RT&Radiographic Interpretation Notes

RADIOGRAPHIC
TESTING
&
RADIOGRAPHIC
INTERPRETATION
MAIN LECTURE NOTES
ANC-RAD- TD-OOl
RUANE & T P O'NElll

ISSUE9 31/03/09
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The literature within is supplied by Argyll Ruane Ltd by way of contract agreement
whereby terms and conditions apply.
This document remains the copyright of Argyll Ruane Ltd and should not be copied
without prior consent from Argyll Ruane Ltd directly.
This document is reviewed on a regular basis and amended accordingly to meet
industry standards that apply.
We would like to thanks Argyll Ruane Ltd for their continued support.
30th April 2009
ANC-RAD-TD-001
RUANE & T P O'NEILL

ISSUE9 31/03/09
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
RADIOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW
RI
Principles of film radiography
R 1-1
Radiographic quality
Rl-l
Capabilities and limitations of radiography
R 1-1
Duties of a radiographic interpreter
R]-I
R2
X AND GAMMA RADIA TION

Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography
R2-1
R3
BASIC PHYSICS
Elements
R3-2
Atoms
R3-2
Isotopes
R3-3
Ions
R3-3
Radionuclides (radio-isotopes)
R3-3
Gamma ray generation
R3-3
Types of radiation
R3-5
Activity
R3-8
Specific activity
R3-8
Decay
R3-8
Half life
R3-8
Ionisation
R3-8
ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
R4
Scatter
R4-1
R5
RADIOGRAPIDC EQUIPMENT
Gamma sources
RS-l
X-ray generation
RS-3
Electrical circuits in x-ray tubes
RS-4
HALF VALUE THICKNESS

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
~..R6
R7
The make-up of a radiographic film
R7-]
Film types
R7-2
Film speed
R7-2
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF FILMS
R8
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
R9
General
R9-1
Lead screens
R9-1
Fluorescent (salt) screens
R9-1
Fluorometallic screens
R9-2
Comparison of intensifying screens
R9-2
IMAGE FORMATION
RIO
FILM PROCESSING ....................................................................................................................Rll

Darkrooms
Rl ]-1
Processing
Rl ]-3
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TABLE
OF
COl\TENTS
Developer
R 11-4
Stopbath
RII-5
Fixer
RI1-5
Final wash
RII-5
Wetting agent
R 11-6
Drying the film
Rl1-6
RADIOGRAPmC
QUALITy ..........................................................................................R12
Density
RI2-1
Radiographic contrast
R12-2
Definition
R12-3
Processing and handling faults
RI2-6
Artifacts
R 12-7
Sensitivity
R 12-8
Assessing sensitivity
RADIOGRAPIC
TECIINIQUES
R 12-10
................................................................................................ R13
SWSI : source outside, film inside
R13-1
SWSI: (panoramic) source inside, film outside
R13-2
DWSI.
RI3-2
DWDI
RI3-3
Sandwich technique
RI3-3
Location of defects
RI3-3
Image shifts
RI3-5
DETERMINATION
OF EXPOSURE ................................................................................R14
Considerations for exposures
R 14-1
Exposure charts
R14-3
Exposure calculations for gamma rays
R14-4
Exposure calculations using gamma slide rule
RI4-4
Equivalence charts
R14-9
FILTERS
R15
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
R16
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UNIT Rl . RADIOGRAPHIC
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OVERVIE\V
T PO'Neill
l\OTES
PRINCIPLES
OF FILM RADIOGRAPHY
Film radiography is carried out using x-ray machines or artificial gamma sources
(radio-isotopes).
10
X-rays or gamma rays pass through the object to be radiographed and record an image
on a radiographic film placed on the opposite side. The quality and amount of radiation
reaching the film will be largely determined by the objects thickness and density, e.g. a
crack in a weld will increase the amount of radiation falling on the film in that area due
to a reduction in thickness.
20
It is the wavelength of the radiation which governs its penetrating power. This is
governed by the kilovoltage (kV) setting when using x-rays and isotope type with
gamma rays. The intensity of the radiation is governed by the milli-amperage (mA)
setting when using x-rays and by the activity of the isotope type with gamma rays.
Activity is measured in curies or gigabecquerels.
Xsradiography typically uses

/50300 k V on steel weldments
up to approximately 30 mm total
thickness.
30
When the film is processed a negative is produced. The thin areas of an object will be
darker than the thicker areas, therefore most weld defects will show up dark in relation
to the surrounding areas, exceptions are excess weld metal, spatter, copper inclusions
and tungsten inclusions.
Cobalt 60 (C060) has a very

high penetrating power - very
short wavelength - and can be
used on materials up /0 200 mm
thick. Iridium 192 (JrI92) is 40
commonly used on steel
weldments up to 60 mm thick.
RADIOGRAPHIC
QUALITY
An overall assessment of radiographic quality is made by the use of image quality

indicators (IQI's), the commonly used type consists of seven thin wires decreasing in
thickness. At least one IQI is pre-placed transversely across the weld being examined.
After exposure, some of the wires will be visible on the resultant radiograph - the more
wires visible the better the sensitivity.
50
The density of an image on a radiograph, Le. its degree of blackness, is also measured
to ensure it lies within a specified range for optimum quality.
60
CAPABILITIES
AND LIMITATIONS
OF RADIOGRAPHY
A major advantage of radiographic testing is that a permanent record is produced, i.e.

the radiograph.
A major limitation of radiography is that it will only detect defects which have
significant depth in relation to the axis of the x-ray beam. As a rough guide, the
minimum through thickness depth of a defect capable of being detected is about 2% of
the wall thickness in the same axis as the x-ray beam, e.g. radiography will not usually
detect plate laminations, lack of inter-run fusion or cracks perpendicular to the x-ray
beam.
70
80
X-radiography vs gamma radiography

X-radiography requires bulky and expensive machinery in comparison with gamma
radiography, but x-radiography generally produces better quality radiographs and is
safer. X-ray machines can be switched on and off, unlike gamma sources.
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OVERVIE\\'
:\Ol[S
DUTIES OF A RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETER

It is the duty of a radiographic interpreter to ensure that all radiographic interpretation
and any associated actions are carried out in accordance with the relevant
specification(s) for the work being carried out.
10
A radiographic interpreter must have access to the relevant specification(s) and must
know where to find and interpret relevant information.
20
Specific duties when interpreting radiographs of welds are typically as follows:

] . Mask off any unwanted light on the viewer.
30
2.
View radiographs under subdued background light.
3.
Ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, each radiograph is correctly identified to

the weld it represents.
4.
Ensure that the weld locations are identified, e.g. has the correct number tape been
used.
5.
Assess the quality of the radiograph:

a. Measure radiographic density.
b. Calculate IQI sensitivity - also ensure the IQl's are of the correct type and
correctly positioned.
c. Assess radiographic contrast; e.g. has gamma been used when only xradiography is permitted?
d. Assess definition/graininess; e.g. have salt intensifying screens been used
when only lead intensifying screens are permitted? Has a fast film been used
instead of a slow film?
e. Do artifacts interfere with interpretation?
6.
Check the radiograph to determine if any obstruction between the source of

radiation and the film interferes with interpretation, e.g. lead numbers.
7.
Identify the type of weld if possible - normally already known.
8.
Check the parent material on the radiograph for arc strikes, hard stamping, gouges,
minimum seam offset etc., when applicable.
9.
Check the weld on the radiograph for defects, stating type and region.
40
50
60
10. State action to be taken, e.g. accept the radiograph and weld, reshoot, repair,
remove the entire weld, visual check, grind and investigate, MP] check, ultrasonic
check.
70
80
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UNIT R2 X AND GAMMA RAJ)IATION
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COMPARISON
OF X AND GAMMA RAYS FOR INDUSTRIAL
10
RADIOGRAPHY
20
Using x-ray machines is normally safer than using gamma sources because x-ray
machines may be switched off like a light bulb, whereas there is a constant emission of
radiation with a gamma source. Gamma sources must always be returned to their
shielding containers when not in use.
Safety
Quality of radiographic
30
images
Assuming variables such as test material thickness, film type etc. remains constant, xrays produced by conventional x-ray equipment, say up to 300 kV, produce better
quality radiographic images than Ir192 or C060 isotopes, because these x-rays have
longer wavelengths than the gamma sources.
Ytterbium 169 (Yb169) may produce radiographs comparable to those produced by
using x-rays. If the wavelength from the gamma source is the same as the wavelength
from the x-ray set, the quality will be the same.
40
Handling
Gamma sources are easier to handle in comparison with bulky and fragile x-ray
equipment.
The size also allows for gamma sources to be used in difficult and
inaccessible areas for x-ray machines, e.g. on pipe racks.
50
Cost
Gamma sources and containers are much cheaper than x-ray equipment, however,
gamma sources deplete in output and must be replaced regularly. This makes gamma
more expensive in the long run.
60
Versatility
The intensity and wavelengths of x-rays can be adjusted from the x-ray control panel.
The intensity and wavelengths of gamma radiation cannot be adjusted, although the
intensity (activity) reduces with time - see half-lives.
70
Certain gamma sources have a very high penetrating power which enables them to be
used on very thick material, e.g. 150 mm steel. Most conventional x-ray machines will
not penetrate more than 50 mm of steel although there are huge x-ray machines, e.g. the
linear accelerator and the betatron which can produce radiation of a wavelength which
can penetrate as much as, and usually more than, gamma radiation.
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UNIT R3 BASIC PHYSICS
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l'i01 [S
.-.--~-~
N shell
10
....
----.-.
M shell
---_ _,
Lshell
..
K shell
:'
20
...
'-
Proton (+ charge)
Neutron (no charge)
Electron (- charge)
,.
30
'
-,
40
Neutrons
[MASS NUMBER]
E
Z
and protons
Element
Number of protons in the nucleus
[ATOMIC NUMBER]
50
Element
Number
Symbol
of Electrons
60
70
80
Hydrogen
IH
Helium
4
2He
Lithium
3L 1
Beryllium
4Be
Carbon
12C
Aluminium
27 A
13
15
16
18
18
134W
74
18
32
12
192I
77 r
18
32
15
59
Cobalt
Co
Nickel
59
28N
Barium
137Ba
Tungsten
90
27
Iridium
56
(Wolfram)
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ELEMENTS
An element is a substance that cannot be separated into any other constituents.
statement is with reference to the chemical nature only.
10
20
This
There are over one hundred elements known to man and these have been placed within
a table referred to as the periodic table; this places elements into groups and periods
with reference to their chemical characteristics.
Hydrogen (H) is the lightest element and is taken as the reference element. Helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr) and xenon (Xe) are grouped together because
these are inert gases or gases that cannot react chemically with other elements.
The halogen group includes fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br) and iodine (I);
these are very active elements which readily combine with most of the other elements in
the table.
30
Elements range from hydrogen (H), with an atomic number of I, to uranium (U) with
an atomic number 92; between these are all the elements that make up everything on
earth.
ATOMS
40
50
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can have the element's properties. All
atoms of the same element are similar in construction, however, atoms of different
elements have different constructions.
An atom is a very small particle which is made up from a number of sub-atomic
particles grouped together. The size of the sub-atomic particles are small, with most of
each atom consisting of free space.
The sub-atomic particles in the centre (core or nucleus) of each atom contain the
heavier particles consisting of protons which carry a positive charge, and neutrons
which carry no charge. Protons and neutrons have an unusual attraction for each other
and tend to pair together.
60
The lighter particles, electrons, are said to be held in stable orbits around the nucleus by
the attraction of the protons in the nucleus. These orbits are referred to as shells, e.g. K.
L. Mshells.
There are other sub-atomic particles, e.g. the positron, which is of similar size and mass
to the electron but with a positive charge.
70
Sub-atomic particles
Protons are along with neutrons, the heavy particles in an atom and are found in
the nucleus. They are positively charged and have a rest mass of 1.673 x 10.27 kg.
Neutrons are similar in mass to a proton having a rest mass of 1.675 x 10-27 kg.
They have no charge, are neutral and are found in the nucleus.
Electrons are small, very light weight particles and have a rest mass of
9. I09 x 10-31 Kg. They have a negative charge and orbit the nucleus in restricted
shells according to the rules of quantum mechanics.
80
90
Atoms will have the same number of protons and electrons when the atom is in
equilibrium, i.e. when it is not an ion.
Atomic number
The atomic number or Z number is the total number of protons in the nucleus and this
defmes the element, e.g. H = I; He = 2; C = 6; 0 = 8.
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Mass number
:\OTES
10
The mass number or A number essentially refers to the weight of an atom and is the
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Mass (Aj number for He = 4, C = 12
and 0 = 16. Note that the mass number is not always twice the atomic number.
ISOTOPES
20
Elements that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are
varieties of the same element and are called isotopes. Among the 100 or so known
elements there are some 300 different isotopes, e.g. HII, H/ and HI3 are three isotopes
of hydrogen HI2 = deuterium, HI3 = tritium.
Carbon also has three isotopes: C612, C6\3 and C614 conunonly referred to as carbon 12,
carbon 13 and carbon 14 respectively.
30
IONS
An ion is an electrically charged particle which may be positive (+ve) or negative
(-ve).
40
When particles or photons of energy (quanta) pass through matter, all the energy is
absorbed in exciting the atoms or molecules so that electrons are ejected producing
electrical imbalance. The ejected electrons (having negative charges) are negative ions,
whilst the atoms losing electrons are positive ions due to their unpaired proton(s) in
each nucleus.
Ions are created when x-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles or neutrons
pass through matter.
50
The process of producing ions is known a ionisation.
RADIONUCLIDES
60
(RADIO-ISOTOPES)
Radionuclides are radioactive isotopes, Le. the disintegrate by releasing sub-atomic

particles, and also give off excess energy known as gamma radiation.
All elements with atomic numbers higher than bismuth (atomic number 83) are
radioactive and are elements which result from the decay of either uranium 235,
uranium 238 or thorium 232.
'Activity' is a term which 70

relates to the number of
dlsintegrations per unit
time. Activity is measured
in becquerels (Bq) or Curies
tco.
Radium produces radon

gas.
80
90
100
Every radionuclide has a half life, this is the time it takes for the activity to drop to one
half of its initial strength; this varies from a fraction of a second for some isotopes and
to thousands of years for others.
GAMMA RAY GENERATION

Ganuna rays used in industrial radiography are emitted from artificial radioactive
isotopes, also known as radionuclides. A radioactive isotope is an unstable state of a
chemical element which has a different number of neutrons to the normal state of the
same element.
As with all isotopes, the different number of neutrons will result in a change in mass,
therefore, the mass number or A number will be different to the mass number of the
other isotopes possible for the specific element. The atomic number or Z number
however will be the same for all the isotopes of the specific element, because this
number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus which have not changed.
If a material is radioactive, it spontaneously emits corpuscular and electromagnetic
energy, the ganuna radiation is a by-product produced from the disintegration of the
radioactive isotope.
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The activity or strength of a radioactive isotope is expressed in curies (Ci) or

becquerels (Bq). The higher the activity value, the greater the intensity of gamma rays
produced.
:\OTES
I becquerel
10
I disintegration per second;
3.7 x 1010 becquerels

10
therefore, 3.7 x 10
20
1 curie;
disintegrations per second
For industrial radiography,

gigabecquerels (GBq).
it is usually
= I curie.
more
practical
to talk
in terms
of
Giga= 109
I gigabecquerel
37 gigabecquerels
30
40
109 becquerels.
=
1 curie.
The activity of a radioactive isotope does not relate to the penetrating power of the
gamma rays produced; penetrating power depends on the wavelength of the gamma
rays produced and this depends on the specific radioactive element involved. For
example, Cobalt 60 (C060) has a very high penetrating power and may be used on steel
components up to 200 mm thick, because the gamma radiation emitted has a very short
wavelength.
There are four main radioactive isotopes used for industrial radiography;
Iridium 192 (IrI92), Cobalt 60 (Co60), Ytterbium 169 (Yb169) and Selenium (Se75).
Radioactive isotopes are used taking into consideration their half-lives; the half-life of a
radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the activity to drop to one-half of its initial
strength.
50
Natural occurring radionucIides

There are two main radionuclides which occur naturally: Radon and Radium.
has a half life of3.825 days and Radium has a halflife of 1,590 years.
60
Radon
Radium 226 is no longer used for radiography because of the hazards presented by its
alpha decay and its gaseous radioactive daughter Radon.
Bones are especially
susceptible to damage from radiation emitted from radium 226.
Artificial radionucIides
70
Artificially produced radionuclides have replaced natural radionuclides for use in

industrial radiography. There are three methods of producing artificial radionuclides:
1. Neutron activation (neutron bombardment in a reactor).
2. Fission produce separation.
3. Charged particle bombardment (via high energy x-ray machine).
The most widely used radioisotopes are shown in the following table:
Characteristics
80
Source
To convert RIhICi 10
pSv/hlGBq, divide by 37
then multiply by 10,000.
90
Cobalt 60
Selenium 75
Caesium 137
Iridium 192
Ytterbium 169
Thulliuml70
Half life
Output*
5.26 years
118.5 days
30 years
74 days
31 days
127 days
1.32
0.203
0.33
0.48
0.125
0.0025
of Gamma Ray Sources

Gamma ray
Approx. x-ray
enerales MeV
equivalent kV
1.17 - 1.33
1200
0.066 - 0.401
400
0.66
700
0.29 - 0.61
600
0.063 - 0.308
300
0.052 - 0.084
80
Range in steel
-mm
50 - 200 mm
4 -28 mm
45 -75 mm
12 -70 mm
2-17mm
1-\3mm
- Exposure rate factor: Emission in roentgens per curie per hour at I metre (RlCi/hr at I metre).
Cobalt 60 (Co60) is produced by bombarding C059 with neutrons in a reactor.

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Corpuscular (particulate) radiation

10
Corpuscular radiation is the flow of sub-atomic particles.

not have an electrical charge.
These particles mayor may
This type of radiation is different to x and gamma radiation by having mass and not
travelling at the speed of light. There are three main types of corpuscular radiation:
alpha, beta and neutron radiation.
Alpha radiation
20
An alpha particle is a large sub-atomic particle consisting of two protons and two
neutrons (the nucleus ofa helium atom) and therefore has a positive charge.
Alpha radiation travels comparatively slowly leaving the source at about 16,000 km.s"
(10,000 miles/sec) but the particles soon slow down and only travel a total distance ofa
few centimetres through the air.
30
Alpha particles ionise atoms by removing electrons as they pass through matter but they
do not penetrate deeply and can be stopped by a sheet of paper and human skin. The
main hazard is that they may enter the body through a cut in the skin or they may be
ingested.
Beta radiation
40
A beta particle is a very light high speed electron and will possess a negative charge.
Beta particles travel faster than alpha particles. They are small and lightweight and
therefore do not have a high ionising potential compared with alpha radiation. They
can travel through 3 meters of air or 1 mm of lead and are more penetrating than alpha
particles but they can be stopped by a few millimetres of most solid or liquid materials.
50
If beta particles are emitted from a radioactive source, they are normally prevented
from entering the surrounding air space by absorption by the mass of the radioactive
pellet or its surrounding capsule.
Neutron radiation
60
Neutron radiation simply consists of flowing neutrons which have no electrical charge.
Neutrons are produced from nuclear reactors, accelerators and certain radioactive
isotopes, e.g. califomium 252, all of which produce fast neutrons. These neutrons
normally have to be slowed down by using a moderator before they are used in
radiography; these slower, lower energy, neutrons are called thermal neutrons.
70
Neutron radiation can penetrate many materials made from heavy elements with ease
but it is absorbed by many lighter materials, particularly those containing hydrogen.
Hydrogen has an affinity for neutrons.
Source Sizes and Maximum Activity
Activity in Curies
Source Dimensions
Length (mm)
Dia (mm)
Ir 192
Co60
1.0
1.0
1.5
7.0
1.0
2.0
30
8.0
2.0
50
2.0
15
3.0
95
2.0
32
3.0
140
3.0
45
3.0
4.0
180
90
4.0
4.0
210
120
80
90
100
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SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
10
20
Specific activity relates the curie output to the physical size of the source and is
measured in curies per gram (Ci/gm). From the table above, it can be seen that a
2 mm x 2 mm Irl92 source can have an activity of up to 50 Ci but a 2 mm x 2 mm
C060 source can only have an activity of 15 Ci. In order to increase Ci output, the
source size must be increased. Irl92 has a higher specific activity than C060.
DECAY
Decay is the process of spontaneous transformation of a radionuclide.
A loss of
activity will be the result of decay and most radionucJide will decay through
disintegration.
Radioactive materials decay by at least one of five primary modes:
30
40
I.
Emission of alpha particles (helium nucleus).
2.
Emission of beta particles.
3.
Electron capture or positron emission.
4.
Emission of gamma rays (photons).
5.
Spontaneous fission.
HALF LIFE
Half life is the time taken for a radioactive isotope to reduce its output by half. After
I half life has occurred, an exposure needs to be doubled to achieve the same density.
50
Radioactive Decay
Vb 169 half life 31 days
60
Ir 192 half life 74 days

Co 60 half life 5.3 years
Typical replacement
e.g. alter 3 half lives.
1
70
Vb 169
1
31
62
3
93
124
155
186 days
If" 192
74
148
222
296
370
444
co 60
5.3
10.6
15.9
21.2
26.5
38.8 years
days
Hafflives
80
X&:G __
. Rl!
IONISATION
90
Ionisation is simply the formation of ions which are positively or negatively charged
particles.
ionising radiation means gamma rays, x-rays or corpuscular radiations which are
capable of producing ions either directly or indirectly.
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AND SCATTERI]\G
SCATTER
'OTES
10
When radiographic exposures are being made, some of the radiation scatters in all
directions by the atoms which form the object. This scatter results in an overallfogging
of the film and reduces the contrast and sharpness of the radiographic image. The
thicker the object being radiographed, the greater the amount of scatter.
Furthermore, the ground, a wall, or another object close to the object being
radiographed which is struck by the radiation, will partially re-emit the rays in the form
of back seal/er; this is also liable to fog the film.
20
30
Scatter radiation is less penetrating than primary radiation from which it is derived,
i.e. they have a longer wavelength. Because scatter rays are less penetrating, they can
be intercepted by a sheet of lead; this is one reason for using lead screens on either side
of the film in a film cassette during exposure, although heavier filters may also be
needed if the scatter is heavy.
The intensity of ionising radiation is reduced by at least one of the following types of
interaction:
a.
b.
c.
d.
40
Rayleigh scattering.
Photoelectric effect.
Compton effect.
Pair production
The extent of absorption and scattering is governed by the energy of the primary
radiation and the atomic number of the elements making up the medium through which
the radiation is traveIling.
Scattered radiation may seriously effect the quality of a radiographic image and may
also increase the radiation dose levels in the working viscinity.
50
Rayleigh scattering
In the process, photons are deflected by outer electrons but do not change in energy or
release any electrons. The photon scattering is in the forward direction.
60
This process accounts for less than 20% of the total attenuation of a radiation beam.
Rayleigh scattering is most relevant when dealing with low energies of radiation
passing through materials consisting of elements with a high atomic number.
Photons
.....
Vi
70
I-#:,...~< ! .
_.!" ....."""
-c-,~
..
"
,/
-----0.-. .....
0/
.-----""0.
----
80
.....................
~~-.: ..7'-.
cl
e
<;
-0------
----
90
---"
Photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect is an interaction between a photon and an orbiting electron
which causes an electron to be ejected. The photon is consumed and the excess energy
imparts kinetic energy to the electron.
100
'e Ruan.
& T P O'N.i11
Issue 9 31103109
R4-1
UI'iIT R4 ABSORPTIO~
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nel/l
ANI> sex TTERING
This process applies to ionising radiation of relatively low energy, e.g. less than
100 keY in steel, and also to higher energy radiation up to about 2 MeV when passing
through materials containing elements of high atomic number.
:\OTt:S
10
Photons
,,
: r
I'
Ejected electron (-)
---
,~#i..~o
c---~~
20
"e
.....--.,.
o
I
~
----,.
30
Compton scattering
This is also called the Compton effect. In this process, a photon interacts with a free or
weakly bonded outer electron, part of the photon's energy is transferred to the electron
which is ejected. The photon emerges from the collision as scattered radiation of
reduced energy.
40
Photon
_0
-----~-------
50
~.........
--~-",o
/ /.--o--'....J...;.!.,:.'i .~.J._
/"-0,
ri
--
Scattered radiation
!
60
.c.:>
.~--~/
._c..,'
"0.
70
Pair production
This effect occurs at very high radiation energies (above 1.02 MeV). When a high
energy photon collides with the nucleus of the atom, the energy of the photon is
absorbed and produces an electron and a positron. Very soon after, the electron and the
positron collide and both are destroyed but release two photons each with energies of
0.5 MeY.
80
90
CoIlison and
annih~alion
Photons
> 1.02 MeV
Ejected positron (+)
.-
....
100
....,. (> ...
'....
8
.,.
_-
.-
.'
~ 0.5 MeV
0.5 MeV
"'-0

e
-._
o Ruant'
I
& T
..(:.. "
Photons
r O'NeUl
e 9 31/03109
R4-2
UNIT R5 RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
TP O'Neill
i'\OT[S
EQUIPMENT
GAMMA SOURCES
\0
Sealed sources
The source of gamma radiation, i.e. the radioisotope, which is typically in disc or
cylindrical form, is enclosed in a capsule sometimes referred to as a pill.
20
30
The sources available range in size and configuration from 0.5 mm diameter disc to a
4 mm x 4 mm cylinder. Example configurations are:
40
Thin discs: typically up to 3.0 mm diameter x 1.0 mm thick. These can be stacked
together.
Cylindrical: typically up to 4 mm in length.
Spherical: 0.6 - 3.0 mm diameter.
The capsule is made from either 3 16 S 12 grade stainless steel or titanium.
50
Titanium is used for Yb169 capsules and is an alternative to stainless steel for Ir192
andCo60.
Classification and types of exposure container

To comply with BS 5650 (ISO 3999), apparatus for gamma radiography is classified
according to the mobility of the exposure container.
BS 5650: /978:
Specification for opparatus
for gamma radiography.
60
70
Class P - A portable exposure container designed to be carried by one man alone.
Class M - A mobile but not portable exposure container designed to be moved

easily by a suitable means provided for the purpose.
Class F - A fixed installed exposure container or one with mobility restricted to

the confines of a particular working area.
An exposure container must be provided either with an integral lock or with hasps
through which separate padlocks can be fitted. The locks must be either lockable
without the key or an integral lock from which the key cannot be removed when the
container is in the working position. On all exposure containers the radiation can only
be exposed after an unlocking operation.
There are a number of different designs for containers, the most common types are:
80
90
Shutter type (Category I).
Rotating type (Category I).
Projection type (Category 11).
BS 5650 Category J containers are containers from which the sealed source is not
removed for exposure. Category IJ containers are those from which the sealed source
is projected from the container via a projection sheath (guide tube) to an exposure
head, they may operate electrically, mechanically or pneumatically.
Another type of container is the larch type. This type of container should no longer be
used because of relatively high radiation doses received by the user and the high risk of
overexposure.
An exposure head will be a

form of collimator.
100
o RUIn.
&
T P ON.ill
Issue 9 31103109
R5-1
U~IT R5 . RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
T P OWeiJ/
EQUIPMENT
Torch type
BS 5650 does not cover
apparatus operated by
10
removing the sealed source
from the exposure
container by using a
manual handling device
because its use is
prohibited in certain
national regulations.
The container houses the source within a torch assembly and also a short handle. The
handle is fitted to the torch assembly, this is secured in the main container by a bayonet
fixing. As the torch assembly is withdrawn from the container, a spring load plunger
pushes part of the assembly down producing a shielding effect so as to produce a
narrow beam of radiation.
Direct handling of torch assembly types is no longer
permitted. This type of container is now obsolete.
.mn
handle
source holder
20
30
:
sealed source
~-..........
shielding material
Torch type
40
Shutter type (Category I type to BS 5650)
shutter
50
shielding
material
,
;
--'----'-....
j
I
I
60
~,
.\
....
sealed source
Shutter type
70
Rotating type {Category I type to BS 5650)

shielding
material
- .---P'"
rotates
80
90
Rotating type
100
Shutter and rotating types can now only be used with remote control operation.
are mostly used for casting and forgings and give a directional coned beam only.
c Roant
ISSUt'
They
& T P O'N,ill
J 1103109
R5-2
Rusne & //
TP O'Ne/1f
Projection type (Category
10
EQUII)I\1ENT
11type BS 5650)
This type is also known as a remote control or wind out type. The source is attached to
a special connector called a pigtail; the pigtail and source are moved along a guide tube
by means of a cable until the source reaches the exposure head (which is fixed in the
working position). The cable is driven along by means of a hand-cranked wind out
mechanism, or it can be pneumatically or electrically controlled. The cable is retracted
to return the source to its container at the end of the exposure.
The projection type can be further classified as an S-type or straight-through type.
20
handle
i
I
reI .
I
i
lock assembly
30
40
.....
'.
source assembly
connector
S-lube
50
shielding material
sealed source
Projection type
CoUimators
60
Collimators are usually used with gamma sources during exposures for safety reasons
and sometimes to improve radiographic quality by reducing scatter from walls or
objects close to the beam.
X-RAY GENERATION
70
X-rays used in industrial radiography are produced from electrical machines usually
referred to as x-ray sets; the x-rays themselves being produced from within an x-ray
tube.
80
An x-ray tube consists of an evacuated glass bulb, encompassing an anode (the positive
electrode), and a cathode (the negative electrode). The cathode contains a filament
within a curved reflector or focusing cup.
90
When the filament is heated to a white hot state by a current flow of a few amperes,
electrons are emitted and are attracted towards the anode in a concentrated beam
formed by the focusing cup. The beam strikes a target set into the anode which results
in the release of energy; this energy consists of approximately 97-99% heat and 1-3 %
x-rays for conventional x-ray tubes up to 300 kV.
X-radiation is also a form of electromagnetic radiation and differs from y rays only in
its mechanism of production. While y rays are a product of spontaneous radioactive
decay, x-rays are generally created artificially by an x-ray set. X-rays are produced
when high speed electrons, produced for example in an x-ray tube, strike a solid target.
There are two interactions responsible for the production of x-rays. These are:
100
o Ruane
&.
T P O'NtiU
Iss.e 9 Jl/Ol/ll9
R5-3
U~IT R5 RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
T P O'Ne/1f
:\OTlS
.
EQUIPMENT
.
a.
The incoming electrons have sufficient energy to eject an inner orbital

electron from the target atoms. An electron from a higher orbit falls into the
vacant space that remains in the inner orbit and in doing so emits a pulse of
electromagnetic radiation, the energy of which is equal to the energy
difference between the two orbits. The x-radiation produced by this process
is referred to as 'characteristic' x-radiation,
b.
Incoming electrons will also be slowed down by the field of force around the
nucleus, and this process again results in the emission of x-radiation. The
radiation produced by this interaction is referred to as 'bremsstrahlung'
radiation (bremsstrahlung is German for braking radiation'). Bremsstrahlung
radiation is emitted in a wide spectrum of energies.
10
20
Production of x-rays
30
characteristic
x-rays
40
path of incoming e
bremsstrahtung
x-rays
50
60
Thus a typical x-ray energy spectrum will be of a continuous nature and will show
characteristic spikes at discrete energies that are dependent on the target material and
the difference in the energies of its electron orbits (see figure 9). Except for special
applications, it is the bremsstrahlung radiation that constitutes most of the x---rny
output.
Gloss envelope
~----------~------~------~~
70
80
90
100
Because of the high amount of heat energy produced, the anode is made from copper to
conduct away the heat. But, copper has a low melting point, so to prevent the copper
melting, a slip of metal with a high melting point is recessed into the anode at the point
which is struck by the electron beam.
c RUin. '"
T P O'Nrill
Is 9 31103109
RS-4
.
.
.
UNIT U5 . RADIOGRAPHIC
..
Ruane & //
TP O'Neill
'\OTt:S
10
."
EQUIPMENT
The target serves another purpose, because, the higher the atomic number of the
element struck by electrons, the greater will be the intensity and energy of the x-rays
produced. The target is usually made of tungsten because of its high melting point of
3370C, and its high atomic number of74.
The area on the target which is struck by the electrons is called the focal spot; this area
should be large enough to avoid local overheating, although from the radiographic
image quality point of view, the focal spot should be as small as possible to provide
good definition (sharpness) on the radiograph.
20
Additional cooling is required to cool the anode; gas, oil or water normally being
employed for this purpose.
The cooling system and the insert are contained together in an earthed, lead lined
container, the complete unit commonly being referred to as the x-ray tubehead. The
tubehead is controlled from the control panel.
30
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS IN X-RAY TUBES

A.C. circuit - (self rectified)
/,,,-,
40
I
....
-....
, +
...
'.
'\.
\
\
I
I
\
I
50
The effect of a.c, on the direction of current flow. In an x-ray tube, x-rays can only be
produced when the current is travelling from the cathode (-ve) to the anode (+ve).
60
Graetz circuit
+
70
80
By reversing the half cycle by rectification, this produces full wave rectified d.c ..
When used in x-ray sets, FWRC is known as a Graetz circuit.
90
100
e Ruan.
&
T P ON.i11
tssue 9 J IJOJI09
RS-S
UNIT RS . RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neil1
EQl1IPME!,;T
Villard circuit
l\OTES
10
I
j
I
j
,,-"' ... ,,
--
I
I
"
"
'
\
I
I
I
I
I
..........
,,
-,
20
30
Another means of obtaining d.c, from a.c, is to use a circuit incorporating diodes and
capacitors in series with the high voltage transformer. This circuit doubles the peak
voltage from the transformer and produces a waveform as shown above. Although the
waveform is oscillating, it is all in the -ve half of the cycle and is therefore direct
current. When used in x-ray sets which use this kind of double waveform, it is known
as a Villard circuit.
Greinacher
circuit - (constant potential)
40
+
50
60
Further improvements can be made to the FWRC waveform by introducing capacitors

which flatten or smooth the rippling to produce the waveform shown above. When
used in x-ray sets, this smooth constant potential (CP) waveform is known as a
Greinacher circuit.
70
80
90
100
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U~IT R5 . RADIOGRAPHIC
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TP O'Nelll
:'IoOT[S
EQUIPMENT
The x-ray equipment control panel

10
The three controls that govern a radiographic exposure using x-rays are the timer, the
mA control and the kV control.
20
~o
TDp(1Wer
ra warning l]Slcm
4
30
40
Timer
50
--
Timer
rox.raJIuk
(20 PI ",lnimum cable length)
The timer is usually calibrated in minutes. The exposure time for an exposure is preset; when the equipment is activated, the timer counts down from the pre-set value. The
exposure time will partially govern how much radiation is going to reach the film.
Milliamps (mA)
60
70
The mA controls the intensity or quantity of x-rays. When the mA is increased, the
current flow through the filament is increased, which causes the filament to get hotter
resulting in an increase in the intensity of electrons released. The greater the intensity
of electrons striking the target, the greater the intensity of the x-rays produced.
The mA control on conventional x-ray equipment may only allow for a maximum of 6
to 12 mA to be used, the value being measured across the tube, i.e. between the cathode
and the anode. The value required for a specific exposure is usually pre-set on the
panel, this value is usually at, or close to, the maximum mA possible with the
equipment for the purpose of minimising exposure time.
Kilovoltage (kV)
80
The kV governs the wavelength or quality of'x-rays produced which practically governs
penetrating power. When the kV is increased, the speed of the electron flow from the
cathode to the anode is increased. Therefore, when the electrons strike the target, the
kinetic energy is increased, which results in a reduction of wavelength.
An increase in kV, i.e. a shortening of wavelength, has an adverse affect on the contrast
and definition of a radiographic image.
Certain standard specifications,
e.g. BS EN 1435 Radiography of welds, states the maximum kV values for this reason.
90
The kV meters on the control panels for conventional x-ray equipment are peak kV
values measured across the tube, i.e. between the cathode and the anode. The
maximum kV which can be used is primarily governed by the tubehead; typical
maximum values are 200 kV, 250 kV and 300 kV. The value required for a specific
exposure is usually pre-set on the panel.
100
Cl R.a ne & T P O'Ncill

I 9 J llOllO9
R5-7
UNIT R5 . RADIOGR<\PHIC
Ruane & 11
T P O'Neill
EQUIPMEl'"T
X-Ray Tube Voltage required to penetrate steel of various thicknesses

S Fine-qrain film
T Medium-speed film
10
400r-------.--------r--,----.r-----~
20
300
~
a)
30
Cl
CI:S
...
'0
>
200
G>
.D.
::I
>CI:S
~
40
><
100
50
25
Penetrated thickness,
60
75
50
100
mm
Note:
The curves for voltage are not extended beyond 400 kV as there is no
commercial x-ray equipment in use in this country operating between 400 kV and
1000 kV.
Pipeline crawler equipment

70
80
90
Machines have been developed specifically for the radiographic examination of

pipeline welds using either x-ray units or gamma sources. These machines may have a
power source attached to the radiation source, i.e. battery pack or generator, or they
may be operated remotely via a cable with the power source outside the pipeline.
Because pipeline crawlers are used inside the pipeline, they are not visible from the
outside of the pipeline, therefore, it is essential that suitable warning signals are given
and are capable of alerting persons in the vicinity of the crawler.
Signals that operate automatically should be linked by some method to the crawler, this
is normally achieved by using sensors linked to warning lights which operate as soon as
they detect ionising radiation. Crawlers available usually have an integrated audible
pre-exposure alarm and an exposure alarm. A separate warning signal is sometimes
integrated when the crawler is in motion.
The useful beam from crawlers should be restricted so that the beam width does not
exceed 120 mm at the circumference of the pipe.
1
100
Any control isotope used should not exceed 100 J.lSv.h- at the accessible surface of the
pipe when exposed.
o R
lsJ.e 9
& T P O'Neill
31103109
R5-8
.
.
UNIT R5 RADIOGR.\PHIC
RUBne & 11
TP O'Nel11
EQUIPMENT
High energy units

Radiography using x-ray energies of one million electron volts (1 MeV) or greater is
considered to be in the high energy range.
10
Electrostatic
generators
The Van de GrafJe electrostatic generator consists of a rapidly moving insulated belt
onto which is sprayed an electric charge which is carried to a hemispherical high
voltage terminal. This produces a high voltage difference with respect to the lower end.
20
Electrically charged particles are made available for acceleration from a heated cathode
and injected into a very high vacuum tube and collimated to bombard special targets
and produce x-rays, The target size is about 2.5 mm.
Electron linear accelerators
30
These are commonly referred to as linacs or simply linear accelerators.

Linacs
accelerate electrons down a guide by means of radio frequency (rf) voltages. The
voltages are applied so that the electrons reach an acceleration point in the field at a
precise time. The guide consists of a series of cavities which produce gaps when the rf
power is applied. With phased power, the electrons are accelerated along the guide to a
target, the rays energy at the other side.
The energy in electron volts increases with the length of the tube.
40
The focal spots can be as small as 0.1 mm.
50
As an example, the 100 mm thick steel shell of a nuclear reactor at a power station in
Wales was radiographed at a distance of9 m using ultrafine grain film with a 20 minute
exposure. Each exposure covered 3 m of weld. The 4 MeV linac was mounted
centralIy on a rotating stand in the centre of the shell.
This 4 MeV was transportable and could readily be moved with lifting equipment.
The Betatron
60
This machine is based on the same principle as the linac but the electron guide is a
spiral. This means that the path of the electrons can be increased over a smaller overall
area.
Betatrons can be manufactured up to 300 MeV and an 11 MeV can penetrate steel up to
300 mm thick, but is not transportable.
Portable x-ray betatrons are available with energy outputs up to 6 MeV.
70
80
90
100
o Ruant'
& T P O'N~iII
Iss ee 9 31/03/09
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UNIT R6 . HALF YALUE THICK!\'ESS
Ruane & 11
T P O'Nelll
The half value thickness (HVT) of a material may be used as a guide for determining
the thickness of a material to be used for shielding from radiation, e.g. for the
construction of a radiation work bay in a factory.
:\OTES
Half value layer (HVL) is

alternative terminology
used.
The HVT of a specific material is the thickness which cuts down the radiation intensity
by one half.
\0
If the initial intensity of radiation increases, e.g. by increasing the mA when using x-ray
equipment, the HVT will remain the same. However, if the wavelength (penetrating
power) of the radiation is changed, e.g. by changing kV or isotope type, the HVT of a
specific material will alter.
20
The following table shows examples of the HVT for lead, concrete and steel.
Lead
Energy
HVT(mm)
0.3
l50kV
30
200kV
Steel
HVT(mm)
Concrete
HVT(mm)
22
26
12
28
250kV
0.5
1.0
300 kV
1.5
15
31
lrl92
13
40
Co60
12
20
65
40
The HVT of a material can also be used to explain subject contrast in relation to
wavelength (kV):
Figure J shows that side A of the specimen has four times the intensity of radiation
emerging from it in comparison with side B.
SO
Figure 2 shows that side A of the specimen has two times the intensity of radiation
emerging from it in comparison with side B.
Figure 1 - 200 kV - steel
!! 1
60
16R
!! !
Figure 2 - 250 kV - steel
! ! ! 16R !! !
12mmnu ~~~~~~~~~~~TVTI':i,..----L
70
!!
4R
!!
IR
8R
4R
Therefore, the resultant radiograph from the specimen in Figure I will display higher
radiographic contrast (because of an increase in subject contrast) compared to the
radiograph produced in Figure 2.
80
The lower the kV (longer the wavelength), the higher the subject contrast and therefore
the higher the radiographic contrast.
Note: The radiographic density produced in Figure J will be lower than Figure 2 if the
exposures are identical, so it is assumed that the exposure time for Figure I is higher to
compensate in order to give the same density on either side A or side B.
The tenth value thicknesses 90

(TVT) 0/ a material will
reduce the radiation
intensity by one tenth.
100
o Ruane
Issue
& T P O'N~i11
9 31103109
R6-J
Vl\IT R7 RAI>IOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
TP O'Neill
FILM
:\0 rES
THE MAKE-UP
10
OF A RADIOGRAPHIC
FILM
Radiographic film is usually made up of seven layers: a central base layer and three
coatings on either side consisting of a subbing layer, emulsion and supercoat.
20
30
The base is normally tinted
blue and will therefore
possess some density, i.e. the
base of a film is not totally
transparent.
40
Base
The physical characteristics of emulsion do not allow it to be used by itself without
support, therefore it is applied to a substrate known as the base. The base must be
transparent, chemically inert and must not be susceptible to expansion and contraction.
Glass is an ideal substrate to meet these requirements, but for applications where the
objects to be radiographed are curved, e.g. on pipes, it is necessary for a flexible base
to be used. Polyester and cellulose triacetate, although not quite as stable as glass, are
widely employed for such applications.
Subbing layer (substratum)

50
The subbing layers adhere the emulsion to the base; the material employed for this is
gelatine plus a base solvent.
Emulsion
60
70
80
The layers of primary importance are the two emulsion layers. These layers consist of
millions of silver halide crystals (usually silver bromide); the sizes of the crystals are
usually between 0.1 and 1.0 micrometers (urn) and are suspended in a gelatine binding
medium.
Film emulsion is produced by mixing solutions of silver nitrate and salts, such as
potassium bromide, with a solution of gelatine. The rate and temperature of mixing
governs the grain size; rapid mixing at low temperature produces the finest grain
structure, whereas slow mixing at high temperature produces emulsions with larger
grains. When large grain structures are required, to produce a fast emulsion, some
silver iodide is usually included in the formula.
The sizes of these crystals and the distribution, effect the final radiographic
quality/appearance; the larger the crystal size the greater the sensitivity to radiation.
Various shapes of crystals exist, but these shapes have virtually no effect on the final
image.
The reason for two layers of emulsion is to give a faster film speed, i.e. the radiographs
can be produced quicker, and higher radiographic contrast.
Supercoat (anti-abrasion layer)

90
Radiographic emulsion is susceptible to mechanical and chemical damage, so to

prevent, or at least reduce this, the emulsion is coated with a layer of hardened gelatine.
Although the supercoat otTers some protection against chemical attack., e.g. oil from
the skin during handling, it must allow for chemical reactions to take place in the
processing tanks.
100
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U~IT R7 RADIOGRAlll-llC
Ruane & 11
FILM
TPO'Nei//
FILMTVPES
Radiographic film may be graded in terms of grain size or speed:
The terminology used for
10
grain size and speed can be
misleading. The terms used
are usually relative. e.g. a
fine grain film may be
considered la be fast or slow
depending on what it is
being compared against.
20
Ultra fine grain - exceptional radiographic quality but very slow speed.
Fine grain - slow speed.
Medium grain - medium speed.
Coarse grain - poor radiographic quality but fast speed.
Radiographic films are also divided into two types: direct-type or salt screen type.
Direct-type films are intended for direct exposure to gamma or x-rays or for exposure
using lead intensifying screens. Some of these films may be suitable for use with
fluorometallic or salt (fluorescent) intensifying screens.
30
Salt screen type films are designed to be used exclusively with salt (fluorescent)
intensifying screens. They are able to produce radiographs with minimum exposure
and are widely used in medical radiography.
FILM SPEED
40
A film factor is a number which relates to the speed of a particular film and is obtained
from a films characteristic curve.
The SCRATA scale is a scale often used for film factors; the smaller the film factor the
faster the film. Film manufacturers may have their own scale which may work in the
same or opposite way to the SCRATA scale.
Example to the SCRA TA scale:
50
A film with a factor of 10 will be twice as fast compared to a film with a factor of20.
This means to say of the film with a factor of20 took four minutes to expose, then the
film with a factor of 10 will require two minutes to give the same density.
Types of film with their corresponding SCRATA film factors:
60
70
Manufacturer
Name
Speed
Grain
Agfa Gevaert
Dupont
RCF
NDT91
Fast
Fast
Coarse
Coarse
Dupont
Kodak
Kodak
Agfa Gevaert
NDT75
CX
AX
07
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine
20
25
30
35
Oupont
Agfa Gevaert
Kodak
NOT 55
D4
MX
Slow
Slow
Slow
Very fine
Very fme
Very fme
80
95
120
Agfa Gevaert
02
Very slow
Ultra fine
200
Film Factor
80
90
100
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& T P O'NriD
IQU' 9 31103109
R7-2
UNIT R8 . CHARACTERISTIC
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nelll
CURVES OF FILMS
A characteristic curve is a curve on a graph produced for a particular film which shows
the relationship between different exposures applied and the resulting densities.
Information which can be gained from a characteristic curve is as follows:
10
20
30
40
a. The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information on film speed.
b. The gradient on the curve gives information about film contrast - a high contrast
film will display a steep gradient.
c. The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the density axis will
show the density range within which the film contrast will be at its highest (usually
optimum).
d. A new exposure time can be determined for a change of film type. For example, it
would be possible to determine the new exposure for film type x in order to achieve
a density of3.0, if the exposure for film type y was 5 mA-mins to achieve a density
of2.0.
A characteristic curve will also show that the density does not vary in the same
proportion as the applied exposure.
A curve is produced by applying increasing exposures to adjacent areas of a strip of
film. After development, the densities are measured with a densitometer and then
plotted on a graph against the corresponding exposures. Both the vertical axis (density)
and horizontal axis (exposure) are calibrated in a logarithmic scale (logloE); this
method is the most practical method for the size and interpretation of a curve. When
the points obtained are joined together a curve will be produced.
Sensitometric curve of STRUCTURIX
Automatic processing: 8 minutes cycle using developer G 121/G 135 at 29-300
50
pi
RC1
D4
021
3.5
60
/
/
1/
70
80
90
RCF & Iluorometallic
100
1,0
2.5
/ j I
/ / /
V /
I1
/ / / / 1/
--- -/
3.0
V
2,0
20
1,5
/
1,0
lii
z
w
Cl 0,5
LOG.
EL. EXP.
3,0
screens
When characteristic curves of various films are superimposed on one graph, it will be
seen that the faster films lie closer to the left vertical axis, because faster films attain
density at lower exposures. Therefore, it should be appreciated that it is possible to
obtain the relative film factors from the characteristic curves of films.
o Ruane
&
T P O'NciU
tssue 9 31/03/09
R8-1
UI\'IT R9 INTEI\'SIFYING
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nel1l
SCREENS
GENERAL
A radiographic film is normally sandwiched between two intensifying screens when
exposed to x-rays or gamma rays. Intensifying screens have an extra photographic
effect on the emulsion thereby reducing the exposure needed to attain the required
density.
10
There are three main types of intensifying screens:

Other metallic screens exist
for less common
20
applications.
30
1.
Lead screens.
2.
Fluorescent (salt) screens.
3.
FluorometaJlic screens.
Close contact between screens and film is essential in order to obtain sharp images.
Screens must be kept free from dust and scratches, if this is not done they may be seen
as light indications on the radiographic image - especially if using fluorometallic or
fluorescent screens.
LEAD SCREENS
40
Lead screens consist of a thin lead foil of uniform thickness, usually stuck onto a thin
base card in the case of reusable screens, or stuck onto a thin sheet of paper when used
with pre-packed film.
Lead screens intensify the image by emitting beta radiation (electrons) when struck by
x-rays or gamma rays of sufficient energy. The intensification action is only achieved
with x-rays above approximately 120 kV and gamma rays above similar energy levels.
Scatter radiation has a

50
longer wavelength than the
primary beam/ram which it
is derived and is therefore
less penetrating.
60
70
80
Lead screens will also improve the radiographic image by partially filtering out scatter
radiation.
Two lead screens are used to sandwich the film; the thickness of the front screen must
be matched to the wavelength of radiation being used, so that it will pass the primary
radiation while stopping as much of the secondary radiation as possible. The rear screen
cuts down the effect of back scattered radiation.
If it is technically feasible, it is better to use screens of the same thickness, thus
avoiding the problem of accidentally loading a film cassette with the rear screen at the
front. Screen thicknesses are usually between 0.02 mm and 0.15 mm.
Lead screens are pliable and should be handled with care if buckling is to be avoided.
If the lead screens are to be used more than once, e.g. in cassettes as opposed to roll
film or pre-packed film, they become dusty and should be frequently dusted with a fine
brush. If screens become too dirty or splashed with liquid, they may be cleaned with
cotton wool damped with a weak detergent solution. When the screens become too
scratched or dirty causing the radiographic quality to be impaired, they should be
replaced by new screens.
FLUORESCENT
(SALT)SCREENS
Fluorescent screens are made up from micro crystals of a suitable metallic salt, usually
calcium tungstate, applied to a supporting thin base card.
90
These screens, when subjected to x-rays or gamma rays, emit light radiation to which
the film is sensitive.
This light radiation results in a large increase of effective
radiation.
There are two types of fluorescent screen:
lOO
I.
High definition (fine grain) screens.
2.
High speed or rapid screens.
o Ruant
luu.'
I< T P O'Nt~1
3\/03109
R9-J
UNIT R9 INTENSIFYING
Ruane & 11
TP O'Nelfl
SCREENS
A radiograph obtained using fluorescent screens will have a grainy appearance due to
the screens salt grains resulting in low definition compared to a radiograph taken using
lead screens or no screens at all.
10
Because of the resulting loss of image quality, fluorescent screens are only used to
avoid excessively long exposure times, e.g. on very thick specimens.
FLUOROMETALLIC
20
SCREENS
Fluorometallic screens are a combination of a salt screen and a lead screen; they are
made up of from a base card, a lead layer, a salt layer (calcium tungstate) and a thin
protective layer.
There is more than one type of fluorometaIlic screen:
30
40
Type I - for x-rays up to 300 kV.
Type 2 - for x-rays 300-1000 kV, Ir 192.
Type 3 - for C060.
Providing the correct type of fluorometallic screen and film are used with the range of
radiation being used, substantial reductions in exposure time or kV can be achieved.
Because the lead layer will partially filter out scatter radiation, the image produced on
the radiograph will be better than one obtained using fluorescent screens, but the image
will still retain a grainy appearance due to the salt crystals.
These screens are not commonly used due to high cost. Their application is similar to
those applications where fluorescent screens may be used, i.e. on thick specimens.
50
COMP ARISON OF INTENSIFYING SCREENS

Order of
image quality
Order of
speed
Lead
2-4
Beta particles
Fluorescent
8-15
Fluorometallic
5-10
Light radiation and UV

Light radiation, UV
and beta particles
None
N/A
Screen type
60
The intensification factor
relates /0 the reduction in
exposure time, e.g. an
intensification factor of 3
will reduce exposure from
say six minutes /0 two
minutes.
Intensification
factor
How intensification
achieved
is
N/A
70
80
90
100
Cl Ruane &. T P O'Nrill

Issue'
JI/OJ/09
R9-2
UNIT RIO
Ruane & 11
T P O'Hefll
IMAGE FORMATION
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially absorbed depending upon

the thickness and any differing material densities. The radiation finally emerging at the
film side of the object will largely determine the final characteristics of the radiograph.
:\ O'IT S
10
Actinic radiation. in this

context. is that which will
affect the film emulsion.
i.e. form a latent image.
20
The portions of radiographic film which receive sufficient quantities of actinic radiation
undergo minute changes. These changes are so small they are invisible to the naked
eye and also invisible when using conventional microscopes; this hidden image is
known as the latent image. The latent image can be defined as the hidden image on a
radiographic film after exposure to actinic radiation but before development.
Therefore, radiation alone does not convert a radiographic film into a visible readable
image. The sequence of processes to attain a radiographic image are as follows:
1. The silver halide crystals which have absorbed a sufficient quantity of radiation are
partially converted into metallic silver - this is the latent image.
2.
The affected crystals are then essentially amplified by the developer; the developer
completely converts the affected crystals into metallic silver.
3.
The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation; the fixer removes the
unexposed and therefore undeveloped crystals.
4.
Washing removes the chemicals (fixer).
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Cl Ru
" T P ON.ilJ
bsue!ll 31103109
RIO-J
U],;IT RII
Ruane & 11
T PO'Neill
. FILM PROCESSING
Processing of radiographs may be carried out manually or by using automatic processors.
:\OTES
10
20
Manual processing takes place in a darkroom under the illumination of safelights which
usually consist of ordinary light bulbs behind orange filters. Other colours for filters exist,
but the colour chosen must emit light of a wavelength which does not detrimentally affect
the emulsion.
The darkroom should preferably be divided into two sides, a dry side for loading and
unloading of cassettes and a wet side for processing; this is so the films are not splashed
prior to development. The wet side of the darkroom will usually have five tanks arranged
in the following sequence:
I. Developer tank.
]0
2.
Stopbath or rinse tank.
3.
Fixer tank.
4.
Final wash tank.
5. Wetting agent tank.

When the exposed film has been unloaded from its cassette, it is placed into aframe
spiral if its a long film) and placed into the developer.
40
(or
DARKROOMS
General rules
Darkrooms must be light-tight, must be kept clean and everything must be kept in its place.
50
60
Layout
The loading bench (the dry side) must be on the opposite side to the processing tanks (the
wet side). The distance between should be wide enough for two people to pass. The
loading bench should have storage space (drawers and cupboards) underneath for films,
chemicals etc ..
There must be at least one central white light and two safelights, one over the loading
bench, one over the processing tanks.
There must be electric sockets conveniently placed for extra electrical equipment.
There must be ventilation baffled against light and an exhaust fan, also baffled.
70
The entrance door should be spring loaded for self-closing and baffled all round against
light.
The entrance door should be lockable from the outside but not from the inside.
The darkroom walls should be painted washable white or cream, except for the walls by the
entrance which should be matt black.
80
Services
An electric supply is essential (mains or generator).
A running water supply is desirable but in some cases on isolated sites, water may have to
be carried.
90
Equipment
Processing tanks - There should be a minimum of four processing tanks; one for developer,
one for rinse, one for fixer and one twice as large for the wash. An extra tank is desirable
for wetting agent.
Drying cabinet - Desirable but not essential for a low output of radiographs.
100
Viewer.
Cl Ruant
& T P O'NtHI
Issue 9 31/03109
RIl-l
uxrr
Ruane & 11
TP O'Neill
RII
. FILM PROCESSING
Immersion heater - plunger type.

Timer.
Film hangers.
10
Film clips.
Cassettes.
Screens.
Films.
20
Chemicals - Developer, replenisher and fixer.

Miscellaneous items - Plastic bucket, mop, swabs, brush, paper towels, large waste paper
basket or box and a chair.
Layout of a typical industrial darkroom
30
DRY SIDE
WET SIDE
40
DEV
50
Below
are
DRY BENCH
cupboards
for
storing
(For loading &

unloading film
cassettes)
STRIP
LIGHTS
cassettes,
films &
chemicals
60
DRYER
70
LIGHT TRAP
80
I'~
RED WARNING LIGHT
90
[!]
WALL MOUNTED SAFELlGHTS
SAFElIGHTS
SUSPENDED FROM CEILING FOR GENERAL ILLUMINATION
100
e Ruane
b,.t9
11<T P O'Ntl1l
JIIOJI09
Rll-2
U~IT RII
Ruane & 11
TP OWell1
FILM PROCESSING
:'\OT ES
PROCESSING
10
Radiation causes a latent image to form on the film. A latent image cannot be discerned
with the naked eye.
Developing changes the latent image into a visual image by blackening the irradiated silver
halides.
Stop bath or rinse stops the action of the developer by neutralisation
surplus chemicals.
20
and removes the
Fixer removes unaffected silver halides and hardens the gelatine.

Final wash removes all chemicals from the film, preventing chemical fogging.
30
Developer> film to be developed for 4 minutes at 68F (20C) regularly agitated. It should
be topped up with replenisher and changed after twice its own volume of replenisher has
been added. Concentrated developer is mixed to a dilution of I part plus 4 parts water but
when used as a replenisher, the ratio is I part plus 3 parts of water, i.e. I gallon of
concentrate makes 5 gallons of developer.
Hot weather processing

40
50
60
. Through the summer months, darkrooms and chemical solutions frequently get warmer than
normal. For best results, the developer, fixer and wash water should be kept at the same
temperature. Ice should not be placed in the solution because excessive dilution will result
as the ice melts.
Although processing films in hot solution is not recommended, satisfactory radiographs can
be produced in solution up to 35C. Water temperatures can shoot up to dangerous heights,
even in air conditioned darkrooms.
Prolonged washing at high temperatures may damage film, therefore, if the water is too
warm, washing must be kept to a minimum.
Automatic water mixes will require watching too, they cannot keep water any cooler than
the temperature of the cold water supply.
Restrainer
With temperatures up to 24C, no extra precautions are needed.
However, when
temperatures range between 27C and 35C, restrainer can be added to the developer.
A restrainer for developing solutions is made up of 18 g of sodium bicarbonate per litre of
diluted developer, or 4.5 g of concentrated solution.
70
80
90
100
The total amount of proper restrainer needed for a full tank of developer should be weighed
out and then dissolved in approximately 200 ml of warm water. The resulting solution
should be added to the developer and the mixture stirred thoroughly.
Rinse
The gelatin in the emulsion swells more in warm solutions and absorbs more developer.
Therefore longer rinsing times are required at higher temperatures. Poorly rinsed films
carry more alkali into the fixer and thereby reduce the speed and hardening action of the
fixer.
Fixing at high temperatures
A fixing bath that contains an acid hardener minimises the tendency of the emulsion to frill
during the final washing. Even when rinsing is done carefully, the fixer acidity declines
with use. The addition of fixer replenisher will maintain pH 4.5 and the fixer's hardening
ability.
Washing film in hot weather
In the summer, excessive washing should be avoided. Prolonged immersion in warm water
may cause the emulsion to frill. To determine the correct rate of water flow, measure the
time required to refill the tank after removing a given quantity of water and adjust the flow
so that water in the tank changes at least 10 times each hour.
OR
&TPON.m
Iss ee 931/03109
Rll-3
lll'\IT RII
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nell1
. FILM PROCESSIl'\G
Drying film in hot weather

The high relative humidity generally prevailing in hot weather increases the time required
to dry an Xsray film. Three of the factors that affect drying time are:
10
I.
the degree to which the film has been hardened in the fixer;
2.
the length oftime it was washed;
3. the water absorbing property of the gelatin used to make the emulsion.
20
Methods of controlling the first two factors have been described previously.
Faster
processible film is recommended, especially because it absorbs a minimum of water.
Overnight
cooling
In laboratories where 10 - 20 litre solution tanks are used, the following recommendations
may prove useful.
30
Before closing the laboratory for the day, remove 4 litres of developer and 4 litres of fixer
and place them in separate labelled glass containers. Store them in a refrigerator overnight
and in the morning, add chilled solutions to the warm solution to bring the working
temperature closer to normal. Make certain the bottles are dedicated and correctly labelled.
~--
40
DEVELOPER
Developer is an alkali and is usually supplied as a liquid concentrate and is diluted with
water at a ratio governed by the manufacturers instructions, e.g. 1 part developer to 4
parts water.
50
60
Developer temperature and development time should be in accordance with the

manufacturers recommendations or specification, but for manual processing is typically 20
I C for 4 to 5 minutes. The time should be taken from when the film hits the developer
with a suitable darkroom timer.
Once the film is in the developer it is agitated for approximately 20 seconds and then for
approximately 10 seconds every minute. Agitation allows for fresh developer to flow over
the film and prevents the possibility of bromide streaking; agitation also cuts down
development time. The developer supplies a source of electrons (-ve ions) which cause the
chemical changes in the emulsion. The frames or spirals should be tapped against the tanks
to prevents any air bubbles settling on the film which can cause light spots on the fmished
radiograph.
70
Developer
Constituents
80
Developing
agent(s)
Preferentially reduces the exposed

silver halide crystals (+ve ions) to
black metallic silver.
Accelerator
A chemical which gives an alkaline

reaction which speeds up development
Preservative
90
Action
Restrainer
Sequestering
a~ent
Prevents oxidation of the developer.

Controls the level of development
fogging.
Prevents the formation of scale.
Chemicals in
common use
Metol.
Hydroquinone.
Phenidone
Borax.
Sodium carbonate.
Sodium hydroxide.
Sodium sulphate.
Potassium bromide.
Sodium.
Hesarnetaphosphate.
100
C>Ruanc &. T P O'Ntill

b 9 J 1103/09
Rll-4
UI\IT RII . FILM PROCESSI~G
Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/J
:\ 0 TI: S
Replenishment
\0
The activity of the developer gradually decreases with use and age. Replenishment ensures
that the activity of the developer and the developing time required remains constant
throughout the useful life of the developer. When approximately I m2 of film has been
developed, about 400 ml (2 cups) of replenish er needs to be added.
20
After continuous replenishment the quality of the image will be affected and the developer
will have to be changed. A common guide for the remixing time is when the replenisher
added exceeds twice the volume of the original developer.
STOPBATH
The stopbath may be:
30
40
An acid stopbath.
A water spray rinse.
A fresh water tank.
The most efficient type of stopbath is an acid stopbatb which is typically made up of 2%
glacial acetic acid in water. This stops the reaction of the developer, due to the developer
being an alkali and the stopbath an acid.
Films should be placed and agitated in the stopbathlrinse tank for at least 10 seconds; if this
is not done properly, the fixer will soon become neutralised.
50
FIXER
Fixer is an acid which is supplied as a liquid concentrate and is to be diluted with water,
typically at a ratio of I part fixer to 3 parts water (follow manufacturers instructions); a
hardening agent is also added.
60
If/he crystals are unexposed

they will not have been
developed.
70
Fixation is the process which removes the undeveloped silver halide crystals and fixes the
remaining developed crystals, thereby producing radiographs of a diagnostic (readable)
quality.
The fixer contains chemicals, e.g. ammonium or sodium thiosulphate, which convert the
unwanted unexposed halides into water soluble compounds; they are then readily dissolved
or removed at the fmal wash stage.
The films must be agitated in the fixer, failing to do so may result in light spots on the film.
The fixing time is twice the time it takes for the image to clear, e.g. if the milky image
disappears in 3 minutes, after looking under the illumination of the safe lights, the films are
returned to the fixing tank for another 3 minutes, i.e. total fixing time 6 minutes.
80
When the fixer becomes exhausted, e.g. as a guideline - when the fixing time is over 10
minutes, the fixer should be replaced. Fixers are not usually replenished. The exhausted
fixer is retained because silver may be reclaimed via electrolysis methods.
FINAL WASH
90
Films should be washed preferably in a tank with constant running water, for at least 20
minutes. This removes any soluble silver compounds left behind in the emulsion after
fixing and removes the fixer which is an acid. Yellow fog appears on films which have not
been sufficiently washed.
100
Cl Ra e & T , O'Ntill
Issue 9 31/03/09
Rll-5
UNIT RII
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neil1
:\OT[S
. FILM PROCESSING
WETTING AGENT
10
Wetting agent reduces the surface tension of the water and results in even drying of the
film; this prevents black spots or streaks.
Wetting agents are supplied as a liquid
concentrate and is to be diluted with water at a ratio of approximately I part wetting agent
to 4000 parts of water.
Films are only dipped in and out of the wetting agent.
20
DRYING THE FILM

Initially excess water is removed from the films with a squeegee and then placed in either a
drying cabinet, other specially designed drying apparatus or a dust free drying room. Care
must be taken not to allow drops of water to fall onto the drying films, otherwise black
marks will remain on the radiograph.
30
The drying time will depend on the temperature, air circulation and the relative humidity of
the warm air. Typical drying times are 15 minutes in a drying cabinet, 45 minutes in a
drying room.
40
50
60
70
80
90
lOO
o R & TPO'N.m
Issue 9 31/03/09
Rll-6
UNIT nI2
Ruane & 11
T P O'Neill
. nADIOGRAPHIC
QUALITY
Radiographic quality can be discussed using four main terms:
:\OTES
I.
Density - The density of a radiograph relates its degree of blackness.
2.
Contrast - Radiographic contrast is the degree of difference between density fields on

a radiograph.
3.
Definition - Radiographic definition is the degree of sharpness at the boundaries of

density fields.
4.
Sensitivity
quality.
10
- Sensitivity is a term used to give an indication of overall radiographic
20
There are two qualities of a radiograph usually measured: density and sensitivity. Density
is measured using a densitometer and sensitivity is measured using an image quality
indicator (IQI).
30
Sensitivity measurements give an overall guide as to the radiographic technique's ability to

detect fine defects. Sensitivity is affected directly by the contrast and definition, i.e. if
either of these qualities are lacking then the sensitivity is lacking.
DENSITY
The density of a radiograph relates its degree of blackness.
40
50
A high density or dark area absorbs more light than a low density or light area. The greater
the amount of black metallic silver grains present in an area on a radiograph, the more light
is absorbed and the denser the area appears.
More radiation passes through the thinner sections of a specimen, e.g. areas where cracks
or lack of fusion are present, therefore these areas will eventually show up on the
radiograph as dark (dense) areas.
Measuring density
60
Density on a processed radiograph is measured using an instrument called a densitometer,

this compares the incident light (I.) with the transmitted fight (IJ and expresses the result as
a logarithmic ratio. Incident light is light from the viewer; transmitted light is light
transmitted through a film when the film is on the viewer.
Density
The viewer must be capable 70

of white light intensities
suitablefor viewing
radiographs up to the
maximum permissible
densities.
LOglO ~
It
Example:
If the incident light was 100 times greater than the transmitted light:
Density
LoglO
Density
= 2.0
100
I
80
Density
90
l.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
% light transmitted
through
the radiograph
10%
1%
0.1%
0.01%
0.001%
100
c Ru & T PO'N.iII
I ss ee 9 31/03/09
RI2-1
UNIT IU2 RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neil1
QUALITY
The ratio of transmitted light for densities of 1.0 and 2.0 is a factor of 10, i.e. 10 times mor,
light passes through the radiograph for a density of 1.0 than for a density of 2.0.
:\OlES
The ratio of transmitted light for densities of 1.0 and 3.0 is a factor of 100, i.e. 100 times
more light passes through the radiograph for a density of 1.0 than for a density of3.
10
Before use, densitometers should be calibrated using a calibrated density strip - a strip of
film containing known densities on the same viewer which is to be used for interpreting the
radiograph.
The minimum density in the area of interest, i.e. the weld, required by specifications is
typically between 1.5 and 2.5. However, this is not always practical to determine when the
area of interest has many thickness changes and therefore density changes - as is the case
with certain types of m.m.a. welds. In this situation the specification may specify that the
density is to be measured inunediately adjacent to the weld reinforcement.
20
BS EN /435 states that the

minimum optical density
shall be greater or equal to
2.0 or 2.3. depending on the
class.
30
The maximum density stated in a specification will typically be 3.0 or 3.5.
Lack of density - causes
40
Under exposure to radiation.
Insufficient development time.
Developer temperature too low.
Exhausted developer.
Incorrect developer.
Solution of developer too weak.
Excessive density - causes

50
60
Over exposure to radiation.
Excessive development time.
Developer temperature too high.
Solution of developer too strong.
RADIOGRAPHIC
CONTRAST
Radiographic contrast is the degree of difference between density fields on a radiograph.
.........
When a radiograph contains only blacks and whites and no intermediate tones the contrast.
high; when only tones of a similar density exist the contrast is low; the optimum contrast
may lie between these two extremes, it depends on the aim of the radiographic technique.
70
Latitude: The range of
thicknesses which can be
viewed on a radiograph.
e.g. C060 gives good
latitude. Low k V x-ray gives
poor latitude
If an application specification is not permitting any detected defects in the weld whatsoever,
then the contrast should ideally be as high as possible, i.e. high contrast is ideal for
detecting defects.
80
If, however, an application specification permitted certain defects, depending on the defects
through thickness dimensions, as well as length and/or width, then it would be necessary to
have a range of tones on the radiographs so that the through thickness depth of the defects
and the height of weld reinforcements can be assessed.
90
Therefore, to gain more information about the through thickness dimensions of any defects
and the weld itself, we need to have intermediate tones, i.e. greys in addition to black and
whites.
Note: We are assuming that there are thickness changes or material density changes present
in order to display density changes.
100
The following chart shows the criteria which affect radiographic contrast:
Cl Ruane & T P Q'Ntill

tssue
9 31103109
R12-2
UNIT R12 . RAIlIOGRAPIIIC
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neill
Radiographic
:'\01 [S
I
Film contrast
I
Affected by:
a. Thickness differences in specimen
b. Radiation quality
c. Scattered radiation
30
40
contrast
Subject contrast
10
20
QUALITY
Affected by:
a. Type of film
b. Development time, temperature
and agitation
c. Activity of the developer
Subject contrast is the ratio of x-ray or gamma ray intensities transmitted by two selected
portions of a specimen. Subject contrast depends on the nature of the specimen, the
wavelength of the radiation used and the intensity and distribution of the scattered radiation
but is independent of time, milliamperage of source strength, distance and the
characteristics or treatment of the film.
Film contrast refers to the slope (steepness) of the characteristic curve of the film. It
depends on the type of film, the processing it receives and the density. It also depends on
whether the film's exposure is direct, with lead screens or with fluorescent screens. Film
contrast is independent, for most practical purposes, of the wavelengths and distribution of
the radiation reaching the film and hence is independent of subject contrast.
Measuring radiographic contrast

Radiographic contrast is not usually measured exclusively; it is normally
subjectively, but could be measured by the use of a step wedge type J.Q.I..
A wire type IQI used to assess sensitivity primarily gives information
radiographic contrast, but the degree of definition also affects the result.
assessed
about the
50
Insufficient contrast - causes
60
Radiation wavelength too short, Le. kVIpenetrating power too high.

Over exposure to radiation, compensated for by shortened development time.
Prolonged development in too cold a developer or exhausted developer.
Unsuitable or wrongly mixed developer.
Insufficient fixation.
Fog.
Excessive contrast - causes

70
80
Radiation wavelength too long, i.e. kV/penetrating power too low.
Wrongly mixed developer.
Under exposure, compensated for by a prolonged developer.
DEFINITION
Radiographic definition is the degree of sharpness at the boundaries of density fields.
There are many factors that govern the final definition on a radiograph, including the
geometry of the set-up during exposure and the film type used. Perfect defmition can never
be obtained due to the existence of penumbra and the films inherent unsharpness.
90
Measuring radiographic definition

Radiographic defmition is not usually measured exclusively; it is normally assessed
subjectively, but can be measured by the use of a duplex type IQI.
100
Cl Ru
Issue'
8< T P
lllOlI09
O'N.m
R12-3
lI!'11T R12 RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
T P O'Ne/11
QUALITY
-r-,
:\OlLS
10
A duplex type IQJ (BS EN 462 : Part 5) - Image quality indicators (Duplex) consists o.
pairs of parallel platinum or tungsten wires of decreasing thickness, the thickness of the
pairs usually being the same as the gap between them. If a pair of parallel wires blend into
one on the radiographic image it will be due to the poor definition. The largest pair of
wires, the image of which has just merged from that of two separate wires into the single
form, is taken as the criterion of discemability.
Unsharpness is given in BS EN 462 : Part 5 as U
the wire spacing distance.
20
2d, where d is the width of the wire and
Note: Duplex IQIs are placed on the source side of the object being examined and aligned
as closely as possible to the axis of the radiation beam.
Radiographic
definition
Geometrical factors
I
Graininess factors
30
Affected by:
a. Focal spot size
b. Focus film distance
c. Specimen film distance
d. Abrupt thickness changes in specimen
e. Screen film contact
Affected by:
a. Type of film
b. Type of screen
c. Radiation quality
d. Development
40
Inherent (film) unsharpness
50
Inherent unsharpness is the unsharpness on a radiograph caused by stray electrons

transmitted from exposed crystals which have affected adjacent crystals.
Inherent
unsharpness always exists, its magnitude depending on grain size, grain distribution and
radiation energy used; it increases with a reduction in wavelength.
Geometric unsharpness (Ug)
60
Geometric unsharpness or penumbra is the unsharpness on a radiograph caused by the

geometry of the radiation beam in relation to the object being radiographed and the film.
Penumbra always exists and borders all density fields.
The dimensions of the focal spot or gamma source, object to film distance (o.f.d.) and focal
spot to film distance (f.f.d.) all affect penumbra.
To minimise penumbra we must adhere to the following conditions:
70
The source or focal spot should be as small as possible.
D.f.d. should be as small as possible.
F.f.d.ls.f.d. should be as long as practicable.
Determination of focal spot size

80
The focal spot size of x-ray tubes can change over a period of time. To determine the size
of the focal spot, e.g. for penumbra calculations, the following procedure may be adopted.
1.
Place a lead sheet, approximately 4 mm thick containing a small hole about 0.25 mm
diameter, exactly halfway between the focal spot and a radiographic film.
2.
Expose - the exposure should not be excessive otherwise the image will be blurred.
The image on the film will be the size of the focal spot plus twice the diameter of the
hole.
3.
Calculate the focal spot size by measuring the total diameter of the image and then
deduct 2 x hole diameter.
90
100
e Ruant
" T P O'Ntill
Issue 9 31/03109
R12-4
Ul\IT R12 RAI)IOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
TP O'Neill
QlJALITY
,\OlI.S
Calculation
10
Ug=
of geometric unsha rpness (Ug)

sxofd
sfd - ofd
(SOD)
Where: s = the maximum dimension of the gamma source or focal spot.

This is calculated using the Pythagorus theorem, e.g.:
20
2 mmdiameter
s=
L.-J
=2.82 mm
AI2mm
length
30
ofd = object to film distance

sfd = source to film distance
sod = source to object distance
40
Note: sod + ofd
sfd
s
------------SOURCEI\7\------------1X \
f I \ \
I I \ \
50
II
srd
f/
;'1
OBIE;I
60
If
If
\\
sed
\\
\~
\\
\;----T
\\
\\
ord
FILM
70
The maximum penumbra allowed on radiographs is specified in certain standards. In

contractual situations where the standards do not quote maximum penumbra values, they
may be agreed with the client; a typical maximum penumbra of 0.25 mm is often used.
Using the nomogram

80
BS EN 1435 uses a nomogram which is based on calculations for minimum Ug. The Ug is
not stated but using the nomogram gives minimum source to object (sod) distances which
will give acceptable Ug.
90
100
o RUin.
issue"
" T P O'N.ill
J 1103109
R12-5
UNIT R12 . RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
TP O'Neill
QUALITY
--......
500
01101
400
)00
10
200
5000
10
.\1"
"'101
2000
3000
8
7
2000
100
1000
10
20
1000
60
soo
SO
~o
)00
500
1
30
200
)00
30
20
c
" 2
200
100
"'c
i
'-
"lOO
10
SO
)0
40
1
<I
20
)0
20
10
10
0.5
50
1) Class B
60
2) Class A
Figure 21. Nomogram for the determination of minimum source-to-object

fmin in relation to the object-to-liIm distance and the source size.
d
= OFD = sample
distance
source size
thickness
70
PROCESSING
AND HANDLING FAULTS
Fog
80
Fog is unwanted density on a radiograph and appears on radiographs as darkened areas or

overall darkening which has not been caused by thickness variations in the subject.
Grey fog
90
Accidental exposure to actinic radiation light, x-rays, gamma rays. When fog is
caused by light leaks, e.g. because ofa faulty cassette, it is often termed lighlfog.
Scatter.
Unsuitable
darkroom.
Film exposed to heat.
Bad film storage.
darkroom
lighting, e.g.
wrong safelights,
white light entering
100
e Ru...., & T P ON.m

lssu.9
31103109
RI 2-6
UNIT RJ2 RADIOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neill
x o rES
QUALITY
Yellow fog
10
Insufficient final wash.
Exhausted fixer.
Prolonged development in badly oxidized developer.
Dichroic rog
20
Greenish colour by reflected light, pink via transmitted light.
Prolonged development in exhausted developing bath.
Film stuck to another film in fixer.
Developing tank contaminated with fixer.
Mottled fog
30
Film badly stored, e.g. in damp surroundings.
Film out of date.
ARTIFACTS
40
An artifact is a spurious indication on the radiographic image, e.g. a fault in or on the film
usually caused by mishandling or incorrect developing. An artifact may be mistaken for a
defect in the weld or parent material; an artifact may also mask a fault in the weld,
therefore, it is essential that artifacts should be avoided.
Static discharge
50
Static discharge marks may occur when the film is pulled quickly from between the
intensifying screens in a dry atmosphere. The appearance on the radiograph is usually
lightning like, but it may also be mottled.
Reticulation
60
Reticulation is a net like structure appearing in the emulsion due to rupture caused by
excessive temperature differences between the processing tanks. It is a rare artifact
nowadays to the flexible/plastic nature of modem day emulsions.
Diffraction mottle
70
Diffraction mottle may occur in a weld area on a radiographic image because of the grain
structure and grain orientation of certain materials matching the wavelength of the radiation
in a certain way.
Austenitic stainless steels and aluminium welds are particularly
susceptible.
Diffraction mottle has the-appearance of fme porosity throughout the weld area. It may be
reduced or eliminated by changing the wavelength of radiation, i.e. increasing kV, or by
changing the radiation angle by approximately 5.
80
Light patches - possible causes
90
Film was not agitated/tapped during development or fixation.
Film insufficiently rinsed after development.
Drops of fixer fell onto film prior to development.
Mechanical damage causing pressure marks to emulsion before exposure.
Impurities between screen and film.
Marked or cracked fluorescent screens.
100
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ne & T P O'NeiU
1 9 JI/03/Ol1
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11
QUALITY
TPO'Neil1
Dark patches, lines or streaks - possible causes
:\OlES
10
20
Drops of developer fallen onto film prior to development.

Drops of water fallen onto film prior to development.
Mechanical damage causing pressure marks to emulsion after exposure.
Buckled or scratched lead screens.
Slow and uneven drying of film, i.e. when there are still droplets of water on the
film.
Uneven drying.
Bending of film after exposure (usually between two fingers causes dark crescent
shaped marks).
Whitish deposit - possible causes
Water used to make up processing solutions too hard.
Solarisation
30
Solarisation is lightening of the image, or reversal, due to exposure to white light

whilst the film is in the developer.
SENSITIVITY
40
The term sensitivity, when used in a general sense, is the ability to detect small changeT"
The term sensitivity when applied to radiography is an overall assessment of quality
which relates to the radiographic
technique's ability to detect fine defects on a
radiograph.
The sensitivity associated with a radiograph is directly affected by the radiographic contrast
and defmition, therefore all those factors which affect contrast and definition will also affect
the sensitivity.
50
60
70
Calculating sensitivity using IQl's

Sensitivity is measured by the use of image quality indicators (IQIs), also known as a
penetrameters. There are various types of IQI; the type commonly used consists of seven
thin wires within a plastic packaging. The wires are placed transversely across the weld
area being examined during exposure. The sensitivity on the resultant radiograph is then
given a numerical value by dividing the thickness of the smallest wire visible on the
radiograph by the thickness of the specimen in the area being examined; this is then
multiplied by 100 in order to express the result as a percentage of the specimen thickness.
Alternatively, some specifications simply specify the minimum number of wires which have
to be visible on the radiograph.
Sensitivity % =
thickness of thinnest wire visible x 100

.
thickness of specimen
The lower the figure obtained, the better, i.e. the higher the sensitivity.
80
It must be noted however, that the obtained IQI sensitivity value does not directly relate to
the minimum defect size detectable by the radiographic technique used because of defect
orientation.
BS EN 462 Image Quality Indicators is the standard which supersedes BS 3971 and DIN
62. It is in 5 parts and covers the following:
BS
BS
BS
BS
BS
90
100
EN 462-1
EN 462-2
EN 462-3
EN 462-4
EN 462-5
Wire type
Step/wedge type
Classes for ferrous metals
Image quality values and image quality tables
Duplex wire type
The wire gauges and range of wires used in IQl's for BS EN 462-1 are the same as DIN 62,
i.e. a DIN 62 10-16 has become an EN 462 WIO. The WI3 was added to increase the range
to cope with thinner materials.
This covers the wire gauges 13 to 19.
c Ruane-
&.
T P O'Ntill
bsur 9 31103/09
Rt2-8
Ruane & 11
TP O'Neill
QCALITY
Table 1 gives the wire number and nominal wire
:"01 [S
10
20
30
40
50
Table l. Wire numbers. diameters and limit deviations

Image quality indicator
Wire
including
Wl
W6 WIO W13 Wire number Nominal wire
diameter
3,20
X
WI
X
2,50
W2
2,00
X
W3
1,60
W4
X
1,25
W5
X
X
W6
1,00
X
W7
0,80
X
X
0,63
X
W8
0,50
X
W9
0,40
X
X
W 10
X
X
WlI
0,32
X
W 12
0,25
X
0,20
X
W 13
X
X
0,16
X
W 14
0,125
X
X
W 15
W 16
0,100
X
X
W 17
0,080
X
0,063
X
W 18
0,050
X
W 19
Dimensions in millimetres
Wire centreline
spacing, a
Tolerances
0,03
9,(;
7,$
6 -:
0,02
.r
0,01
'5
0,005
Table 2 gives types ofIQI and wire materials used for selected groups of materials
Table 2. Types of IQI and wire materials
Image quality indicator
Wire number
60
70
80
90
W 1 CU
W 6CU
W IOCU
WI3CU
W 1 FE
W 6FE
W IOFE
W J3FE
W ITI
W6T1
W 10Tl
W 13 TI
W I AL
W 6AL
W 10AL
W 13AL
W I to W
W 6 to W
W 10to W
W 13 to W
W 1 to W
W 6 to W
W 10 to W
WJ3toW19
W I to W
W 6to W
W 10to W
W13toWI9
W I to W
W 6 to W
WIOtoWI6
Wl3toWI9
used for selected { rOUDSof materials

Wire material
Suitable for test - the
followlna materials
Copper, zinc, tin and
7
Copper
their alloys
12
16
19
7
Steel (low
Ferrous materials
12
alloyed)
16
Titanium
Titanium and their alloys
Aluminium
Aluminium and their

alloys
12
16
7
12
B S EN 462-1 5.2 states the IQ [ should be placed on the side of the section under test facing
the source of radiation and remote from the film. If this is not possible, the IQI may be
placed adjacent to the side under test nearest the film and a letter F near to the IQ!.
The IQ! shall be placed on the object in an area where the thickness is as uniform as
possible.
100
Cl Ru & T P O'N.iD
.ue ~ 31103109
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Ruane & 11
QUALITY
TP O'Neill
:\OT[S
ASSESSING
10
SENSITIVITY
In accordance with BS EN 1435 Radiographic examination of welded joints, IQI wires

shall be directed perpendicular to the weld and ensure that at least IQ mm of the wire length
will show in a section of uniform optical density, which is normally in the parent metal
adjacent to the weld.
For double wall double image and perpendicular shots, the wire can be placed across the
pipe axis and should not project into the weld.
20
Step wedge/hole type IQl's are placed adjacent to the weld in the centre of the film. The
sensitivity is assessed in the same way as for wire types except you use the hole diameter
instead of a wire thickness.
With the exception of duplex wires, IQl's are made of the same material as the specimen
being examined and are available in a variety of thickness ranges.
30
Although it is desirable for the IQI and the specimen to be of the same material, it is not
always possible or practicable to accomplish due to lack of availability. For test specimens
made from alloyed elements, the IQI material chosen should have similar radiation
absorption/transmission properties to the test specimen.
BS EN 1435 requires minimum image quality values to be assessed from tables BI to Bl;~
The tables are compiled from calculations of minimum acceptable sensitivity.
40
Specific sensitivity terms

There are many specific terms relating to sensrtivrty which may be encountered; the
following terms are in accordance with BS EN 1330 - Terms used in non-destructive
testing : Part 3 <Industrial Radiographic Testing:
50
Contrast sensitivity
The smallest thickness change in a specimen which produces a discernible change in optical
density on a radiographic image, usually expressed as a percentage of the total specimen
thickness.
60
Flaw sensitivity
The minimum flaw size detectable under specified test conditions usually expressed as a
percentage of the specimen thickness.
Image quality indicator sensitivity
70
The dimension in the direction of the radiation of the thinnest step-with-hole or wire that
can be clearly identified, expressed as a percentage of the thickness of the material unde .examination.
Note: The duplex-wire image quality indicator is based on a different principle and gives a
measure ofunsharpness only.
80
Thickness sensitivity
The smallest change in thickness which can be detected by radiography, usually expressed
as a percentage of the specimen thickness.
90
100
Cl RU2nt & T P O'Ntill

Issue 9 J I/03/09
R12-IO
Ruane&
tJNIT R13 RADIOGRAPHIC
11
TECHNIQUES
TPO'Neill
Radiographic techniques for welds on steel are listed in BS EN 1435 : Radiographic

Examination of Welded Joints.
:\OTES
The radiographic examination of a plate weld would result in a single wall, single
image technique being used; however, there are essentially four ways to radiograph a
girth/pipe weld:
10
I. Single wall, single image (SWSI) - film inside, source outside.

2.
Single wall, single image (SWSI) - film outside, source inside (internal exposure,
usually full panoramic).
3.
Double wall, single image (DWSI) - film outside, source outside (external
exposure).
4.
Double wall, double image (DWDJ) - film outside, source outside (elliptical
exposure).
20
The panoramic technique is usually the preferred technique if the equipment is

available, access permits and the minimum f.f.d.ls.f.d. requirements are met. This is
due to the fact that the entire weld can be examined in one exposure and good
sensitivity can be achieved because of a lower level of scatter and kV in comparison
with a double walled exposure.
30
40
SWSI: SOURCE
OUTSIDE, FILM INSIDE
For standard exposures, the radiation beam is positioned at normal incidence to the
weld face and film passing through the centre of the weld.
This technique is primarily intended for 100 mm diameter pipe welds and above,
where access to the internal weld area permits. The main disadvantages of this
technique are the number of exposures required due to a large amount of fade off, and
the practical aspects of positioning the radiation source at sufficient f.f.d. when dealing
with fabrications in situ. It is a technique more suited to large diameter pipes, vessels
and tanks where the curvature is closer to a flat plate and therefore has a reduced effect
on the amount offade off.
50
60
The required minimum number of exposures to cover the full circumference of the weld
depends on the wall thickness, pipe diameter and f.f.d.ls.f.d.; see Figure Al and A3 in
BS EN 1435.
Note: AI is for 10% fade off and A3, 20% fade off.
70
----
80
---
----
-----
---- ----
--- - -- - -- - -- Source
90
100
Ruane & T P
Issue 9 31103109
O'N.m
R13-1
UNIT RI3 RAI)IOGRAPHIC
Ruane & 11
T P OWei11
SWSI:
:\01 [S
ID
(PANORAMIC)
TECHNIQUES
SOURCE INSIDE, FILM OUTSIDE
For standard exposures, the radiation beam is positioned at normal incidence to the
weld face and film passing through the centre of the weld, with equal f.f.dJs.f.d. around
the circumference.
This technique cannot be used if the minimum f.f.d.ls.f.d.
requirements cannot be met. See BS EN 1435.
20
30
40
DWSI
This technique is commonly applied to all welds where the use of a panoramic
technique is not possible or practicable, e.g. on small diameter pipe welds.
50
60
For standard exposures on any diameter of pipe weld, the radiation beam is positioned
at approximately 850 to the weld face and film. With this technique the radiation beam
cannot be positioned at normal incidence to the weld portion being examined because
the weld on the radiation source side will superimpose over the film side weld resulting
in an unreadable radiograph. This problem mainly applies when using x-ray tubes; the
x-ray tube must be moved approximately 60 mm to the side of the weld, so the central
line of the x-ray beam shoots past the tube side weld resulting in a diagnostic image of
the film side weld. Care must a)so be taken to ensure that the number tape on the
source side does not interfere with the image, i.e. shoot through from the opposite side
of the weld to that which the number tape is positioned.
The required minimum number of exposures to cover the full circumference of the weld
depends on the wall thickness, pipe diameter and f.f.d.; see Figure A2 and A4 in BS
EN 1435.
70
Note: A2 is for 10% fade off and A4, 20% fade off.
Film
Film
80
X __
90
Section on X - X
Source
lOO
.1.
~--Offset
o Ru
&
TPO'N';U
9 31103109
R13-2
UNIT RJ3 . RAHIOGRAPHIC TECHI\"IQUES
Ruane & 11
TP O'Ne/lf
DWDI
'OT[S
This technique is only applied to welds on pipe or fittings 100 mm diameter or below.
10
20
30
A minimum of two exposures are usually required at 90 to each other; this results in a
total of four interpretable areas on the radiograph which should cover the full
circumference ofthe weld.
The cassette is placed flat on one side of the pipe. The source is positioned at the
minimum sfd (calculated using the Ug formula or nomogram) and is offset from the
weld centre line to give an elliptical image. In most cases an offset of about one fifth
sfd will separate the top image from the bottom. This, however, becomes more difficult
as the wall thickness increases and the pipe diameter reduces.
On small bore heavy wall pipework, it is often permitted by specification or client for
the radiation to pass through the centre of the weld at normal incidence to the pipe; this
will produce a radiograph with the tube side weld superimposed over the film side
weld.
-offset'
Source
------~fr.------------------------------------~t~.
:.;:
:.:
40
I ---,-.-
50
Section on X - X
_._-----,60
Film
----
Film
SANDWICH TECHNIQUE
70
80
The sandwich technique is a radiographic technique sometimes used in order to save

time. It may be used on components where there are substantial thickness differences
causing the density on a single radiograph to be out of specification on either the
thicker side, the thinner side or both. Rather than carry out two separate shots at
different exposures for each weld or position, cassettes may be loaded with two films.
Two radiographs will therefore be produced - one for the thick side and the other for
the thinner side but they will have been produced in a single exposure.
The films are usually of different speeds, e.g. a fine grained film loaded with a very
fine grained film, however, the same effect will be produced by placing a lead screen,
thicker than usual, between two films of the same speed.
90
LOCATION OF DEFECTS
Parallax technique
The parallax technique is
sometimes reJerred 10 as the
tube shift method when an 100
x-ray tube is used.
The parallax radiographic technique may be used to determine the depth of defects
below the surface of a component; this may be useful to know for repair purposes. It is
a technique more applicable to thick specimens, e.g. over 50 mm, but is rarely used
ClRuan. & T P O'N.m

In ue 9 31/ID109
R13-3
lJNIT IH3 . RADIOGRAPHIC TECIINIQllES
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nelll
because ultrasonic testing can usually give the same information quicker and at a lower
cost.
'OT[S
10
20
The technique is used after a defect has already been detected by conventional methods.
The procedure involves the placement of a lead marker on the source side of a
specimen's surface close to the plan view location of the defect. Two exposures are
made, each at half the normal exposure, and offset to each other in order to produce a
double image ofthe lead marker and defect.
The following criteria are used to calculate the distance of the defect from the film
either by means of a formula or graph:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Distance between defect images.

Distance between lead marker images.
F.f.d.ls.f.d.
Specimen thickness.
Dimension of shift between source of radiation.
30
Right-angled method
Two shots of specimen taken at right angles. The position of defect may be found by
measurement. This is the most straight forward method for cube shaped or similar
specimens. This method cannot be used for welds or plates.
40
Mathematical (tube or source shift) method

Find the defect by normal radiography. Position the tube over the defect - move the
tube a distance of exactly one fifth of the FFD sideways and give half the original
exposure. Move the tube some distance in the opposite direction, i.e. one fifth of the
FFD from centre, and give another half exposure on the same sheet of film:
50
lh
d
= I +s
Where
d
I
60
h
s
distance of defect from film

distance of image movement
FFD
two fifths of the FFD
Lead marker (tube or source shift) method

70
Find the defect by normal radiography. Position the tube over the defect. Place one
lead wire on top of the specimen to one side of the defect. Place a second lead wire
underneath the specimen on the other side of the defect.
Move the tube approximately one fifth of the FFD to one side and give half the original
exposure, then move the tube approximately one fifth of the FFD to the other side and
give halfthe original exposure, again on the same sheet offilm.
80
Draw graph as shown
total specimen thickness

image shift of top lead wire
image shift of defect
image shift of bottom lead wire
distance of defect from bottom of specimen
90
b
c
d
Or, instead of drawing graph, use:

D
= T(b-c)
(a-c)
100
e It
&
T P ON.iII
tssee , 31103/09
R13-4
tTNIT R13 . RADIOGRAI)HIC
Ruane& 11
TPO'Neil/
:-.01 [S
TECHNIQUES
IMAGESHIFfS
2
SPECIMEN
10
--:---
Source
20
shift
direction
_________
Pb marker
(source
-<'>."'=
RADIOGRAPH
T.
side)
Defect
Pb marker
(film side)
30
SOURCE
POSITIONS
ill
t ----------
-.!
,,'
40
.I
'
50
'f/
--j'
Top Pb wire
T
'
t..;
----; Defect
~ __ ~=-=-
.d
~--'-"=-
60
-,---,~
L-a -;
...
,BotlOm
..- ..---~,-----'
Pb wire
---
Film
-b -
70
'T'
'T' - thickness
of specimen
80
d
Heighlof
Defect'd'
Above bottom
surface
90
----
Bottom marker
~-shift
.
__
--
lOO
() Ruant
LLDeClf,Cler.
:I_~
......
Top marker shift
'" T P O'Ntill
Issu< 9 31103/09
R13-S
l1NIT R14 DETERl\lIl'"ATION
Ruane & 11
OF EXPOSl1RE
TP OWei11
Many factors govern the fmal quality of a radiographic image; all these factors must be
considered and controlled in order to meet with a specifications requirements.
:\OTI:S
10
20
30
40
The time to use for an exposure is only one factor to consider for an exposure, but it is this
factor which changes most often. Gamma exposure times are usually calculated from
special slide rules, usually referred to as gamma exposure calculators, these take into
consideration the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Film density to be achieved.

Source type.
Activity of source.
Film speed.
Source to film distance.
Material type.
Material thickness.
When using x-ray equipment, the determination of exposure is less straightforward. This is
because the wavelength and intensity of radiation may be adjusted, and different machines
produce different quantities and qualities of x-radiation even though they may be operated
on the same panel settings. The following methods are used to determine correct exposures
when using x-ray equipment:
a.
b.
c.
d.
By reference to previous exposure records.

By trial and error test shots.
A combination of the above.
By using exposure charts.
CONSIDERATIONS
50
FOR EXPOSURES
Wavelength of radiation
The wavelength of radiation used will affect the density, contrast and defmition of a
radiographic
60
70
image.
X-ray equipment - The lower the kV used to penetrate the specimen, the higher will be the
contrast, but enough kV must be used to ensure penetration and keep the exposure time
reasonable.
Gamma isotopes - Different radioactive isotopes produce different wavelengths of gamma
radiation, e.g. C060 produces shorter wavelength radiation than Ir 192 and is therefore more
penetrating, but a radiograph produced on the same specimen using Co60 will have much
lower contrast and definition.
Intensity of radiation and exposure time

The intensity of the radiation reaching the film and exposure time will affect the density of
the image.
Remember that density

affects contrast and contrast
affects sensitivity.
Radiation intensity and exposure time are related. Exposure time is proportional to the
intensity of radiation; this relationship is known as the reciprocity law:
Exposure
80
90
time
intensity
X-ray equipment - If you had an exposure of say 4 minutes and 3 mA, then 4 x 3 = 12,
therefore you would be using 12 mA-mins. You could also use 3 minutes and 4 mA to
give you the same amount of exposure because 3 x 4 = 12, or I minute at 12 mA,l x
12 = 12, or 2 minutes 6 mA, 2 x 6 = 12 etc.; all these give you the same amount of
exposure.
The higher the mA setting on the control panel, the greater the intensity of radiation
produced, and therefore the darker the image will be, unless the time is reduced to
compensate.
100
Gamma isotopes - If you had an exposure of say 5 minutes using an isotope with an
activity of 4 curies, then 5 x 4 = 20, therefore you would be using 20 Ci-rnins.
o Ruane
& T P O'Ntill
Issuc 9 J1103109
RI4-J
uxrr
Ruane & 11
TP O'Neill
RI4 DETERI\1I:\ATION
OF EXPOSURE
The higher the activity of the isotope used, the greater the intensity of radiation produced,
and therefore the darker the image will be, unless the time is reduced to compensate.
X-ray equipment
10
The intensity of radiation (governed by mA) and quality of radiation (governed by kV) can
be affected by the electric circuit of the equipment being used. The kV and mA may be on
the same panel setting, but the radiation intensity and wavelengths can vary from one set to
another.
Filter types and thicknesses also differ between x-ray tubes. Filters are used to reduce long
wavelength primary radiation to provide a more homogeneous x-ray beam with lower
resultant scatter levels. Filters affect the exposure time, e.g. an x-ray tube with a thick filter
will require more exposure than an x-ray tube with a thinner filter.
20
Type of film
30
The higher the speed of the film, the denser the image compared to that of a slow film at the
same exposure. However, the radiograph's definition for a slow film at the correct exposure
will be better than that for a fast film at the correct exposure.
Intensifying screens
Using intensifying screens reduces the exposure required to attain the required density, but
fluorescent and fluorometallic screens have an adverse affect on the definition of the
radiographic image.
40
Exposures made with direct x-ray and lead screens obey the law of reciprocity (E = mAT).
Fluorescent screens emit light of various wavelengths, including UV. Where intensification
is due to light exposure, the law of reciprocity cannot be strictly applied. Exposures with
fluorescent screens are, therefore, less predictable and more likely to be attained by trial and
error.
50
Ffd/sfd
The greater the ffd/sfd the smaller the penumbra, therefore the better the radiographic
defmition. But, x-rays and gamma rays obey the inverse square law. Therefore, with regard
to exposure, the greater the ffd/sfd, the greater the exposure should be to attain a given
density.
60
The following formula, based on the inverse square law, can be used to determine new
exposures when the ffdlsfd changes:
70
El
D/
E) = D/
Where:
--
E,
E2
original exposure;
new exposure;
01 = original distance
O2 = new distance
Example:
80
El
5 mAmins; 01
= 1000 mm
E2 = ? mAmins; O2 = 750 mm
90
100
E2
2.8 mAmins
Cl Ruane " T P O'N.m

Issue
9 311O:lIO'J
R14-2
lJ~IT RI4 f)ETEI{I\'IINATION
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nell1
OF EXPOSl:RE
Object being radiographcd

The radiation absorption and transmission characteristics of a material depends upon its
thickness, density and atomic mass. This will primarily govern penetrating power required.
10
Processing the film
20
The density, contrast and definition of a radiograph are affected by the type, temperature,
agitation and time in the developer. The development process should not be adjusted
outside a specifications requirements in order to compensate for incorrect exposures, i.e. to
adjust the density of a radiograph, the exposure should be changed; not the developing time.
EXPOSURE
30
CHARTS
Exposure charts provide the exposure conditions for a given thickness of material using xray equipment. An exposure chart will show the exposure to use in mA-min for a chosen
specimen thickness and kV in order to attain the density that the chart is based on.
Exposure charts are drawn up from preliminary charts made up from exposures using
different kilovoltages on step wedges.
The vertical scale on an exposure chart is logarithmic and the horizontal scale is arithmetic.
Each chart must show the variables to which the chart is applicable to:
40
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
50
Type of x-ray set.

Film density.
Film type.
Intensifying screens
Focus to film distance.
f. Development conditions.
g. Material tested.
Kilovoltage (kv)
100
120
1<tO 160
180
.SUS
133033
240
260
2SO
300
16.66
1/
I I1 I1 1/ / / / 1/ /
eo
33.33
I1
16.66
70
22D
100
33
60
200
I1
/V 1V
1/
V
1/
//
I / / / /
/
13.33
10
e.33
U&
3.33
80
us
/f
'/1/
1 1 /
/ 1/ / V
'/ / // V. '/ / /
!;V
~
r! V
/
90
a. PahtAk 300 kV untt No. P123
b. Donsfty. 2.0
0.6
0.3
c. Film type. Kodak ex

d . .scr..n Pb 0.126 front & Ibac
e.
Ffd - SOO inN

r. Dev~spec..ABC123
51 M.at:ef'aI . stHI type A
10
"
20
25
30
steel
100
o Rea
Issue'
i-
"""TAl< 300 KVUNIT
/.
'f
00
~,
eo
ss
60
65
i-
70
th~k"".(mm)
'" T P O'N.ill
31103109
R14-3
uxrr
Ruane & 11
TPO'NeUl
'\ 0 1 I: S
EXPOSURE
RI4 DETERMI!'ATIO~
CALCULATIONS
OF EXPOStTRE
FOR GAMMA RA VS
The following information is required to obtain the exposure from an exposure chart.
a. Weld thickness.
b. Source strength from decay chart.
c. Type of film
10
From the gamma ray exposure chart for Ir192, select the weld thickness, follow this line
until it strikes the density required line, say 02.0 and then follow the line down onto the Ci
hour line and read off this value.
20
Example
Weld thickness = 20 mm density required = 2.0.
The Ir 192 source is at 15 CL
30
From the chart, the exposure is 5.1 Ci hours

5.1 Ci hours x 60 = 306 Ci mins
40
E=CiT
E
306
.
:. T= - = = 20Ammutes
Ci
15
The exposure time at 900 mm with 15 Ci = 20.4 minutes.

If the sfd was changed to 600 mm, then:
50
D 2
E2 = _2_
012
x El
6002
= --
9002
x 20.4 = 9 minutes
The new exposure time at 600 mm with 15 Ci = 9 minutes.

60
EXPOSURE
CALCULATIONS
USING GAMMA SLIDE RULE
The gamma slide rule enables very accurate calculations to be made providing the following
information is available:
70
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
80
The results give the exposure time.
Film speed.
Density required.
Source strength in Ci.
SFD.
Material thickness.
90
100
ne " T P O'N.m
Issue 9 31/113109
R14-4
Ul\'IT R14 . DETERMINATIOl'l OF EXPOSlIRE
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neill
'OTF.S
10
20
30
...,
e-
40
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80
(mm) SS;)U:Ij:l!II.L 1~31S
90
100
C> R ne &
T P O'Ntill
hsue 9 3 J 103/09
R14-5
lJ~IT Rl4 . DETERl\lI~ATIOl\'
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neil1
OF EXPOSURE
The information required to produce a radiograph is as follows:
:\OTI:S
From the test piece

10
20
Plate thickness
Weld thickness
Pipe diameter (for pipes)
Length of weld
From this information the data required to produce the radiograph can be produced.
1. Minimum Source to Film distance (sfd) or Focus to Film Distance (ffd)
To calculate the minimum FFD/SFD so that the unsharpness of the image is better than the
resolution ofthe eye - 0.25 mm
Minimum tTd =
30
(source size x ofd) + ofd

0.25
ofd can be taken as the sample thickness.
40
sfd
sod
or
ffd
50
1<
60
70
>1
dfl
ffd
Focus to Film Distance
sfd
Source to Film Distance
sod
Source to Object Distance
ofd
Object to Film Distance
T = Sample Thickness
1.1T = 10% fade off (the edge of the diagnostic length)
dfl
80
Diagnostic Film Length
2. The DFL is derived from the following (for flat plates only)
Source
x=
1.1
sod
90
sod
r:
T
:?
100
<~
dfl
dfl
>
Cl Ruant '" T P O'NeiU

Issue 9 31103/09
R14-6
UNIT RI .. nETERl\1INATION
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neill
OF EXPOSURE
The diagram shows two similar triangles, the small triangle comprising of:
:\01 [S
T == perpendicular; 1.1T == hypotenuse; ? = base

10
The larger triangle consists of:

sod
perpendicular; 1.1 sod
hypotenuse; Y:zdfl
base
The pythagoras theory states that the sum of the squares of the base and the perpendicular
equals the square on the hypotenuse, therefore:
20
sod2 + (Y:z dfl)2
(1.1 sod)2
Require to find the value of the dfl:
= (1.1 sod)2 - sod
Therefore
(~dfl
Therefore
~(~
Therefore
! dfl = ~1.l
Therefore
dfl = 2 x ~(].I sod)2 - sod2
30
dfl
40
= ~(l.1 sod)2 - sod '
sod2
sod2
The SOD is taken from the calculation of the minimum ffd/sfd - for plate only
50
The DFL for pipes is calculated from EN 1435 - Radiographic Examination of Welded
Joints.
3. To work out the Image Quality Indicator
- IQI (see Unit 7)
The IQI sensitivity should be better than 2% with respect to the sample thickness.
60
To calculate the IQI wire diameter the following is used:

.
Sample thickness
2
IQl dia =
100
x
To find the wire number, consult Table 2 ofBS EN 462-1, which is the current standard, or
BS 3971 which has been superseded.
70
4. Working out the exposure

An exposure chart is required for x-ray sets and may also be used for gamma ray, however,
the use of a gamma slide rule is often used and is generally more accurate and quicker.
80
From the x-ray exposure chart on R9-3, it is possible to obtain kV values and exposure
values for any given thickness working on the exposure chart within the 15 to 60 mA
minutes range.
5. Correcting
the exposure
The exposure obtained will be for a fixed distance and fixed density, film, material and
processing conditions. To change the exposure the following is used:
90
New exposure
= Old
exposure
New distance/
Old distance
E2
= El
0 2)
X D2\2
Where the new distance is your selected ffd and the old distance is the chart distance.
100
6. Mark up the test piece according
o Ruane&
to the technique requirements
TPO'N.iII
1. 9 31/U3/U9
RI4-7
llNIT R14 DETER!\II]\;A TlO::\ OF EXPOSURE
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neill
x o rr s
Steps for radiographing a butt weld in a plate

1. Measure:
10
Plate thickness, weld thickness and weld length.

2. Calculate:
The minimum Film to Focus Distance (ffd)and the Source to Focus Distance (sfd).
..
Th e mmunum
20
ffd (source size

=
sfd
Sample thiCkness)
I h' k
+ samp e t IC ess
0.25
This is the minimum, therefore select an FFD/SFD greater than this for plate butt welds.
The figure should be in the order of 1.5 times the length of the weld to be covered in one
shot.
30
3. Work out the diagnostic film length (dfl):

Using the ffd/sfd selected:
40
sod = Source to Object Distance is equal to the ffd - ofd (Object to Film Distance).
The ofd can be taken as the weld thickness.
If the ffd/sfd will not cover the required length, then the ffd/sfd must be increased if the
weld is to be covered in one shot.
so
4. To calculate the Image Quality Indicator
(lQI):
. thi
Subject thickness
2
IQI wire rcness =
x
lOO
Look up the wire thickness on Table 1 in BS EN 462-1 for the wire number and wire group.
60
5. To calculate the exposure:
Using the exposure chart supplied for the x-ray set to be used, the weld thickness is then
used to find the kV and corresponding exposure in mA minutes within the 15-60 mA mins
box.
70
This will give one or two kV and corresponding mA minute exposure for fixed conditions
of distance, film type, density and development.
The kV will be fixed but the exposure in mA minutes will require to be adjusted for the
ffd/sfd to be used.
Correcting tire exposure
80
New exposure = Old exposure x
New distance/
2
Old distance
The new distance is the selected ffd
The old distance is the chart ffd
90
6. Marking up the plate

A
ID Date
Weld
100
lal
o Ru " T P O'Noill
wuo' J 1/03/09
R14-8
UNIT RI ... DETERMINATION
Ruane & 11
T P O'Neill
x0
OF EXPOSURE
Butt Welds in Pipes
T I: S
10
Butt welds in pipes are worked out in a similar manner with the exception of the diagnostic
film length which is calculated from a series of charts in EN 1435 - Radiographic
Examination of Welded Joints, depending on the radiographic method used.
EQUIVALENCE CHARTS
20
Generally exposure charts are made for either aluminium or steel. This can cause problems
when it is required to radiograph other materials.
The following chart shows a radiographic equivalence chart which relates other materials to
aluminium and steel.
The figures given in the chart are multiplication factors and are used to convert a particular
thickness of the selected material to the equivalent thickness of the standard material.
30
X-Rays kV
40
150
220
Gamma Rays
400
1000
2000
Ir192
50
100
CE-137 Co60
Magnesium
0.6
0.6
0.05
0.08
0.22
0.22
0.22
Aluminium
Titanium
1.0
1.0
0.12
0.18
0.34
0.34
0.34
8.0
0.63
0.71
0.71
0.9
12.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.9
1.0
0.9
Steel
1.0
1.0
0.9
1.0
0.9
1.0
Copper
18.0
1.6
lA
lA
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
Zinc
1.4
1.3
J.3
1.1
1.0
\.1
1.0
1.0
Brass
1.4
1.3
J.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.I
1.0
Lead
14.0
12.0
5.0
2.5
4.0
3.2
2.3
50
For the x-ray range 50-100 kV, aluminium is taken as the standard and uses a factor of 1.0.
60
70
80
90
100
c) Ruane
& T P O'/'/till
, 9 31/03109
R14-9
UNIT R15 . FILTERS
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neill
:-;OTI:S
Definition
10
A relative thin layer ofa heavy metal (e.g. lead or copper), interposed in the path of the
radiation before it reaches the film.
There are two types of filters:
1. A tube head filter, e.g. the beryllium window, or thin layer of heavy metal.
2.
20
30
A cassette filter.
Tube head filter

Positioned inside the tube head window, the action of the tube filter depends on the fact
that an x-ray beam is heterogeneous (a mixture of wavelengths) and the longer
wavelengths are more easily scattered. The filter removes much of the soft radiation
giving a marked reduction in scatter.
Thus the beam becomes more nearly
monochromatic in wavelength and also effectively of shorter wavelength.
NB. A filter of a higher atomic number will be equivalent to a thicker filter with a lower
atomic number.
In general, the filter thickness should be less than 10% of the specimen thickness. The
effectively shorter wavelength reduces the contrast obtained.
40
X-\SC__
T----.:specimen
___
\LI
50
X-rays
Masking
J2d~
'\;t
Film
In (A), soft radiation is scattered by the edge of the object giving undercutting.
effect is reduced if a tube filter is used.
This
For (B), a tube filter will merely decrease contrast.
60
e.g. 50 kV with tungsten target

Unfiltered beam
Use of1 mm
70
Use of5 mm
80
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
90
Wavelength
08
(10
cm)
In practice higher kV's are used with filters of lead, copper or tin which have high
atomic numbers.
100
o R ne
line
&
TPO'NriU
9 lJ/03f09
RlS-1
lJ~IT R15 . FILTERS
&"
Ruane
T P DWellt
x
01 ES
Cassette filter
Scatter
Image forming beam
10
20
The filter removes a greater proportion of the scatter than of the primary beam,
however, it adds to the total thickness thus decreasing the contrast.
NB. The specimen itself acts as a filter for the main beam and for any scatter which
passes through it.
30
The cassette filter will produce its own characteristic radiation and may be a source of
scatter, therefore, on thin sections will give no advantage.
If metal intensifying screens are used inside the cassette they will have the same effect
as a cassette filter, also metal cassettes will act similarly. Thus, cassette filters are not
normally used with metal intensifying screens.
40
General
For similar exposure conditions, use of a tube head filter will give reduced contrast
compared to no filter used and a cassette filter will give even more reduction in contrast
compared to the use of a tube filter.
Gamma rays have a much shorter wavelength than x-rays and cause much less scatter so
filters are seldom used.
50
60
70
80
90
100
Cl Ruane & T P Q'Noill

Issue
9 31103109
RlS-2
Ruane&
TPO'Neill
UJ\IT R16 . GLOSSARY OF TERMS
11
:-'OTI:S
BS EN 1330-3 : 1997 - Terms used in industrial radiographic testing

Absorption
The process whereby the incident photons

reduced in number as they pass through matter.
Activity
The number of nuclear disintegrations

taking place in a radioactive source.
Ageing fog
The increase in optical density on an unexposed film,

measured after processing, due to long-term storage.
Anode
The electrons passing from the cathode to the anode

in an x-ray tube.
Artefact (false indication)
A spurious indication on a radiograph caused e.g. by

faults in the manufacturing, handling, exposing or
processing of a film.
Attenuation
The reduction in intensity of a beam of x or gamma

radiation during its passage through matter caused by
absorption and scattering.
10
20
30
Attenuation
coefficient J1
40
60
70
Back scatterlback
radiation
scattered
The relationship between the intensity (/0) of a

radiation incident on one side of an absorber and the
transmitted intensity (I) for an absorber thickness (r)
as expressed by 1 = 10 - exp (- ut).
That part of the scattered x or gamma radiation

which is emitted at an angle of more than 90 in
relation to the direction of the incident beam.
Beam angle
The angle between the central axis of the radiation

beam and the lane of the film.
Betatron
A machine in which electrons are accelerated in a

circular orbit before being deflected onto a target to
produce high energy x-rays.
Blocking medium
A material used to reduce the effect of scattered

radiation on the film or on the image detector.
Build-up factor
The radio of the intensity of the total radiation

reaching a point, to the intensity of the primary
radiation reachingthe same point.
Cassette
A rigid or flexible light-tight container for holding

radiographic
film or paper with or without
intensifying screens, during exposure.
Cathode
The negative electrode of an x-ray tube.
80
Calibrated
90
per unit time
The slope of a line drawn between two specified

points on the sensitometric curve.
Average gradient
50
are
density step wedge
Characteristic
Clearing time
curve (of a film)
A piece of film having a series of different optical

densities which have been calibrated to be used as
reference densities.
A curve showing the relationship between the
common logarithm of exposure, log K. and the optical
density, D.
The time required for the first stage of fixing of a
film, during which the cloudiness disappears.
lOO
OR " TPON.al
1" ee 9 JII031lW
R16-1
uxrr
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neil1
:IoOT[S
10
RI6 . GLOSSARY OF TER!\IS
Collimation
The limiting of a beam of radiation to a form o.

required dimensions, by the use of diaphragms made
of absorbing material.
Collimator
A device made from radiation absorbent material

such as lead or tungsten, designed to limit and define
the direction and area of the radiation beam.
Compton scatter
A form of scattering caused by a photon of x or

gamma radiation interacting with an electron and
suffering a reduction of energy, the scattered
radiation being emitted at an angle to the incident
direction.
20
Note: For radiation in the energy range 100 keY to

10 MeV, it is the main factor contributing to radiation
attenuation.
30
Computerized
tomography
(CT)
40
A procedure by which an image of the detail in a

chosen plane, perpendicular to the axis of the
specimen, is computed from a large number of x-ray
absorption measurements made from many directior ..--...
perpendicular to the axis.
Note: This is computerized axial tomography and
does not apply to other means of performing
tomography,
Constant potential circuit
An electronic configuration which is designed to

apply and maintain a substantially constant potential
within an x-ray tube.
Continuous
The range of wavelengths

generated by an x-ray set.
50
spectrum
Contrast
or quantum
See image contrast, radiation

contrast and visual contrast.
energies
contrast,
object
60
Contrast
medium
Contrast sensitivity
(thickness sensitivity)
The smallest thickness change in a specimen

which produces a discernible change in optical
density on a radiographic (or radioscopic) image:">
usually expressed as a percentage of the tota,
specimen thickness.
Decay curve
The activity of a radioisotope plotted against time,

usually as a log/linear relationship.
Densitometer
A device for the measurement of the optical density

of a radiographic film or reflective density of a
photographic print.
Development (ora film or paper)
The chemical or physical process which converts a

latent image into a visible image.
Diffraction
A superimposed pattern on a radiographic image due

to diffraction of the incident radiation by the material
structure.
70
80
90
Any suitable substance, solid or liquid, applied to a

material being radiographed, to enhance its radiation
contrast in total or in part.
mottle
Dosemeter (dosimeter)
An instrument for measuring the accumulated dose of

x or gamma radiation.
Dose rate meter
An instrument for the measurement of x or gamma

radiation dose rate.
100
o Ru
&< T P O'N.i11
tssue 9 JIIUJI09
R16-2
UNIT RI6 . GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neil1
Dual focus tube
:\OTES
10
An x-ray tube with two different size of focus.
Duplex wire image quality indicator An image quality indicator specifically designed to
assess the overall unsharpness of a radiographic
image and composed of a series of pairs of wire
elements made of high density metal.
Edge-blocking
material
20
30
40
50
Material applied around a specimen or in cavities to

obtain a more uniform absorption, to reduce
extraneous scattered radiation. and to prevent local
over-exposure. e.g. fine lead shot (see also blocking
medium).
Equalizing
filter (beam flattener)
A device used to equalize the intensity across the

primary x-ray beam in megavoltage radiography and
so extend the useful field size.
Equivalent
x-ray voltage
The voltage of an x-ray tube which produces a

radiograph most nearly equivalent to a gamma
radiograph taken with a particular gamma ray source.
Exposure
The process whereby radiation

imaging system.
Exposure calculator
A device (for example a slide rule) which may be

used to determine the exposure time required.
Exposure chart
A chart indicating the time for radiographic exposures

for different thicknesses of a specified material and
for a given quality of a beam radiation.
Exposure latitude
The range of exposures corresponding

optical density range of the emulsion.
to the useful
Exposure times
Duration of the process of exposing

medium to radiation.
a recording
Film base
The support material on which the photosensitive

emulsion is coated.
Film gradient (G)
The slope of the characteristic curve of a film at a

specified optical density D.
Film illuminator
Equipment containing a source of light and

translucent screen used for viewing radiographs.
60
(viewing screen)
is recorded on an
70
-----
80
Film processing
The operations necessary to transform the latent

image on the film into a permanent visible image,
consisting normally of developing. fixing, washing
and drying a film.
Film system speed
A quantitative measure of the response of a film

system to radiation energy, for specific exposure
conditions.
Filter
Uniform layer of material, usually of higher atomic

number than the specimen, placed between the
radiation source and the film for the purpose of
preferentially absorbing the softer radiations.
Fixing
The chemical removal of silver halides from a film

emulsion after development.
Flaw sensitivity
The minimum flaw size detectable under specified

test conditions.
90
100
(') RUIn, & T P O'N,jIJ

Issue 9 31103109
RI 6-3
liNIT R16 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Ruane & 11
T P O'Neill
...-......
:"OTJ:S
Fluorescent intensifying screen
A screen consisting of a coating of phosphors whic.,

fluoresce when exposed to x or gamma radiation.
Fluorometallic
A screen consisting of a metallic foil (usually lead)

coated with a material that fluoresces when exposed
to x or gamma radiation.
intensifying screen
10
Fluoroscopy
The production of a visible image on a fluorescent

screen by x-rays and for direct viewing of the screen.
Focal spot
The x-ray emitting area on the anode of the x-ray

tube, as seen from the measuring device.
Focal spot size
The dimension across the focal spot of an x-ray tube,

measured parallel to the plane of the film or the
fluorescent screen.
Focus-to-film distance (ffd)
The shortest distance from the focus of an x-ray tube

to a film set up for a radiographic exposure.
Fog density
A general term used to denote the optical density of a

processed film caused by anything other than the
direct action of image - forming radiation. It can i:' ~
ageing fog, chemical fog, dichroic fog, exposure f05
or inherent fog.
Gamma radiation
Radiography using a gamma ray source.
Gamma rays
Electromagnetic
ionizing radiation,
specific radioactive materials.
20
30
40
50
60
emitted
by
Gamma-ray
source
Radioactive material sealed into a metal capsule.
Gamma-ray
source container
A container made of dense material and having a wall

thickness sufficient to produce a very great reduction
in the intensity of the radiation emitted by the source,
so as to make it safe to handle.
Geometric unsharpness
Unsharpness of a radiographic image arising from the

finite size of the source of radiation. Its magnitude
also depends on the distances of source-to-object and
object-to-film.
Also called geometric blurring or
penumbra.
Graininess
The visual appearance of granularity.
Granularity
The stochastic density fluctuations in the radiograpi

superimposed on the object image.
Half life
The time in which the activity of a radioactive source

decays to half its value.
70
80
Halfvalue
thickness (HVT)
The thickness of specified material which, when

introduced into the beam of x or gamma radiation,
reduces its intensity by a half.
Illuminator
Equipment for viewing radiographs.
Image contrast
The relative change of optical density between two

adjacent areas in a radiographic image.
Image definition
The sharpness of delineation of image detail in a

radiograph.
Image enhancement
Any process which increases the quality of an image

by improving contrast and/or definition, or reducing
noise. Often done by computer programmes, when it
is known as digital image processing.
90
100
Cl Ruane & T P O'N~iU

1
9 31/03/09
R16-4
uxrr
Ruane & 11
TPO'Neill
10
R16 GLOSSAI~Y OF TERMS
Image intensifier
An electronic device designed to provide a brighter

image than produced by the unaided action of the xray beam on a fluorescent screen.
Image quality
That characteristic of a radiographic image which

determines the degree of detail which it shows.
Image quality indicator (IQI)
A device comprising a series of elements of graded

thickness which enables a measure of the image
quality to be obtained. The elements of an IQI are
commonly wires or steps with holes.
Image quality value, IQI sensitivity
Measure of the image quality required or achieved.
Incident beam axis
The axis of the beam cone defmed by the focal spot

and the tube window.
Industrial
The science and application of x-rays, gamma rays,

neutrons and other penetrating radiation in nondestructive testing.
20
radiology
30
40
Inherent
filtration
The filtration of a radiation beam by the parts of the

tube, set up or source incapsulation, through which
the primary beam will pass.
Inherent
unsharpness
The blurring of a radiographic image caused by

photons of radiation dislodging electrons in the
photographic emulsion and these electrons rendering
silver halide grains developable.
Intensifying
factor
The ratio of the exposure time without intensifying

screens, to that when screens are used, other
conditions being the same, to obtain the same optical
density.
Intensifying
screen
A material that converts a part of the radiographic

energy into light or electrons and that, when in
contact with a recording medium during exposure,
improves the quality of the radiograph, or reduces the
exposure time required to produce a radiograph or
both. See metal screen, fluorometallic intensifying
screen or fluorescent intensifying screen.
50
60
Latent image
70
Linear electron accelerator
80
An invisible image produced in a film by radiation

and capable of being converted into a visible image
by film processing.
(LINAC) A machine for producing high energy electrons by
accelerating them along a waveguide. The electrons
strike a target to produce x-rays.
Masking
The application of material which limits the area of

irradiation of an object to the region undergoing
radiographic examination.
Metal screen
A screen consisting of dense metal (usually lead) that

filters radiation and emits electrons when exposed to
x or gamma rays.
90
Microfocus
radiography
Radiography using an x-ray tube having a very small

effective focus size of less than 100 urn in size.
Commonly used for direct geometric enlargement of
the image by projection.
100
o Ruane
" T P O'Neill
Issue 9 3111)3109
R16-5
UNIT RIG
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nell1
Modulation
:\OlI:S
transfer function (MTF) The spatial frequency response of an imaging system.
Movement unsharpness
A blurring of the radiographic
or radioscopic image
due to relative movement of the radiation source,
object or radiation detector.
Object contrast
Relative difference of radiation transmission between

two considered zones of the irradiated object.
10
Object-to-film
The distance between the radiation side of the test

object and the film surface measured along the central
axis of the radiation beam.
distance
20
Panoramic
A radiographic set-up utilizing the multi-directional
exposure
properties of a gamma ray source or a panoramic xray set, e.g. by radiographic several specimens
simultaneously, or the full circumference of a
cylindrical specimen.
30
40
Penetrameter
See image quality indicator.
Pressure mark
A variation in density of a radiograph, which may be

light or dark
in appearance,
according
~
circumstances, caused by local pressure to the film.
Primary radiation
Radiation which travels directly along a straight line

from the source to the detector without deviation.
Projective magnification
The amount of image size enlargement.
Projective magnification
technique
50
60
70
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A method of radiography or radioscopy involving

primary enlargement of the image by the use of a
distance between the specimen and imaging system
(see microfocus radiography).
Quality (ofa beam of radiation)
The penetrating power of the

measured as a half-value thickness.
Radiation contrast
differences in radiation intensity arising from

variation in radiation opacity within an irradiated
object.
Radiation source
An equipment (e.g. x-ray tube or gamma ray source)

capable of emitting ionising radiation.
Radiograph
A visible image after processing produced by a bearr-r-,

of penetrating ionising radiation on a radiographi,
film or paper. The term is also used for images
produced by neutrons, electrons, protons, etc ..
Radiographic
film
80
radiation,
often
A film consisting of a transparent base, usually coated

on both sides with a radiation sensitive emulsion.
Radiography
The production
imaging support.
Radioisotopes
An isotope of an element with the property of

spontaneously emitting particles or gamma radiation
or of emitting x-radiation.
Radioscopy
The production of a visual image by ionising

radiation on a radiation detector such as fluorescent
screen and displayed on a television monitor screen.
Rod anode tube
A type of x-ray tube in which the target is situated at

the extremity of a tubular anode; such tubes can
produce a panoramic beam of radiation.
90
lOO
c Reane
of radiographs
on a permanent
& T P O'NtiD
Issue 9 J lJOlI09
R16-6
UNIT RI6 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nel1l
Scattered
:\OTI:S
10
radiation
Screen type film
Radiographic film designed for use with fluorescent

intensifying screens.
Source holder
A holding, carrying, or attachment device, by means

of which the gamma ray source (sealed source) can be
fixed in the exposure container, or at the head of a
remote control device.
Source size
The size of the source of radiation.
20
Source-to-film
distance (sfd)
50
The distance between the source of radiation and the

film measured in the direction of the beam.
Spatial resolution
The distance between

separated in an image.
Specific activity
The activity per unit mass of a radioisotope.
Step wedge
Object in the form of a series of steps of a same

material.
Stereo radiography
The production of a pair of radiographs suitable for

stereoscopic viewing.
Target
The area on the surface of the anode of an x-ray tube

on which the electron beam impinges and from which
the primary beam of x-rays is emitted.
Tube diaphragm
A device, normaIly fixed to a tube shield or head, to

limit the extent of the emergent x-ray beam.
Tube head
That part of an x-ray installation that contains the

tube in its shield.
Tube shield
The housing of an x-ray tube which reduces the

leakage radiation to defined values.
Tube shutter
A device attached to a tube shield, generally of lead

and usually remotely operated, used to control the
emergence of the x-ray beam.
Tube window
The area of an x-ray tube through which the radiation

is emitted.
Tube voltage
The high voltage applied between the anode and the

cathode of an x-ray tube.
Unsealed source
Any radioactive source which is not sealed into a

capsule.
Unsharpness
Due to image blurring a loss of image definition. It is

combination of geometric unsharpness, inherent
unsharpness and movement unsharpness.
Useful density range
The range of optical density on a radiograph that is

used for image interpretation.
The upper limit is
determined by the film illuminator and the lower limit
by the loss in flaw sensitivity.
Vacuum cassette
A light-tight container that where operated under a

vacuum, holds film and screen in intimate contact
during radiographic exposure.
30
40
Radiation which has suffered a change in direction,

with or without a change in energy, during its passage
through matter.
60
70
80
90
details
which can just
lOO
o Ruane & T f O'Ntill

bsu.9
Jl/OlM
R16-7
be
lJ~IT RI6 . GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Ruane & 11
TPO'Nelll
:\Ol[S
10
Viewing mask
An attachment to an illuminator to exclude glare.
Visual contrast
The visual density difference between two adjacent

areas on an illuminated radiograph.
X-rays
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation, within the

approximate wavelength range of 1 nm to 0,0001
nanometres, produced when high velocity electrons
impinge on a metal target.
X-ray film
See radiographic film.
X-ray tube
A vacuum tube, usually containing a filament to

produce electrons which are accelerated to strike a
anode, on the surface of which x-rays are produced.
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
o R.an.
&
T P O'N.iIl
Is sue 9 31/OJIOlI
R16-8
RADIOG RAPH IC
INTERPRETATION
ADDITIONAL
COURSE NOTES
Radiograph Interpretation
- Welds
In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be skilled in radiographic
interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1) detection, (2) interpretation,
and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to
resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography is also
affected by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various
features in the image. The following material was developed to help students develop an understanding of the
types of defects found in weldments and how they appear in a radiograph.
Discontinuities
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions may occur in the base
metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the
codes or specifications used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal or the previous
weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly
molten puddle to flow into the base material without bonding.
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Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph
but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows.
Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape
while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and
it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.
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Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture. The moisture turns
into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear
just like regular porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.
....
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and base metal. In a
radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of
slag inclusions.
r
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate the
joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress risr
from which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight
edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment.
Inadequate or Lack of Penetration
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal.
Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam
along the weld preparation or joining area.
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Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as it cools and has been
drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line has
irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the centre of the weld image.
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In the radiographic image
it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centreline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight
edged as LOP because it does not follow a ground edge.
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Internal Undercut
External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the weld. In the radlograpr
appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area.
e,
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being welded together are not
properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The
difference in density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the
failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal deposited is less than
the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate
reinforcement, because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the
image density of the surrounding base material.
Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of that specified by
engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual
inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering
requirements.
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that produces a change in
thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines.
Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
Discontinuities
in TIG welds
The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These discontinuities occur in most metals
welded by the process, including aluminium and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean
homogeneous weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted.
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten inert
gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld.
Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminium or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a
distinct outline on the radiograph.
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially aluminium). Oxide
inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped
discontinuities in the radiograph.
Discontinuities
in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)
The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.

Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of the weld or
contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire like" indications.
results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the weld zone. Often
lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of
metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often
surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).
Burn-Through

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RADIOGRAPHIC

MAIN LECTURE NOTES

RUANE & T P O'NElll

RUANE & T P O'NEILL

Principles of film radiography

Capabilities and limitations of radiography

Duties of a radiographic interpreter

X AND GAMMA RADIA TION

Gamma ray generation

ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

Electrical circuits in x-ray tubes

HALF VALUE THICKNESS

The make-up of a radiographic film

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF FILMS

Fluorescent (salt) screens

Comparison of intensifying screens

FILM PROCESSING ....................................................................................................................Rll

C) RllAnc & T P ON.m

Drying the film

Processing and handling faults

SWSI : source outside, film inside

SWSI: (panoramic) source inside, film outside

Considerations for exposures

Exposure calculations for gamma rays

Exposure calculations using gamma slide rule

e Ra.ne & T P O'N~iII

Xsradiography typically uses

Cobalt 60 (C060) has a very

An overall assessment of radiographic quality is made by the use of image quality

A major advantage of radiographic testing is that a permanent record is produced, i.e.

X-radiography vs gamma radiography

Roane & T P O'Neill

DUTIES OF A RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETER

Specific duties when interpreting radiographs of welds are typically as follows:

View radiographs under subdued background light.

Ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, each radiograph is correctly identified to

Assess the quality of the radiograph:

Check the radiograph to determine if any obstruction between the source of

Identify the type of weld if possible - normally already known.

UNIT R2 X AND GAMMA RAJ)IATION

OF X AND GAMMA RAYS FOR INDUSTRIAL

UNIT R3 BASIC PHYSICS

U~IT R3 . BASIC PHYSICS

UNIT R3 BASIC PHYSICS

The process of producing ions is known a ionisation.

Radionuclides are radioactive isotopes, Le. the disintegrate by releasing sub-atomic

'Activity' is a term which 70

Radium produces radon

GAMMA RAY GENERATION

UNIT R3 BASIC PHYSICS

The activity or strength of a radioactive isotope is expressed in curies (Ci) or

I disintegration per second;

3.7 x 1010 becquerels

disintegrations per second

For industrial radiography,

Natural occurring radionucIides

Artificially produced radionuclides have replaced natural radionuclides for use in

of Gamma Ray Sources

Cobalt 60 (Co60) is produced by bombarding C059 with neutrons in a reactor.

UNIT R3 BASIC PHYSICS

Corpuscular (particulate) radiation

Corpuscular radiation is the flow of sub-atomic particles.

These particles mayor may

UNIT R3 . BASIC PHYSICS

RT&Radiographic Interpretation Notes

RT&Radiographic Interpretation Notes