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The main difference between inductive and deductive approaches to research is that
whilst a deductive approach is aimed and testing theory, an inductive approach is
concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from the data.
A deductive approach usually begins with a hypothesis, whilst an inductive approach
will usually use research questions to narrow the scope of the study.
Deductive approaches the emphasis is generally on causality, whilst inductive
approaches the aim is usually focused on exploring new phenomena or looking at
previously researched phenomena from a different perspective. Therefore, Inductive
approaches are generally associated with qualitative research, whilst deductive
approaches are more commonly associated with quantitative research.
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evaluating, derived from, or based on primary source materials. It is also a source that
provides criticism or interpretation of a primary source.
Examples include textbooks, review articles, biographies, historical films, music and
art, articles about people and events from the past.
32. Population is the complete set of entities or elements or subjects (persons or objects)
with some common characteristic that is under study during a research.
33. Sampling is the process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire
population under study during a research.
34. Sampling frame is a list of entities or elements or subjects of a population from which
a sample is drawn or taken.
35. Sampling techniques or Sampling methods are classified as either probability or
nonprobability.
36. Probability sampling
In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero
probability of being selected.
The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error (defined below) can be
calculated. Therefore, the degree to which the sample differs from the population is
known. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the
sampling error.
Probability sampling methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and
stratified sampling.
o Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of
the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there
are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every
member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
o Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called
an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been
calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As
long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as
good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random
sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to
select a specified number of records from a computer file.
o Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to
random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the
population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums
might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher
first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the
population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of
subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for
us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population.
Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the
population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.
Sampling error (MENTIONED ABOVE & BELOW) is the degree to which a
sample might differ from the population.
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Disadvantages of interview
o Unstructured interviews often yield data too difficult to summarize or
evaluate.
o Training interviewers, sending them to meet and interview their informants, and
evaluating their effectiveness all add to the cost of the study.
43. Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.
44. Reliability refers to degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent
results.
45. Data analysis and its types
Data analysis is done for the data collected using measurement tool during a research.
46. Regression analysis
Regression analysis involves identifying the relationship between a dependent variable
and one or more independent variables. A model of the relationship is hypothesized,
and estimates of the parameter values are used to develop an estimated regression
equation. Various tests are then employed to determine if the model is satisfactory. If
the model is deemed satisfactory, the estimated regression equation can be used to
predict the value of the dependent variable given values for the independent variables.
47. Correlation analysis
Correlation and regression analysis are related in the sense that both deal with
relationships among variables. The correlation coefficient is a measure of linear
association between two variables. Values of the correlation coefficient are always
between -1 and +1. A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates that two variables are
perfectly related in a positive linear sense, a correlation coefficient of -1 indicates that
two variables are perfectly related in a negative linear sense, and a correlation
coefficient of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship between the two variables.
For simple linear regression, the sample correlation coefficient is the square root of the
coefficient of determination, with the sign of the correlation coefficient being the same
as the sign of b1, the coefficient of x1 in the estimated regression equation.
48. Univariate Analysis
Univariate data is used for the simplest form of analysis. It is the type of data in which
analysis are made only based on one variable. For example, there are sixty students in
a 10th class of a school. If the variable marks obtained in math were the subject, then in
that case analysis will be based on the number of subjects fall into defined categories
of marks.
49. Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate data is used for little complex analysis than as compared with univariate data.
Bivariate data is the data in which analysis are based on two variables per observation
simultaneously.
50. Multivariate Analysis
Multivariate data is the data in which analysis are based on more than two variables
per observation. Usually multivariate data is used for explanatory purposes.
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