Anxiety, Stress, and Coping,

September 2006; 19(3): 259
278

Social comparison and burnout: The role of relative

burnout and received social support

JONATHON R. B. HALBESLEBEN1 & M. RONALD BUCKLEY2

1

University of Missouri-Columbia, USA, 2University of Oklahoma, USA

(Received 16 February 2004; revised 26 January 2005; accepted 20 December 2005)

Abstract
Although there has been a great deal of research concerning myriad aspects of burnout, relatively little
of that work has concerned the influence of social comparison processes in the etiology of burnout. We
argue that social comparisons, in the form of perceptions of burnout relative to others, can influence
the development of burnout, particularly when interacting with social support. A longitudinal study
was designed to investigate the role that perceptions of relative burnout play in the development of
future burnout. Downward comparison led to decreased levels of burnout and upward comparison led
to increased levels of burnout, after a 2-month interval. We find support for the interactive effect of
relative burnout and received social support (in the form of supportive conversations with coworkers)
in predicting later emotional exhaustion and cynicism. We discuss the implications of this research for
burnout theory and reduction and conclude with suggested directions for the future of research on the
influence of social comparison on burnout.

Keywords: Burnout, relative burnout, social comparison, social support

Since the recognition of burnout as an important construct, there have been proposals
about the processes underlying burnout (cf., Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1988;
Golembiewski, Munzenrider, & Stevenson, 1986; Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993; Maslach,
1982; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001), many of which have focused on how an
individual worker experiences burnout. Moreover, a great deal of that research has focused
on the significant dimensions of burnout and their specific causal chain (Golembiewski,
1989; Lee & Ashforth, 1993; Leiter, 1989, 1993). On the other hand, relatively little
research has been concerned with the social context of burnout, particularly those elements
of social comparison that occur as one experiences burnout (Buunk & Schaufeli, 1993).
Research on the role of social comparison in burnout has largely taken one of two forms.
A growing body of research has explored the social comparison processes related to equity
and social exchange between a service provider and his or her clients (Buunk & Schaufeli,
1993; Schaufeli, Van Dierendonck, & Van Gorp, 1996; Taris, Peeters, LeBlanc, Schreurs, &
Schaufeli, 2001; Truchot & Deregard, 2001; Van Dierendonck, Schaufeli, & Buunk, 2001).
On the other hand, comparatively less research attention has been given to the social

Correspondence: Jonathon Halbesleben, Department of Health Management & Informatics, School of Medicine,
University of Missouri-Columbia, 324 Clark Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, USA. E-mail: halbeslebenj@
missouri.edu
ISSN 1061-5806 print/ISSN 1477-2205 online # 2006 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/10615800600747835

260

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

comparisons that occur between employees and the influence of these comparisons on
burnout (Buunk, Ybema, Gibbons, & Ipenberg, 2001). This paper is an attempt to broaden
the existent burnout research by exploring the role of a specific social comparison,
perceptions of burnout relative to others, in the experience of burnout.
The purpose of this paper is to illuminate the manner in which social comparison,
through perceptions of relative burnout, plays a key role in the process of burnout,
particularly as social comparisons can interact with supportive communication in the
workplace. Our intent is not to propose a new model of burnout; instead we aim to highlight
the mechanisms by which ones perceptions of the social environment play a critical role in
the experience of burnout. To this end, we present a discussion of the process of social
comparison (in terms of relative burnout) and how it interfaces with burnout through
downward and upward comparison. We discuss the role of social support in the process of
social comparison and burnout. Finally, we present the findings of a research study in which
we examined relative burnout, social support, and burnout in a sample of American
working adults in a variety of industries.
My coworker are more burned out than me: Downward comparison and
burnout
In terms of social comparisons, while individuals would ideally compare themselves with
others that appear equal in terms of the trait being compared (Festinger, 1954), research
has suggested that it is common to engage in comparisons with those who are believed to be
worse off (downward comparison) or better off (upward comparisons) than the individual
making the comparison (Buunk & Gibbons, 2000).1 The consequences of downward and
upward comparison may be positive or negative for those making the comparison and vary
depending on the situation (Alicke, 2000; Buunk, Collins, Taylor, van Yperen, & Dakof,
1990; Collins, 1996, 2000; Smith, 2000).
Although the consequences of downward comparison will vary based upon the situation,
it is typically assumed that comparisons made between an individual and others who are
worse off would result in feelings of positive affect (Major, Testa, & Bylsma, 1991; Smith,
2000). In the case of relative burnout, this would mean that an individual who looks to his
or her coworkers and sees that he or she is less burned out might experience positive feelings
because of the contrast with negative situations of others (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1991;
Heider, 1958). Such a pattern would lead the individual to experience positive affect and
result in a perceived superiority over others who are less able to cope with work related
demands.
Interestingly, this downward comparison pattern can occur even when individuals are
experiencing relatively high levels of burnout. For example, Brenninkmeijer, van Yperen,
and Buunk (2001), in their study of secondary education teachers, found that even those
who were burned out occasionally believed that others were worse off than themselves. In
this case, the individual is experiencing burnout, but still perceives superiority over others.
However, Brenninkmeijer et al. did not test the consequences of these perceptions of
superiority in terms of the further development and/or coping with burnout; this study is an
attempt to fill that void.
One would expect that feelings of superiority, even those of negative superiority of the
nature studied by Brenninkmeijer et al. (2001) would lead to positive outcomes for those
making such downward comparisons. By feeling that they are in a better situation than their
peers, one would expect those individuals to reassess their perceptions of work-related

Social comparison and burnout

261

stressors and coping abilities in a manner that would lead to reduced burnout in the future.
This conclusion, that those in difficult situations would be more likely to engage in
downward comparison with resulting emotional benefit, is consistent with the findings of
others in the area of social comparison targets among those with serious illnesses (e.g.,
Buunk & Gibbons, 1997, 2000; Buunk, Gibbons, & Reis-Bergan, 1997; Buunk & Ybema,
1997; Tennen, McKie, & Affleck, 2000; Van der Zee et al., 1996).
Indeed, such an interpretation fits well with the three-component conceptualization of
burnout (cf., Maslach, 1982). One would expect perceived superiority to lead to lower
emotional exhaustion, as the individual realizes that they may actually have more emotional
resources to dedicate to their job than they had once thought, at least compared with others.
Moreover, one would expect that those individuals would be less likely to pull away from
their jobs (reflecting the depersonalization/cynicism component of burnout) as they now
realize that they are functioning better than others who are similarly situated. Finally, the
notion of perceived superiority is quite consistent with the personal efficacy dimension of
burnout, where one would expect higher levels of personal efficacy among those who
perceive they are coping better with the job demands and stressors than their peers.
My coworker are less burned out than me: Upward comparison and burnout
Although one would predict that downward comparison would lead to reductions in
burnout, the opposite might be argued in the case of upward comparison. In this case, the
upward comparison reflects a social comparison situation characterized by a belief that
others are less burned out than the individual in question. Various authors have proposed
that forms of upward comparison play a role in burnout. In their review of burnout in the
clergy, Daniel and Rogers (1981) suggested that burnout might be exacerbated by the
perceptions that others are less burned out. Their contention was that if an individual
perceived that he or she was in a significant minority with regard to his or her experiences of
burnout, the person may feel even worse about the situation, and in turn, more burned out.
Maslach (1982) suggested that upward comparison would play a similar role, essentially
leading the employee to feel isolated in their burnout.
In the case of burnout perceptions, the upward comparison may be exacerbated by a
strong desire for the employee to maintain the social identity that they have developed from
their job, organization, and work group (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). One aspect of the social
identity of most jobs is that those in the job are competent and in control of their work. As a
result, there is a strong tendency for employees not to reveal personal information or
emotional reactions that might be interpreted as unprofessional by their peers (Maslach,
1982; Buunk & Schaufeli, 1993). Despite their experience of emotional exhaustion
associated with burnout, employees may avoid talking about their experiences with others.
This occurs despite a desire to affiliate with those who are better off (Buunk, Schaufeli, &
Ybema, 1994).
This form of relative burnout perception results in important, often deleterious,
consequences for both employees and organizations. Social comparison researchers,
particularly in studies of mental health (e.g., depression), have suggested that upward
comparison can exacerbate the consequences of negative life events, particularly if the
person experiencing the event underestimates the extent to which others have experienced
similar problems (Miller & McFarland, 1991; Valins & Nisbett, 1971). Underestimating the
prevalence of burnout leads the employee to perceive they are alone with their problems.
This perceived isolation leads to the further depletion of emotional resources (emotional

262

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

exhaustion), an impetus to pull away from the job (depersonalization/cynicism), and

feelings that one cannot perform on the job as competently as he or she was once able
(reduced personal efficacy).
The above discussion suggests important relationships between the outcomes of social
comparison in a burnout setting and their implications for the development of burnout.
Specifically, the literature suggests that downward comparison is associated with lower
levels of burnout and upward comparison is associated with higher levels of burnout.
Hypothesis 1: Relative burnout perceptions are associated with the development of burnout, where
upward comparison is related to higher levels of burnout and downward comparison is associated
with lower levels of burnout
The role of social support
The implication that this process has for social support is critical. Although some authors
have argued that the link between social support and burnout is equivocal (Burisch, 2002;
Rafferty, Friend, & Landsbergis, 2001), there appears to be some evidence that support

whether from supervisors, coworkers, or family members
can serve as a buffer against
stress and burnout (Baruch-Feldman, Brondolo, Ben-Dayan, & Schwarz, 2002; Carlson &
Perrewe, 1999; Greenglass, Burke, & Konarski, 1997; Lloyd, King, & Chenowith, 2002;
Sargent & Terry, 2000; Tamara & Ishikuma, 2001; Winnubst, 1993; Winnubst,
Marcelissen, & Kleber, 1982). If employees are avoiding utilizing social support because
of perceptions of relative burnout, they may be more susceptible to future burnout.
Furthermore, some perceptions of relative burnout, in particular upward comparisons,
tend to keep individuals from sharing their true feelings about a situation (Prentice &
Miller, 1993, 1996). Coupled with the finding that burned-out employees are less likely to
discuss their problems with coworkers (Buunk et al., 1994), it would seem that burned-out
employees end up in a vicious cycle whereby their mistaken perceptions about the
prevalence of burnout leads them to feel worse about their situation while concurrently
reducing the available social support because of self-imposed isolation from coworkers. In
this sense, the relationship between help-seeking behavior and upward social comparison is
iterative, whereby burned-out employees want to seek out help from those who are better
off but do not (Buunk et al., 1994) and, as a result, the employees become more burned out
(Tamara & Ishikuma, 2001).
Along these lines, Buunk and Schaufeli (1993) linked social comparison and social
support in the context of burnout when explaining why nurses would be less likely to
associate with others when they experience stress. They proposed that when experiencing
the uncertainty associated with stress, nurses would want to talk to others about the
situation but would refrain from doing so because they misperceive that they are the only
individual who is experiencing burnout. This might be in part because of lower
identification with those who are perceived to be coping well with burnout (Buunk et al.,
2001).
Based on the work of Buunk and his colleagues (2001), we specifically sought to
understand how social support in the form of supportive conversations with coworkers
would be related to perceptions of relative burnout and subsequent burnout. Fenlason and
Beehr (1994) found that exploring the nature of conversations individuals have at work will
better account for variance in strains than more general measures of social support.
Moreover, given the implications of relative burnout for the nature of communication in the

Social comparison and burnout

263

workplace as discussed above, thinking of social support in terms of the manner in which it
is received through conversations with coworkers is particularly valuable.
Researchers have proposed a number of different mechanisms for understanding the
relationship between social support and burnout (see Beehr, 1985). The dominant
hypothesis has been a buffering effect, whereby social support interacts with a stressor
to predict strain (Ganster, Fusilier, & Mayes, 1986). In the present context, this would
suggest that those individuals who experience high levels of received social support at work
through positive conversations with coworkers will be less likely to experience the
potentially negative influence of relative burnout perceptions on the development of
burnout. Instead, these conversations will buffer the relationship between potentially
negative relative burnout information and subsequent burnout, such that the influence of
relative burnout on subsequent burnout is lower among those who engage in more
supportive conversations with coworkers.
Hypothesis 2: Relative burnout and supportive work conversations will interact in predicting
burnout, such that the influence of relative burnout on subsequent burnout is lower among those who
experience more supportive conversations with coworkers.
Method
Pilot study
As an initial test of the role of relative burnout in burnout, we conducted a pilot study with a
sample of Roman Catholic priests. Burnout has important implications for most positions;
the clergy is certainly no exception. It has been reported that a sample of priests had a
higher rate of burnout than a non-pastoral control group (Strumpfer & Bands, 1996).
Another study reported that, among the different types of Roman Catholic priests, secular
priests (those working most often with the public) had the highest levels of burnout
(Virginia, 1998). Many reasons have been suggested for the high levels of burnout among
priests, including the physical isolation of many priests as well as the involvement in a
vocation where they must be all things to all parishioners and their duties are not clearly
defined. This may result in reduced feelings of efficacy with a diminished possibility of
successful outcomes (Daniel & Rogers, 1981). A competitive atmosphere during pastoral
meetings that inhibits sharing of problems (Daniel & Rogers, 1981, p. 245) may also
contribute to the isolation of priests. The identification of clergy as models for calmness,
infallibility, and perfection may exacerbate the perception of isolation (Grosch & Olsen,
2000).
Overall, because of their increased incidence of burnout, we believed that priests might
offer a reasonable starting point for the investigation of social comparison in perceptions of
burnout. In the next section, we describe a study of the role of social comparison in burnout
in a sample of Roman Catholic priests in the USA. The purpose of the study was to
establish a pattern of relative burnout whereby the priests who were more burned out
believed that others were less burned out.
Participants and procedure. The pilot study participants were Roman Catholic priests derived
from a nationwide stratified sampling technique. Four priests from every state in the USA
(and two from the District of Columbia) were randomly mailed a burnout survey. The
priests addresses were obtained from an Internet-based directory of US Catholic parishes.

264

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

A total of 195 priests received surveys and 74 surveys were returned, giving a response rate
of 38%.
The mean age for the sample was 56.31 (SD /9.90) years with a mean of 27.86 (SD /
11.02) years of experience as a Catholic priest. The priests celebrated Mass at a mean of
1.63 (SD /0.98) parishes and had spent a mean of 8.03 (SD /6.31) years at their current
primary parish. The number of other priests working at their primary parish ranged from
zero (the mode) to four, with a mean of 0.59 (SD /0.86).
The surveys were mailed to the priests with an informed consent cover letter that asked
the priest to fill out the survey and return it in the postage-paid envelope that was provided.
They were also thanked for their time and participation. A follow-up letter (with another
copy of the survey) was mailed to priests about 6 weeks after the first mailing to encourage
those that had not already returned the survey to do so.
Measures. The Maslach Burnout Inventory General Survey (MBI-GS; Schaufeli, Leiter,
Maslach, & Jackson, 1996) was used as the primary assessment of burnout in the priests.
The overall MBI-GS contains three subscales tapping three latent burnout constructs that
are commonly identified in the burnout literature: emotional exhaustion (EE), cynicism
(CY), and personal efficacy (PE). The MBI-GS contains 16 statements where the
respondent is asked how frequently the statement applies to him or her on a seven-point
frequency scale from never (0) to every day (6). Table I shows descriptive statistics for
the three MBI-GS subscales, including mean scores, standard deviations, and Cronbachs
coefficient alpha.
We chose the MBI-GS over other forms of the MBI (e.g., the MBI-Human Services
Survey; MBI-HSS) for a number of reasons. First, the MBI-HSS refers to recipients in the
sense of recipients of services. We felt that this may be confusing to the priests, as many of
them do not see parishioners as recipients of pastoral services in the same manner that
people may view their service relationship with other occupations such as therapists or
nurses. While we could reword the survey, replacing recipients with parishioners, this
could potentially influence the standardization of the scale. Second, the MBI-HSS would
be better suited for priests that work with the public on a regular basis (secular priests). We
did not restrict the study to secular priests, and as such, thought the MBI-HSS survey
would be inappropriate for religious and monastic clergy that do not have much contact
with the public in a counseling role. Third, while offering counseling assistance to parish
members is a critical component of the secular pastorate, there are many other important
aspects of their job that could also lead them to experience stress, strain, and burnout.
Table I. Descriptive statistics for pilot study sample.
Variable

Mean

SD

1.

2.

3.

1. Exhaustion
2. Cynicism
3. Personal efficacy

1.90
1.36
4.96

1.31
1.16
.92

.91
.64
/.43

.82
/.38

.81

Relative burnout (self-other comparison)

4. Exhaustion
2.50
1.17
5. Cynicism
2.71
.83
6. Personal efficacy
4.65
.83

.60
.37
/.26

.30
.48
/.10

/.16
.006
.58

4.

5.

6.

.91
.60
/.36

.83
/.19

.87

Note: n /74. Scores along the diagonal are internal consistency estimates (Cronbachs coefficient alpha).
Correlations larger than .24 are p B/.05; correlations larger than .30 are p B/.01; correlations larger than .37 are
p B/.001.

Social comparison and burnout

265

Finally, the MBI-GS and MBI-HSS appear to measure very similar latent constructs of
burnout (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Overall, we felt that the MBI-GS would be an
acceptable measure of burnout for this study.
Relative burnout. In addition to the regular MBI-GS, the questions on the scale were
modified to measure relative burnout, in terms of the perceived burnout of the participant
compared to the average Catholic priest. Generally speaking, these questions were identical
to the MBI-GS questions except for minor wording changes. An example modification was
rewriting I feel emotionally drained from my work to Compared to the average priest, I
feel more emotionally drained from my work. The scaling for the 16 new questions was
consistent with the scaling of the original MBI-GS questions. Higher scores on this measure
would indicate that the participant feels that he is more burned out than others; lower
scores indicate that the participant feels he is less burned out than others. Table I gives
descriptive statistics for the three MBI-GS subscales for the comparison to average priest.
Results and discussion. Table I contains the Pearson correlations between the variables of
study. These findings offer initial support of Hypothesis 1, where higher burnout scores are
associated with relative burnout. They suggest that those with an upward social comparison
pattern have higher levels of burnout and those with a downward social comparison pattern
have lower levels of burnout.
Despite these encouraging findings, we recognized that there were a number of
limitations to the pilot study. The most significant limitation comes in the potential
interpretation that those who are more burned out show greater self-other differences where
they perceive that others are less burned out. Without considering the role upward
comparison can play in perceptions of burnout, one might argue that this is simply an
accurate perception
those that are more burned out accurately perceive that others are
less burned out. We acknowledge that with the present dataset, we simply cannot rule out
that possibility. However, the data do not rule out upward comparison as a possible
explanation either.
Also problematic are a number of methodological concerns. The response rate raises
questions in the context of burnout research. Although the relatively wide ranges of scores
on the burnout dimensions suggest that a number of burned out individuals did complete
the survey, we cannot rule out the possibility that the most burned out individuals simply
did not respond to the survey, restricting our range. Moreover, the cross-sectional nature of
our data collection limits the conclusions that we can draw with regard to the causal
direction of the self-other perception and burnout. Finally, while the clergy represents a
potentially interesting and important population for the study of burnout, there are clear
limitations in the extent to which these findings might be generalized to a more typical
working population. To address these concerns, we conducted a more complete, longitudinal study design to provide evidence that self-other comparisons in burnout lead to
heightened levels of burnout.
Participants and procedure
A second sample of participants included a group of 360 working adults. The sample was
75% female (with ten participants not providing a gender), 75% were White, and the mean
age was 38.99 years. The participants had held their current positions for an average of 5.05
years and had been working for their current organization for 7.84 years. A wide variety of
industries were represented, including education (n /51), healthcare (n /36), banking or

266

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

financial services (n /28), government (n /24), manufacturing (n /20), retail (n /18),

and telecommunications (n /14).
The data from the second sample were collected with the assistance of undergraduate
management students as part of a research experience assignment. The students collected
measures from three working adults at two points during the semester (with approximately
two months separating time 1 and time 2). To ensure that the surveys were indeed
completed by the working adults, we randomly selected 30% of the surveys and directly
contacted the participants to verify their participation. Of those contacted, all of the
participants verified that they had completed the survey. This method of survey collection
has been effectively used by field researchers in organizational settings, especially when used
in conjunction with samples drawn from a single organization or occupation (Halbesleben
& Bowler, in press; Kolodinsky, Hochwarter, & Ferris, 2004).
Measures
Similar to the pilot study, we employed the MBI-GS as our measure of burnout, and also
administered the reworded MBI questions to assess social comparisons. Again, the MBIGS was utilized because of its applicability to a wide variety of occupations, which freed us
from the limitation of utilizing only human services workers. The relative burnout questions
were worded in terms of coworkers at the participants present workplace because of the
varied nature of the industries represented (e.g., Compared to my average coworker, I feel
____ burned out from my work); the relative burnout scale was completed following
completion of the MBI-GS. Respondents used a five-point scale, from much less (1) to no
more or less (3) to more (5). Higher scores on this measure would indicate that the
participant feels that he or she is more burned out than others; lower scores indicate that the
participant feels he or she is less burned out than others. These scales were collected at both
time 1 and time 2 of the data collection. The descriptive statistics for these scales can be
found in Table II.
Supportive work conversations. Following the burnout and relative burnout measures, we
administered a social support scale developed by Fenlason and Beehr (1994) during the
time 2 data collection. Their scale focuses on the content of conversations between
employees and important individuals at work as a more specific indicator of received
support in the workplace. They found that their more specific scale of received social
support accounted for more variance in job-related strains than did global measures of
support. Moreover, the nature of the conversations assessed represents more tangible forms
of social support (e.g., discussions about how to improve performance) than are typically
represented in social support measures. Given that finding, we utilized the eight workrelated conversation questions (both the positive and negative conversation content items;
the negative items were reverse scored so that all questions in the scale were scored in the
same direction). We modified the items slightly to reflect conversations with coworkers
specifically, more general wording of occupation (the original items were written for
secretaries), and added a specific timeframe of the previous 2 months. An example item
from this scale is In conversations with my coworkers over the past two months, we shared
interesting ideas about performing our jobs. The items were scaled on a five-point, Likerttype scale, from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The descriptive statistics for this
scale are shown in Table II.

Table II. Descriptive statistics for full study sample.

Variable

Mean

Control variables (collected at Time 1)

1. Gender
0.76
2. Age
38.99
3. Tenure
7.84
4. Role Ambiguity
3.52

SD

1.

2.

3.

4.

.25
6.54
3.98
.85

n/a
.05
.06
/.02

n/a
.21
/.10

n/a
/.22

.87

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

2.61
2.53
3.92

.91
.85
.66

.06
.03
.04

.01
.00
.03

.03
.05
.11

.23
.16
/.12

.86
.59
/.18

.80
/.40

.77

Time 2
8. Exhaustion
9. Cynicism
10. Pers Efficacy

2.62
2.54
3.79

.89
.78
.66

.08
.03
.02

.05
.01
.00

.06
.07
.09

.31
.20
/.19

.50
.36
/.18

.46
.53
/.40

/.24
/.31
.43

.88
.64
/.36

.82
/.43

.82

Relative burnout (self-other comparison)

11. Exhaustion
2.98
.81
12. Cynicism
2.78
.72
13. Pers Efficacy
3.68
.60
14. Coworker conversations
3.28
.59

/.02
.05
.00
.10

.05
.01
.02
.08

.00
.02
.03
.09

.15
.11
.14
/.12

.64
.44
/.13
/.24

.36
.55
/.32
/.30

/.05
/.15
.67
.08

.34
.35
/.26
/.40

.26
.45
/.25
/.42

/.17
/.11
.42
.28

12.

13.

14.

.87
.50
/.14
/.27

.73
/.24
/.37

.69
.17

.75

Note: Personal Efficacy. n /366. For gender, 0 /male, 1/female. Scores along the diagonal are internal consistency estimates (Cronbachs coefficient alpha).
Correlations larger than .10 are p B/.05; correlations larger than .13 are p B/.01; correlations larger than .20 are p B/.001.

Social comparison and burnout

Time 1
5. Exhaustion
6. Cynicism
7. Pers Efficacy

11.

267

268

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

Control variables. Because of the heterogeneity of the sample and because of potential
relationships with burnout dimensions, we controlled for gender, age, and job tenure in the
analysis. These were assessed with one-item measures. Additionally, we controlled for the
existence of stressors on the job by asking the participants to complete the six-item role
ambiguity scale of Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970). An example item from this scale is
I know exactly what is expected of me. The items were scaled on a five-point, Likert-type
scale, from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The control variables were placed in
the survey after the burnout and social support measures. The descriptive statistics for this
scale can be found in Table II.
Results
To test the hypotheses of the study, we utilized moderated multiple regression analysis
(Aiken & West, 1991; Cohen & Cohen, 1983). For each burnout dimension, this involved a
three-step procedure. First, we tested a multiple regression equation with the control
variables (gender, age, tenure, role ambiguity, and time 1 score of the burnout dimension;
step 1) and the relative burnout score predicting the time 2 score on the burnout dimension
(step 2). In the third step, we added the coworker work conversation scale. Finally, in the
fourth step, we added the interaction between relative burnout and supportive coworker
work conversations. The interaction terms were calculated by first mean centering burnout
score and coworker conversation score, then multiplying each participants mean-centered
relative burnout score by his or her mean-centered score on the coworker conversation
scale. The results of the moderated regression analysis are shown in Table III.
Hypothesis 1 predicted that relative burnout would be associated with time 2 burnout,
such that those engaging in downward comparison would experience a decrease in burnout
and those engaging in upward comparison would experience an increase in burnout. After
controlling for gender, age, tenure, role ambiguity, and time 1 burnout, relative burnout
was significantly positively associated with exhaustion (b/.39, p B/.001, DR2 /.11),
cynicism (b/.22, p B/.01, DR2 /.10), and reduced personal efficacy (b /.22, p B/.01,
DR2 /.09). These findings support Hypothesis 1.
Hypothesis 2 predicted that relative burnout and supportive conversations would interact
in predicting burnout, such that the influence of relative burnout on burnout would be
lower among those who have high levels of supportive conversations. After entering the
main effect of the conversations to the regression equations (in step 3) and then the
interaction between relative burnout and coworker conversations (in step 4), the interaction
term was significant for both exhaustion (b /.31, p B/.001, DR2 /.10) and cynicism (b /
.23, p B/.01, DR2 /.07). In both of these cases, the addition of the interaction term
explained a significant amount of additional variance in time 2 burnout (beyond that
explained by the control variables, relative burnout, and the coworker conversion scale).
The interaction term for reduced personal efficacy was not significant (b /.03, ns ).
Figures 1 and 2 are graphical depictions of the interaction found between social
comparison and coworker conversations in predicting time 2 exhaustion and cynicism. To
create the figures, we dichotomized social comparison by placing those who had a mean
relative score for the respective burnout dimension above three in upward comparison
group and those with a mean relative burnout score for the respective burnout dimension
below three in downward comparison group. Moreover, we dichotomized coworker
conversations by forming two groups based on scores above and below one standard
deviation of the mean conversation scale score (Aiken & West, 1991).2 The pattern of

Social comparison and burnout

269

Table III. Moderated multiple regression results

Time 2 Exhaustion Time 2 Cynicism Time 2 Personal efficacy
Step 1
Gender
Age
Tenure
Role ambiguity
Time 1 burnout dimension
R2

.02
.11*
/.06
.25**
.31***
.17

.00
.09
.06
.21**
.28***
.22

/.01
.12*
.11
/.19**
.19**
.13

Step 2
Gender
Age
Tenure
Role ambiguity
Time 1 burnout dimension
Relative burnout
R2
DR2

.01
.09
.08
.18**
.45***
.39***
.28
.11

.01
.08
.06
.16*
.37***
.22**
.32
.10

.03
.11*
.07
/.18**
.24**
.22**
.22
.09

Step 3
Gender
Age
Tenure
Role ambiguity
Time 1 burnout dimension
Relative burnout
Coworker work Conversations
R2
DR2

.00
.05
.07
.20**
.41***
.22**
/.52***
.37
.09

.01
.08
.05
.19**
.31***
.19**
/.41***
.38
.06

.02
.09
.08
/.17**
.36***
.24**
.34***
.26
.04

Step 4
Gender
Age
Tenure
Role ambiguity
Time 1 burnout dimension
Relative burnout
Coworker work Conversations
Relative Burnout/Conversations Interaction
R2
DR2

.01
.05
.08
.18**
.38***
.15*
/.19**
.31***
.47
.10

.00
.05
.06
.14*
.29***
/.12*
/.32**
.23**
.45
.07

.01
.06
.06
/.16*
.28***
.10*
.09
.03
.26
.00

interaction is consistent across emotional exhaustion and cynicism. It suggests that for those
participants who engage in more supportive work conversations with their coworkers, the
nature of their social comparison is not significantly related to time 2 emotional exhaustion
or cynicism. However, for those who have had less supportive conversations with
coworkers, those who think they are more burned out than others tend to have higher
time 2 emotional exhaustion or cynicism than those who think they experience less burnout
than others.
Discussion
This study found support for the contention that downward comparison led to decreased
levels of burnout and upward comparison led to increased levels of burnout after a 2-month

270

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

3.3

Time 2 Emotional Exhaustion

3.1
2.9
2.7

More Supportive
Conversations

2.5

Less Supportive
Conversations

2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
Downward Comparison

Upward Comparison

Figure 1. Time 2 emotional exhaustion as a function of social comparison and work conversations.

interval. Moreover, we found support for the interactive effect of relative burnout and
received social support (in the form of supportive conversations) in predicting later
emotional exhaustion and cynicism.
The predictions concerning the effect of the interaction between relative burnout and
supportive work conversations on personal efficacy dimension of burnout were not
supported. However, while the interaction was not significant, we note that the main effect
of the supportive conversations was significant after accounting for the effects of relative
burnout. This is in line with previous research that has found support for the main effect of
2.9
2.7

Time 2 Cynicism

2.5
2.3

More Supportive
Conversations

2.1

Less Supportive
Conversations

1.9
1.7
1.5
Downward Comparison

Upward Comparison

Figure 2. Time 2 cynicism as a function of social comparison and work conversations.

Social comparison and burnout

271

job resources on personal accomplishment, and suggests that social comparisons and social
support serve as independent predictors of this particular dimension of burnout.
Implications for theory and practice
The notion that relative burnout plays a role in the experience of burnout extends models of
burnout to include social comparison as an important contextual factor. Moreover, it sheds
light on the processes underlying and perpetuating burnout.
This research provides an important link to other research on the perpetuation of
burnout through emotional contagion. Researchers have suggested that burnout can be
related to social contagion processes, whereby one becomes burned out in part because of
the presence of others who are burned out (cf., Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli, 2003;
Bakker & Schaufeli, 2000; Bakker, Schaufeli, Sixma, & Bosveld, 2001). Interestingly,
Bakker and Schaufeli (2000) found that exposure to colleagues with work-related problems
increased the likelihood of burnout, which appears to run contrary to the findings of the
present research, in that we found that the perception that others have fewer problems (e.g.,
they have less burnout relative to the participant) was associated with higher burnout. A key
difference between their work and the present study is that they were focused more on the
absolute levels of burnout among coworkers, while we focused on individual perceptions of
burnout relative to coworkers (without accounting for their actual level of burnout).
Additionally, they (as well as Bakker et al., 2001) noted that susceptibility to emotional
stimuli serves a moderating factor, whereby those more susceptible are more likely to
experience burnout contagion. Taken together with the present research, this suggests that
the social cognitive processes underlying burnout contagion, particularly as they relate to
personality variables and social comparison, will help to increase our understanding of the
dynamics of burnout perpetuation between individuals in the workplace. The key issue
seems to be who the participant affiliates with (and thus compares with), the manner that
affiliate choice interacts with their susceptibility to emotional stimuli, and the extent to
which the affiliate is experiencing burnout. The present study was not designed to capture
such an effect, but future research that accounts for specific burnout levels of affiliates in
addition to perceptions of relative burnout may help to sort out the underlying factors that
explain this effect.
Along those lines, one avenue for increasing our understanding of social contagion in
burnout would be to consider Kulik and Mahlers (2000) recent work on the role that social
comparison and affiliation play in emotional contagion under threatening conditions. For
example, they suggest that when facing a threat, an individual will likely affiliate with
someone who has experienced the threat in the past (not someone currently experiencing
the threat) and has recovered or is recovering from the threat. For example, they found that
hospitalized patients awaiting surgery preferred to share a hospital room with a patient who
had completed and was in recovery (Kulik & Mahler, 1989). Moreover, they suggest that
this process then leads to emotional contagion as we mimic the emotional reaction of those
individuals who have experienced and recovered from the threat (Kulik & Mahler, 2000; see
also Schachter, 1959). In the context of burnout, this suggests that those who are burned
out may seek out those they perceive to have experienced burnout in the past (assuming
they can find someone, this is a tenuous assumption given the relationship between burnout
and turnover, cf., Drake and Yadama, 1996) as a source of coping. This would suggest that
emotional contagion may work to positively ameliorate burnout. We would suggest that this
is an area in need of empirical verification, but a potentially useful avenue for understanding
the etiology and reduction of burnout.

272

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

This research also underscores the importance of the trend of looking at upward and
downward comparison and their affective consequences. Nonetheless, a number of issues
are implied by this study that must be addressed in future research efforts. First, this
research does not address the question of the likelihood of upward or downward
comparison as the function of burnout; we focused on the outcome of relative burnout
rather than the choice of a social comparison target. Work by Wheeler and Miyake (1992)
would suggest that those who are burned out, because of priming of negative thoughts,
would be more likely to engage in upward comparison (which our study suggests would lead
to a spiral of increasing burnout). Nonetheless, this is an empirical question, one that can be
addressed through further longitudinal study of the relationship between burnout and social
comparison processes.
More research is also needed on the potential negative outcomes of downward
comparison. For example, Smith (2000) suggested that one consequence of downward
comparison is Schadenfreude, the feeling of pleasure that is the result of anothers
misfortune (see also Brigham, Kelso, Jackson, & Smith, 1997; Smith et al., 1996). One
might suspect that drawing pleasure from the burnout of others, particularly if coupled with
a lack of support provided to those experiencing the burnout, might lead one to experience
guilt over time. It is unclear whether such a process could serve as a stressor, such that it
might actually increase burnout over time.
This study also suggests other broader implications in terms of the study of social support
and burnout. In this study, we have focused on received social support in the form of
supportive conversations with coworkers rather than the more typical variable of perceived
social support (the belief that support would be there for an individual in a time of need).
The distinction in this study is notable, in part because of the interaction between a
psychological stressor (relative burnout) and received support on subsequent burnout.
Kaniasty (2005) noted that stress-strain buffering effects with received support are relatively
rare, emphasizing the importance in considering the differences between perceived and
received support. The findings of this research suggest that received support can be helpful
in reducing strain; however, more research looks at the mechanisms underlying the benefits
of received support. For example, the work of Norris and Kaniasty (1996) suggests that
received support may be helpful to the extent that it maintains perceived support in the face
of a traumatic experience. Moreover, the findings extend continued research suggesting
that for optimal outcomes, the type and source of support should match the types of
stressors encountered (Cutrona & Russell, 1990; Halbesleben, in press; Kanisty & Norris,
1992) and characteristics of the employee (Luszczynska & Cieslak, 2005) by noting the
potential benefits of receiving support from coworkers through conversations that might
allow the employee to better cope with and address stress at work. This effect is augmented
for individuals who make certain types of social comparisons, reflecting Luszczynska and
Cieslaks (2005) work suggesting the need to consider characteristics of the individual in
interpreting the effects of social support.
Along those lines, our findings suggest an avenue of future exploration with regard to
social support buffering effects. Based on the present work, it is unclear of the specific
nature of the buffering effect, in other words, it is unclear whether the buffering effect exists
because the conversations we assessed create more accurate perceptions regarding social
comparisons or if there is a more general buffering effect. In other words, we cannot
necessarily determine whether the conversations helped to improve the accuracy of the
information used in social comparison or whether the conversations, regardless of their
effect on social comparison, simply lead to reductions in burnout through a more general

Social comparison and burnout

273

support process. While we recognize this as a limitation of our study, it also reflects a
broader concern within the burnout literature, specifically, the need for better theoretical
integration of social support (Halbesleben & Buckley, 2004a; Sargent & Terry, 2000). In
particular, there is a need to better understand the specific processes that lead support to
reduce strains. While the use of more specific measures of social support (e.g., our use of
supportive conversations as a specific operationalization of support) helps move us in the
right direction, more work is need to understand how support operates to reduce burnout
and other strains.
Moreover, the findings underscore a need to direct more attention to the role of
communication in burnout (Becker, Halbesleben, & OHair, in press). Despite clear
relevance to the development of burnout, relatively little research has explored the specific
nature of communication in terms of social support, interpersonal relationships at work,
and burnout (cf., Ray & Miller, 1994). Given the findings of this study and others that have
found meaningful relationships between communication and burnout (i.e., Fenlason &
Beehr, 1994; Leiter, 1991), more research is needed that integrates communication as a key
component of occupational strains in general and burnout in particular. Of particular
interest are conversations about burnout between coworkers. While the present study
investigated positive conversations, there was no attempt to assess whether they actually
discussed burnout; such measurement would be valuable.
From an organizational perspective, there are a number of potential negative consequences of social comparison, particularly in terms of upward comparison, in perceptions
of burnout. If those employees experiencing higher burnout and upward comparison begin
to inhibit their problems, it may appear that an organizations workforce is functioning
normally, when indeed they are experiencing burnout. Consequentially, if the employees
begin to turnover, request leaves of absence, or perform poorly because of their inhibited
burnout and stress, organizations may have a difficult time determining the source of the
human resource problem and alternatives that may resolve these problems.
The possibility of social comparison errors
The findings with regard to upward comparison and its long-term effects on burnout may
be the result of a specific upward comparison error known as pluralistic ignorance.
Pluralistic ignorance represents a mismatch between ones attributes and their perceptions
of the group norm (Allport, 1924; Katz & Allport, 1931; Prentice & Miller, 1996). While
pluralistic ignorance has been studied in a variety of social contexts (cf., Miller &
McFarland, 1987; Miller, Monin, & Prentice, 2000; OGorman, 1975, 1980; Prentice &
Miller, 1993), it has not seen widespread application in organizational contexts (Halbesleben & Buckley, 2004b; Harvey, Novicevic, Buckley, & Ferris, 2001). In the case of burnout,
it would represent a pattern whereby individuals are burned out, but mistakenly believe that
others are not burned out.
Due to the general nature of the present sample, we are unable to provide conclusive
evidence that pluralistic ignorance is the process underlying those making upward
comparisons in this sample. Testing for pluralistic ignorance would require the ability to
isolate the group-level data in order to create a mean level of burnout with which
perceptions of others burnout could be compared. Nonetheless, it would be interesting for
future research efforts to explore the extent to which social comparison of burnout is done
in error and the implications of such errors for those experiencing burnout.

274

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

Remedies for pluralistic ignorance in burnout perceptions. Given the deleterious effects of
pluralistic ignorance in the perception of burnout, organizations may seek strategies for
reducing the impact of social comparison errors in burnout perceptions. Schroeder and
Prentice (1998) have proposed that pluralistic ignorance can be reduced if people are taught
about pluralistic ignorance and its effects on perception and decision-making. They found
that a training program designed to reduce pluralistic ignorance in perceptions of college
student alcohol consumption was effective in reducing pluralistic ignorance, primarily
because of improvements in estimating the prevalence of drinking among their peers. Their
work, in concert with the findings of the present study, suggests that if organizations have a
culture that supports discussing problems related to burnout, pluralistic ignorance will be
reduced, effectively reducing burnout as well. This thinking reinforces the aforementioned
notion that conversations with coworkers facilitate the buffering effect of social support by
increasing the accuracy of social comparison information.
Despite the interesting findings of the present work, there are a number of limitations that
must be addressed. First, because the data are self-report and from a single participant
source, we cannot rule out the possibility that common method bias is influencing the
statistical analysis presented. Second, while we have accounted for as much as 46% of the
variance in time 2 burnout by including the variables of interest to this study, there are
clearly exogenous variables that could potentially influence time 2 burnout that have not
been accounted for in our model.
The objective of this study was to explicate the role of social comparisons in the process
of burnout, with particular consideration given to the role that social support plays in
moderating the effect of social comparisons on burnout. The findings of the present study
suggest a relationship between self-other perceptions of burnout and the development of
burnout two months later. Moreover, we found that social support moderates the
relationship such that those who experience social support, in the form of conversations
with their coworkers, exhibit a reduced influence of social comparison on their later
burnout.
This paper makes a number of important contributions. First, it offers a theoretically
grounded framework that advances our understanding of the experience of burnout. In
doing so, the notions of social comparison do not replace current process models of burnout
but instead complement them by identifying the social context of burnout. It also sets forth
an agenda for this potentially important stream of burnout research. Second, the paper
offers an initial investigation of the role that relative burnout, particularly when interacting
with social support, may play in predicting burnout among a generalized sample. Taken
together, this paper blends a conceptual argument with empirical findings to illustrate the
significant role that social comparison plays in the experience of burnout.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Jenn Becker for her comments on an earlier draft of this
work and Nicole Salamon, Nicole Sauer, Tony Wheeler, and Dan OHair for their
assistance with data collection.
Notes
1 Note that the terms downward and upward comparison typically refer to the choice of a social comparison
target. In the present paper, we use those terms to refer to the outcome of the comparison; we are not assessing
who the individual has chosen to compare himself or herself with.

Social comparison and burnout

275

2 Note that in the analyses reported above, these scores were not dichotomized but instead treated as continuous
variables; dichotomization was only done for explanatory purposes and the cut-off point of 3 on the relative
burnout scale was arbitrarily chosen to reflect the nature of the scaling of the measure.

References
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions . Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Alicke, M. D. (2000). Evaluating social comparison targets. In J. Suls, & L. Wheeler (Eds.), Handbook of Social
Comparison: Theory & Research (pp. 271
293). New York: Plenum.
Allport, F. H. (1924). Social psychology. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review,
14 , 20
39.
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2003). The socially induced burnout model. In S. P. Shokov
(Ed.), Advances in psychology research (vol. 25, pp. 13
30). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2000). Burnout contagion processes among teachers. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 30 , 2289
2308.
Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W. B., Sixma, H. J., & Bosveld, W. (2001). Burnout contagion among general
practitioners. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20 , 82
98.
Baruch-Feldman, C., Brondolo, E., Ben-Dayan, D., & Schwarz, J. (2002). Sources of social support and burnout,
job satisfaction, and productivity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7 , 84
93.
Becker, J. A. H., Halbesleben, J. R. B., & OHair, H. D. (2005). Defensive communication and burnout in the
workplace: The mediating role of leader
member exchange. Communication Research Reports , 22 , 143
150.
Beehr, T. A. (1985). The role of social support in coping with organizational stress. In T. A. Beehr, & R. S. Bhagat
(Eds.), Human stress and cognition in organizations: An integrated perspective (pp. 375
398). New York: Wiley.
Brenninkmeijer, V., van Yperen, N. W., & Buunk, B. P. (2001). I am not a better teacher, but others are doing
worse: Burnout and perceptions of superiority among teachers. Social Psychology of Education , 4 , 259
274.
Brigham, N. L., Kelso, K. A., Jackson, M. A., & Smith, R. H. (1997). The roles of invidious comparisons and
deservingness in sympathy and schadenfruede . Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19 , 363
380.
Burisch, M. (2002). A longitudinal study of burnout: The relative importance of dispositions and experiences.
Work & Stress , 16 , 1
17.
Buunk, B. P., Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., van Yperen, N. W., & Dakof, G. (1990). The affective consequences of
social comparison: Either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 , 1238

1249.
Buunk, B. P., & Gibbons, F. X. (2000). Toward and enlightenment in social comparison theory: Moving beyond
classic and renaissance approaches. In J. Suls, & L. Wheeler (Eds.), Handbook of social comparison: Theory &
research (pp. 487
499). New York: Plenum.
Buunk, B. P., & Gibbons, F. X. (1997). Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison theory.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Buunk, B. P., Gibbons, F. X., & Reis-Bergan, M. (1997). Social comparison in health and illness. In B. P. Buunk, &
F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison theory (pp. 1
23).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Buunk, B. P., & Shaufeli, W. B. (1993). Burnout: Perspective from social comparison theory. In W. B. Schaufeli, C.
Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research . Washington, DC:
Taylor & Francis.
Buunk, B. P., Shaufeli, W. B., & Ybema, J. F. (1994). Burnout, uncertainty, and the desire for social comparison
among nurses. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24 , 1701
1718.
Buunk, B. P., & Ybema, J. F. (1997). Social comparisons and occupational stress: The identification-contrast
model. In B. P. Buunk, & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison
theory (pp. 359
388). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Buunk, B. P., Ybema, J. F., Gibbons, F. X., & Ipenburg, M. (2001). The affective consequences of social
comparison as related to professional burnout and social comparison orientation. European Journal of Social
Psychology, 31 , 337
351.
Carlson, D. S., & Perrewe, P. L. (1999). The role of social support in the stressor-strain relationship: An
examination of work-family conflict. Journal of Management , 25 , 513
540.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edn).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

276

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparisons on self-evaluations.
Psychological Bulletin , 119 , 51
69.
Collins, R. L. (2000). Among the better ones: Upward assimilation in social comparison. In J. Suls, & L. Wheeler
(Eds.), Handbook of social comparison: Theory & research (pp. 159
171). New York: Plenum.
Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. W. (1990). Type of social support and specific stress: Toward a theory of optimal
matching. In B. R. Sarason, I. G. Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view (pp. 319

366). New York: Wiley.
Daniel, S., & Rogers, M. L. (1981). Burn-out and the pastorate: A critical review with implications for priests.
Journal of Psychology and Theology, 9 , 232
249.
Drake, B., & Yadama, G. N. (1996). A structural equation model of burnout and job exit among child protective
services workers. Social Work Research , 20 , 179
187.
Fenlason, K. J., & Beehr, T. A. (1994). Social support and occupational stress: Effects of talking to others. Journal
of Organizational Behavior , 15 , 157
175.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations , 7 , 117
140.
Ganster, D. C., Fusilier, M. P., & Mayes, B. T. (1986). Role of social support in the experience of stress at work.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 71 , 102
110.
Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (1991). Downward comparison and coping with threat. In J. Suls, & T. Willis
(Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 317
346). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Golembiewski, R. T. (1989). A note on Leiters study: Highlighting two models of burnout. Group &
Organizational Studies , 14 , 5
13.
Golembiewski, R. T., & Munzenrider, R. F. (1988). Phases of burnout: Developments in concepts and applications .
New York: Praeger.
Golembiewski, R. T., Munzenrider, R. F., & Stevenson, J. G. (1986). Stress in organizations: Toward a phase model of
burnout . New York: Praeger.
Greenglass, E. R., Burke, R. J., & Konarski, R. (1997). The impact of social support in the development of burnout
in teachers: Examination of a model. Work & Stress , 11 , 267
278.
Grosch, W. N., & Olsen, D.C. (2000). Clergy burnout: An integrative approach. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56 ,
619
632.
Halbesleben, J. R. B. (in press). Sources of social support and burnout: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of
resources model. Journal of Applied Psychology.
Halbesleben, J. R. B., & Bowler, Wm. M. (in press). Burnout and job performance: The mediating role of
motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology.
Halbesleben, J. R. B., & Buckley, M. R. (2004a). Burnout in organizational life. Journal of Management , 30 , 859

880.
Halbesleben, J. R. B., & Buckley, M. R. (2004b). Pluralistic ignorance: Historical development and organizational
applications. Management Decision , 42 , 126
138.
Harvey, M. G., Novicevic, M. M., Buckley, M. R., & Ferris, G. R. (2001). A historical perspective on
organizational ignorance. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 16 , 449
468.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations . New York: John Wiley.
Hobfoll, S. E., & Freedy, J. (1993). Conservation of resources: A general stress theory applied to burnout. In W. B.
Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research .
Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
Kaniasty, K. (2005). Social support and traumatic stress. PTSD Research Quarterly, 16 (2), 1
7.
Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (1992). Social support and victims of crime: Matching event, support, and outcome.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 20 , 211
241.
Katz, D., & Allport, F. H. (1931). Student Attitudes . Syracuse, NY: Craftsmen Press.
Kolodinsky, R.W., Hochwarter, W.A., & Ferris, G.R. (2004). Nonlinearity in the relationship between political skill
and work outcomes: Convergent evidence from three studies. Journal of Vocational Behavior , 65 , 294
308.
Kulik, J. A., & Mahler, H. I. M. (1989). Stress and affiliation in a hospital setting: Preoperative roommate
preferences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 15 , 183
193.
Kulik, J. A., & Mahler, H. I. M. (2000). Social comparison, affiliation, and emotional contagion under threat. In J.
Suls, & L. Wheeler (Eds.), Handbook of Social Comparison: Theory & Research (pp. 295
320). New York:
Plenum.
Lee, R. T., & Ashforth, B. E. (1993). A longitudinal study of burnout among supervisors and managers:
Comparisons between the Leiter and Maslach (1988) and Golembiewski et al. (1986) models. Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 54 , 369
398.
Leiter, M. P. (1989). Conceptual implications of two models of burnout: A response to Golembiewski. Group and
Organizational Studies , 14 , 15
22.

Social comparison and burnout

277

Leiter, M. P. (1991). Burnout as a function of communication patterns: A study of a multidisciplinary mental

health team. Group and Organization Studies , 13 , 111
128.
Leiter, M. P. (1993). Burnout as a developmental process: Consideration of models. In W. B. Schaufeli, C.
Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research . Washington, DC:
Taylor & Francis.
Lloyd, C., King, R., & Chenowith, L. (2002). Social work, stress, and burnout: A review. Journal of Mental Health ,
11 , 255
266.
Luszczynska, A., & Cieslak, R. (2005). Protective, promotive, and buffering effects of perceived social support in
managerial stress: The moderating role of personality. Anxiety, Stress, Coping , 18 , 227
244.
Major, B., Testa, M., & Bylsma, W. H. (1991). Responses to upward and downward comparisons: The impact of
esteem-relevance and perceived control. In J. Suls, & T. Willis (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and
research (pp. 237
260). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S.E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). Maslach burnout inventory manual (3rd edn). Pal Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press.
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W.B., & Leiter, M.P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52 , 397
422.
Miller, D. T., & McFarland, C. (1987). Pluralistic ignorance: When similarity is interpreted as dissimilarity. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 , 298
305.
Miller, D. T., & McFarland, C. (1991). When social comparison goes awry: The case of pluralistic ignorance. In J.
Suls, & T. Willis (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Miller, D. T., Monin, B., & Prentice, D. A. (2000). Pluralistic ignorance and inconsistency between private
attitudes and public behavior. In D. J. Terry, & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Attitudes, behavior, and social context: The role
of norms and group membership. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Norris, F. H., & Kaniasty, K. (1996). Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the social
support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71 , 498
511.
OGorman, H. J. (1975). Pluralistic ignorance and white estimates of white support for racial segregation. Public
Opinion Quarterly, 39 , 313
330.
OGorman, H. J. (1980). False consciousness of kind: Pluralistic ignorance among the aged. Research on Aging , 2 ,
105
128.
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (1993). Pluralistic ignorance and alcohol use on campus: Some consequences of
misperceiving the social norm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64 , 243
256.
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (1996). Pluralistic ignorance and the perpetuation of social norms by unwitting
actors. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 28 , 161
209.
Rafferty, Y., Friend, R., & Landsbergis, P. A. (2001). The association between job discretion, decision authority,
and burnout. Work & Stress , 15 , 73
85.
Ray, E. B., & Miller, K. I. (1994). Social support, home/work stress, and burnout: Who can help? Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science , 30 , 357
373.
Rizzo, J. R., House, R. J., & Lirtzman, S. I. (1970). Role conflict and ambiguity in complex organizations.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 15 , 150
163.
Sargent, L. T., & Terry, D. J. (2000). The moderating role of social support in Karaseks job strain model. Work &
Stress , 14 , 245
261.
Schachter, S. (1959). The psychology of affiliation . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1996). Maslach burnout inventory-General survey
(MBI-GS). In C. Maslach, S. E. Jackson, & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Maslach burnout inventory manual (3rd edn). Pal
Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Schaufeli, W. B., Van Dierendonck, D., & Van Gorp, K. (1996). Burnout and reciprocity: Towards a dual-level
social exchange model. Work & Stress , 10 , 225
237.
Schroeder, C. M., & Prentice, D. A. (1998). Exposing pluralistic ignorance to reduce alcohol use among college
students. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28 , 2150
2180.
Smith, R. H. (2000). Assimilative and contrastive emotional reactions to upward and downward social
comparisons. In J. Suls, & L. Wheeler (Eds.), Handbook of Social Comparison: Theory & Research (pp. 173

200). New York: Plenum.
Smith, R. H., Turner, T. J., Garonzik, R., Leach, C. W., Druskat, V. U., & Weston, C. M. (1996). Envy and
schadenfreude . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 22 , 158
168.
Strumpfer, D. J. W., & Bands, J. (1996). Stress among clergy: An exploratory study on South African Anglican
priests. South African Journal of Psychology, 26 , 67
75.
Tamara, S., & Ishikuma, T. (2001). Help-seeking preferences and burnout: Junior high school teachers in Japan.
Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology, 49 , 438
448.

278

J. R. B. Halbesleben & M. R. Buckley

Taris, T. W., Peeters, M. C. W., Le Blanc, P. M., Schreurs, P. J. G., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). From inequity to
burnout: The role of job stress. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6 , 303
323.
Tennen, H., McKee, T. E., & Affleck, G. (2000). Social comparison processes in health and illness. In J. Suls, & L.
Wheeler (Eds.), Handbook of social comparison: Theory and research (pp. 443
483). New York: Plenum.
Truchot, D., & Deregard, M. (2001). Perceived inequity, communal orientation, and burnout: The role of helping
models. Work & Stress , 15 , 347
356.
Valins, S., & Nisbett, R. E. (1971). Attributional processes in the development and treatment of emotional disorders .
Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Van der Zee, K. I., Buunk, B. P., DeRuiter, J. H., Tempelaar, R., VanSonderen, E., & Sanderman, R. (1996).
Social comparison and the subjective well-being of cancer patients. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 18 , 453

468.
Van Dierendonck, D., Schaufeli, W. B., & Bunnk, B. P. (2001). Burnout and inequity among human service
professionals: A longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6 , 43
52.
Virginia, S. G. (1998). Burnout and depression among Roman Catholic secular, religious, and monastic clergy.
Pastoral Psychology, 47 , 49
67.
Wheeler, L., & Miyake, K. (1992). Social comparison and everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
62 , 760
773.
Winnubst, J. (1993). Organizational structure, social support, and burnout. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T.
Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research . Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
Winnubst, J. A., Marcelissen, F. H., & Kleber, R. J. (1982). Effects of social support in the stressor
strain
relationship: A Dutch sample. Social Science and Medicine , 16 , 475
482.