MASTER PROGRAM INTEGRATED BUILDING SYSTEMS

Building systems

Natural ventilation

Calculation examples
April 2016

Viktor Dorer
EMPA Dbendorf
viktor.dorer@empa.ch

on

Natural Ventilation

Contents
1.

Characterisation of openings ................................................................... 2

2.

Determination of air flow rates ................................................................. 7

2.1
2.2
2.3

3.

Thermally induced outdoor air flow rate in a single room with two openings ........ 8
Heat removal by natural ventilation ..................................................................... 10
Dimensioning of openings: Example case school class room ........................... 12

Calculation examples .............................................................................. 14

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

Exercise 1:
Exercise 2:
Exercise 3:
Exercise 4:

Bottom hung window ....................................................................... 14

Heat removal ................................................................................... 15
Dimensioning of openings: Example case school class room ...... 16
Determination of air flow rate due to wind and stack pressures.... 17

page 1

Natural Ventilation

1.

Characterisation of openings

Leakages, gaps

V D p n
V :
D:
n:
p:

Volume air flow rate

Flow coefficient
Flow exponent
Pressure difference across leak

V aF l p n
a F:

n:

[m3/s]
[(m3/s)/Pan]
[-]
[Pa]

[m3/h]

Window gap flow coefficient

m3 1
1
2/3
h m Pa

modern windows

a F 0 .1

older windows (with sealing)

a F 0.2 bis 0.6

Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Leak

n=1
n = 0.5 large opening
n = 0.6 - 0.7
often n = 2/3

Influence of gap height:

For gap heights above ca. 3-5mm, n can be set to n=0.5 !
Large openings (windows, doors)
We differentiate between cases where a constant pressure difference across
the opening height can be assumed and cases where this does not apply. A
constant pressure difference across the opening height can be assumed, if
more than opening exist and if the opening height is small compared to the
vertical distance of the different openings.
No pressure difference gradient over the opening height

Flow through two separate openings with temperature difference indoors

outdoors
page 2

Natural Ventilation

2
uideal
p , thus: uideal

p ;

With friction losses: u eff cu u id

cu: friction coefficient

V u eff A * ;
Contraction: A c g A ; ( A
*

H B of opening)
cg: Contraction coefficient

with c d cu c g :

cd: Discharge coefficient

For open doors and windows: cd 0.6

V c d A

- m 2

m 3 m kg
kg s 2 m 2

m3
s

Pressure difference over the opening height: Cross-flow situation in opening

Flow through large opening with temperature difference indoors outdoors

Conditional equations:
"Bernoulli" :

Masse balance:

(z) u(z) A * (z) c d B dz 2 p(z)

m

z NE

top

bottom

Z NE

m ( z ) m ( z )

page 3

Natural Ventilation

For a rectangular opening, the incoming outdoor volume air flow rate (in relation
to Ta) can be approximated as:

1
T Ta
V cd H W
gH i
3
Ta

[m / s ]

H:
W:
Cd:
Ti
Ta:

Height [m]
Width [m]
0.6 [-]
Room air temperature [K];
Outdoor air temperatur [K]

The underlying assumptions for this formula are: Ta and also Ti remain constant
(room is heated accordingly, or formula gives instant volume flow for these
temperature conditions); Air exchange due to these temperature differences
only (no wind influence); no air exchange through other opening or with adjacent rooms or zones (single zone single sided ventilation).

Outdoor air flow rate for tilted bottom hung windows

The dependence of the volume air flow on the tilt angle can be given by the
factor ck(), as the ratio between the effective volume flow rate through the tilted
bottom hung window to the volume flow rate through a rectangular window of
identical height and width (see formula for rectangular windows above).

ck ( )

VTilted bottom hung window ( )

V
Re c tan gular window

From measurements, the following approximation for Ck() can be derived:

ck ( ) 2,60 10 7 3 1,19 10 4 2 1,86 10 2

[]

Ck()
[-]

0.7

0.00

0.6

0.09

0.5

10

0.17

0.4

15

0.25

0.3

20

0.33

0.2

25

0.39

0.1

30

0.46

45

0.62

60

0.74

0.9

Ck(a) [-]

0.8

15

30

45

60

75

90

105 120 135 150 165 180

90

0.90

180

1.00

Source: Weber A., EMPA, 2000; resp. EN 13465

More detailed methods for the determination of air flow rates through bottom
hung windows are given in [Hall, 2004].

page 4

Natural Ventilation

Single sided ventilation over two floors

For the situation of single sided ventilation by two windows on two connected
floors (both windows with opening area A=A1=A2; either both windows rectangular or both bottom hung with identical tilt angle), the resulting stack driven outdoor air flow rate VQ can be approximated as given below, in relation to the
single sided stack driven ventilation outdoor air flow rate VE through a single
window (opening area A):
VQ
k
V
E

HS
HF

A2
HS

HS:
HF:

Vertical distance of the two windows (m)

Height of the individual window (m)

k:

3.0
3.3

for rectangular windows

for tilted bottom hung window

HF

A1

page 5

Natural Ventilation

Parallel and in series circuit of openings

For the determination of the air exchange in ventilated rooms, ventilated rooms
can be modelled as a flow network with nodes and flow elements (or flow resistances). The flow resistances represent the openings and gaps, the nodes a
room, zone or a reference point with outdoor conditions. This modelling approach applies both for single- and multi-zone models.
The modelling of different openings as flow elements can also be used to determine a single representative flow element, which then can be used for simplified calculations. This is demonstrated in the calculations examples given below.
The underlying assumption for such flow element aggregation is that the flow
exponents of all original flow elements are identical.

V D p n

Characterisation of opening as an air flow resistance element

D1 and D2 :
D12

Flow coefficients of original opening flow elements

Flow coefficient of aggregated opening element

In series

D2

D1

1
1
1
1/ n 1/ n
1/ n
D12
D1
D2
D12

Parallel

D1

D12 D1 D2

D2
D12

In series (derivation)
a)

V12 V1 V2

b)

p12 p1 p2
V12 D12 p12n
V1 D1 p1n
V2 D2 p2n

page 6

1
1
1
1/ n 1/ n
1/ n
D12
D1
D2

mit n = 0.5

1
1
1
2 2
2
D12 D1 D2

Natural Ventilation

2.

Determination of air flow rates

Single-zone model

Single zone model for the determination of air flow rates

page 7

Natural Ventilation

2.1

Thermally induced outdoor air flow rate in a single

room with two openings

Given:

Air temperature

Sought:

Opening areas
Vertical distance of openings

Indoor:
Ti (K)
Outdoor:
Ta (K)
A1 , A2 (m2)
H (m)

Volume flow rates

3
V1 und V2 (m /h)

A2
Ta

Ti

A1

.
V2

.
V1

Schematic representation of a room with the two openings in side view

1 m
2,
m

Balance

or simplified

V1 V2 (for a given reference temperature Tref )

Characteristic

V1 D1 p1n1

cd Ai

mit

ref

p1

D1 cd A1

ref

(Assumption large gap opening; n1=0.5)

; n1 0.5

ptot p1 p 2 ( a i ) g H

Pressures

(1)

(2)

(3)

(1) D12 p1 D22 p2

(3) p
1

(2)

D22
( a i ) g H
D12 D22

V c A
d 1
1

A2
i
2
2g H a
2
2

A A
ref
1
2

If air density depends only on temperature:

const

page 8

1 , thus
T [K ]

a i 1 / Ta 1 / Ti

ref
1/ Tref

(4)

Natural Ventilation

And Eq. (4) becomes, with Tref = Ti:

T
A22
2 g H i 1
Ta
A A22

V1 cd A1

(5)

2
1

3
2
V1 in m /s ; A in (m ); H in (m) ; Ti ,Ta in (K).

1.6

2.5
2.0

1.2

Wurzel (Ti/Ta-1)

V zu V bei A1=A2

1.4

1
0.8
0.6
0.4

T-innen = 20C
1.5
1.0
0.5

0.2
0.0

0
0

A2/A1

10

15

20

25

T-aussen (C)

Dependence of volume flow rate on the two opening areas (left) ; temperature
difference (right), according to equation (5)

Calculation example:
Given:
Air temperatures

Indoor: Ti = 22C (295 K)

Outdoor: Ta = 10C (283 K)

Opening areas
Vertical separation of openings
Room volume

Unknown: Volume air flow

Air change rate
Result:
V1 0.6 0.2

A1 = A2 = 0.2 m2
H=2m
V = 50 m3 (4.5 m x 2.5 m)

V1 und V2
nL

Eq. (5):
0.22
295
2 9.81 2
1 0.109
0.2 0.22
283
2

3
3
V1 V 2 0.109 m /s = 392.4 m /h

nL

V1 392

7.8 h 1
V
50

page 9

Natural Ventilation

2.2

Heat removal by natural ventilation

A2
. Ti
Q

.
V2

Ta

A1

.
V1

Schematic representation of the room with the two openings and the heat
source
Boundary conditions:

Heat load Q [W]

Outdoor air temperature Ta [K]

Opening areas A1, A2 [m2]

Unknown:
Indoor air temperature Ti [K]

Outdoor air flow rate V [m3/s]

Assumptions:
Stationary case
The heat source is purely convective
No heat transfer to or from walls (adiabatic condition)
Heating up of the room air:
with m average air density, c p specific heat of air:
Q (Ti Ta ) V m c p , thus:

Ti Ta

Q
V m c p

(6)

Thus:

Q
1

m c p Ti Ta

According to eq. (5):

T
V Dk 2 g H ( i 1) , with
Ta
Dk c d A1

A22
A A22
2
1

Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) inserted into Eq. (6):

T
Q
1

Dk 2 g H ( i 1)
m c p Ti Ta
Ta
page 10

(7)

(8)

Natural Ventilation

Ti Ta (

Ti
Q
1
1
1)

Ta
m c p Dk
2g H

1
1
Ti Ta
Ta

Dk
2 g H
m c p

2/3

In the case D1 D2 D c d A :
Q
2
1
T i Ta
Ta

cd A 2 g H
m c p

2/3

(9)

Remark: m is treated as a constant, even it is dependent on Ti.

Calculation example:

Given:

Unknown:

Air temperature
Opening areas
Vertical distance of openings
Room volume
Internal heat load Q
Room air temperature

Outdoor: Ta = 15C (288 K)

A1 = A2 = 0.2 m2
H=2m
V=50 m3
1000 W
Ti

Values inserted into Eq. (9):

1000

2
1
T 288
288

i
1
.
2

1000
0
.
6

0
.
2
2

9
.
81

2/3

Ti 296.9 (K ) 23.9 ( 0 C )

page 11

Natural Ventilation

2.3

Dimensioning of openings:
Example case school class room
D4

H
D1

D2

D3

Schematic side view with corridor and class room, and with the openings
(bottom hung windows transfer opening)

Problem statement
The openings are to be dimensioned for minimum air flow rate for a given occupancy level, at given indoor and outdoor air temperatures.
Required outdoor air flow rate
Vmin

G
Cmax C e

Dimensioning of openings
The case is reduced to the case with one bottom and one upper opening, see
example 1..
Volume air flow according to Eqs. (5) and (7):

T
V Dk 2 g H ( i 1) Vmin
Ta

(10)

D1, D2 und D3 are aggregated into a the bottom opening D123.

D4 corresponds to the upper opening ( D cd A ).
According to Eq. (8):

Dk c d A1

A22
D42

123
2
A12 A22
D123
D42

1 and 2 in series:

1
1
1
2 2
2
D12 D1 D2

(11)

1+2 and 3 in parallel:

D123 D12 D3

(12)

For an equivalent use of the two openings, we set:

D4 D123

Thus from Eq. (8), with

Dk D

1 ; thus
D2

2
D D
2
2

and thus with Eq. (10):

page 12

D 4 D123 D :
D Dk 2

(13)

Natural Ventilation

D4 D Dk 2

Vmin
T
2 g H ( i 1)
Ta

If we assume D1 D2 D 3 then with Eqs. (11) and (12)

(and still D 4 D123 D ):
D1 D

D1

2
1 2

, and thus with Eqs (13) and (8)

Vmin

T
1 2
2 g H ( i 1)
Ta

(14)

page 13

Natural Ventilation

3.

Calculation examples

3.1

Exercise 1:
Bottom hung window

In a living room, a bottom hung window is open. The natural resulting air flow rate provides the required minimum air flow rate for how many persons? What are the ventilation
losses?
Window:
Width:
Height
Tilt angle:

1.0m
1.2 m
10

Temperatures:
Indoor:
Outdoor

21 C
0 C

Solution:
Volume air flow for large opening:

T Ta
1
V cd H B
gH i
Ta
3

[m 3 / s ]

1
( 273 21) ( 273 0)
V 0.6 1.2 1.0
9.81 1.2
3
( 273 0)

Tilt angle = 10 Thus

0.22 m 3 / s 822 m 3 / h

ck (10) 0.17

VBottomHung 822 0.17 139 m 3 / h

Assuming a required minimum air flow rate per person of 30 m3/h:

Number of persons

VBottomHung
30

139
4.6
30

Ventilation losses:

Q (Ti Ta ) V m c p ; Q ( 21 0) 0.22 0.17 1.247 1000 979W

page 14

Natural Ventilation

3.2

Exercise 2:
Heat removal

An industry manufacturing hall with internal convective heat loads is to be naturally ventilated in such a way, that the internal air temperature does not exceed the outdoor air
temperature + 5K. What are the required dimensions (cross section area) of supply and
exhaust opening?
Hall:
Internal heat load:

Width: 15 m,
50 W / m2

Length: 30 m; Height: 10 m

Solution:
Per m of hall length:
Opening area per opening
(assumed equal for bottom and top
Internal heat load per m hall lenght

A [m2 /m]
15 m x 50 W / m2 = 750 W/m

Temperature difference (for Ta = 20) , with H = 10m, according to Eq. (9):

Q
2
1

Ti Ta
Ta
cd A 2 g H
m c p

2/3

750

2
1
Ti Ta
293

0.6 A 2 9.81 10
1.2 1000

2/3

A (m2/m)

0.13

0.14

0.15

0.16

0.17

0.18

0.19

Ti Ta (K)

5.77

5.49

5.24

5.02

4.82

4.64

4.48

Required opening cross section area per hall unit length for a temperature difference of 5K is approximately A=0.16 m2/m.

page 15

Natural Ventilation

3.3

Exercise 3:
Dimensioning of openings:
Example case school class room
D4

H
D1

D2

D3

Schematic side view with corridor and class room, and with the openings
(bottom hung windows transfer opening)
Problem statement:
The openings are to be dimensioned for minimum air flow rate for a given occupancy level, at given indoor and outdoor air temperatures.
Number of persons
Max. CO2 concentration
Outdoor air temperature
Indoor air temperature
Room height H

25
1500 ppm
15 C
20 C
4m

Solution:
Required outdoor air flow rate:
Vmin

G
C mac Ce

25 Pers 17 l / h.Pers
25 17 10 3
Vmin

m3 / h
1500 360 ppm
(1500 360) 10 6

373 m 3 / h 0.104 m 3 / s

Dimensioning of openings:
See script, 1.6
D1

Vmin

T
1 2
2 g H ( i 1)
Ta

(14)

With Ti = 20 C (293 K) und Ta = 15 C (288 K) , Vmin 0.104 m 3 / s :

D1 0.052 m 2 , and with A D / c d and c d 0.6 :
A 1,min A 2,min A 3,min 0.09 m 2
2
D4 0.126 m 2 , and thus A 4,min 0.21 m

page 16

Natural Ventilation

3.4

Exercise 4:
Determination of air flow rate due to wind and stack
pressures

A two-storey building comprises outdoor air transfer openings and an internal pening
between the two floors. Openings and boundary conditions are as given in the figure.
The openings are characterised by V D ( p ) 0.5
v = 6 m/s

A3, V3

Zone Z2
z=11 m

cp= -0.5

Zone Z1

A2,V2

cp=0.7

A1, V1

Sketch of the building and the

boundary conditions

z=1 m

Additional input parameter:

Openings
A1 and A3: Identical openings. Cross section area to be determined.
A2 = 1 m2
Cd = 0.6 (for all openings)
Indoor air temperature:
i = 22C
Outdoor climate
e= -3C, pe = 96 kPa; reference wind speed: vref = 6 m/s
Building volume: 650 m3
Further assumptions:
Reference height for stack pressure is at opening A1 (z = 1m )
Reference air density for volume air flow
ref = e= pe/ (Rair Te) = 1.24 kg/m3
To be determined:

1)

Volume air flow rates V1 ; V2 ; V3

2)

Dimensioning of A1 and A3 resp., in order to achieve a minimum air flow rate

for 2 persons.

page 17

Natural Ventilation

Solution:
Opening cross section for A1 and A3 is to be determined. For the calculation we make a
first assumption:
Opening height H = 0.01 m; opening width W = 1.00 m; opening area thus = 0.01 m2
External pressures
Total
Wind
Stack

ptot = pw + pT
pw = cp e vref2 / 2
pT = pegh (1/Ti 1/Te)/Rair
RAir = 287 J/kgK
e = pe / (Te RAir) = 96000/(287270) = 1.24 kg/m3

With

pw1 = 0.7 1.24 62/2 = 15.62 Pa

pw3 = -0.5 1.24 62/2 = -11.16 Pa
pT1 = 0 Pa
pT3 = 96000 9.81 10 (1/295-1/270)/287 = -10.30 Pa
p1 = pw1 + pT1 = 15.62 Pa
p3 = Pw3 + pT3 = -11.16 10.30 = - 21.46 Pa
Internal pressures (to be determined): piZ1 and PiZ2
Continuity:

V1 V2 V3

D1 ( p1 piZ 1 ) 0.5 D2 ( piZ 1 piZ 2 ) 0.5 ;

D2 ( piZ 1 piZ 2 ) 0.5 D3 ( piZ 2 p3 ) 0,5

with

D1 C d A1

ref

; D2 C d A2

ref

; D3 C d A3

ref

Results:
p iZ 1

p1 D1 / D 2 D1 / D3 p 3
2

1 D1 / D 2 D1 / D3

V V1 Cd A1

ref

2.91 Pa

( p1 piZ 1 )0.5 0.6 0.01

2
15.62 2.910.5 0.033 m 3 / s 118 m 3 / h
1.239

The calculated air flow rate with A1 = A3 = 0.01 m2 is 118 m3/h.

However, the required minimum air flow rate for 2 persons is: 2 x 30 m3/h = 60 m3/h:
Thus, the required opening area can be determined as:

A1 A3 0.01 m 2

60
0.005 m 2; thus e. g . H 5mm ; B 1m
118

This simplified calculation can be made because the relation A1/A3 is kept, and because
the resulting zone pressures practically do not depend on A2 with its large opening area.
Thus, the volume flow rates are proportional to A1 and A3 respectively.

page 18