
Geneva,
general
is
It
Citizens.
do
our
than
simple
bers have no more
privileges
the
two
between
extreme
the
certain that, setting aside
disparity
to
the
Geneva
of
Re ublics, the bourgeoisie
corresponds precisely
to
the
inhabitants
and
our
natives
Venetian
correspond
Patriciate,
our
and
of
and
the
T ownsmen
peasants correspond
people Venice,
considers
that
one
however
in
mainland
to
the
sum,
subjects;
more
aristocratic
is
no
its
Government
its
from
Re Jublic, apart
size,
for

V eniee

no

historical

Chapter

IV,

[444]
FOUR

CHAPTER
OF
We

[I]
there

is

have

no

records

reliable

really

that

likelihood

even

every
fables? and in

COMITIA

ROMAN

THE

the

of the

first

of what

most

times

of

is retailed

instructive

Rome;
it

about

of the

annals

general
of peoples, which is the history of their establishment, is the part
we
rise
to
most
lack. Experience daily teaches us what causes
give
more
the revolutions
of empires; but as no
peoples are being
to
how
we
but
have
conjectures
formed,
explain
scarcely anything
they were formed.
these
The
nds
established
at
least
attest
that
one
[2]
practices
that
back
to
these
had
an
the
traditions
practices
go
origin. Among
the
the
the
authorities
and
ones
which
origins,
greatest
support
are

strongest
the maxims

reasons

confirm

I have

for the

must

tried

pass
follow in

to

powerful people
After
the
[3]
founding

most

most

on

earth

certain.

most

how

inquiring

the

its supreme

exercised

of Rome

part

These

are

freest

and

power,

that

the nascent

is

Republic,
of
and
for~
the
founders
Albans,
Sabines,
say
composed
army,
eigners, was divided into three classes which, from this division,
took the

Trilzes. Each

name

and each Curia

Curiae,
chiefs
called
placed
In
addition
[4]
called a Century,
ten

these
rst
*

name
name

two

0\)

are

of

would

Decuriae,

from

hardly

each

borne

Horsemen
Tribe:

needed

in

seem

that

But it would

have

subdivided

was

the head of which

at

hundred

one

Rome which purportedly

Mm
is also Greek, and

Kings

Tribes

into
were

and Deturirms.

drawn

was

entirely military.

the
1

body

divisions, which

The

into

Curiom
a

of these

one

to

comes
means

names

127

which

shows

that

small
an

at
town, were
instinct
for great-

from Romulus is Greek

Law. How likely 15
so

Knights,

or

and
it

means

that this

appropriately anticipating

what

fame,
crtys
they

Ofthe
ness

led the little

city

of Rome

Somll

C/mmlrl

[445]

to

B00}: IV,

in advance

assume

istration suited to the capital of the world.

[5] This initial apportionment soon gave rise
Tribes

The
forever

of the

in the

Albans"'* and
while

that

that

of the

to

an

an

admin-

inconvenience.

Sabines

of the

remained

foreigners*** kept
that
it
exceeded
their
so
before
inux,
growing by
long
the other two.
The remedy Servius found for this dangerous abuse
to substitute
for the division
was
to change the division, and
by
which
he
another
division
based
on
the
district
city
race,
abolished,
which each Tribe occupied. Instead
of three Tribes he made four;
each of which occupied one
of the hills of Rome and bore its name.
the existing inequality he
Thus
at the same
time as he remedied
and so that this might be a division
forestalled
its future recurrence;
not
of
districts
but
of
he
forbade
the
inhabitants
of
one
men,
only
from
to
move
to
another, which prevented the races
quarter
mingling.
of
and
He
also
doubled
the
three
ancient
centuries
Horsemen
[6]
added twelve more
to them, but always keeping the ancient
names;
a
and
means
which
he
succeeded
in
dis
judicious
by
simple
the
the
of
the
Horsemen
from
that
of
People,
tinguishing
body
without
the
latter
to
murmur.
causing
To
fteen
more
called
these
four
urban
Tribes
Servius
added
[7]
rural

same

state,
continuous

because

formed

on

of

inhabitants

robust

in time

were

honored

cowards
urban
to

Rlllll7ZLIl[t'S.
Trmmses.
Lzircm.

128

and

Tribes

who defended

men

of peace.
because

whom

settle in

Tribe

rural

and valiant

them

as

Pliny

they wanted

disgrace.

Rome,

he

When

loaded

was

afterwards

which

men

to

in time

that

states

of the

them

and fed

war

the rural

Tribes

positively
who composed them; whereas
were
transferred
to
the
degrade
the Sabine Appius Claudius
came

with

and enrolled

honors

his

name.

excellent; but it

was

assumed

of

in

rural

freedmen

family
Finally,
all entered
the urban, never
the rural Tribes; and during the whole
of the Republic there is not a single instance
of any one of these
freedmen
to
he
even
had
become
though
acceding
any magistraey,
a

Citizen.

[10] This
it

nally

maxim

resulted

was

in

change

and

certainly

pushed
an

so

abuse

far

in

that
the

administration.
to
the
after
themselves
First,
[I1]
Censors,
having long arrogated
the right arbitrarily to transfer
citizens
from one Tribe to another,
permitted most of them to enroll in whichever one they pleased; a
was
which
not
for
and
which
permission
anything,
certainly
good
deprived the censorship of one of its mainsprings. In addition, since
the Great and the powerful all had themselves
enrolled
in rural
in
Tribes, and the freedrnen who had become Citizens remained
the urban Tribes
with
the
the
Tribes
no
generally
along
populace,

had

longer
mingled
one

with

and
so
to
labors,
military
speak relegated
to
the
fortune
and
arts, crafts, intrigue,
slavery
city.
men
lived in the country
[9] Thus, since all of Romes illustrious
and cultivated
the land, it became customary
to look only there
for
the mainstays of the Republic. As it was the state
of the worthiest
it
the
was
held
in
honor
Patricians,
Villagers simple
by everyone:
and hardworking life was preferred to the idle and loose life of the
Roman Bourgeois, and someone
who would have been nothing but
a miserable
in
the
became
a
Citizen
as
proletarian
city
respected
a farmer
in the country.
said
did
Not without
our
Varro,
reason,
establish in the Village the nursery of those
magnanimous ancestors

of the

Tribes,
they
into
cantons.
Later
an
so
countryside, apportioned
many
equal
the
number
of new
Tribes
was
and
Roman People nally
created,
found itself divided
into thirty~live Tribes; the number
at which
remained
fixed
until
the
end
of
the
Republic.
they
the
rural
Tribes
This
distinction
between
the
urban
and
[8]
resulted
in an effect worth noting, because there is no other instance
of it, and because Rome owed to it both the preservation of its
have
and
the
of
its
The
urban
Tribes
morals,
growth
empire.
might
been expected soon
to arrogate
to themselves
the power
and honors,
and to lose no time debasing the rural Tribes; the very opposite
life
well
The
Romans
taste
for
is
known.
happened.
early
country
who coupled
They owed this taste to the wise [446] institutor
were

freedom

C/zapter

that

of them

themselves
so inter
territory;
it became
the
of
to
members
impossible
identify
any
without
the
so
that
the
idea
of
the
consulting
registers,
thus shifted
from the residential
to the personal, or
district

word

Trilvc

rather

it became

but

or

almost

chimera.

all found

Off/1e
In addition

[447] [12]
ready
eomitia, and

to

more

[13]

hand,

found

the

State

to

who

composed

As for the

the

that
who

urban
the

Tribes, being
buy the

to

than

in the

strongest

deigned

votes

the

had made

institutor

which

of them

ten

[14]

of

number

Tribes

and

the Tribes
neither

time

the

thirty

could

he did

not

the

them

within

enclosed

having

was

rural

become

purely

tration

Tribes

nor

among

Curiae,
establishments, and

Romuluss

troops,
having
divisions
proved superuous. Thus, although
in

enrolled

[15]

far from

Tribe,

made

Servius

was

everyone

which

division

third

every
enrolled
in

bore

was

relation

no

to

yet
the most
the first two, and which by its effects became
important
into
six
the whole Roman
of all. He distributed
classes,
people
but
district
nor
which he distinguished neither
by
by
by persons,
the
last
lled
with
the
the
rst
classes
were
So
that
rich,
goods:
and the middle

with the poor,

erate
fortune.

These

called

bodies

six

centuries,

classes
and

the rst Class

alone contained

formed

single

but

number

the smallest
and

that

although
In
[16]

the

entire

it alone
order
of this

quences
he added
cast:

one.

of

bodies

more

than

class

contained

more

last
two

were

it

about

came

counted
than

of

armor

subdivision

one

of Rome.

the

discern

to

the

it

conse-

military

second

class,
Class,

to
fourth:
In
each
makers
the
of weapons
[448]
from
the
that
is
he
the
the
old,
except
last,
distinguished
young
from
whose
those
were
to
bear
arms
those
who
age
obliged
say

and

law

two

exempted

them

from

hearing them;
130

distinction

which

more

of

need

the defenders

were

A further

distinction

was,

State, sometimes
for them.

even

As for those

because

of

the

tcrestedness, their
and

the

ardor

first

taste

for

the countless

among

who

at

drawn

in the

called

The
crust.
rztpitc

last class

least contributed

when

there

ad

was

Citizens

pressing

all and

could be
nothing
regarded as altogether nil, and
at

enroll

to
ier

them.

this Third

count

in itself

was

that
it
could
be
made
to
say
only
Romans
simple morals, their disin-

for

agriculture, their contempt for comis

Where
the modern
whose
gain.
people
and
spirit, intrigue, constant
comings
of fortune

would

let such

last

an

establish-

without
the
whole
twenty
years
overthrowing
it has to be stressed that, in Rome, morals and the

Indeed,
ship, stronger

than

into

the

iowever,
who were

soldiers

only by head, they were

Marius was the first who deigned
[19] Without deciding here whet
good or bad, I believe I can safely

division

same

troops
in Kings armies, who would not
a Roman
rom
cohort in the days
of freedom.

man,

counted

merce

bearing

populace that composed

earing arms for the fatherland;
to obtain
the right to defend it,

the proletzmmzr and those

not
wholly reduced to nothing.

that

half the inhabitants

makers

soldiers

not

distributed

readily
people might
to
Servius
form,
pretended
give

centuries

is

ment

that

less

the

the

work

attend

to

age

this

adopt

not

in order

193

them, and the last

only

as

hearth

other

into

half of

honor

mod

enjoyed

so

have

to

the

devouring greed, unsettled

goings, perpetual revolutions

the Class with

of centuries,
had the largest number

last

that

who

subdivided

were

these

Thus
men

those

with

ones

there

to

Curia,

and

former,

military

Citizen

had

between

com-

military

everyone

why he did

reason

accorded

not

[18]

adminis

different

and

and old in the last class is that

one

when

the Tribes

because

raise

to

who

people

of

question

any
civil

introduced

been

the

Finally

count:

or

it necessary
to
take
frequently
he wanted the assembly held in the

ma

perhaps
single
of beggars who nowadays sparkle
have been expelled with contempt

this

since

apportionment,

new

wealth

by

Chapter

IV,

arms.

young
it was

his
four
be evenly distributed
among
of
to change it, the Curiae
independent
of Rome: But
division of the inhabitants

not

want

there

was

Serviuss

another

became

among

posed

of

census

[I7] The

Tribes.
At

new

their

people
the city walls at the time was composed of thirty Curiae, each with
its
and
festivals
its
its
its
its own
Gods,
officers,
priests,
Temples,
similar to the Paganalia later held by
called ranzpimlia, which were
the rural

the distinction

Campus Martins,

them.

of
the
Roman
all
Tribe,

in each

Baa/e

themselves

those

since

Curiae,

Comma

happened

often

sold

of the rabble

it

Swizz]

this

corrected

State?
eensorv

for its

institution,
vice, and that
some
rich men
found themselves relegated to the class of the poor
for having made an excessive display of their riches.
all
From
this it is easy to understand
almost
never
more
[20]
why
than live classes are mentioned, although there really were
six. The
sixth, since it provi[44g]ded neither soldiers to the army nor votes
at the Campus Martius*
and was of almost no use in the Republic,
was

rarely taken into

account.

to
*

by

the mmjms marliux because that is where the Comitia assembled

by eentu
assembled
in
ries; in the other two forms the
the
or
and
forum
elsewhere,
people
then the Cdtlxerox had as much inuence and
authority as the rst citizens.

I-sayat

131

0ft/re
[21] Such
us

now

see

assemblies

were

what

the

different

Social

Conlmvi

divisions

B00/e IV,

of the Roman

people.

Let

effects

These
they produced in the assemblies.
convened
were
called
legitimately
Conztzi;they were

normally held in the Roman forum or in the campus Martius, and

were
distinguished as Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal cornitia,
according to which one of these three forms was their organizing
the
form; the coinitia by curiae had been instituted
by Romulus,
comitia by Centuries
the
coinitia by Tribes by the Trib
Servius,
by
Lines
of the people. No law was
sanctioned, no magistrate elected
except in the Comitia, and since there was not a single Citizen who
was
not
in a Curia, a Century, or a Tribe, it follows that
enrolled
no
Citizen was excluded from the right to vote, and that the Roman
People was genuinely Sovereign both by right and in fact.
For
the Comitia to be legitimately assembled
and for their
[22]
to have
transactions
the force of law, three conditions
had to be
satisfied:
first, that the body or the magistrate convening it was
vested
with the requisite authority to do so; second, that the
be
held
on
one
of
the
assembly
days permitted by law; third, that
the auguties were
favorable.
for the first regulation requires no explanation;
[23] The reason
the second
is a matter
of administration; thus Comitia
were
not
allowed
to
be held on feast or 1'narlcel~days,when
eountryfolk
to
Rome
on
business
had
not
the
time to spend the day in
coming
the public square.
With the third the Senate held in check a proud
and restless
when
the
ardor
of
and,
people
necessary,
tempered
seditious
Tribunes; but they found more than one Way to rid them~
selves

[24]

of this constraint.
The

Laws

the

election

of the chiefs

the

not

were

only

judgment of the Comitia: The Roman

of [450]
people having usurped the most important functions
Government, the fate of Europe may he said to have been determined
in its assemblies.
This variety of objects gave rise to the
various forms which these assemblies
assumed
according to the mat
ters
they had to decide.
In
[2 5'} order to judge these various forms one need only compare
matters

them.

submitted

and

Rotnuluss

to

the

in

the

Curiae

restrain
instituting
the Senate by the people and the People by the Senate while himself
both
form
he
means
of
this
the
Hence,
dominating
equally.
by
gave
the
full authority of numbers
to balance
the authority of
people
purpose

132

was

to

and wealth
power
with the spirit of
greater
of votes.

which

he left

the

to

Patricians.

But

he nevertheless

Monarchy
advantage through their
This

Chapter

admirable

institution

the

gave
influence

Clients

of Patrons

in

on

keeping

Patricians
the

majority

Clients

and

was

politics and humanity, without which the Patriciate,

so contrary
to the spirit of the Republic, could not
have survived.
Rome alone had the honor of setting the world this fine example
which never
led to any abuse, and yet has never
been followed.
under the Kings
[26] Since this same form of Curiae continued
until the time of Servius, and since the reign of the last Tarquin was
not
held to be legitimate, the royal laws were
identied
generally
by
the name
of [eggsmriame.
Under
the
the
still
limited
to
the four
[27]
Republic
Curiae,
urban
Tribes
and no longer containing anyone
but the Roman
populace, could suit neither the Senate which was at the head of
the Patricians, not
the Tribunes
who, although plebeians, were at
the head of the welltoAdo Citizens.
They therefore fell into dis
credit, and their degradation was such that their thirty Lietors
did what
assembled
the [full] coinitia
by Curiae should have
masterpiece

of

done.

[28]

The

division

that

extent

is

one

by

first left

at

favored

Centuries

wonder

to

Aristocracy
why the Senate

to

such
did

an

not

in

the Comitia
which
bore that name
and which
always prevail
elected the Consuls, Censors, and other curule Magistrates. Indeed,
since of the hundred
and ninC[ytl1rCC
centuries
which formed the
six Classes of the entire Roman
the
rst
Class comprised
People,
and
votes
were
ninety~eiglit,
only counted by Centuries, this first
Class by itself alone prevailed over
all the others by the number
of
its votes.
When all of its Centuries
were
in agreement,
did
not
they
even
on
go
[451] collecting ballots; what the smallest number had
decided
for
a
decision of the multitude; and in the Comitia
passed

Centuries

by
majorities
But
[29]

the Tribunes

affairs

of cash

be said

can

than

of

Patricians

this extreme

[30]
ries

start

settled
in

tempered
authority
and
a
number
of
the
ordinarily,
large

in this first
The

been

second

voting

in

often

more

by

votes.
was

in the class of the rich

were

have

to

and

thus

balanced

that

instead

two

ways:

Plebeians

the influence

First,
always,
of the

class.

way

order,

was

this,

which

would

133

have

of
led

to

having

the Centu

always beginning

Sonia!

Oflhe
the

Book

Czmtmct

and

chosen

that

not

was

vote,

injustice

This
in this respect less free than the last of Citizens.
alone
was
to
ill
and
it
enough
conceived,
altogether

were
was

decrees

the

invalidate

of

body

to

which

not

all of its members

had attended
these Comitia
Even if all the Patrieians
admitted.
to
would
had
the
their
as
Citizens
in
do,
they
they
right
as,
capacity
have
would therefore
have been counted
as simple particulars, and
had scarcely any impact on 21 form of [452] voting which consists in
were

counting
much

as

heads
does

and

the Prince

It is therefore

[33]
population]

in which

the

least

proletarian

counts

for

as

of the Senate.
evident

that

forms

these

various

indifferent

divisions
in

the

[of
themselves, but
the Votes cast by

simply
that in addition to determining the order in which
them
had
effects
one
of
each
such a large People were
counted,
relative to the opinions that led to its being preferred.
it
follows
from
fuller
detail
about
Without
into
this,
going
[34]
the
that the Comitia
Tribes
were
the preceding clarifications
by
Centufavorable
to popular Government, and the Comitia
most
by
*

The

were

thus

century
be asked to vote,

not

by lot was called praeragzzzimzbecause

and this is where the word prerogative comes
drawn

i34~

it

ries

one* alone

by lot,
first, Century
all
the
Centuries
after
which
to
hold
an
having
election;
proceeded
their
rank
in
the
order
of
for another
been summoned
repeated
day
election and usually conrmed it. In this way the authority
the same
from rank and given to lot in conformity
of example was withdrawn
with the principle of democracy.
that
the
as
This
had
another
advantage well; namely
practice
[31]
the two elections
from the countryside had time between
Citizens
themselves
of the merit of the candidate
to
inform
provisionally
do
so
once
could
so
that
vote
they
nominated,
only
they might
the
vote
But
on
the
of
accelerating
they
pretext
knowledgeably.
were
held
in abolishing this practice, and both elections
succeeded
the same
on
day.
the
the
Council
of
The
Tribes
were
Comitia
by
properly
[32]
the
Roman people. They could only be convened
by
Tribunes; they
and passed their plebiscites. Not only had the
elected the Tribunes
the
to
attend
it
had
not
even
no
in
Senate
right
them,
standing
on
which
could
the
forced
to
laws
and
they
them,
Senators,
obey
with

was

from.

the rst

IV,

Clmprer

As

regards the Comitia by Curiae where the

Roman
alone
formed
the
populace
majority, since all they were good
for was
to favor
and evil designs, they inevitably fell into
tyranny
discredit, and seditious parties themselves abstained from using a
means
which exposed their projects too openly. Certain
it is that
the whole majesty of the Roman People resided only in the Comitia
by Centuries, which alone were complete; for the Comitia by Curiae
lacked the rural
Tribes, and the Comitia by Tribes lacked the
to

Senate

[35]
Romans

Aristocracy.

and the Patticians.

As for the
it

manner

of

the

the

rst

collecting
votes, among
their morals, although still less simple

simple as
than in Sparta. Everyone called out his Vote, 21 Clerk recorded
them
in writing, one by one; in each Tribe a majority of votes
determined
the vote of that Tribe, a majority of votes by the Tribes determined
the vote of the People, and the same
was
done in the Curiae and
the Centuries.
lt was
a good
as
practice
long as honesty reigned
the
and
Citizens
each was ashamed to cast his vote publicly
among
for an unjust opinion or an unworthy candidate; but when the
people grew corrupt and votes were bought, it agreed to secret bale
so
that buyers might be restrained
and
scoun
loting
by mistrust,
drels given a way not to be traitors,
I
[36] know that Cicero condemns this change and holds it partly
responsible for the ruin of the Republic. But although I am sensible
of the Weight Cicer0s authority should carry in this, I cannot
share
his opinion. I think, on the contrary,
that the loss of the State was
hastened
because not enough such changes were
made. just as the
regimen of healthy people is not suited to the sick, one must not
to
a
try
go[453]vern corrupt people by the same Laws as those that
suit a good people. Nothing proves
these maxims better than the
life
of
the
of
which
still
retains a simulacrum
long
Republic Venice,
of existence, solely because its laws are suited only to wicked men.
distributed
to
the Citizens
[37] Hence tablets were
allowing
to vote
without
elses
everyone
anyone
knowing his opinion. New
procedures were also established for collecting these tablets, tallying
votes, comparing numbers, etc. None of this prevented the integrity
of the officers in charge of these functions from frequently coming
was

as

to
"

Custodes, Diribitores, Rogatores suffragiorum,

135

Semi]

the
under

In the

end,

of votes, Edicts
their uselessness.

were

suspicion.

selling
proves

Toward

CUIIZHMZ

Boole Iv,

intrigue and the buying and

issued, the large number of which

to

prevent

all of

21

sudden

before

the

the

it is

possible

not

constitutive

constantly
magisrracy

of the

parts
the
relations
upset
is instituted
which

which
OIICFS,
a tie
provides

People,

or

sir

once

es

at

2] This

to

each

restores
or

middle

between

term

strike

blows

the Prince

an

exact

when

or

between

term

to

either
and

the

time

to

engage

proportion

between

indestructible
then

Sovereign,

Prince

the
or

forces

and

between

the

both

if that

is necessary.
body, which I Shall call

which

between

establish

not

Sovereign

them,
particular
[454] incorporated with the
its true
relation, and which

had

TRIBUNATE

is

than

when
clearly
Patricians, who always despised the entire people, were forced to
before
a
officer
of the people wielding neither
yield
plain
patronage
nor
jurisdiction.
A
is the rmcst bulwark
of a good
[4] wisely tempered Tribunate
if
but
it has even
a little
too
much force it overthrows
constitution;
As
for
not
that
is
in its nature,
and if it is
everything:
being weak,
at
it
is
never
less than it has to be.
anything
all,
['5] It degenerates into tyranny when it usurps the executive
of
which
it
is
but
the
and
tries
to administer
the
power
moderator,
laws which it ought only to protect.
The enormous
of the
power
Ephors which was without danger so long as Sparta preserved its
morals
hastened
its corruption once
had
set
in.
The
corruption
blood of Agis murdered
by these tyrants was avenged by his sue
cessor:
both the crime and the punishment of the Ephors hastened
the fall of the Republic, and after Cleomenes
to
ceased
be
Sparta
in
Rome
the
same
anything.
again perished
way, and in the end the
excessive power
the Tribunes
had gradually usurped served, with
the help of laws that had been made for the sake of freedom, as a
safeguard to the Emperors who destroyed freedom. As for the
Council
of Ten in Venice; it is a Tribunal
of blood, equally abhorrent
to the Patricians
and to the People and which, far from loftily
now
protecting the laws, no longer serves
any other purpose
I455]
that the laws have been dcbased, than under cover
of darkness to

FIVE

State,

prevent
of the Laws

This

done.

[I When

can

is
all
the
power
greater:
It
is
more
everything.

them.

intrigues; sometimes, when the people was found to have

been won
over
and ready to make a bad choice, an entire session
was
taken up with talk: but nally ambition
eluded everything; and
what is incredible
is that thanks
to
its ancient
regulations this
immense
in
the
midst
of
so
did
not
cease
people,
many
abuses,
to
elect Magistrates, pass laws, try cases,
and
dispatch private
public business almost as readily as the Senate itself might have

Tin;

it

own

executes

in their

Or

of this its

which

candidates

CHAPTER

precisely because
it can
do nothing,

and

[of the Republic], they were often

to resort
to extraordinary expedients in order
to make
tor
the
up
inadequacy of the laws. Sometimes
prodigies were
but
this
which could impose on the people, could
alleged;
means,
not
impose on those who governed it; sometimes an assembly was
convened

power,
for while

sacred

the linal times

[38]
compelled

but

Clmpifer5

is
the preserver
of the
T1i[7ZI7ltltc,
It serves
sometimes
to protect
the

revered

as

them
was

one

the

and

seen

dare

defender

than

the

in

very

not

Rome

is the

Prince

promulgates
those
proud

notice.

The

like
the Government, is weakened
[6]
Tribunate,
by the
When
the Tribunes
of the Roman
multiplication of its members.
at
in
first
then
ve
wanted
to
double this
people,
two,
number,

legislative power.
of the people
Sovereign against the Government, as the Tribunes
die in Rome, sometimes
to
uphold the Government
against the
as
the
Council
of
now
Ten
does in Venice, and sometimes
to
People,
maintain
the balance between
the two, as the Ephors did in Sparta.
The
is
Tribunate
not
a constitutive
of
the
and
it
3]
part
City,
ought to have no share of either the legislative or the executive

Senate let them do so, condent

that it could check
number,
some
of the others; which is just what did happen.
by means
to prevent
{7} The best means
usurpations by so formidable a
It
that
means
has so far not occurred
to
body,
any Government,
would be not to make this body permanent,
but to stipulate intervals
which
it
would
be suspended. These intervals, which should
during
not
be long enough to allow abuses sufcient time to consolidate,

136

137

laws and of the

the

Satin!

Ofthe
be xed

can

by law,

that if need be

so

Book IV,

Contract

they

could

easily be

shortened

who silences

by extraordinary commissions.
seems
free of inconveniences
to me
because
the
[8] This means
Tribunate, since, as I have said, it is not part of the constitution,
can
be removed
without
to me
efcacious
harming it; and it seems
because
a
installed
not
starts
out
with the power
newly
magistrate
his predecessors had but with the power
which the law grants him.

CHAPTER
SIX
OF THE DICTATORSIIIP

events,

in

can

some

the ruin ofa State

cause

of formalities
times
did

requires

deny
not
provide,
one.

cannot

foresee

['2] One

should

one

tutions
their

effect,

it is

cases
a

keeps
pernicious,

and

orderliness

and deliberateness

of time

space

can

foresight

provides
person.

ing
[4]
to

of the

sense

that

everything,

Even

is

to

Sparta

let its laws

lie dormant.

at

stake.

for the

In these

public safety,

This commission
the kind
If in order

rare

of

can

be

and

which

counterbalance
should

given in

either

never

sus-

the Salvation

manifest
entrusts

the

cases

it

to

of

two

the

of the

special

act

worthiest

accordways

danger.
to

government,
members; this way

counteract

it, it suffices

to

then

increase

it gets concentrated
in
it is not the authority of the

turbed, but only the form

of their

administration.

one

the
or

activity

two

laws that
If however

of its

is disthe

peril is such that the laws as an instrumentality are an obstacle to

chief is named who silences all
guarding against it, then a supreme
the laws and provisionally suspends the Sovereign authority; in such
a case
the general will is not in doubt, it is obvious that the peoples
foremost
intention
is that the State not perish. This way the suspension of the legislative authority does not abolish it; the magistrate
I38

he

it;
means

was

it without

he
dominates
speak,

do

can

the Consuls

everything,
used by the
of

laws.

make

except
Roman

when

Senate

consecrated

being
it

with

formula

charged
by
pro
the
second
took
when
for
the
salvation
of
the
viding
Republic;
place
one
of the two Consuls appointed a Dictatorf a practice for which
Alba had set the precedent in Rome.
[6] In the beginnings of the Republic they frequently had
recourse
to the Dictatorship,
because the State was not yet suffi~
force
settled
to
sustain
itself
the
of
its
constitution.
ciently rmly
by
a
Since at that time morals
made
superfluous
good many prewhich

fear that

no

attempt
so

some
circumstances
arise for which the Lawgivcr

[3] But only the greatest dangers can [456]

of
the
and
one
danger
order,
disturbing
public
the
sacred power of the laws except when
pend
fatherland

bending
them
through

to

which

necessary

very

from

therefore
not
institry to consolidate
political
of
oneself
of
the
to suspend
point
depriving
power

the

to

in crisis. The

A thousand
and

them

render

cases

them

it

make

cannot

able to represent
[5] The first

cautions

[1] The inexibilityof the laws, which

it

Chapter

would

great
such was

armies:

the

it

power
his haste

would

beyond
was

have been

Dictator

keep

to

means

necessary
abuse his

his term.

burden

the

to

be rid of

authority
on
seemed,

It

one

times, there

other

at

or

that

was

he Would

the contrary,
that
in whom it was vested,
of the laws

the

if

it;
taking
place
had been too painful and too perilous a station!
it
That
it
the
that
be
abused
but
is
is
not
[7]
why
danger
might
me
to object to
the danger that it might be debased
which prompts
in
the indiscriminate
the
earluse
of this [457] supreme
magistracy
iest times. For while it was being lavished on Elections, Dedications,
reason
fear
that
it
would
less
there
was
to
pure
formalities,
prove
to regard
formidable
in times of need, and that people would come
as vain a title
used only in vain ceremonies.
the
the
Towards
end
of
the
[8]
Republic,
Romans, having grown
use
of
the
more
were
in
their
Dictatorship
circumspect,
sparing
with as little reason
lavish in their use of
as they had formerly been
that by then
it. It was easy to see that their fear was illfounded,
the weakness
of the capital guaranteed its safety against the magisa
cases
defend the
trates
in its midst, that a Dictator
could in some
threaten
and
freedom
without
ever
in
a
to
it,
public
being
position
that Romes chains would be forged not in Rome itself, but in its

Pompey

feeble

offered
from

to

resistance

Caesar
internal

as

which

Marius

offered

showed

clearly enough
external
authority opposing

what

Sulla

could

and
be

force.

expected
for
This
error
caused
them
to
commit
mistakes.
As,
[9]
great
in the Catiline
example, was their failure to appoint a Dictator
*

This
of

appointment was made at night and

placing zi man above the laws.

T39

in secret,

as

if

they

had

been

ashamed

Soaizzl Comma

Ofthe

Boole (V,

and
at
the
was
internal
that
at
issue
all
was
affair; for since
to
the
with
in
a
to
some
the Van,
most
Dictator,
lmly,
>
province
have
would
the
laws
unlimited
easily
authority
gave him,
Of
a Concatnatltm
only smothered
the conspiracy which was
by

city,

Chapter

CHAPTER SEVEN
OF CENSORSIIIP

>4

crushed

happy contingencies

human

which

on

should

prudence

have

never

counted.
_

Instead

[10]

itself

contented

Senate

the

all of

with

transterring
that
Cicero,
happened

is how

which

the

Consuls;
a
this
on
exceed
to
was
constrained
act
power
effectively,
of ioy led to his
crucial point, and that, while the first transports
for
conduct. being approved, he was later iustly called to account
of the laws; a charge that
shed in violation
the blood of Citizens

its power
order to

to

it

could

been

have

not

levelled

the

Dictator.

himself, though
him;
than his fatherland, he sought not

more

and certain

legitimate

most

to

way

in
affairf
this
all
the
honor
get
ored as the liberator of Rome, and
it

that

brilliant

However

was

[II]
any case,
commission
important
be fixed
crises

to

lead

that

its

to

the

Saved, and,

or

brief

very

becomes

tyrannical

for

six

Roman,

so

vain.

the

which

can

this
,Wl11Cl1
its
duration
the

extended;
be.is soon
the State
destroyed
the
Dictatorship
passed,
in

Dictators
before

abdicated

of them

that

never

in Rome

Since

in

manner

important

is

being established
once
need
pressing

or

to

as

be
it

may

conferred,
term

much

way
honv
justly

is

L10

were

this

Dictators
If the

term.

months,
term
had been longer, they might
tempted
perhapshavebeen
their one-year
extend
it still further, as did the Decemvirs

only

The

most

had

Dictator

got him

elected,

only

time

he had

no

enough
time

..

iustly punished
transgressoi
have been his recall, it is certain

may

Whatever

In

as

the
the
[458]
therelore

pardon.

was

State

save

He

of the laws,

Consul

the

But

and since he

all before

quence swept
loved his glory

at

in

to

to

attend

to

of other

dream

the

that

need

to

termd.
ha

proiects.

[1] just

the

general will is declared by law, the public judgment

is declared
the
by
censorship; public opinion is the kind of law of
which the Censor is the Minister, and which, on the model of the
he
does no more
than apply to particular cases.
Prince,
So
[2]
that, far from being the arbiter of the peoples opinion,
the censorial
tribunal
does no more
than declare it, and as soon
as
it departs from it, its decisions are vain and without
effect.
It
is useless to draw a distinction
[3]
between a nations morals
and the objects of its
esteem; for all this follows from the same
and
principle
necessarily converges. Among all peoples of the world,
not
nature
but opinion determines
the choice of their pleasures.
Reform mcns opinions and their morals will be
of
thempurified
selves. One always loves what is ne or what one nds to be
but
so,
it is in this judgment that one is
mistaken; hence it is this judgment
that has to be regulated, Whoever
judges morals judges honor, and
whoever
judges honor takes opinion as his law.
[459] [4] A peoples opinions arise from its constitution; although
law does not regulate morals,
legislation does give rise to them;
when legislation weakens, morals
degenerate; but by then the Censoi"s judgment will fail to do what the force of the laws will have
failed

as

to

do.

It

follows

[5]
morals,

that

the

Censorship

extravagant

did

is what
not

appoint

dare

he could
to

not

appoint

be condent

himself

he
since
Dictator,
suggested
that his colleague would
be sure

of if he had

and he could not

The
extremes

use

of seconds
in the

in

Kingdom

preserving

duels, which
of

France,

was
was

carried

to

abolished

in

by the following few words in an Edict of the King; as for those

who are so rozmwlly as 10 mime
Seconds. This judgment, by anticipat
that
of the public, straightway determined
ing
it. But when the
same
Edicts sought to proclaim that it was also an act of cowardice
to
a
light
duel, which is very true, but contrary to common

him.

i4o

in

in

it

This

be useful

restoring them. Establish Censors while the Laws

are
in their vigor; once
they have lost it, all is hopeless; nothing
legitimate any longer has force when the laws no longer have any.
The
[6]
Censorship maintains morals by preventing opinions
from becoming corrupt,
by preserving their uprightness through
wise applications, sometimes
even
by xing them when they are still
never

indeterminate.

can

I41

Oftlze
the

opinion,

public
judgment.

settled

[7]

I have

there

established

moderns,

was

[8]

which

about

it

already

had

should

that

be

since

public opinion

vestige

no

of constraint

into

brought

subject

not

in the tribunal

much

admire

entirely

lost

the Romans

play among

is

the

skill
the

among

and still better

Lacedaenionians.
of bad morals

offered

in the

having
good suggestion
council
of Sparta, the Ephors, without
notice
of
him,
taking any
had the same
forward
a
Citizen.
What
suggestion brought
by good
an
honor for the one, what a disgrace for the other, without
either
of them having been praised or blamed!
Some drunkards
from
Samos deled the Tribunal
of the Ephors: the next day the Sami
were
A
ans
Edict
to
be
true
by
permitted
public
lthy.
punishment
would have been less severe
than such impunity. When Sparta has
pronounced on what is and what is not honest, Greece does not
its
appeal
judgments.
man

I460]
CHAPTER

[I] Men

first had

at

Government

ula,

and

dation
that

the time

of sentiments
like

being

OF CIVIL

EIGHT
R!:,LIGION

other

than

no

Kings

than the Theocratic

at

they

reasoned

one

flatter

master,
will be well off as a result.

one

From

this

that

God

caII

Gods,

reasoned

correctly,

and

as

the

They

one.

and ideas before

oneself

Thus

from national

logical

it. One cannot

too
represent
this spring, which has been

the

among

Boole IV,

to

which

with

this decision

said elsewhere*

constraint

to

scorned

Cnnmm,

Social

It takes

nor
as
a

other

any

had

Calig~
long degra

bring oneself to accept

oneself [into believing]

stated

the

head

of every
Gods as there

[2]
alone,
placed
political society, it followed that there were as many
were
peoples. Two peoples alien to one another and almost always
enemies
could not
master:
Two armies
long recognize the same
in
battle
with
one
another
could not obey the same
chief.
engaged
at

civil

intolerance

resulted
which

The

In this

chapter

Letter

to

They

came

permit

to

merely

indicate

what

Island

which

I have

treated

at

greater

length

in the

M. dAlembert.
from
be named

another

in this context.

the

delicacy
[I782 edn.]

142

of

our

language

does

not

it theowill

be

Greeks

fancy of rediscovering their Gods among barbarian peoples came

from their fancy of also regarding themselves
as
these
peoples natural Sovereigns. But in our day erudition
revolving around the identity of various nations Gods is quite
ridiculous; as if Moloch, Saturn, and Chronos could be the same
God; as if the Baal of the Phoenieians, the Zeus of the Greeks and
the Jupiter of the Romans could be the same; as if chimerical
Beings
could have anything in common!
bearing different names
[4] It maybe asked why under paganism, where every State had
its cult and its Gods, there were
no wars
of Religion? I answer
that
it was precisely because every State, since it had its own
cult as well
as
its Government, drew no distinction
between
its Gods and its
laws. Political
war
was
also Theological: the departments of the
Gods were,
so to speak, fixed by the boundaries
of Nations.
The
God of one people had no right over
the other peoples. The Gods
of the Pagans [461] were
not
jealous Gods; they divided the empire
of the world among themselves: even
Moses and the Hebrew People
sometimes eountenanced
this idea in speaking of the God of Israel.
They did, it is true, regard as naught the Gods of the Canaanites,
proscribed peoples, doomed to destruction, and whose stronghold
were
to
But note
how they spoke about the divinities
they
occupy.
of the peoples they were
forbidden
to attack!
The porsestion nfwlmt
belongs to Clmmos your God, jephthah said to the Ammonites, is it
not
legitimatelyyour due? By the same title we possess the lzmdt our
victarizlux Goal has :zrquiml.* That, it seems
to me, indicates
a wellv
recognized parity between the rights of Chamos and those of the
of Israel.

[5] But when the Jews, subject to the Kings of Babylon and sub
sequently to the Kings of Syria, obstinately sought to recognize no
other
God than their own, this refusal, regarded as a rebellion
Nmme

ea

quire

potndrt

Clmnws

lieu:

tum

tilzijure zlebmtur?

This

is the

text

of the

Fr. dc Carricrcs
has translated
it: Do you not believe you have the right 10
passes: Wlllll belongsto C/umzru your God? I do not know the force of the Hebrew
text; but I see that in the Vulgate jephthah positively recognizes the right of the
God Chamos, and that the French translator
weakens this recognition with his
(mvrzlingtr you which is not in the Latin.

Vulgate.

is

polytheism, and from

naturally the same, as

below.

[3]

God
was

and

divisions

8
Clza[J/fer

143

the Social

the

down

Boole IV,

Conmtrt

themselves

the

persecutions

victor, brought
we
read about in their history, and of which there is no other known
example prior to Christianity.*'
was
tied
to
the
laws
of
exclusively
[6] Since, then, every Religion
no
other way to convert
a
the State which prescribed it, there was
than
than
to
nor
were
there
other
missionaries
enslave
any
people
it,
the
and
the
to
their
cult
was
since
change
conquerors,
obligation
law of the vanquished, it was necessary
to be victorious
before talk
it
from
men
for
the
about
such
a
Far
Gods,
ghting
ing
change.
for
each
asked
his
as
in
the
Gods
who
fought
men;
was,
Homer,
for Victory, and paid for it with new altars. The Romans, before
own
to
and
when
a
called
its
Gods
abandon
it,
taking stronghold,
upon
irate
let
the
Tarentum
their
Gods
of
keep
[462| they
they
people
did so because by then they regarded those Gods as subject to their
and forced to pay them homage. They left the vanquished their
own
A
as
them
laws.
crown
dedicated
to
Gods
left
their
they
was
often
the
tribute
exacted.
they
Capitolinc Jupiter
only
their
In
the
the
extended
their
cult
and
end
Romans
[7]
having
Gods along with their empire, and often having themselves
adopted
those
of the vanquished by granting them as well as their Gods
freedom of the City, the peoples of this vast empire insensibly found
or
less the
that they had multitudes
of Gods and of cults, more
became
but
same
and
this
is
how
everywhere;
paganism eventually
the
known
world.
one
and the same
Religion throughout
that
a
It
was
in
these
circumstances
came
to
establish
Jesus
['8]
the
on
Kingdom
earth,
which,
by
separating
theological
Spiritual
from the political system, led to the States ceasing to be one, and
against

caused

the intestine

upon

which

divisions

have

ceased

never

idea

of

convulse

to

of
the
Kingdom
peoples.
other world could never
enter
the paganshead, they always looked
Christians
true
under
a
as
rebels
who,
[cover
upon
of] hypocritical
submission, were only looking for the opportunity to become indeand
to
the
and
the
which
masters,
craftily
usurp
pendent
authority
to
as
as
were
weak.
This
was
the
they pretended
respect
long
they
cause
of the persecutions.
Christian

Now

since

this

new

What

[9]
changed
to

was

perfectly
not

war

evident
of

that

Religion.

the
Its

against the Phoeaeans called

object was to punish sacrilege not
war

nonhelievers.

144

the
to

holy war
suhiugate

pagans

to

came

[to] However, since there has always been

this

dual

has resulted

power
has made

which

then

pass;

in

conflict

perpetual

Prince

and
of

in Christian

good polity impossible

no
one
has ever
succeeded
in settling the question of
master
the
or
the priest,one is obliged to obey.
two,
Yet
several
in
near
even
or
[1]]
peoples,
it,
Europe
or

preserve

to

any

the ancient

restore

of

has

spirit
ehristianity
remained
or
reverted
always

but

system,

civil

laws,
jurisdiction
States, and

which
have

without

of the
tried

success;

to

the

pervade everything. Holy worship

to being independent of the Sovereign,
and without
tie
to the body of the State. Muhammad
had
necessary
sound
he
tied
his political system together well, and as
views,
very
the
form
as
of
his
Government
endured
the
under
long
[463]
who
succeeded
him
was
this
Government
Caliphs
strictly unitary,
and in this respect good. But once
the Arabs had become prosper~
ous, lettered, polished, soft and cowardly, they were
subjugated by
the
two
the
division
between
barbarians; whereupon
powers
began
it
is
less apparent
Muslims
than among
anew;
although
among
Christians, it is nevertheless there, especially in the sect of Ali, and
there are States, such as Persia, where it never
ceases
to make itself
to

come

felt.

[12] Among
as

heads

this

title

they

the

Kings
Church, and

us,

of the

made

have

of

established

have

England

themselves

have done

the Tsars

themselves

not

so

the same; but with

much its masters
as
its

Ministers; they have acquired not so much the right to change it as

the power to preserve
are
not
its
are
its
it; they
lawgivers, they
merely
Princes.

Wherever

the

in its realm.

lawgiver
in
eigns, England
*

It should
in

France, which

Clergy

constitutes

There

are

and in

especially be
bind

noted
the

21

body*

therefore

Russia, just
that it is

clergy into

not
a

as

so

two

it is the

powers,

everywhere
much

formal

and

master
two

Sover

else.

assemblies, like

those

it is the

communion
of
the clergy/ssocial pact, a pact
and Kings. All priests who are

single body,

Communion
and exconimunication
are
it will always be the master
of peoples

as

fcllowcitizens,though they may be from

opposite ends of the earth. This invention is a masterpiece of politics. There was
like
it
the
constituted
21
nothing
among
Priests; which is why they never
pagan
Clergy as :4 body.
in communication

lt is

feared

this world.

Churches.
by which
*5

had

Chapter

everything
in appearance,
the humble
Christians
changed their lanand before
long this supposedly otherworldly kingdom was
become
under a visible chief the most
violent despotism in

guage,
seen

the

with

one

another

are

145

Social

Ofthc
Of all Christian

[:3]

who

one

clearly
the

reuniting
itical

heads

two

constituted.

But

the

of the

which

philosopher
remedy, who

he

State

have

must

and

eagle,

no

Boo/c IV,

Hobbes

the evil and the

saw

without

unity,

Authors

Contract

to

the

to

everything

return

that

seen

dared

Government

or

is the

will

ever

only

propose

pol-

be \vell

the Priest.

domineering spirit

of

it odious,*

that has made

I believe

[14]
of
point

that

the

by examining

historical

facts

from

this

to

the first that

Religion serving
is

at

bottom

State.

as

its

base,

harmful

more

no

State

has

been

ever

and to the second

than

useful

to

founded

without

that the Christian

strong

constitution

law
of the

To make

myself fully understood only requires making a little

more
the
ideas
about
precise
excessively vague
Religion which bear
on
my subject.
considered
in
relation
to society, which
is either
Religion
[15]
general or particular, can also be divided into two kinds, namely the
of
man
and
that of the Citizen. The rst, without Temples,
Religion
without altars, without rites, limited to the purely internal cult of the
Supreme God and the eternal duties of morality, is the pure and
of
the
true
T
and
what may be called
simple Religion
Gospel,
heisrn,
divine natural right. The other, inscribed
in a single country, gives it
its Gods, its own titular Patrons: it has its dogmas, its rites, its external
cult prescribed by laws: it regards everything outside
the single
Nation which adheres to it as indel, alien, barbarous; it extends the
and
duties
of
man
as
far
as its altars.
Such were
all the
rights
only
of
Religious of the first peoples, to which one may give the name
divine civil or positive right.
bizarre
sort
of Religion which, by
[16] There is a third, more
men
two
giving
legislations, two chiefs, two fatherlands, subjects
*

See,

other

among

what that learned

it is

true

things,
man

that, being

good for the

in

Letter

and what

approves

inclined

sake of the

bad;

of Grotius

to

but

be
not

he

to

disapproves

indulgent,

he

everyone

is

I46

his brother

seems
so

to

lenient.

of ll

April 1643,

of in the book

forgive

De rive.
the author the

Such

such

is Roman

It results

in

ofmixed

a sort

have defects.
to

their

One

christianity.

[17] Considering these three

The

oneself

amuse

unity

tion with

view

prove

and prevents
is the Religion of the
and

being at once devout

Lamas, such is that of the
may call it the religion of
unsociable right which has

name.

social

[464] it would be easy to refute the opposing sentiments

of Bayle and Warburton, one
of whom contends
that no
is
useful
to
the
religion
body politic, and the other of whom maintains to the contrary that Christianity is its strongest
One
support.
would

no

duties

contradictory

Japanese,

to

inconsistent

was

to

and Citizens.

with his system, and that the interest of

the Priest would always be stronger than that of the State. it is not so
much What is horrible and false as what is just and true in his politics

Christianity

them

Chapter

is worthless:

himself

[18] The

second

All institutions

is

It is

put

man

in contradic-

in that

it combines
divine worship and
good
in making the fatherland
the
[465]
object of the

laws, and
it
worship teaches

tutelary God.
other pontiff

which

worthless.

are

love of the
Citizens

of

religion politically, all of them

Third is so manifestly bad that it is a waste
of time
that
it
is. Everything which destroys
demonstrating
sorts

kind of

them

that

to

Theocracy,

serve

the State

in which

than

there

is to

serve

its

ought to be no
the magistrates.

the Prince, not other priests than

Then to die for ones country is to be a martyr, to break the laws is to
be impious, and to subject the guilty to public execration
is to deliver
him to the wrath of the Gods; mm
estnd.

[19]

But

deceives

it is bad

men,

makes

true

cult

of the

that

unites

them

in that
them

and lies it
being founded on error
credulous, superstitious, and drowns the

in

vain ceremonial.
It is furthermore
divinity
bad when, becoming exclusive
and tyrannical, it makes
a people
and
bloodthirsty
intolerant; so that it breathes only murder and
and believes it performs a holy deed in killing whoever
massacre,
does not accept its Gods, This places such a people in a natural
state
of war
with all others, which is most
prejudicial to its own
security.
[20] There remains, then, the Religion of man or Christianity, not
that of today, but that of the Gospel, which is altogether different.
Through this saintly, sublime, genuine Religion, men, as children of
the same
God, all recognize one another as brothers, and the society
But

does

not

dissolve

even

this

at

death.

it
since
has no particular relation
to the
[21]
Religion,
body politic, leaves the laws with only the force they derive from
themselves
without adding any other force to them, and hence one
of the great bonds
of particular societies
remains
without
effect.
What is more;
far from attaching the Citizens hearts to the State,
it detaches
them
from it as from all earthly things, I lmow of
nothing more contrary to the social spirit.

l47

Of

Conzmct

the Social

Bank IV,

[22] We are told that a people of true Christians would form the
most
perfect society imaginable. I see only one major difficulty with
this

which

supposition;

longer
[23]
would

be

even

society
say

be neither

being perfect,

of

is that

society of

christi-ans

true

would

no

for all its

the

perfection,

this

the

society

lasting: By dint of
perfection would be

most
strongest
it would lack cohesion; its very
nor

assumed

its fatal vice.

[24] Everyone would fulll his duty; the people would obey the
the
chiefs would be just and moderate, the magistrates [466]
laws,
would
be honest
and incorruptible, the soldiers
would despise
death, there would be neither vanity nor luxury; all this is very well,
but

let

look further.

us

the

him

to

State

whether

all goes well

he hardly dares

prospers,

ill down

or

here

on

earth.

If

enjoy the public felicity,

to

he

State declines, he
countrysglory;
blesses the hand of God that weighs down on his people.
For
[26]
society to be peaceful and harmony preserved, all Citizens
without
would
have
to
be
exception
equally good Christians:
But if unhappily there is a single ambitious
man
a
them,
among
single hypocrite, a Catiline, for example, a Cromwell, that man will
most
certainly very easily get the better of his pious compatriots.
Christian
charity does not allow one readily to think ill of ones
some
the
art
of
neighbor. Once he has discovered
by
cunning
on
them and ofseizing a part of the public authority, there
imposing
behold a man
vested in dignity; God wills that he be respected; soon
behold a power;
God wills that he be obeyed; does the repository
fears

taking pride

of this
his

in his

abuse

power

if the

it? he is the

children.

with

scourge

the

would

which

Driving
usurper
it
would
the
science;
require disturbing
public
violence, Shedding blood; all this accords ill with
ness;
one

out

and after
is free

or

resignation is

all what
a

but

sort?
one

without

win.

does
the
more

it

essential
means

in this

matter

thing
to

148

that

is

to

end.

God

punishes
ones

trouble

con-

repose,
resorting
a Christians
mild
to

vale of

get

to

tears

whether

paradise,

and

war

break

out? Citizens

of them

thinks

of

What

whether

matter

they

march

with

battle

to

eeing;they

passion for victory; they know

do their duty,
how to die than

better

victors

vanquished? Does
not
providence know better than they what they need? Imagine how
a proud,
impetuous, passionate enemy can take advantage of this
stoicisml
Pit against them those generous
peoples who were con
sumed
an
ardent
love of glory and of fatherland,
by
suppose
your
christian republic [467] confronting
or
the
Sparta
Rome;
pious ehri~
stians will be beaten, crushed, destroyed before
they have time to
realize what is happening to them, or
they will owe their salvation
solely to the contempt their enemy will conceive for them. In my
view the oath

[25] Christianity is a wholly spiritual religion, exclusively con

cerned with the things of Heaven:
the Christi:tns
fatherland
is not
of this world, He does his duty, it is true, but he does it with
to the success
or
failure of his efforts.
Pro
profound indifference
vided he has nothing to reproach himself
for, it does not much
matter

but
to

men.

that,

out

[27] Does a foreign

hesitation; not one

Chapter

not

kept their
they would
[28] But

nothing

but

tyranny
are
made

for

brief

to

[29]

win, they

took
to

swore

was

return

fine

oath; they did

Victorious, and they
taken such an oath;

Christians
would never
have
have believed they were
tempting God.
I am mistaken
in speaking of a Christian

Republic; each
two
terms
excludes
the other.
Christizinity preaches
servitude
and dependence. Its spirit is too favorable to
tyranny not always to profit from it. True Christians
be slaves; they know it and are hardly moved
by it; this

life has too

We

to

or

of Fabius

or

word:

of these

one

die

to

swear

the soldiers

are

little

value in their

eyes.

told that christian troops are

me
be shown some
that are.
As for myself,
I
will
be referred
to the Crusades.
Troops,
Crusaders valor, I will point out that far
are

excellent.
I know

I
of

deny
no

it. Let

christian

Without
discussing the
from being Christians,

they were soldiers of the priest, they were Citizens of the Church;
they were fighting for its spiritual country, which it had made tern
poral, one knows not how. Strictly speaking, this belongs under the
heading of paganism; since the Gospel does not establish a national
a
Religion, holy war among Christians is impossible.
[30] Christian soldiers were brave under the pagan Emperors; all
Christian

Authors

honor

the pagan
emulation

tians

with
this

say

so,

and

Troops,

I believe

As

ceased, and

soon
once

it: it
as

the

the
cross

was

in emulation

Emperors
had

were

driven

for

chris
out

the

eagle, all Roman valor ceased.

But
[31]
leaving aside political considerations, let us return
to
right, and let us fix the principles on this important point. The
right which the social pact gives the Sovereign over the subjects
149

Ofzhe Social

Czmlmcl

Boole IV,

of public
does not, as I have said, exceed the bounds
account
owe
the
an
therefore
Sovereign
jects
only

opinions
it

insofar

certainly

which

of

only
bear
dogmas

him
concern
on

opinions

matter

that

the State

to

matters

makes

are

those

as

to

each

Sub
utility.*

their
of
[468]
the community. Now

Citizen

have

Religion
Religion

his duties; but the dogmas of this

to the State
or
to its members
insofar
on
the
which
and
duties
morality,
anyone
love

fulll toward

as

the
who

this
Beyond
everyone
professes
to
the
without
its
hold
whatever
he
opinions
being up
may
pleases,
comsince
the
has
no
to
know
them:
For
Sovereign
Sovereign
be
in
in
whatever
the
fate
the
other
world,
subjects
may
petence
is none
of its business, provided they are good
the life to come
it is bound

Citizens

to

others.

in this life.
There

is therefore

of faith

civil

the

profession
purely
of which
it is up to the Sovereign to x, not
articles
precisely
without
but
as
sentiments
of
as
of
sociability,
dogmas
Religion
Citizen
it is impossible to be either
a
or
a
which
loyal
good
to
able
to
believe
Without
them,
subject.
being
oblige anyone
who does not
the Sovereign may banish from the State anyone
as
it
not
as
but
believe
banish
him,
impious
them;
may
of
the
as
laws, justice, and,
unsoeiable,
incapable
sincerely loving
after
if need be of sacricing his life to his duty. If anyone,
as
if
behaves
these
same
dogmas,
having publicly acknowledged
be
with
he
has
he did not believe
let
him
death;
them,
punished
committed
the greatest of crimes, he has lied before the laws.
to
be
few
The
of
the
civil
Religion ought
simple,
[33]
dogmas
or commenw
in number, stated with precision, without
explanations
The
of
the
existence
powerful, intelligent, benecent, pretary.
the
of
and
the
life
to
scient,
come,
happiness
provident Deity,
732]

what
with
to
Republic, says
dA[rgenson], everyone
per/9611)//e resjwcl
it
cannot
more
be
drawn
does not Iumn others. That is the invariable
boundary;
this
ms.
I
not
the
of
sometimes
could
pleasure
accurately.
deny myself
quoting
M.

[72 the

it is not known to the

of an honorable
and illustrious
the heart of a true citizen, and

although

*4

is

public,
man,

upright

his country.
Caesar pleading for Catilinc tried
soul; to refute it, Cato and Cicero
tented

themselves

with

that I might do [468}honor to the memory

who even
in the [royal] Ministry retained

showing
advancing a doctrine pernicious
Senate had to pass judgment on,

and

sane

establish

to

the

did not waste

that Caesar was
to

the State.

and

not

150

on

views about

the government

of

dogma of the mortality of the

time philosophizing: they con-

speaking like a bad

This, indeed, is what
a question of theology.

Citizen
the

and

Roman

the

Clmpter

the

punishment of the wicked, the sanctity of the social

Contract
and the Laws; these are the positive dogmas. As for the
negative dogmas, [469] I restrict them to a single one; namely intol
erance:
it is a feature of the cult we have rejected.
[34] Those who distinguish between civil and theological intoler
ance
are
in
The
two
intolerances are inseparmistaken,
my opinion.
able. It is impossible to live in peace with people one believes to be
damned; to love them would be to hate God who punishes them;
one
must
them.
absolutely bring them back [to the fold] or torment
Wherever
is allowed, it is impossible for it
theological intolerance
not to have some
civil effectfand as soon
as it
does, the Sovereign
is no longer Sovereign, even
in the temporal sphere: from then on
Priests are the true masters; Kings are but their ()fC6l'S.
Now
that
there no longer is and no longer can be an exclus~
[35]
ive national
one
must
tolerate all those which tolerate the
Religion,
others insofar as their dogmas contain nothing contrary to the duties
just,

of the

Citizen.

C/um/1, has
Church, and

But

whoever

be driven

dares

to

say,

no

Salvation

ozmizle the

of the

State; unless the State is the

the Prince the Pontiff
Such a dogma is good only in
a Theocratic
in
other
it
is
The
reason
Government,
any
pernicious.
for which Henry IV is said to have embraced
the Roman
Religion
should make any honest man
and especially any Prince capable of
to

reasoning

leave

for

out

it.

example, being a civil contract, has civil effects without which it

would be impossible for society even
to subsist.
Let us suppose,
then, that a Clergy
succeeded
in arrogating to itself alone the right to pass on this act; a right which
it is bound to usurp in any intolerant
Religion. Then is it not clear that by cxercis~
ing the authority of the Church in this matter, it will render ineffectual the authority of the Prince who will have no other subjects left but those the Clergy will
be willing to give it? As the master
of whether
to marry
or
not
to marry
people
according to whether they will or will not adhere to this or that doctrine, according
to whether
they will accept or reject this or that formulary, according to whether
they will be more or less devoted to it, is it not clear that by behaving prudently
and holding rm, it alone will dispose of inheritances, of
of
the
offices,
Citizens,
of the State itself, which could not subsist once
it is composed of nothing but
bastards?
But, it will he said, abuses will be appealed, summonses
issued, Warrants
served, temporal holdings seized. What a pity! The Clergy, if it only has, I do not
say courage, but good sense, will not interfere and go its own way; it will tranquilly
allow appeals, summonses,
It is
warrants, seizures, and end up being the master.
to me, a great sacrifice to give up a part when one
to get hold
not, it seems
is sure

Marriage,

of the whole.

r5t

Of

Cmzlmrl

the Syria!

[OCI1I,

[470l
NINE

CHAPTER

From

CONCLUSION

OF

THE

SOCIAL

ESSAY
After

[1]
trying

to

setting
found

the State by

the

down

the

State

on

its external

principles
it
would
basis,

its

relations;
of
the
right
nations, commerce,
etc.
leagues, negotiations, treaties,
mo

Vast

for my short

sight;

and
right
political

of

true

which

include

and

war

I should

would

remain

But

conquests,
all this forms

always

have

fixed

to

the

FORM

buttress

(Known

of

right
public right,
a new
obiect
it

nearer

OF

to

Let

[2]
needs

l\/lans natural
his

his needs
the
us

when

assistance
That

slaves,

weakness
needs

ever

Geneva

Manuscript)
Two

SOCIETY

is how the

whence

so

lVlANKIND

OF

the

Well

that

state

need

for

as

proportioned
soon

as

his

political insti~

his desires

whole

of mankind

same
us

less from

embrace

causes

that

by dcptavitig
our

nature

than

us;

changes

the whole

barely
make

state

his natural

to

his fellows

he
needs
[282]
slightly

so

subiugate

comes

unite

is

eventually
of the

and

force

primitive

increase

and

them.

REPUBLIC

CHAPTER
1,

GENERAL

THE

THE

arises.
and

ance,

the

begin by inquiring

us

tutions

THE

as

BOOK

[1]

myself.

OF

01

CONTRACT

ABOUT

281]

us

the

from

suffices

wicked
sentiment
our

and

assist~

of nature,
to

satisfy

also make
of

our

cupidity:

our

in

proportion as our passions divide us, and the more

we
become our
fellows enemies, the less can we do without them.
Such are the first bonds of general society; such are the foundations
us

of that

universal

stifled

the

benevolence

the sentiment

of which

seems

to

get
of which

recognition that it is necessary, and the fruits

would
like
to enjoy, without
to
cultivate
it:
everyone
being obliged
for as to the identity of nature,
its effect in this [respect] is nil,
because it is as much a subject of quarrel as of union among men,
and it introduces
and
them
as
fre
competition
jealousy among
as
it
does
mutual
quently
understanding and agreement.
From
this
new
order of things arise multitudes
of relations
[3]
without
without
without
[common] measure,
rule,
consistency,
which men
worsen
and
constantly
change, a hundred working to
destroy them for every one who works to stabilize them; and as a
mans relative existence
in the state of nature
on
a
thousand
depends
other constantly changing relations, he can never
make sure
of being
the same
for two instants of his life; peace and happiness are for
him but a flash; nothing is permanent
but the misery that results
from all these vicissitudes; even
ifhis sentiments
and his ideas could
152

by