InternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

doi:10.14355/ijes.2014.0405.01

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FactorsAffectingtheAdoptionofFuel
EfficientStovesamongRuralHouseholdsin
BorenaWoreda:NorthcentralEthiopia
AmogneAsfawEshetu
WolloUniversity(Ethiopia):DepartmentofGeographyandEnvironmentalStudies
amuvenu@yahoo.com

Abstract
Descriptivesurveyresearchhasbeenemployedtoassessthe
major factors which affect the adoption of fuel efficient
stovesintheruralhouseholdsaroundBorenaSayntnational
park. Data were collected from 248 randomly selected
householdheadsusingastructuredquestionnaireandfrom
22 purposively selected key informants for FGD. The
findings revealedthat the prominent sourceof fuel is wood
followed by animal dung and shrubs; the sources are own
plantation and kebelle forests. Modern energy efficient
stoves are not common in the study area due to financial
constraint(66.7%)andlackofaccess(25.9%).Chisquaretest
and binary logistic regressionmodel results reveal that
income level of the household head (2 = 64.914, N= 248, df
=1, V=0.512, OR=23.7 and p < .001) and educational level of
husband(2=60.514,N=232,df=1,V=0.511,OR=11.3andp<
.001)arefoundtobethemajorvariableswhichincreasesthe
propensity of stove adoption. The independent ttest shows
statistically significant difference (t=12.063, N=248, df =246,
p<0.001)intheaveragetimespentweeklybystoveusersand
nonusers.Onesamplettestresultrevealthatlocalresidents
do have positive attitude on the benefits of fuel efficient
stoves. Both governmental and nongovernmental
organizations have to take their part in making stoves
available to users. Concerned bodies should also see fuel
wood plantation projects in degraded lands and agro
forestrypracticesaswellasbiogasenergyasanotheroption.
Keywords:
Indoor Air Pollution; Fuel Efficient Stoves; Energy Ladder;
Deforestation

Background of the Study and Statement of

the Problem
Energy is vital to meet our basic needs mainly for
cooking, boiling water, lighting and heating. More
than three billon people worldwide burn wood, dung
and other traditional fuels inside their homes which
results in indoor air pollution (IAP) which brings
about more than 1.5 million deaths mostly of young
childrenandtheirmothers.Inaddition,millionsmore

suffereverydaywithdifficultiesinbreathing,stinging
eyes, adverse pregnancy outcomes and chronic
respiratory diseases (WHO, 2006; Martnez and
Alfonso, 2014). Traditional stoves tend to be highly
inefficient and lose a large percentage of the fuel
energy due to incomplete combustion (Owsianowski
and Barry, ND; WHO, 2006). As a result, high
dependency on traditional stoves deplete resources
and degrades local environments, multiplies the time
needed to collect fuel, and creates IAP that threatens
the wellbeing of the most vulnerable members of
households(Douglasandetal,1994andBarnesetal.,
1994). Improved stoves can cut back indoor smoke
levels considerably (WHO, 2006). Lack of energy, in
particular lack of access to modern cooking fuels and
electricity, already represents a bottleneck, holding
back progress towards achieving the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). As a result, UN highly
recommended that without increased investment in
the energy sector, the MDGs will not be achieved in
the poorest countries (Modi et al., 2006 and Manyo
Plange,2011).
InEthiopia,fuelwoodisthemajorenergysourceand
over 90 percent of the countrys total energy for
household cooking is derived from biomass fuels
(EPAE,2004).AccordingtoCSA(2012:18),woodisthe
main type of cooking fuel, used by 77 percent of
households.Burningofdungandcropresidueswhich
were sources of soil humus and fertility has brought
about a progressive decline in land quality and
agricultural productivity (Zenebe and et al., 2006).
According to EPAE (2004), improved charcoal stove
(Lakech)andbiomassclosedEnjerastove(Gounzie)can
save up to 25 percent and 47 percent over open fire
stoverespectively.Theyhelptoreducepressureonthe
biomass resources including forests; increase land
productivitybyreducingcropresidueanddungusage
forfuelwoodandimprovefamilyhealth(Barnesetal.,
1994; FAO, 2003 and EPAE, 2004). Even though the

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www.ijesci.orgInternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

pressure on the forest for fire wood has decreased

around BorenaSaynt National Park (BSNP) environs
duetoownplantationonthehomestead,stillthereis
atendencytousetheforestresourceforfirewoodby
the local community (Amogne, 2011). Shortage of fire
wood is among the principal problems of the local
community that poses pressure on the remaining
forest resource of the park (ANRS, 2009). Using fuel
efficient stoves is not common in the study area in
which traditional open fire cooking is predominant.
Only11%ofthelocalresidentswereusingfuelsaving
stovesandalmost90%ofthemwerelocallyproduced
from mud and stone which are not biomass efficient
(Amogne,2011)andsuchtypesofstoveswastealotof
biomass,mainlybecauseofaninefficientheattransfer
(Owsianowski and Barry, ND). This research,
therefore, tried to investigate the prominent factors
that hinder rural households in BSNP environs to
adopt fuel efficient stoves. Specifically, the research
triedtopointoutthemajortypesofenergyusedinthe
studyarea;toidentifythemajorsourcesoffuelwood
in the households; to point out the prominent factors
which hinder utilization of fuel efficient stoves in the
study area and to examine the attitude of local
residentstowardswoodfuelsavingstoves.

Review of Related Literature

ForestResourceofEthiopia
Due to its diversity in physiographic, altitudinal,
climate and edaphic resources, there are different
typesofvegetationrangingfromalpinetodesertplant
communities in Ethiopia (Sahle, 1984). But as
explainedbyBadege(2001),thecountryisfacingrapid
deforestation and land degradation that has been
fueledbyincreasingofpopulation.Thisalarmingrate
of deforestation is the major cause of the
disappearanceofvariousindigenouswildanimalsand
plants,andithasalsobroughtaboutadverseeffectson
the countrys tourism industry, biodiversity and
economy, among others (EPAE, 2002). According to
the climateresilient green economy strategy of
Ethiopia (FDRE, 2011), despite their economic and
environmental value, Ethiopian forests are under
threat.Itpointedouttheunderlyingcausesas:
Thegrowingpopulationrequiresmorefuelwoodandmore
agriculturalproduction,inturncreatingneedsfornewfarm
landboth of which accelerate deforestation and forest
degradation.Projectionsindicatethatunlessactionistaken
to change the traditional development path, an area of 9
million hectare will be deforested between 2010 and 2030.

142

Over the same period, annual fuelwood consumption will

rise by 65%leading to forest degradation of more than 22
milliontonesofwoodybiomass.
In order to minimize the rate of deforestation, the
document forwarded reduction of the demand for
fuelwood via the dissemination and usage of fuel
efficient stoves and/or alternative fuel cooking and
baking techniques (FDRE, 2011and MoFED, 2010).
Using fuelwood saving stoves also enables to reduce
greenhousegas(GHG)emissionofferingapotentialof
almost 35 Mt CO2e reductions (FDRE, 2011).
Introducingefficientstoveshastwodistincteffectson
GHG emissions it reduces forest degradation, with an
impact of around 0.9 tonnes biomass/year per households;
and woody biomass acts as carbon sink amounting to 2.1
tonnesperyearperhousehold(FDRE,2011:112).
TheRolesofFuelEfficientStove
Access to clean and affordable energy plays vital role
in the fight against poverty. Access to clean energy
contributes to achieving the MDGs as it plays an
important role in the ability of a household to
overcomepovertyandbuildresilience(ManyoPlange,
2011). Burning of solid biomass fuels for cooking in
indoor environments can lead to an increased disease
burden. WHO estimates that the impact of IAP on
morbidity and premature deaths of women, older
persons and children is among the critical public
healthissueinmanydevelopingcountries,particularly
forthepoorestsegmentsofthepopulation(Modietal.,
2006). Exposure to IAP is linked to several adverse
health effects including acute respiratory infection,
chronic obstructive lung disease, pregnancy
complications, daily discomfort in women from
coughs, headaches, stinging eyes and backaches. The
supply of alternative energy services could positively
benefit maternal health and reduce child mortality
(Beyene and Koch, 2013; USAID, 2010; Anhalt and
Holanda, 2009; Duflo and Greenstone, 2008; MoFED,
2010; Barnes et al., 2012 and Rehfuess et al., 2014). A
studyinMexicohasshownthat,stovescanreduceIAP
by 70 percent, reducing the risk of a range of health
impacts.Asindicatedinfigure1,thedeathprevalence
due to IAP worldwide is expected to increase in 2030
while the rate decreases for malaria, tuberculosis and
HIV/AIDs.Inadditiontotherespiratoryhealthburden
posedbytheuseoftraditionalfuels,womenalsoface
health dangers such as vulnerability to cuts, animal
bites, falls, sexual attack, and back injuries as they
travel long distances to collect and carry traditional
fuelsforhomeuse(Modietal.,2006andBarnesetal.,
2012).

InternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

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FIGURE1NUMBEROFDEATHSFROMINDOORAIRPOLLUTIONRELATEDHEALTHCOMPLICATIONS
SOURCE:WHO(2009)ASCITEDINIBRD,2011

FIGURE2:TRADITIONALFIREWOODSTOVE(SOURCE:WORLD
VISION,2011)

Anhalt and Holanda (2009) also explained the impact

of IAP on child health as ..in many rural settings,
womencookwiththeirchildrenstrappedontheirbacks(see
figure 2)orthechildrenarealwaysaroundinthekitchen.
Anyreductioninpollutantsemittedfromcookstoveswillbe
beneficial for childrens as well as for womens health. In
Ethiopia,useofdungasfuelisalsoanimportantcause
of health problems, mainly through IAP (Alemu and
Kohlin, 2008). Fuelsaving stoves can also slow the
rateofdegradationandhelpeasetensionsovertheuse
of forest resources (USAID, 2010; MoFED, 2010 and
Barnes et al., 2012). In line with this, World Vision
(2011)notedthatmeetingtheenergyneedsofgrowing
populationsindevelopingcountriesiscontributingin
reducing carbon sinks and minimizing rate erosion.
The local environment may also be improved with
modern energy services as the use of biomass can
contribute to land degradation by exacerbating
erosion, reducing soil fertility and contributing to
desertification (Dessalegn, 2001; ESCAP, ND; IBRD,
2011; Beyene and Koch, 2013; Anhalt and Holanda,
2009andBarnesetal.,2012).Cookingwithtraditional
biomass fuels may account for approximately 18% of
current global GHG emissions if forest degradation
anddeforestationareincludedintheequation(Anhalt
and Holanda, 2009 and IBRD, 2011). Therefore,
improvedcookingstovesarealsovitaltoreduceGHG
emissions. One of the four pillars of the green
economy plan of Ethiopia is protecting and
reestablishing forests for their economic and
ecosystem services, including as carbon stocks and in
doing so large scale promotion of advanced rural
cooking technologies is taken as a prominent option

(FDRE, 2011:23). Fuel efficient stoves can also enable

to save the time spend by women. Women in rural
areasusuallyspendlonghourscollectingwoodbased
biomasstime that would carry higher valueadded to
the household if it could be used for childcare,
agriculturalproduction,educationandotheractivities
(IBRD, 2011; ManyoPlange, 2011 and Barnes et al.,
2012).

A more serious and longterm implication of fuel

shortages is that as the daily search for fuel wood,
fodderandwaterbecomesmoredifficult,childrenare
taken out of school to help their mothers. In the
southernstateofTamilNaduinIndia,amajorreason
forkeepinggirlsoutofschoolistohelpthemothersto
collect cow dung (ESCAP, ND). Access to a reliable
modernenergysupplywillfreewomenandgirlsfrom
this assignment, providing time for activities such as
education and income generation (ESCAP, ND;
MoFED, 2010 and Barnes et al., 1994). Another
example, in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal, a
journey togather firewood and fodder which tookan
hour or two a generation ago now takes a whole day
(ESCAP,ND).Anincreaseintimespentinfuelwood
collectionimpliesthatwomenmaynowhavelesstime
for other livelihood activities (USAID, 2010; MoFED,
2010andBarnesetal.,2012).AstudyinKenyashowed
that time gained from faster cooking was used for
farming, incomegenerating activities, girls education
and womens participation in community life (GTZ,
2009ascitedinIBRD,2011andUSAID,2010).Inshort,
when fuel efficient stoves are widely used, the
disproportionate amount of daily time and effort
women and young girls spend gathering solid fuels
and water for household chores could be used for
other incomeproducing activities, family subsistence,
or education (Barnes et al., 1994; Modi et al., 2006;
WorldVision,2011andBarnesetal.,2012).Astudyin
India regarding the efficiency of modern cook stove
proved thatmodern solid biomass cook stoves in real
kitchens have impressive performances in wood
consumption and time of cooking as compared with
thetraditionalones(singhetal.,2014).

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www.ijesci.orgInternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

Povertyreduced

Moreproduction

MDG1

Moretimefor

Landproductivity

otheractivities

increases

Woodcollectiontime
Dungusedfor

reducedforwomen

fertilizer

attend school

FUELEFFICIENT
STOVEUTILIZATION
ENABLES:

IAP

femalestudentsto

productivity

Minimize

Moretimefor

Increaselabor

Healthstatus
improved

Engagein

MDG4, 5, 6

more
productive
activities

Decreasewood
consumption
Betteracademic
achievement
MDG2,3

Medical
Lesscarbon

Fuelwooddemand
reduced

emission

MDG3

expense
decreases

Mitigateclimate
Pressureonforests

changeMDG7

decreasedMDG7

FIGURE3:CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK:FUELEFFICIENTSTOVESANDMDGS
OWNDEVELOPEDAFTER(WHO,2006;MODIETAL.,2006ANDUNDESA,2005)

FactorsAffectingtheAdoptionofFuelEfficientStoves
Peopleseldomadoptinnovationswithoutgoodreason
(Barnesetal.,1994).Theamountandqualityofenergy
consumption has a correlation with poverty,
deprivation,socialseclusion,accesstoknowledgeand
achievements, health, livelihood and security because
energyservicesaredirectlyassociatedwiththequality
oflifeandlevelofdevelopment(ESCAP,ND).Modiet
al. (2006) stressed that progress towards providing
greater access to modern energy services has been
slow, due to a combination of interrelated
circumstances.Theseincludelowincomelevelsamong
theunservedpopulation;lackoffinancialresourcesfor
serviceproviderstobuildthenecessaryinfrastructure
and reduce firstcost barriers to access; weak
institutional,financial,andlegalstructures;andlackof
longtermvisionandpoliticalcommitmenttoscaleup
services(Modietal.,2006).Themostimportantfactor
worth mentioned by different scholars is poverty and
lack of access. Households at lower levels of income
and development tend to be at the bottom of the

144

energy ladder, using fuel that is cheap and locally

available but not very clean nor efficient (Duflo and
Greenstone, 2008). Economic determinants of fuel
choice, as stressed by Barnes et al. (1994), Manyo
Plange (2011) and Jan (2012), is by large the most
widelycovereddriveroffuelchoice.Thereareseveral
components to economic factors which include
householdincome,costofequipmentandfuel,and
noneconomic costs such as time and access to fuels.
Barnesetal.(1994)emphasizedthatthepriceofstoves
canbeasignificantbarriertotheiradoption.Improvedwood
fuelstovesaretypicallyabouttwiceasexpensiveasthelocal
traditionalstoves.Althoughinthelongrunimprovedstoves
save money, the initial cash outlay required may prevent
poorerpeoplefromaffordingthestove.Ergeneman(2003)
also underlined that the incidence of rural poverty is
an important determinant for the adoption of
improved cook stoves. He added that it is hard to
imagine a rural household which is barely meeting its
subsistence needs being able to afford the whole cost of an
improved cook stove. Bruce et al (2000), on their part,
stressed the impact of poverty on fuel stove adoption

InternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

as the types of fuel used become cleaner and more

convenient,efficientandcostlyaspeoplemoveuptheenergy
ladder. Improved stoves are more attractive to those
households that experience a scarcity in biomass
resources since they will benefit significantly (be it in
termsoftimesavedfromcollectingfirewoodormoney
saved from the purchase of firewood) from the
increased efficiency of the stoves. In an evaluation
done on the Mirt stove in the Amhara National
Regional State (ANRS), a large percentage of
households indicated that the price was too high
(Ibdi.).
According to Barnes et al. (1994) and ManyoPlange
(2011) womens choices of fuel efficient stoves also
depend upon existing environmental factors and
culture. The cultural factor has particular significance
becauseitcanformthebasisthroughwhichindividual
decisions are made. It comprises not only the local
traditions specific to tribes, but also of a womans
beliefs and understanding like age and education. A
study in determining barriers to fuel switching in Sri
Lanka by Wijayatunga and Attalage (2003) as cited in
ManyoPlange (2011) confirmed that cultural factors
playanimportantroleincookingfueldecisionmaking
and should not be overlooked. The study identified
thatanattachmenttopastpracticesandthebeliefthat
food cooked on clay stoves tasted better than food
cooked on other stoves, as main reasons for not
switching from biomass to cleaner fuels. Manyo
Plange (2011) also pointed out that the design of
equipment,itssize,perceivedsafetyandeventhetype
ofexistingcookingutensilsaretechnicalaspectswhich
havetheirownimpactinstoveadoption.Educational
statusalso playsa significant role in determining fuel
choice.Inaddition,thehighereducationleadstobetter
knowledgeregardingmodernfuelswhichcouldresult
in a greater likelihood of fuelswitching (Manyo
Plange,2011;Jan,2012andRehfuessetal.,2014).High
woodpricesorscarcesuppliesofwoodarealsofactors
which increase the likelihood of stove adoption
(Barnes et al., 1994). Rehfuess et al. (2014) added on
this issue that households that purchase rather than
collect solid fuels are more likely to adopt, reflecting
the greater perceived value of monetary savings
comparedtotimesavings.Socialcapital(diffusionof
information)hasalsoitsownimpactoftheadoptionof
fuel efficient stoves. Information about a new
technology is more intensively diffused in villages
whicharelikelytohavestronglevelsofbondingsocial
capital.Thisimpliesthatbondingsocialcapitalplayed
a crucial role facilitating social learning during the

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adoption process of improved stoves. A study in

northern Peruvian Andes by Adrianzn (2011),
confirmed that the relevance of information diffusion
during the adoption of new cooking technologies is
essential, and highlights the importance of having an
appropriate understanding of the village social
structure, as this structure influences the degree in
which local generated information will be shared and
diffused. It also pointed out the relevance of high
quality monitoring and extension services in stove
adoption because bad news about the performance of
thenewtechnologycanhaveadverseimpactsinterms
oftheadoptionprocesses.Ontheotherhand,Rehfuess
etal.(2014)identifiedthat(afterthoroughlyexamining
variedstudies)largerfamilysizeasabarriertostove
adoption, possibly due to the low value assigned to
time and labor used to collect firewood and/or the
needtocookformorepeople.Healsopointedoutthat
lackofapermanenthomeorkitchen,aswellasspace
limitations, can be obstacles to purchasing a builtin
stove. Another factor which determines the adoption
of fuel efficient stoves according to Bruce et al (2000),
World Vision (2011) and Rehfuess et al. (2014) is
alternative purposes of an open fire. Indoor fires that
cook food often also serve other purposes, such as
heating indoor areas, preserving food through
smoking, keeping thatched roofs dry, repelling
mosquitoes and lighting. A study in Ghana pointed
out that open firewood is required to smoke fish
(ManyoPlange, 2011). Failure to effectively address
theseissuesalmostguaranteesthattheimprovedstove
willnotbeadopted.
Description of Study Area, Methods and
Materials
BorenaSaynt National Park (BSNP) is found in south
Wollo, north central Ethiopia, between Borena, Mehal
SayntandSayntworedas.Itislocatedbetween10O50
45.410O5358.3Nand38O4028.438O5449E
(ANRS PaDPA, 2006). The park is bordered by nine
kebelles in the side of Borena wereda, share common
boundary with three kebelles from Mehal Saynt
wereda and one kebelle in the side of Saynt wereda
(ANRS PaDPA, 2006:6: personal note of Ato Abebaw
Abayneh, 14/9/04 E.C). The area was originally
recognized and proposed to protect the natural
resources during the reign of ZaraYakob in the 15thC
(Dessalegn, 1998). During that time, the forest cover
wastoolargeencompassingvastareasextendedasfar
astheedgeoftheBlueNilegorge(Woldegabreil,2003
andDessalegn,2001).

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ApproximateLocationofBorenaSayntNationalPark
basedonANRSPaDPA(2006)(nottoscale)

FIGURE4:RELATIVELOCATIONOFBORENASAYNTNATIONALPARK(SOURCE:WOLLOUNIVERSITYGISTEAM)

In 1952, during the Haileselassie regime, it was

recognizedasanimportantbiodiversityareaandthen
after,demarcatedin1973.Eventhoughtheprotection
of the forest continued up to the end of the Derge
regime(1991)asastateforest,ruthlessdestructionhad
taken place on it during the government change over
in1991.In2003,theregionalgovernmentdesignatedit
as a regional forest priority area (Woldegabreil, 2003)
and latter on, due to its biodiversity importance, the
Amhara national regional state has decided it to be a
park with the name of BorenaSaynt National Park
withproclamationnumber68/2009(ANRS,2009).The
park,withatotalareaof4375hectares,containsoneof
the few representative highland biodiversity in
Ethiopia (Lakew et al, 2007) and harbors significant
number of large and small mammals, birds,
amphibians and plant species (Woldegabreil, 2003;
Lakewetal,2007andANRS,2009).
DesignoftheStudy
Since the study focused on identifying the hindering
factors in utilization of wood fuel saving stoves in
Borena wereda particularly BSNP environs,
descriptive survey type of research was used. Data
were collected from 248 household heads from
13villageslivingadjacenttoBSNPwhichwereselected
usingclustersamplingtechniqueoutof628household
heads from 26 villages with the help of data
enumerators. In addition, focus group discussion and

146

indepth interview were conducted with 22

purposively selected individuals. Direct field
observation was also conducted to substantiate the
data collected through survey and discussion. Both
primary and secondary data sources have been used
for this study. The primary source of data was
information collected (from may 130/2012) using
questionnaire andinterview basically from household
heads, kebelle development agents, health extension
workers, kebelle administrators, kebelle women
association leaders and wereda water and energy
department workers. In addition, reports and
documents from wereda water and energy office as
wellasfieldobservationwerealsousedtosubstantiate
the information collected through questionnaire.
Energy policy of the country, forest related strategies
andpoliciesaswellasthenewclimateresiliencegreen
economy documents were critically examined. The
information gathered from important sources using
different tools have been triangulated and organized
in to manageable manner using tables using SPSS
version20.
Based on the organized data, analysis has been
undertakenquantitativelyusing ttest, chisquare test,
meanandpercentage.Binarylogisticregressionmodel
was applied to identify determinants of stove
adoption.Onesamplettestwasalsousedtoexamine
theattitudeofrespondentstowardswoodfuelefficient
stoves and chisquare test to see the association

InternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

between stove adoptions with varied independent

variables. In addition, independent ttest was applied
toseewhetherthemeantimespentbystoveusersand
nonusers is statistically different. Quantitative data
analysis was supported qualitatively based on the
information collected through interview, FGD and
directobservation.Thoughdifferentfactorsdetermine
adoptionoffuelefficientstoves;onlyeducationallevel
(husbandandwife),incomestatusofhouseholdhead,
total family size and land holding were selected for
this study. This can be taken as one limitation of the
study.
Finally
conclusions
and
feasible
recommendations have been drawn based on the
majorfindingsoftheanalysis.
Major Findings and Discussions
Occupation
The majority of respondents (96%) were engaged in
mixed farming (crop production and rearing of
animals)fortheirlivelihoodand76.2%ofthemhaveat
least one type of non/off farm source of income. The
first three (based on rank) off/nonfarm economic
activities identified in the study area were apiculture,
handcraft of any type and selling of fuel wood. 85.5
percent of the participants do have their own
cultivable land. The average land size for each
householdinthestudyareawasfound0.8hectare.Itis
very low compared with the average land holding of
boththeAmharaNationalRegionalState(1.16hectare
perhousehold)andthecountryaverage(0.98hectare)
butrelativelysimilarwithsouthWolloadministrative
zone (0.76 hectares) per household (ANRS BoFED,
2009). The minimum per capita cultivable land,
according to the revised ANRS rural land
administrationanduseproclamationnumber133/2006
(ANRS, 2006), should not be less than 0.2 hectares.
With average household size of the sampled
respondents of 5.4 in the study area, at least 1.08
hectares of cultivable land is needed for each
household. This indicates that shortage of cultivable
land and low land management system of the area
coupled with utilization of animal dung for fuel
(mainlyduetolackoffuelefficientstoves)ratherthan
for fertilizer might exert pressure on the park both in
searchoffirewoodandcultivableland.
TypeandsourcesofEnergy
Theprominentsourceoffuelforcookingandlighting
iswood(83.1%)followedbyanimaldungandshrubs.
98.8percentoftheparticipantsrespondedthattheyare

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usinganimaldungeitherpartiallyortotally.Theresult
is consistence with the 2011 demographic and health
survey of Ethiopia which came up with wood as the
major cooking fuel (86.2%) for rural households
followed by animal dung (8.3%) and others like
agricultural residue and shrubs accounts 5.5% (CSA,
2012). During field observation, the researcher
observed dung cakes prepared for fuel and FGD
participantsalsorespondedthatitiscommonpractice
to use animal dung for fuel due to shortage of fuel
wood.Householdsalsocollectadditionalanimaldung
for fuel from fields. But using charcoal and crop
residues for fuel were not identified as a source of
energy in this research. Woldegabreil (2003) has also
indicatedthatfirewoodanddungcakesarethemajor
sources of fuel in the study area and absence of
alternative source of energy forces local communities
to exert pressure on the park. Furthermore, using
dungasfuelinsteadofasorganicfertilizercanreduce
grainproductionbysome550,000tonsannuallyacross
thecountry(ForumforEnvironment,2009).For87.1%
of the respondents, the source of fuel wood comes
from their own plantation either home stead or wood
lotsand11.7%indicatedkebelleforestsastheirsource
of wood. It was only 1.2% that reported the park as
theirsourceoffuelwood.Butthis was not confirmed
during the FGD session. FGD Participants asserted
that, even though the pressure over the park for fuel
wood decreases from time to time due to fear of the
guards and penalty, still there is a tendency to collect
woodeitherforhomeconsumptionorformarket.One
indicators for this is that out of 78 illegal acts (only
those reported with written letter) done by localsand
reportedbyguardstoBorenaweredaagriculturaland
rural development office during the period of 2006
2008, fuel wood collection from the park ranks
second (18 or 23.1% cases) next to 20 (25.6%) cases
relating grazing of livestock in the park cases
(Amogne, 2011). As observed during field work,
except the homestead plantations and very few
woodlots, it is very difficult to get fire wood outside
the park. The researcher also observed fire wood
collectedfromtheparkaroundthehomesofresidents.
The members of the family who are frequently
engaged in gathering of fuel wood in the study area
are both women and female children. Rural women
(andchildren)aretheprimarycollectorsofwoodand
residue fuels in poor developing countries; they also
manage most of the energy used by households
(ESCAP,ND).

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FactorsAffectingAdoptionofFuelSavingStove
Modernenergyefficientstovesarenotcommoninthe
study area. But there is an increasing trend of using
stoves made up of mud and stone with the
consultation of health extension workers (this was
confirmedduringfieldobservationandFGDsession).
42.3%ofthehouseholdsusedstovesmadeupofmud
andstoneinsteadofthetraditionalopenfiretype.But
the majority (55.6%) still used the open fire system
which is not energy efficient. Mudstove enables to
save about 20% of energy over threestone fireplaces.
A common problem with mud stoves is that a lot of
energy is wasted in heavy stove mass and it is not
durable like the modern ones. Since most part of the
studyareahasdegaagroclimaticcondition(highland),
open fire cooking stoves also serves as source of
heating and this might affect adoption of fuel saving
stove which are not as such conducive for heating
purpose.ProvisionofstovebygovernmentandNGOs
wereinsignificant.Theheadofwaterandenergyoffice
of the wereda, Ato Tesfaye Gebru (representative),
reported that a nongovernmental organization, sewech
lesewech, is currently distributing fuel efficient stoves
for eight kebelles. Till 2012, 620 stoves have been
distributedtoruralcommunitiesandmoreisreadyto
be distributed to users. But none of the kebelles
borderingtheparkwasincludedbytheprojectsofar.
The prominent factors which affect the adoption of
fuelefficientstovesinthestudyareaintheirdegreeof
influence were financial constraint (66.7%), lack of
access (25.9%) and lack of information/knowledge
(4.1%). Though the number of respondents for the
suitableness of the stove is small (3.3%), most of the
participants during FGD mentioned that the stove
madeupofmudandstone,sincebothsidesareclosed,
arenotfavorableespeciallyforlighteningandheating.
In line with this, Anhalt and Holanda (2009) stressed
that in developing countries, fuel is used not only for
cooking but also for heating and serves as a source
light.InChina,therewassimilarprobleminthe1980s
but a stove model that enables for both cooking and
space heating was developed. A chisquare test of
independence was employed to see the association
between stove users 1 and nonusers in terms of

educational status of husband/wife2, wealth category

ofthehouseholdhead.
A Pearson chisquare test was applied (table 1) to
examine whether there is a relationship between
incomelevelof the household head, educationallevel
of the husband and wife with the likelihood of
adoption of fuel efficient stove. The results revealed
thattherewasasignificantrelationshipbetweenlevel
of income and adoption (2 = 64.914, N=248, df =1,
V=0.512, p < .001). A significantly larger proportion
frommediumincomeclass(68.2%)reportedthatthey
used stove compared with only 17.2% from the poor
income status. In terms of nonusers it was 82.8% for
poor category while only 31.8% from the medium
incomelevel.
TABLE1:CHISQUARERESULTFORSTOVEADOPTIONWITHINCOME
CATEGORYOFTHEHHANDEDUCATIONALLEVELOFHUSBAND/WIFE

Category

2
value

df

p
value

Phi
value

p
value

Income
levelofthe
HHhead

Medium
Vspoor

64.914

.000

0.512

.000

Educational
levelof
wife

Literate
Vs
illiterate

4.186

.041

0.13

.041

Educational
levelof
husband

Literate
Vs
illiterate

60.514

.000

0.511

.000

Source:ownsurvey(2012)

TheCramersV3value(0.512)indicatestheassociation
ismoderatelystrong.Intheotherwayround,81.8%of
thestoveuserswerefrommediumincomelevelandit
was only 18.2% from poor category. The result is
consistent with the findings of Beyene and Koch
(2013), a study conducted in urban Ethiopia, which
concluded that households in the lowest income
bracketaretheleastlikelyandslowesttoadopt,while
thoseinthehighestincomebracketarethemostlikely
and quickest to adopt. A significant relationship was
also found between educational status of
wives/husbands and degree of stove adoption (2=
4.186,N=246,df=1,V=0.13,p<.05forwivesand2=

1
for this analysis stove users includes both users (modern stove
made up of cement and stove made from mud and stone locally)
while non- users consists those who are using the traditional
three-stone open fire stove

148

the percentage and Chi-square tests are calculated by merging

educational status into illiterate and write/read as one category
while primary and secondary as another category).
3
Cramer's V value measures the strength of associations between
variables and the value ranges between 0 and 1; a V value near to 0
indicates weak association between the variables while close to1
indicates strong association (Beins and McCarthy, 2012:301)

InternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

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Yi=expu(4)

60.514, N=232, df =1, V=0.511, p < .001 for husbands).

Regarding the educational status of wives, a
significantly larger proportion from primary and
above(64.0%)reportedthattheyusedstovecompared
with only 42.5% from the illiterate and write/read
category. In terms of nonusers it was 57.5% for
illiterateandwrite/readcategorywhileonly36%from
primary and above level. But when we see the
Cramers V value (V=0.13), it shows very weak
associationandthelogisticmodelresultalsofoundnot
to be statistically significant for wives. When we see
the educational status of husbands, 63.5% from
primary and above level used stove but only 10.7%
from illiterate and write/read category; in terms of
nonusersitwas36.5%fromprimaryandabovestatus
while 89.3% from the illiterate and write/read level
were nonusers. The V value (0.511) indicates a
moderately strong association between educational
statusofhusbandsanddegreeofstoveadoption.

expu

1+

Where
Yi=thedependentvariable(theestimatedprobability
ofstoveadoption)
0andi=coefficients
u=0+1THHSIZE+2EDuHUS2+3EDuWIF2+4
SIZELAND+5INCMECGRY+ =errorterm
Logisticregressionwasperformedtoassesstheimpact
offiveindependentvariablesonthelivelihoodoffuel
efficientstoveadoptionofhouseholds.Thefullmodel
containingallpredictorswasstatisticallysignificant,2
(5,N=248)=100.56,p<.001,indicatingthatthemodel
was able to distinguish between respondents who
adoptanddidnotadoptthetechnology.Themodelas
a whole explain between 39.8% (Cox and Snell R
Square) and 53.2% (Nagelkerke R Square) of the
variance in adoption level, and correctly classified
78.8%ofcases.Asthebinarylogisticregressionmodel
revealedinthetable2,educationalstatusofhusbands
andincomelevelofthehouseholdheadwerefoundto
be significant in determining the probability of stove
adoption positively at p<0.001 alpha level of
significance. The exp(B) result in logistic regression
indicates the odds ratio (Pallant, 2011:180 and
Tabachnick and Fidell; 2013:463). The propensity of
using fuel efficient stoves increases when the
educational level of husbands (OR=23.65) and the
income level of the household head (OR=11.25)
increases.Theeducationalstatusofwivesinthestudy
areawasnotfoundtobesignificantinthelogitresult
though Chisquare test revealed a weak association.
This might be due to low decision making power of
women in adoption of stoves. The finding is more
consistent with the study conducted in northwest
PakistanbyJan(2012)whichassertedthateventhough
stove utilization is the responsibility of women, its
provision is mostly the responsibility of male
household heads. As the household head is the major
decisionmaking body, particularly on financial
decisions, his education (awareness) is more
significant for adoption of cook stoves. Total house
hold size and land size were not found significant in
determiningadoptionofstoveinthestudyarea.

Abinarylogisticregressionmodelhasbeenappliedto
identify the determinants of fuel efficient stove
utilization.Asindicatedinthemodelbelow,adoption
(stove user =1, nonuser = 0: dummy variable) was
used as a dependent variable. The probability of
adoption of a household to improved devices is
formulatedasa functionofindividual and household
levelcharacteristics.Totalhouseholdsize(THHSIZE)
continuous variable, educational status of husband
(EDuHUS2; 1= literate of any level and 0=otherwise),
educationalstatusofwife(EDuWiF2;1=literateofany
level and 0=otherwise), total land size (SIZELAND)
continuous variable, and income/wealth level
(INCMECGRY; 1= poor, 2 = medium) were used as
independentvariables.
Logit(P)=Log[P/(1P)](1)
LetPi=Pr(Y=1/X=xi)thenwecanwritethemodelas
Log(Pi/1Pi)=logit(Pi)=0+iXi(2)

Piis the probability of being using fuel efficient stove

(dependant variable) and xis are (independent
variables). Therefore the parameter 0 gives the log
odds of the household not using fuel efficient stoves
(when xi =0) and 1 shows how these odds differ for
users(whenxi=1).Wecanwritethemodelintermsof
odds(TabachnickandFidell;2013:447)as:
(Pi/1Pi)=exp(0+iXi)(3)

149

www.ijesci.orgInternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

TABLE2:BINARYLOGISTICMODELRESULT(DETERMINANTSOFFUELEFFICIENTSTOVEADOPTION)

VariablesintheEquation
Variables

S.E.

Wald

df

pvalue

OddsRatio

EDuHAS
WDuWiF
INCMECGRY
THHSIZE
SIZELAND
Constant

3.163
.309
2.420
.352
.064
7.344

.562
.683
.410
.203
.097
1.793

31.680
.204
34.919
3.005
.435
16.783

1
1
1
1
1
1

.000*
.651
.000*
.083
.509
.000

23.652
.734
11.250
1.422
.938
.001

95%C.I.forOR
Lower
Upper
7.861
71.165
.193
2.800
5.041
25.108
.955
2.117
.775
1.135

*SignificantatP<0.001alphalevelSource:Ownsurvey,2012
TABLE3:INDEPENDENTTTESTRESULTAVERAGETIMESPENTINHOURSFORCOLLECTIONOFWOODWEEKLY(N=248)

Category

Mean

SD

df

pvalue

stovenonusers
stoveusers

138
110

14.6449
9.9091

3.09414
3.04265

12.063

246

.000

Total

248

12.544

3.8669

Averagetimespent(inhour)tocollect
fuelwoodweekly

Source:Ownsurvey,2012

One of the significance of fuel efficient stoves is to

minimize the time spent in gathering of fire wood
mainlyforwomenandchildren.Anindependentttest
was applied to check whether the average time spent
weeklybystoveusersandnonusersinthestudyarea
wasstatisticallysignificant.Theresult,asindicatedin
table 3, was statistically significant (t=12.063, N=248,
df=246, p<0.001). The average time spent by stove
users(9.9hoursperweek)isstatisticallylessthannon
users (14.64 hours per week). A study in rural India
found collection time for wood to be 37 hours per
month [9.25 hours per week] (Modi et al., 2006). The
caseinstudyareawas12.54hoursperweek(whichis
around 50.16 hours per month) that means, even
thoughthestoveusersspentlesstimethannonusers,
it is still high compared with Indian case. In addition
tothetimespentforfuelwoodcollection,thereisalso
difference in the frequency of collection. More stove
userscollectonceeverytwoweekswhilethemajority
of nonusers were reported daily. In the study area,
FGDparticipantsconfirmedthat,eventhoughmostof
them are using stoves made up of mud and stone, it
has a comparative advantage as compared with the
open one in saving fuel wood. Provision of fuel
efficient stoves can enable them to save more time in
collecting fuel wood. Since, the burden of fuel wood
collection relies on women and school aged girls,
access to fuel saving stoves has a paramount
importance in empowerment of women, canuse their
timeinmoreproductiveactivities,andcanhelpschool
agedgirlstodevotetheirtimeforeducation.
AttitudetowardsFuelSavingStove
Attitude of people towards a certain intervention

150

determinestheextentofadoption.TableXIdepictsthe
attitudeofrespondentstowardsthevariedbenefitsof
fuelefficientstove.
One sample ttest was used to examine whether the
attitudes of the local residents towards the benefitsof
fuel efficient stoves are different from neutral (see
table 4). The attitudes of respondents towards the
benefits of fuel efficient stoves are different from
neutral. But when we observe the percentage, a
significant number of respondents reported either
neutral or disagree or strongly disagree mainly
regarding the benefits of fuel efficient stoves to
minimize fire related accidents (52.4%), to prevent
indoorairpollution(58.9%)anditsroleinminimizing
thepressureonthepark(47.6%).Agreatproportionof
respondentseitheragreedorstronglyagreedwiththe
benefits of using fuel efficient stove to save time for
wood collection (95.1%), in minimizing demands of
fuel wood (96.8%), enables to use animal dung for
fertilizer (97.6) and in saving fuel wood consumption
(99.2%). Kebelles development agents and health
extension workers were their sources of information
regarding its benefits. Having knowledge on the
benefits of fuel saving stove makes adoption process
more ease if there is accessibility of the technology.
Ergeneman (2003) pointed out that much of the time
rural households are unaware of the benefits of the
improvedstoves,especiallythehealthrelatedbenefits.
Theexternalbenefitsarelesslikelytobeperceivedby
theruralpopulation;althoughthisiscertainlyagross
underestimation of the capability of the poor to
understand the ecological problems in their
surroundings(AnhaltandHolanda,2009).

InternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

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TABLE4:RESPONDENTSATTITUDETOWARDSTHEBENEFITSOFFUELEFFICIENTSTOVES(ONESAMPLETTEST)

OneSampleTest TestValue=3
Usingfuelefficientstoveenablesto:

df

MeanDifference

minimizefirerelatedaccidents
savetimeoffirewoodcollection
minimizethedemandoffuelwood
preventsindoorairpollution
useanimaldungforfertilizer
savefuelwoodconsumption
minimizethepressureonthepark

6.946
31.374
36.588
4.954
36.833
44.511
8.879

247
247
247
247
247
247
247

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.46774
1.21371
1.20565
.33065
1.47177
1.45565
.48387

95%ConfidenceInterval
Lower
Upper
.3351
.6004
1.1375
1.2899
1.1407
1.2705
.1992
.4621
1.3931
1.5505
1.3912
1.5201
.3765
.5912

Source:ownsurvey,2012
Ho:theattitudeofhouseholdsinthestudyarearegardingthebenefitsoffuelefficientstovesisneutral
Ha:theattitudeofhouseholdsinthestudyarearegardingthebenefitsoffuelefficientstovesisdifferentfromneutralAtdf=247;p<0.01;
testvalue3(neutral)

Conclusions and Recommendations

The creation of sustainable woodbased biomass
energysectorscouldhelpclientcountriesinachieving
the MDGs, energy security, lowcarbon growth and
sustainable natural resource management (IBRD,
2011).Policiesontheefficientutilizationoffuelwood
could include promoting the development and
marketing of improved stoves. This can be
accomplished by supporting training on stove
designing and testing along with public campaigns.
Suchinitiativeswouldlikelyyieldmultiplebenefitsin
the form of reduced fuel demand, substantial health
benefitsandreducedtimeneededforwomentogather
firewood (ESCAP, ND). This research has been
conducted in assessing the major factors affecting the
adoption of wood fuel efficient stoves in the rural
households around BorenaSaynt National Park. The
prominent source of fuel in the study area is wood
followedbyanimaldungandshrubs&leavesoftrees.
The sources of fuel wood come from their own
plantationeitherhomesteadorwoodlotsandkebelle
forests as their source of wood. Even though the
pressure over the park for fuel wood decreases from
timetotimeduetofearoftheguardsandpenalty,still
there is a tendency to collect wood either for home
consumption or for market. Modern energy efficient
stovesarenotcommoninthestudyareathoughthere
isanincreasingtrendofusingstovesmadeupofmud
and stone with the consultation of health extension
workers. The prominent factors which restrain local
residents not to use fuel efficient stoves are financial
constraintandlackofaccess.
A Pearson chisquare test and binary logistic model
were applied to examine relationship between
adoptionoffuelefficientstoveandotherindependent

variables. As a result, income level of the household

head(2=64.914,N=248,df=1,V=0.512,p<.001and
OR=11.3) and educational level of husbands (2 =
60.514, N=232, df =1, V=0.511, p < .001 and OR=23.7)
were found to be the major variables which have
strong positive relationship with degree of stove
adoption.Thelogitresultdidnotshowanysignificant
relation between the degree of stove adoption with
that of total family size, educational status of wives
andtotallandsizeofthehouseholds.Theindependent
ttest shows statistically significant difference
(t=12.063,N=248,df=246,p<0.001)intheaveragetime
spent weekly by stove users and nonusers in the
study area. The results of one sample ttest revealed
thatlocalresidentsdohavepositiveattitudesoverthe
benefits of fuel efficient stoves mainly in minimizing
wood demand, time spent for wood collection, in
enablingthemtousedungforfertilizerandthelike
Based on the major findings of the research, the
following plausible solutions have been forwarded.
Fuelefficientstoveadoptionisacomplexprocessand
needs integrated action of different stakeholders. In
the study area, since financial constraint and lack of
accesshavebeenidentifiedascriticalfactorshindering
the locals not to use fuel efficient stoves, both
Governmental and Nongovernmental organization
have to take their part in making stoves available to
users. In addition, stoves should be affordable to the
poorest section of the population through long term
payment modalities and reasonable subsidies. Since
household requirements vary based on the local
condition, emphasizing the importance of
incorporating user requirements in research and
development and of offering a choice of highquality
designs enables adoption more successful. Awareness
creation on the health benefits of clean stoves should

151

www.ijesci.orgInternationalJournalofEnergyScience(IJES)Volume4Issue5,October2014

also enables to scaling up adaptation. To alleviate

wood shortages,fuelwood plantationprojects should
besupported,includingtheplantingofnativespecies
in degraded lands and agroforestry practices. In
addition to promoting sustainable fuel wood
production, agroforestry systems create several
benefits, such as soil conservation and increased
agricultural productivity. Rearing of livestock is
practicedinthearea;thisimpliesthatthereispotential
for the development of biogas energy as well.
Concernedbodiesshouldalsoseebiogasenergyasan
alternativeoption.

Amhara National Regional State Parks Development and

ProtectionAuthority(ANRSPaDPA).Denkoroproposed
national park boundary demarcation report. Bahir Dar,
Ethiopia,2006.(AmharicVersionunpublished).
Amogne A.CommunityBased Ecotourism Development:
thecaseofBorenaSayntNationalPark.VDMpublishing
houseltd;Germany,2011.
Anhalt, J and Holanda, S. Implementation of a
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Badege B. Deforestation and land degradation on the

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Ethiopian highlands: strategy for physical recovery.

The author is indebted to Wollo University for the

financial and material support. Thanks are also owed
to all individuals and organizations involved in this
research, namely, data enumerators, interviewed
individuals and households, participants of focus
group discussions, workers from Borena wereda
energydepartmentfortheirunreservedassistanceand
provisionoftherequiredinformation.Theauthoralso
appreciatesanonymousreviewersandeditorsfortheir
constructivecomments.

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Denkoro

Amogne Asfaw Eshetu has completed his MA in

RLDS from Mekelle University (Ethiopia) and has
servedasalecturerinWolloUniversityformorethan
six years. Currently, the author is pursuing PhD (in
rural development) from Addis Ababa University
(Ethiopia),collegeofdevelopmentstudies.

highland

and

management

options.

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