Interactions

Among
Living
Things
As s u n l i g h t falls o n the leaves o f a plant, substances i nthe leaves capture the sunlight's energy
a n d u s ei t t o m a k e f o o d . B u t e v e n as t h e leaves a r e
m a k i n g f o o d , a tiny t h i e f is stealing s o m e o fit. A
s m a l l a p h i d ( a n insect) p o k e s its s t r a w l i k e m o u t h p a r t s
i n t o t h e l e a f a n d b e g i n s t o s u c k u p f o o d - r i c h sap.
Suddenly, a h u n g r y ant scurries along the leaf
t o w a r d t h e a p h i d . I s t h e a p h i d d o o m e d t o e n d u pas
the ant's lunch? N o . U p o n reaching the aphid, t h e
a n t b e g i n s t o s t r o k e t h e s m a l l e r i n s e c t w i t h its feelers. T h e a p h i d r e s p o n d s b y releasing a d r o p o f a
sugary substance called honeydew. T h e ant eagerly
licks u p t h e h o n e y d e w . T h e n the ant gently picks u p
t h e a p h i d i n its j a w s a n d carries i t t o a n o t h e r leaf.
T h e r e t h e a p h i d is a d d e d t o a " h e r d " being tended
by ants. T h e ants take care o f the aphids i n
e x c h a n g e f o r meis o f h o n e y d e w . T h e a n t s m o v e t h e
a p h i d s t o f r e s h l e a v e s w h e n t h e od o n e s w i t h e r .
W h e n i t rains, t h e ants carry the aphids t o m o r e
sheltered leaves. T h e ants also d e f e n d t h e i r h e r d
f r o m l a d y b u g s a n d o t h e r a p h i d - d e v o u r i n g animis.

Guide for Reading

After you read the following
sections, you will be able to
1-1 Living Things and Their
Environment
m Define ecosystem and
identify the parts o f an
ecosystem.
1-2 Food and Energy in the
Environment
m Discuss the interactions
among producers,
consumers, and
decomposers.

Describe how energy

fows w i t h i n a n e c o system.

1-3 Interaction and Evolution

B

Discuss how interactions

affect evolution.

1-4 Life in the Balance

Explain why a disturbance
in t h e b a l a n c e i n o n e p a r t
of a n e c o s y s t e m c a n affect the entire e c o s y s t e m .
5

T h e interactions a m o n g aphids, ants, ladybugs,

sunlight, a n d plants are just a few o f the coundess
relationships that link living things t o one another
a n d t o their s u r r o u n d i n g s . R e a d o n t o discover m o r e
about interactions a m o n g living things.

Journal A c t i v i t y
You a n d Your World
In y o u r J o u r n a l , e x p l o r e t h e t h o u g h t s a n d f e e l i n g s
you'have aboutenvironmentaiissues.

These orange-colored ants are busily tending a large "herd" of dark gray aphids.
G

11

Guide for Reading

Focus on these questions as
you read.
Why do ecologists study
both the living and the
nonliving parts of an
environment?
What do the following terms
mean: environment,
ecosystem,
community,
population, and habitat?

1-1 Living Things and Their

Environment
A t h o u s a n d metcrs b e l o w the ocean's surface, t h e
last traces o f s u n l i g h t fade i n t o n o t h i n g n e s s . T h e w a ter teraperature is o n l y a f e w degrees above freezing.
T h e r e is very little f o o d o r oxygen. Yet the harsh,
dark wor.ld o f the deep seais h o m e t o m a n y organi s m s ( l i v i n g t h i n g s ) . N i g h t m a r i s h shes w i t h h u g e
teeth a n d eyes g l o w w i t h ghostly lights m a d e b y their
o w n bodies. Octopuses a n d squids with webbed arms
p u l s e t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r o r float l i k e f a l l i n g
parachutes. Strange spiky s e a c u c u m b e r s sift t h r o u g h
the m u d d y o c e a n f l o o r f o r the bits o ff o o d that drift
d o w n f r o m t h e sunlit w o r l d above.
O n l a n d , i na l u s h tropical r a i n forest, tall trees
with clinging vines thrive i nthe w a r m t h and
sunUght. I n t h e treetops, brightly colored parrots
m u n c h o n seeds w h i l e m o n k e y s chatter t o one another. Snakes a n d lizards climb u p and d o w n t h e
tree t r u n k s i nsearch o ff o o d . A n d piglike tapirs
calmly make their way along the ground.
T h e d e e p s e a a n d a r a i n forest a r eo n l y t w o o f
t h e m a n y d i f f e r e n t environments f o u n d o n E a r t h . A n

Figure 1-1 The huge jaws and enormous teeth of this deep-sea fish
enable it to catch and eat animis that are larger than itself. The eyelash
viper and the H e l i c o n i a flowers on which it is coiled Uve in the same kind
of environment as the blue-and-goid and scarlet macaws. What kind of
environment is home to these organisms ?

e n v i r o n m e n t consists o f a l l t h el i v i n g a n d n o n l i v i n g
things with w h i c h a n organism m a y interact.
Organisms obtain the food, watei^ and other resources they need t o live a n d g r o w f r o m their environment. Consider for a m o m e n t some o f the things
a p a r r o t gets f r o m i t s rain-forest e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e
parrot feeds o n seeds a n d fruits f r o m plants. I t
drinks water f r o m puddles a n d streams. I t h a s trees
in w h i c h t o p e r c h a n d b u i l d i t snest. I t h a sa i r t o
b r e a t h e a n d t o fly t h r o u g h . T h e p a r r o t c a n l i v e i n a
rain forest because this e n v i r o n m e n t contains allt h e
things a parrot needs t o survive. W h y woiildn't a
parrot b e able t o live i na n e n v i r o n m e n t that is
quite d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r a i n forest, such as t h e d e e p
sea o r a d e s e r t ? C a n y o u e x p l a i n w h y d i f f e r e n t e n v i ronments contain different kinds o f organisms?

Figure 1-2 A few moments ago,

the chameleon's environment was
changed by the appearance of a
juicy cricl<et. How dees the
chameieon respond to such shortterm changes in its environment?

Living things d o n o t simply exist i n their e n v i r o n m e n t like photos i na frame. T h e y constantly interact w i t h t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . O r g a n i s m s c a n c h a n g e
i n r e s p o n s e t o c o n d i t i o n s i n t h ee n v i r o n m e n t . T h e s e
changes c a noften b e quite rapid. For example, withi n a f e w s e c o n d s , t h e fish k n o w n a s a
flounder
can
c h a n g e itscolors a n d spots t o m a t c h t h esand a n d
p e b b l e s o n a n e w p a t c h o f o c e a n floor. O r t h e
changes c a nb e m u c h slower. O nw i n d s w e p t m o u n tains, for e x a m p l e , trees g r o w s o that they b e n d i n
the direction o f the w i n d . Some slow changes involve
entire groups o forganisms, not just individual organisms. I nSection 1-3, y o u will read about some o f
the ways organisms have evolved ( c h a n g e d over
time) i nresponse t o their environment.
In addition t o changing i nresponse t o their envir o n m e n t , living things also cause c h a n g e i n t h e i r
environment. Earthworms and other burrowing animis d i g t u n n e l s i n t h e s o i l . W o o d p e c k e r s d r i l l h o l e s
i n trees. T r e e roots b r e a k u p sidewalks. B e a v e r s b u i l d
dams that block
flowing
s t r e a m s a n d t h u s crate
ponds. C a n y o u identify some ways i nw h i c h h u m a n s
change their environment?
All of the living and nonliving things i n an environment are interconnected. Y o u c a n t h i n k o f a n e n v i r o n m e n t as b e i n g like a giant spider w e b . H o w e v e r ,
the threads o f this w e b a r en o t s p u n f r o m silk. T h e
threads o fa n environment's web a r e t h e relations h i p s a m o n g i t s p l a n t s , animis, s o i l , w a t e r , t e m p e r a ture, light, and other living and n o n l i v i n g things.

Figure 1-3 The reiationships

among the living and nonliving
parts of the environment can be
thought of as being like a giaht
spider web. But an environmental
web is more complexand
perhaps more fragethan the
delicate web of a spider.

T h i n k for a m o m e n t about what happens when

a n insect gets caught i na spider's web. A s o n e
t h r e a d o f the w e b is disturbed, the s h a k i n g m o t i o n is
transferred t o all the threads that are part o f the
web. I na n environmental web, changes i n one
t h r e a d m a y also b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o o t h e r threads a n d
have a n effect o n t h e m . F o r example, cutting d o w n
t h e trees i n a forest m a y affect t h e r a i n f a l l i na dist a n t city. A n d w h e n a t h r e a d is b r o k e n , t h e e n t i r e
w e b i s wakened.
T o understand the changes that can occur i n a n
e n v i r o n m e n t a n d how
they can affect the environm e n t , you c a n s t u d y t h e s c i e n c e c a l l e d ecology. E c o l og)' i s t h e s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d i n t e r a c t i o n s
of living things with one another and with their envir o n m e n t . Scientists w h o study these interactions a r e
called
ecologists.

Ecosystems

Figure 1-4/4 forest of broadleaved trees is just one of ttie

many hinds of ecosystems on
Eartii. Wfiat l<nds of organisms
wouldyou find in. tiiis ecosystem?

Living things inhabit many environments o n

E a r t h . F r o m the polar i c e caps t o the forests a n d
plains o fthe equator, living things can b e f o u n d u n d e r g r o u n d , i n air, i n water, a n d o n l a n d . O r g a n i s m s
have been f o u n d a t the b o t t o m o focean trenches
kilometers deep and
floating
i nthe air m o r e t h a n
eight kilometers above the Earth's surface.
T o m a k e s e n s e of t h e n u m b e r a n d v a r i e t y o f i n teractions a m o n g Earth's living things and their envir o n m e n t , e c o l o g i s t s find i t u s e f u l t o d i v i d e t h e w o r l d
up i n t o seprate u n i t s k n o w n a s e c o s y s t e m s . A n
e c o s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of a l l t h e l i v i n g a n d n o n l i v i n g
t h i n g s i n a g i v e n rea t h a t i n t e r a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r .
A forest ecosystem, for example, includes birds and
squirrels i nt h e trees, foxes a n d rabbits i n the bushes, t h e t r e e s a n d b u s h e s t h e m s e l v e s , i n s e c t s a n d s p i ders, shade-loving wildflowers, ferns, m u s h r o o m s a n d
other fungi, microorganisms (microscopic
organisms) s u c h as bacteria a n d protists, d e a d leaves,
i nthe
rocks, sunlight, rain water, and
m a n y other living and nonliving things. H o w d o t h e
trees i n a forest ecosystem interact w i t h squirrels?
W i t h t h e soil?

Chemicals

soil,

A n ecosystem c a n b e as tiny as a d r o p o f p o n d
w a t e r or a s q u a r e m e t e r o f a g a r d e n . O r i t c a n b e a s
l a r g e as a n o c e a n , a f o r e s t , o r a p l a n e t . T h e size o f
14

an ecosystem is defined b y the ecologist w h o is

studying it. W l i a t ecosystem w o u l d y o u expect a n
ecologist interested i nthe interactions o f freshwater
s w i m m i n g microorganisms t o study? W o u l d a n ecologist s t u d y i n g the wildlife i na n d a r o u n d L a k e T a h o e ,
C a l i f o r n i a , u s ea s i m i l a r e c o s y s t e m ? M T i y o r w h y n o t ?
It is u s e f u l t o talk a b o u t ecosystems as i f t h e y
w e r e seprate, s e l f - c o n t a i n e d u n i t s . H o w e v e r , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p i n m i n d t h a t e c o s y s t e m s a r en o t isolated. Ecosystems overlap a n d affect one another.
T h e grizzly bears o f a forest ecosystem m a y feed o n
t h e salmn o f a s t r e a m e c o s y s t e m . C h e m i c a l s f r o m
aerosol cans, air conditioners, a n d refrigerators i n
the U n i t e d States a n d elsewhere a r ecarried great
distances b y the w i n d a n d eventually b r e a k d o w n the
protective ozone layer i nthe air above the poles.
T h e "holes" thus created i nthe ozone layer allow
extra radiation f r o m the sun t o reach the ecosystems
near the poles, d a m a g i n g t h e m . D a m a g e t o these
ecosystems may, i nturn, result i ndamage t o other
e c o s y s t e m s i n c l u d i n g o n e s i n w h i c h y o u live! S oi t
is i m p o r t a n t t h a t y o u r e a l i z e a l l t h e l i v i n g a n d n o n living things o nE a r t h are ultimately connected t o
one another.

Communities
T h e living part o fany ecosystemall the different
o r g a n i s m s t h a t l i v e t o g e t h e r i n t h a t reais c a l l e d a
community. T h e c o m m u n i t y o f a p o n d , f o r e x a m p l e ,
m i g h t i n c l u d e fishes, frogs, snails, m i c r o o r g a n i s m s ,
a n d water lilies. T h e m e m b e r s o f a c o m m u n i t y interact w i t h o n e a n o t h e r i nm a n y d i f f e r e n t ways. L i l y
pads provide a resting place for frogs. Large fishes

Figure 1-5 /A tide-pool ecosystem

(inset) is a small part of the Pacific
Northwest coast ecosystem. What
larger ecosystem would
encompass the Pacific coast
ecosystem? Why do ecosystems
come in all sizes?

A9T I V I T Y

////////////i

Identifying

Interactions

E c o s y s t e m s a r e all a r o u n d
you. C h o o s e o n e particular
ecosysteman
aquarium,
s w a m p , lake, park, o r city
block, for e x a m p l e a n d study
the interactions that occur
a m o n g t h e living a n d nonliving
parts of t h eecosystem. I n clude drawings and diagrams
in y o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s .

Figure 1-6 The plains of Afrca

are home to many different kinds
of living things. What members of
the African plains community can
you identify here ?

Figure 1-7 Some populations

such as that of the flamingoes in
Botswana, Afhcaare enormous.
Otherssuch as that of the
treehoppers on a twig in Costa
Ricaare quite small.

T^x

r":

eat frogs. M i c r o o r g a n i s m s break d o w n the bodies o f

d e a d o r g a n i s m s , p r o d u c i n g p r o d u c t s such as n i t r o g e n
c o m p o u n d s that can b e used b yplants. C a n y o u
t h i n k o fsome other ways i n w h i c h the m e m b e r s o f a
p o n d c o m m u n i t y interact? I nthe n e x t t w o sections,
y o u w i l l l e a r n a b o u t s o m e o f t h e specic i n t e r a c t i o n s
that take place w i t h i n communities.

You, like all other living things o nEarth, belong

to a n ecological communit)'. Y o u r c o m m u n i t y probably contains m a n y different kinds o fliving things:
p e o p l e , dogs, cats, birds, insects, grass, a n d trees, t o
ame a f e w . W h a t o t h e r k i n d s o f o r g a n i s m s a r e
f o u n d i ny o u r c o m m u n i t y ?
E a c h k i n d o f l i v i n g t h i n g m a k e s u p a population
in the community. A population is a group o f organisms o f the s a m e type, o r species, living together i n
t h e s a m e rea. ( A s p e c i e s i s a g r o u p o f s i m i l a r o r ganisms that can produce offspring. Y o u a n d all other h u m a n s b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e species. B u t cats
b e l o n g t o a n o t h e r species.) F o r e x a m p l e , all the
r a i n b o w t r o u t l i v i n g i n a l a k e a r ea p o p u l a t i o n . A l l
the r e d w o o d trees i na forest are a p o p u l a t i o n .

B u t a group consisting o f all the wildflowers i n a

m e a d o w is n o t considered t o b e a p o p u l a t i o n . C a n
you explain why?

Habitats
W h e r e w o u l d y o u g o t o find a l i o n ? H o w a b o u t a
pigeon? W h e r e i na forest w o u l d y o u look for a
squirrel? A m u s h r o o m ? A ne a r t h w o r m ? W o u l d y o u
discover all these organisms i n t h esame place? Probably not. L i o n s live o n t h egrassy plains o f A f r i c a .
P i g e o n s live i n cities, a m o n g o t h e r places. I n a f o r est, s q u i r r e l s l i v e i n t h e t r e e s , m u s h r o o m s g r o w o n
t h e f o r e s t floor, a n d e a r t h w o r m s b u r r o w i n t h e s o i l .
E a c h o f these o r g a n i s m s lives i n a d i f f e r e n t place.
T h e place i nw h i c h a n o r g a n i s m lives is called its
habitat. A h a b i t a t p r o v i d e s f o o d , s h e l t e r , a n d t h e o t h er resources a n o r g a n i s m needs t o survive. L i v i n g
things such as lions, pigeons, a n d m u s h r o o m s live i n
different habitats because they have different
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u r v i v a l . O r g a n i s m s s u c h as lions,
zebras, a n d giraffes also have- d i f f e r e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s
for survival. Yet these organisms live i n t h e same
habitat. W h y ? Because their r e q u i r e m e n t s s u c h as
for temperature, water, and o p e n spaceoverlap i n
m a n y ways. T h e size o f a n o r g a n i s m ' s h a b i t a t
d e p e n d s o n t h eo r g a n i s m ' s habits a n d needs. T h e
habitat o f a h u m p b a c k whale is t h eo p e n ocean. T h e
habitat o f a certain tiny m i t e , o n t h eo t h e r h a n d , is
the earo fa m o t h .

1-1

Section Review

1. W h y d o e c o l o g i s t s s t u d y b o t h t h e n o n l i v i n g a n d
living things i na n environment?
2. W h a t i s a n e c o s y s t e m ? G i v e a n e x a m p l e o f a n
ecosystem.
3. W h a t i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a c o m m u n i t y
and a population?

ConnectionArchitecture
4. E x p l a i n w h y a n a r c h i t e c t d e s i g n i n g a n e w h o m e
for t h echeetahs i n a zoo m u s t k n o w s o m e t h i n g
a b o u t t h en a t u r a l h a b i t a t o f cheetahs.

ACTIVITY
Home Sweet

I
1
\l

Home

1. C h o o s e o n e o f t h e f o l lowing aninnals a n d find o u t

w h a t k i n d o f s h e l t e r t b u i l d s :
beaver, t r a p d o o r spider, nnud
d a u b e r w a s p , p r a i r i e d o g , cliff
swailow, termite, w e a v e r bird,
m o l e rat, t o u c a n , carrier shell
{Xenophora),
coral gall crab.
2. O n a s h e e t o f p a p e r ,
draw a picture o fthe animal's
s h e l t e r a n d m a k e a list o f t h e
m a t e r i a l s n e e d e d t o b u i l d it.
3. B u i l d a m o d e l o f y o u r a n imal's shelter using the s a m e
materials t h e animal would
use whenever possible.
m Predict what would happ e n if t h e m a t e r i a l s t h a t a n a n uses t o build its shelter
were not available.

i r

Guide for Reading

Focus on these questions as
you read.
How do producers, consumers, and decomposers
interact?
What is the difference
between a food chain
and a food web?

1-2 Food and Energy in the

Environment
If y o u enjoy w a t c h i n g o r playing t e a m sports, y o u
k n o w that the m e m b e r s o f a team usually play different positions. Basketball players m a y b e centers, forwards, o r guards. Baseball players m a y b e pitchers,
catchers, shortstops, center fielders, a n d so o n . Each
position h a sa particular role associated w i t h it. F o r
example, a pitcher t h r o w s t h e ball t o t h e batters. A
g u a r d tries t o prevent the m e m b e r s o f the other
t e a m f r o m scoring a basket. Similarly, organisms
have special roles that they play i na n ecosystem.

Energy/ Roles .
O r g a n i s m s m a y b e p r o d u c e r s , consumers, o r
decomposers. T h e s e t h r e e t e r m s indcate h o w a n
organism obtains energy a n d h o w i tinteracts with
the other living things i nitscommunity.
PRODUCERS S o m e o r g a n i s m s , s u c h a s g r e e n
plants a n d c e r t a i n m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , have a v e r y special a b i l i t y t h a t sets t h e m a p a r t f r o m all o t h e r l i v i n g
things: T h e y c a nm a k e their o w n food. Such organisms a r ek n o w n as producers. Producers a r eable t o
use a source o f energy (such as sunlight) t o t u r n
s i m p l e r a w m a t e r i a l s ( s u c h a s w a t e r a n d carbn d i o x i d e gas) i n t o f o o d ( s u c h as t h e sugar glucose). O r ganisms that cannot make their o w n food may eat
the producers directly. O r they m a y e a tother organisms that cannot m a k e their o w n food. However, all
organisms that cannot make their o w n food ultimatel y d e p e n d o n p r o d u c e r s . P r o d u c e r s are the source of
all the f o o d i n a n ecosystem.

Figure 1-8 Towehng

redwood trees. Indigo
Texas bluebonnets, and
bright pink phlox are
examples of producers.
Why are producers
essential for Ufe on
Earth?