IJDIWC

IJDIWC
International Journal of
ISSN 2225-658X (Online)
DIGITAL INFORMATION AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
Volume 3, Issue 3
2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Original Articles
PAPER TITLE
ELLIPTIC JES WINDOW FORM 2 IN SIGNAL PROCESSING
AUTHORS
PAGES
206
Claude Ziad Bayeh
BETWEEN PEDAGOGY AND TECHNOLOGY: A TWO COLLEGE CASE

STUDY - TRAINING ISRAELS TEACHERS TO MEET THE CHALLENGES Batia Riechman, Eitan Simon
OF THE 21ST CENTURY
215
Moses Oludare Ajewole, Onyedi

SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF VHF/UHF ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH IN David Oyedum, Adekunle Titus
NIGER STATE, NIGERIA
Adediji,
Abiodun
Stephen
Moses, Julia Ofure Eiche
231
HUMAN RESOURCES PREPARATION FOR DIGITAL INFORMATION Ladislav

PROCESSING
Ondryhal
240
Burita,
Vojtech
Zeinab
Talepour,
Hamide
RECEIVED SIGNAL STRENGTH ESTIMATION IN VEHICLE-TO-VEHICLE Kondori, Masoud Barakati,
COMMUNICATIONS USING NEURAL NETWORKS
Mehri Mehrjoo, Javad Ahmadi
Shokouh
247
KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS BASED ON SW ATOM
253
Ladislav Burita, Pavel Gardavsky
SKIP TRIE MATCHING: A GREEDY ALGORITHM FOR REAL-TIME OCR Vladimir

Kulyukin,
ERROR CORRECTION ON SMARTPHONES
Vanka, Haitao Wang
OPTIMUM VDBSCAN(O-VDBSCAN) FOR IDENTIFYING DOWNTOWN Wei Wang, Shuang
AREAS
Qingqing Xiao
Aditya
Zhou,
261
271
Djamel
Eddine
Menacer,
A MARKET-ORIENTED AGENTS-BASED MODEL FOR INFORMATION
Christophe
Sibertin-Blanc,
RETRIEVAL
Habiba Drias
277
LEARNING GAMES OR LEARNING STIMULATING GAMES: AN

INDIRECT APPROACH TO LEARNING STIMULATING EFFECTS FROM Mats Wiklund, Peter Mozelius
OFF-THE-SHELF GAMES
290
A FRAMEWORK FOR ADOPTING BLENDED LEARNING IN Aisha Othman, Crinela Pislaru,

TRADITIONAL SCHOOL BASED LEARNING
Ahmed Impes
301
ANALYSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF IT STRATEGY IN LIBYAN Aisha Othman, Crinela Pislaru,

HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTES
Thuraya Kenan, Ahmed Impes
319
International Journal of Digital Information and Wireless Communications (IJDIWC) 3(3): 206-214
The Society of Digital Information and Wireless Communications, 2013 (ISSN: 2225-658X)
Elliptic Jes Window Form 2 in Signal Processing
Claude Ziad Bayeh1, 2

Faculty of Engineering II, Lebanese University
2
EGRDI transaction on mathematics (2012)
Lebanon
Email: claude_bayeh_cbegrdi@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
KEYWORDS
The Elliptic Jes window form 2 is an original study
introduced by the author in Mathematics and in Signal
Processing in 2012. Similar to other windows used in
signal processing such as: Hamming, Hanning,
Blackman, Kaiser, Lanczos, Tukey and many other
windows, the main goal of introducing the Elliptic Jes
window form 1is to improve the convergence of the
Fourier Series at the discontinuity. The different points
between the proposed window function and the
previous ones are: -The proposed window function is
variable in form; it can take more than 6 different
forms by varying only one parameter.-It can help the
Fourier series to converge more rapidly compared to
the traditional ones. It can be used in both analog
design of filters and digital design of filters. It is used
to truncate the Fourier series with a variable window
shape that keep the necessary information about the
signal even after truncation.
In fact, the Elliptic Jes window form 2 is an application
of the Elliptic Trigonometry in Signal Processing. The
Elliptical Trigonometry is an original study introduced
also by the author in mathematics in 2004, and it has an
ultimate importance in all fields related to the
Trigonometry topics such as Mathematics, Electrical
engineering, Electronics, Signal Processing, Image
Processing, Relativity, Physics, Chemistry, and many
other domains. The Elliptical Trigonometry is the
general case of the traditional trigonometry in which an
Ellipse is used instead of a Circle, so the Elliptical
Trigonometry functions are much more important
compared to the traditional trigonometry functions.
Therefore, all topics related to the traditional
trigonometry will be ultimately improved by using the
Elliptical Trigonometry functions including Signal
Processing and Specifically the design of windows and
filters. As a consequence, the Elliptic Jes window form
2 will replace all traditional window functions.
Window functions, Signal processing, Mathematics,

Elliptical trigonometry, Trigonometry, Fourier series,
Truncated series.
1 INTRODUCTION
In mathematics and in signal processing, a window
function (also known as an apodization function or
tapering function) is a mathematical function that
is zero-valued outside of some chosen interval [13]. For instance, a function that is constant inside
the interval and zero elsewhere is called a
rectangular window, which describes the shape of
its graphical representation [6-15]. When another
function or a signal (data) is multiplied by a
window function, the product is also zero-valued
outside the interval: all that is left is the part where
they overlap; the "view through the window".
Applications of window functions include spectral
analysis, filter design, and beamforming [4-5],
[28] and [33].
A more general definition of window functions
does not require them to be identically zero outside
an interval, as long as the product of the window
multiplied by its argument is square integrable,
that is, that the function goes sufficiently rapidly
toward zero.
In typical applications, the window functions used
are non-negative smooth "bell-shaped" curves,
though rectangle, triangle, and other functions are
sometimes used. Briefly, a modification of Fourier
coefficients using window functions improves the
convergence of the series at the discontinuity.
206
In this paper, the author introduced a new window

function using an Elliptical Trigonometric function
such as Elliptic Jes function [16-17]. This new
trigonometry is also introduced by the author and
it can be considered as the basis of the new
generation of Signal Processing, Electronics and
Electrical systems based on variable signals [17].
The new window function based on the Elliptical
Trigonometry has huge advantages over the
traditional window functions based on the
traditional trigonometry. This will be discussed in
this paper.
2 BRIEF INTRODUCTION
ELLIPTIC JES FUNCTION
TO
( ))
)) waveform.
In fact:
( )
{
THE
The Elliptic Jes function is a function of the

Elliptical Trigonometry which is defined in the
papers [16-17]. If we compare this function to the
Cosine function of the traditional trigonometry we
find that the Elliptic Jes function is the general
case of the cosine function and it is defined as
following:
( )
( )
(1)
( (
Figure 1, The
For going from - to + the sign of the function

changes into two values +1 and -1 only,
For
(
) , it changes from:
{
Particular case: for

expression (2) becomes:
( )
and
( )
( )
, the
(3)
-With
( ) is the angular function related to
the (ox) axis is defined [35], for
, as:
( (
))
(2)
With:
is the frequency of the function
is the translation of the function on the axis
( ).
is the a variable parameter
Figure 2, The
( ) on the unit circle.
( )
-And
( ) is
the
Circular
Trigonometric Ter function which is equivalent to
the tangent of the traditional trigonometry.
Multi form signals made by
( ):
207
Figures 3.a to 3.f represent multi form signals
obtained by varying one parameter ( ).
e)
a)
f)
b)
Figure 3, multi form signals of the function

for different values of
.
c)
( ) and
Important signals obtained using this function:

Impulse train with positive and negative part,
elliptic deflated, quasi-triangular, sinusoidal,
elliptical swollen, square signal, rectangular
signal
These types of signals are widely used in power
electronics, electrical generator, signal processing
and in transmission of analog signals.
3 ELLIPTIC JES WINDOW FORM 2
FUNCTION
The Elliptic Jes window form 2 function is the
application of the Elliptic Jes function in signal
processing. It takes the following forms:
(
d)
(
(
))
)
(
(4)
))
208
With
and
And
(
( ))
With
(5)
and
So the truncated Fourier series using the Elliptic

Jes window form 2takes the following form:
( )
( ))
(6)
b)
3.1 Variable shapes of window formed by

Elliptic Jes window form 2
The formed shapes of this function can be drawn
using MATLAB. In the figures 4.a to 4.f, different
shapes of the window function are formed by
varying only one parameter which is .
c)
a)
d)
209
e)
clc
close all
M=2;
a=1; x=0:0.0001:M-1;
fprintf('---Elliptic Jes Window form 2
Introduced by Claude Ziad Bayeh in 201206-21---\n');
fprintf('-------------------\n');
repeat='y';
while repeat=='y'
b=input('determine the form of the
Elliptic trigonometry: b=');
fprintf('b is a variable can be
changed to obtain different signals
\n');
%b is the intersection of the
Ellipse and the axe y'oy in the positive
part.
if b<0,
b
error('ATTENTION: ERROR b must be
greater than Zero');
end;
Ejes=(1./(sqrt(1.+((a/b).*tan(x)).^2))).
*angx(x); % the Elliptic Jes "Ejes"
Emar=(1./(sqrt(1.+((a/b).*tan(x)).^2))).
*angx(x).*tan(x).*a/b; % the Elliptic
Mar "Emar"
f)
Figure 4, multi form signals of the function Elliptic Jes
window form 2 and for different values of
.
% Elliptic Jes Window form 2

EjesW2=1./2.*(1((1./(sqrt(1.+((a/b).*tan(2.*pi.*x)).^2)
)).*angx(2.*pi.*x)));
In fact, this window is very important as it has

variable amplitude that can be changed as we wish
over a period or a half period. Applications of
window functions include spectral analysis, filter
design, beamforming and telecommunications. A
more general definition of window functions does
not require them to be identically zero outside an
interval, as long as the product of the window
multiplied by its argument is square integrable,
that is, that the function goes sufficiently rapidly
toward zero.
plot(x,EjesW2);
axis([0 M-1 0 1.1]);
grid on;
fprintf('Do you want to repeat
?\nPress y for ''Yes'' or any key for
''No''\n');
repeat=input('Y/N=','s');
clc
close all
end; %End while
%--------------------------------
3.2 Programming the function Elliptic Jes

window form 2 using MATLAB
3.3 Advantages of the function Elliptic Jes

window form 2 over the traditional window
functions
%-------------------------------%Elliptic Jes Window form 2

%Introduced by Claude Ziad Bayeh in
2012-06-21
Similar to other windows used in signal processing

such as: Hamming, Hanning, Blackman, Kaiser,
Lanczos, Tukey and many other windows, the
210
main goal of introducing the Elliptic Jes window
form 2 is to improve the convergence of the
Fourier Series at the discontinuity.
The advantages of the new window function over
the traditional windows are:
-The proposed window function is variable in
form; it can take more than 6 different forms by
varying only one parameter.
-It can help the Fourier series to converge more
rapidly compared to the traditional ones.
It can be used in both analog design of filters and
digital design of filters.
It is used to truncate the Fourier series with a
variable window shape that keep the necessary
information about the signal even after truncation.
Other windows are designed to moderate these

sudden changes because discontinuities have
undesirable effects on the discrete-time Fourier
transform (DTFT) and/or the algorithms that
produce samples of the DTFT.
4.2 Triangular window
The triangular window is defined by:
( )
(8)
4 EXISTING WINDOW FUNCTIONS

There are many window functions used to
converge a Fourier series at the limit [1-2] and
[39]. Such as:
4.1 Rectangular window
The rectangular window (sometimes known as the
boxcar or Dirichlet window) is the simplest
window, equivalent to replacing all but N values of
a data sequence by zeros, making it appear as
though the waveform suddenly turns on and off:
( )
(7)
Figure 6, Triangular window function (from Wikipedia).
The end samples are positive (equal to 2/(N + 1)).

This window can be seen as the convolution of
two half-sized rectangular windows (for N even),
giving it a main lobe width of twice the width of a
regular rectangular window. The nearest lobe is
26 dB down from the main lobe.
4.3 Welch window
The Welch window consists of a single parabolic
section:
( )
(9)
Figure 5, Rectangular window function (from Wikipedia).
211
( )
(
( (
( (
)))
(
)))
)(
)(
)
)
(11)
Figure 7, Welch window function (from Wikipedia).
The defining quadratic polynomial reaches a value

of zero at the samples just outside the span of the
window.
4.4 Hann (Hanning) window
The Hann window also known as the Hanning is
defined by:
( )
))
Figure 9, Tukey window function (from Wikipedia).
And so on
(10)
The main purpose of developing these windows is
to obtain the smoother form that helps the
attenuation of the desired signal in the extremity of
the window function at the same time obtaining
the minimum amplitude of the side-lobes and
maximum width of the main lobe (refer to figure
10). This is not possible with the existing window
functions. So there is a compromise to do.
The disadvantage of these window functions is
that their frequency response doesnt converge to
zero outside the interval, and moreover, their
amplitudes are not negligible.
Figure 8, Hann window function (from Wikipedia).
4.5 Tukey window

The Tukey window, also known as the tapered
cosine window, can be regarded as a cosine lobe of
width N/2 that is convolved with a rectangular
window of width (1 /2)N
212
Figure 10, window function in the frequency domain (from

Wikipedia).
This problem is resolved with the proposed

window function by the author based on the
Elliptical Trigonometry in which we can regulate
the shape of the window to obtain a very smooth
form within the window function and obtain at the
same time a wider main lobe and very small side
lobes in magnitude.
5 CONCLUSION
In this paper, the author introduced a new window
function based on the Elliptical Trigonometry.
This new window function has many advantages
as cited in the previous sections. The main goal of
introducing this new window function is to
improve the convergence of the Fourier Series at
the discontinuity. We have seen a brief
introduction about the Elliptical Trigonometry in
this paper, for additional information about the
Elliptical Trigonometry and the Angular function
please refer to the published papers [16-17] and
[35-38].
The new window function has enormous
applications in mathematics and in signal
processing and precisely in the design of analog
and digital filters.
6 REFERENCES
1. H. Baher, Signal processing and integrated circuits,

Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd., ISBN:
9780470710265, (2012).
2. J. G. Proakis, Dimitris G. Manolakis, Digital Signal
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3. N. Wirth, Digital Circuit Design, Springer, ISBN: 3540-58577-X.
4. N. Senthil Kumar, M. Saravanan, S. Jeevananthan,
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers, Oxford
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5. G. Wade, Signal Coding and Processing Second
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6. S. J. Orfanidis, Introduction to Signal Processing,
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7. B. Gold and C. M. Rader, Digital Processing of Signals,
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8. A. V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer, Discrete-Time
Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, (1989).
9. A. V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer, Digital Signal
Processing, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
(1975).
10. L. R. Rabiner and B. Gold, Theory and Application of
Digital Signal Processing, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, (1975).
11. S. K. Mitra and J. F. Kaiser, eds., Handbook of Digital
Signal Processing, Wiley, New York, (1993).
12. T. W. Parks and C. S. Burrus, Digital Filter Design,
Wiley, New York, (1987).
13. A. Antoniou, Digital Filters: Analysis and Design, 2nd
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, (1993).
14. D. F. Elliott, Handbook of Digital Signal Processing,
Academic Press, New York, (1987).
15. L. R. Rabiner and C. M. Rader, eds., Digital Signal
Processing, IEEE Press, New York, (1972).
16. C. Bayeh, M. Bernard, N. Moubayed, Introduction to the
elliptical trigonometry, WSEAS Transactions on
Mathematics, Issue 9, Volume 8, (September 2009), pp.
551-560.
17. N. Moubayed, C. Bayeh, M. Bernard, A survey on
modeling and simulation of a signal source with
controlled waveforms for industrial electronic
applications, WSEAS Transactions on Circuits and
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843-852.
18. M. Christopher, From Eudoxus to Einstein: A History of
Mathematical Astronomy, Cambridge University Press,
(2004).
19. E. W. Weisstein, Trigonometric Addition Formulas,
Wolfram MathWorld, (1999-2009).
20. P. A. Foerster, Algebra and Trigonometry: Functions
and Applications, Addison-Wesley publishing company,
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21. F. Ayres, Trigonomtrie cours et problmes, McGrawHill, (1991).
22. R. C. Fisher and Allen D.Ziebur, Integrated Algebra and
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quality of GR-method for solution of the Dirichlet
problem for Laplace equation. WSEAS Transactions on
Mathematics Journal, 2(4), pp. 312-317, (2003).
28. R. Bracewell, Heaviside's Unit Step Function. The
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industrial electronic systems with analyzing, modeling
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Jes-x, WSEAS Transactions on Circuits and Systems,
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pp. 843-852.
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Trigonometry in industrial electronic systems using
controlled waveforms with modeling and simulating of
two functions Elliptic Mar and Elliptic Jes-x, in the book
Latest Trends on Circuits, Systems and Signals,
publisher WSEAS Press, ISBN: 978-960-474-208-0,
ISSN: 1792-4324, (July 2010), pp.96-108.
39. Wikipedia, Window function.
rd
Fourrier Transform and its Applications, 3 edition,

New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 61-65, (2000).
29. M. Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds, Handbook of
mathematical functions with formulas, graphs and
mathematical tables, 9th printing, New York: Dover,
(1972).
30. V. Kantabutra, On hardware for computing exponential
and trigonometric functions, IEEE Transactions on
Computers, Vol. 45, issue 3, pp. 328339, (1996).
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National mathematics magazine, Vol. 11, No. 8, (1937),
pp. 349-351.
32. N. J. Wildberger, Divine proportions: Rational
Trigonometry to Universal Geometry, Wild Egg,
Sydney, (2005).
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34. Claude Bayeh, Introduction to the Rectangular
Trigonometry in Euclidian 2D-Space, WSEAS
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3, Volume 10, (March 2011), pp. 105-114.
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Euclidian 2D-space, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on
MATHEMATICS, ISSN: 1109-2769, E-ISSN: 22242880, Issue 2, Volume 11, (February 2012), pp.146-157.
36. C. Z. Bayeh, Introduction to the General Trigonometry
in Euclidian 2D-Space, WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on
MATHEMATICS, ISSN: 1109-2769, E-ISSN: 2224-2880,
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214
Between Pedagogy and Technology: A Two College Case Study - Training Israels
Teachers to Meet the Challenges of the 21st Century
Batia Riechman and Eitan Simon
Kaye Academic College of Education
Ohalo Academic College for Education,
Beer Sheva,
Sciences and Sports,
Israel 84536
Katzrin, Israel 12900
rbatia@macam.ac.il
eisi@macam.ac.il
ABSTRACT
education, Innovative pedagogy for the digital era,
Since 2012, the Israeli Ministry of Education has
Professional development of pre-service teachers,
administered a program to prepare the education
Periphery. Pre-service teachers, Learning-teaching
system for the requirements of the 21 st century,
process
beginning in the states peripheral regions. The

program aims to establish innovative pedagogy in
INTRODUCTION
schools by introducing the use of information
In recent years education systems throughout the
technology. The program necessitates changes in pre-
world have undergone a transition involving
service teachers training in the teacher-education

colleges. The article focuses on two teachereducation colleges in Israels peripheral regions,
which are attempting to prepare their graduates for
their future role by equipping them with skills for the
paradigmatic changes from systems based on

local standards to systems based on universal
standards; from closed systems to interactive and
collaborative systems; from systems based on
dynamic 21st century digital culture. It appears that it
uniformity to systems focusing on difference. In
is insufficient to train these teachers to use existing
the second decade of the present century the
technology in school; they must also be equipped
educational act has altered its appearance. The
with appropriate skills for the use of new
school, whose role it is to prepare a generation of
technologies that will enter the schools in coming
future graduates, has to become familiar with the
decades. The article shows how these two colleges
world of modern youth and to know what they
are coping with the training of future teachers for this
will be required to know in coming decades.
digital era, developing innovative teaching-learning

processes as an integral part of pre-service teachers
training.
KEY WORDS
21st century skills, Information and Communications
Technology (ICT), Information Technology (IT),
Among other duties, the school needs to impart

necessary skills so that its graduates can cope
successfully with the challenges that they can
expect in tomorrows world. The changes which
the world and its education systems are presently
undergoing in the digital era have implications
Teachers image in the digital era, Teacher-
215
for the teachers image and for the act of
learning in class and in the home. Additionally,
education.
it improves communication between all stake-
From the academic year 2012, the Israeli
holders
Ministry of Education has administered an
(teachers, students and parents) and contributes
innovative program for the adaptation of the
to the development of high order thinking and
education system to the requirements of the 21 st
meta-cognition.
century in the peripheral Northern and Southern
Two hundred schools are included in the
regions of Israel. The purpose of this program is
Ministry of Education program, half of them in
to introduce an innovative pedagogy in Israeli
the South of Israel and half in the North. In these
schools through the assimilation of information
schools
technology. This new pedagogy includes novel
environment is provided including a portable
teaching and learning methods, in which the
computer for the teacher, screen, loudspeakers,
studied contents and knowledge are relevant to
Internet, interactive whiteboard and means to
the continually altering contemporary reality and
darken the classroom. As part of this program
are easily accessible to all through an Internet
teachers are asked to use the computer for their
network. In parallel to the assimilation of
classroom teaching and computerized pedagogic
knowledge, students acquire relevant skills for
administration [2]. This program has impacted
optimal functioning in the 21st century [1].
on school teaching-learning processes.
Information
Computer
the
learning-teaching
basic
computerized
process
learning
(ICT)
The latest research literature describes attempts
includes any computer and communications
to assimilate 21st century skills in various world
technology used to manage information. In the
education systems. It deals with the contribution
education field, ICT is used for computer-
of ICT to the different education circles. For
assisted
and
example: the creation of a virtual research
investigative computer-based learning. ICT has
environment of lecturers on the web (using Wiki
impacted learning-teaching processes. A correct
applications) encouraged their work as a
blend of ICT with innovative pedagogy can
collaborative academic research community [3].
enhance teaching quality, improving teachers
Research has also shown that future pre-service
skills and class management (follow-up of
teachers can act as agents of change in the
attendance, student achievements, and checking
institutions in which they work, in the initial
progress with learning material according to the
stages of their induction into teaching. They can
learning program).
potentially
In the learning fields, ICT influences the
technological
students focus of attention; it increases the level
processes [4]. Ciampa and Gallagher [5] describe
of interest since it is relevant to the childrens
a process of supervision and guidance for
own world and creates a continuum between
elementary school teachers in Canada as they
learning,
Technology
in
on-line
learning
facilitate
practices
the
in
assimilation
of
teaching-learning
216
adopt
multimedia
laptop
technology
and
introduce it into the teaching-learning processes.
pleasure,
games
and
interpersonal
communication and not particularly for learning
st
purposes. The need for ICT skills necessitates
century skills does not include consideration of
various skills that have been described by
suitable
different scholars.
The Israeli program for the assimilation of 21
training
for
pre-service
teachers.
Doyle [7], Passig [8] and
However the program necessitates changes in the
Melamed [9] each noted skills such as:
teacher training courses in Israels teacher-
Formulation
of
questions
based
on
education colleges.
information needs, identification of potential
This article relates to the Israeli education
sources
system, focusing on the skills required by a
successful
teacher-education college graduate. It describes
sources of information through the computer
the way in which two peripheral colleges in the
or
North and South of Israel train pre-service
information
teachers for their work in the education system in
information into a practical representation,
st
accordance with the needs of the 21 century.
of
other
information,
search
strategies,
technologies,
attained,
developing
accessing
assessing
the
organizing
the
integrating the new information with the

individuals existing information, using the
1.1 21st century skills according to the Israeli
information in a critical thinking process and
Ministry of Education
in problem-solving [10].
In 2009, the Ministry of Education decided to
st
introduce the subject of 21 century skills into

Israels education institutions and schools. The
Choosing suitable information to solve

different problems [11].
Planning and performing search processes
types of skills mentioned in the ministrys
and
publications, were drawn from articles and other
investigation of an issue or for problem-
publications
international
solving, processing the information by
This decision had
critical examination in accordance with the
many consequences, on the practical level of
objective, deducing conclusions, creating,
policy implementation, at the level of teachers
presenting and distributing new knowledge
professional development, at the pedagogical
[12].
by
Israeli
researchers and educators.
and
organizing
information
for
the
level and at the pedagogic administration level.
The following skills were also mentioned in
The decision relates to the entire education
EXPERT 21 and in reports of the National
system including the stage of teacher-education
Council of Teachers of English (NTCE):
[6]. The skills to be developed include:
The use of technology for the needs of
Intelligent use of digital tools
communication, organization of information,
Most young people have mastered the digital
assessment
media.
development of a research program [13].
In the main computers are used for
of
sources,
data
analysis,
217
Development of specialist skills for the use
communicate, to share things, to construct an
of
produce
effective team, to solve problems and to resolve
information for learning purposes. And also
confrontations [22]. In order to work within a
the organization and analysis of different
team, an individual requires communication
streams of information that are received
skills, cooperative abilities, leadership and
simultaneously [14].
interpersonal skills [23].
technological
tool
to
High order thinking
Shared learning includes cooperative learning
Various types of high order thinking were noted
that aims to create a joint product and
by different scholars as necessary for the use of
collaborative learning that stresses the shared
21st century skills:
process. Both necessitate a culture of discourse
Problem-solving solving open questions and
and critical dialog [24]. Collaborative learning
complex situations [15].
requires skills relating to interaction with others
Critical, analytical thinking and evaluation
in the online community and sharing of
assessing
information with global communities [25].
alternative
possibilities,
judging
arguments [16]; considering evidence, awareness
Independent learning
of different opinions,
This involves autonomous learning over time.
finding cause/results
and
Martin and Madigan [26] indicate the need for
hypotheses (alternatives) [17]; using information
the skill of life-long learning including the
in a critical thinking process in order to solve
ability to create links between different areas of
problems
knowledge in order to produce new insights.
connections,
evaluating
[18];
possibilities
deducing
conclusions
and
drawing logical inferences, making quantitative
Ethics and limitation on the web
deductions,
assessment,
Ethics and guided use of the web are two skills
integration [19]; analyzing scientific processes,
that equip the independent learner with the
evaluating information, using critical thinking to
ability to begin to work on the net in an ethical
critically examine and evaluate multiple sources
manner, to recognize the laws of copyright, to
of information and a large amount of knowledge,
maintain privacy, to maintain values and
improving
encouraging
morality and not to harm others. On the other
development of high order thinking skills [20];
hand they equip the learner with awareness of
creativity, innovativeness and inventive abilities
the risks on the web and the need to work with
producing new ideas from an old idea, creating
responsibility and caution.
analytical
thinking
ability,
capability,
new meaning for existing and new symbols [21].

Shared Learning
2. THE TEACHERS IMAGE IN THE
Shared learning is the comprehensive name for a
PROGRAM FOR ADAPTATION OF THE
large number of learning-teaching methods and
EDUCATION
SYSTEM
TO
THE
21ST
relies on social skills, including the ability to

218
CENTURY:
FROM
TRADITIONAL
teacher teaches the child the things that society
METAPHOR TO NEW MODELS
sees as appropriate and essential for their proper
As noted, the transition to the digital era and the
assimilation within the society.
alteration of paradigms in the field of education
The second metaphor draws an analogy with the
influence the teachers image and characteristics
midwife each child has knowledge with which
and the learning-teaching process. Stumpenhorst
they are endowed from birth. The learning
[27] claims that while the 20th century teacher
process aims to bring this knowledge into
possessed much knowledge, the 21st century
practice and this is done by activation through a
teacher also needs to command technological
set of questions that ask the learner to think.
abilities. The 21st century teacher masters the
Thinking, subject to the laws of logic, stimulates
different communications media and Internet and
the covet answer to rise above the surface. The
needs to know a range of digital tools for online
teacher resembles the midwife since they merely
learning and teaching. An additional dimension
help the act to occur, to come out. The teacher
of the contemporary teachers work is that they
does not transmit knowledge or create it but
have to become reflective practitioners and
simply enables the learner to expose the
must
fit
knowledge, with the help of suitable stimuli. The
themselves for the continuous changes in the
teacher asks questions, that the student can deal
education field [28].
with, and after a process of trial and error the
Beck [29] notes metaphors that describe the
correct answers are attained.
traditional teachers image.
The first is the
The assimilation of 21st century skills in the field
analogy of the funnel that sees the teacher as
of education requires an alteration in the
resembling a transmitter (in the traditional
teaching-learning process and the teachers
sense where the transmitter is responsible for
image. Siemens [30] mentions several models,
the exact transfer of the tradition from generation
taken from different worlds that describe the
to generation). According to this analogy the
teachers image in the digital era:
child is seen as an empty container that must be
continually
flexibly
adapt
and
The teacher as concierge the teacher
filled with content (knowledge and values). In
adapts content and recommends the learning
the learning process the container is filled with
method. The teacher uses soft and personal
material that is poured into it by the teachers.
instruction
The teacher constitutes the funnel or pipe;
personally while delivering the teachers
whose duty is to pour the material (spiritual
knowledge and recommendations for further
heritage, culture and science) from the reservoir
research [31];
(adult society) into the container (the student).
supervising
the
learning
The teacher as a network administrator: the
The teacher as the representative of the adult
teacher
world knows what is good for the child - the
accompanying the learner in the creation of a
guides
the
scientific
process,
219
personal information network so that they
education from school is insufficient for teacher
can perform the task by developing skills
training and their training must also include
relating to information and criticism. The
state-of-the-art technologies, which have not yet
teacher guides the learner to perform
been integrated in the school although it is
reflection
expected that they will find their way into
on
their
personal
learning
processes [32]; the
schools in coming years. The teacher-education
The teacher as the master artist: Seely [33]
college graduate must be familiar with the new
drew inspiration for this model from the
technologies that will capture a more and more
studio (work space), an open space in which
central importance in teaching and learning for
artists create and where they can exhibit their
themselves and their future students.
works. In this learning style the students do
should actually use these technologies in their
not only learn from the teachers skills as an
daily work, and harness these technologies for
expert and from their interaction with the
professional, academic and practical purposes in
teacher, they also learn from the activities of
an intelligent manner. They need to have a broad
their peers and from their interaction with the
vision concerning the place of computerization
teacher.
in Israel and worldwide, and should be familiar
In this manner collaborative
learning is formed in which the students
with
serve as sources, influence and inspiration
computerization and with developing research in
for each other.
this field and be able to evaluate the implications
The teacher as curator: the teacher creates
for the integration of computerization in
the learning space.
education in Israel and abroad. These pre-service
Autonomous learning
takes place in this space.
The teacher
the
processes
needed
to
They
introduce
teachers will be expected to use computerization
exposes the learners to major challenging
to
sources
be
innovative teaching and learning paradigms, that
investigated, to find links and to create
lever and serve as a catalyst for computer use.
knowledge [34].
They will use computerization beyond the limits
of
knowledge
that
can
enhance
their
teaching,
assimilating
The teacher-education college graduate in the
of time and location, and be able to intelligently
digital era is a computer-literate graduate skilled
harness computerization beyond the immediate
in four aspects: (1) technological literacy, (2)
practical needs of the school, exploiting the
adept in use of computers for academic purposes,
computer-enriched environment in the students
(3) adept in use of computers for teaching
homes. They will also serve as teacher-
purposes and (4) skilled in the ethical aspect of
researchers, taking care to continually update
professional practice.
and improve their professionalism over their life,
The future teacher acts within a dynamic digital
enlisting the Internet as an interactive source for
culture, and therefore, the present technological
professional development [35].

220
N-Novice teachers
THE
The First Year program is intended to train pre-
PROGRAM FOR THE ADAPTATION OF
service teachers in their first year of academic
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM TO THE 21ST
studies. It has run since 2008 as a new
CENTURY
organizational and pedagogic frame for pre-
3.
IMPLEMENTATION
IN
COLLEGES
OF
TEACHER-EDUCATION
IN
NORTHERN
AND
service teachers and college lecturers.
The
SOUTHERN ISRAEL
program cuts across the different training
Kaye Academic Education College is located in
streams programs and specialization courses
the southern town of Beer Sheva, regional capital
administered by the college. Planning and
of the Negev desert. Ohalo Academic Education
processing of the details of the learning program
College is situated in Katzrin, the regional
is performed collectively by the lecturers in Year
capital of the northern Golan Heights.
Both
1 but the learning is performed within the
colleges educate teachers for a first academic
separate classes. The program includes four core
degree in education and teaching. The colleges
subjects assimilating skills for the 21st century
apply Ministry of Education policies concerning
with the help of digital tools:
the program for the adaptation of the education
1. Digital and scientific literacy the pre-
system to the 21st century; each has developed
service teachers are required to write a Wiki-
various courses to implement learning and
item on a concept in the education field
teaching appropriate for the adaptation program.
studied during their college course. In order
These programs include four stages in line with
to write this item they are asked to use
the pre-service teachers four years of study. The
academic resources to search for articles and
first three stages take place simultaneously with
books and also to use reliable Internet sites.
the regular teacher training program and the
Throughout the process they are required to
fourth stage takes place in in-service training
conduct critical work with information and
when the pre-service teacher works in school
they learn the norms of academic writing.
while continuing their studies in the college.
The writing is performed collaboratively
The Kaye College program is known as the
both in writing the item and in the evaluation
FGIN program, the Ohalo College program is
of the items of their peers.
known as CMEI.
2. Personal professional identity deals with

pre-service
teachers
personal
and
3.1 Kaye college program (FGIN)
the
The anagram that represents this course includes
professional development, aiming to guide
the following subjects
their growth process at the beginning of their
F-First year program
teaching career. This subject is founded on
G-Getting experience
personal-professional
I-ICT and innovative teaching experience
through a reflective perception. The subject
identity
formation
221
is studied in workshops focusing on self-
The pre-service teachers learn and deal with
observation,
others,
subjects that are meaningful for them through
interpersonal communication in a group and
collaborative research with their peers and this
the development of the skill of empathy as a
learning produces products that are valuable for
central component in the teachers work.
them and their surrounding environment [37].
Additionally, the pre-service teachers are
The integration of pedagogic computerized tools
asked to perform writing tasks. They write
such as PBL advances the learning processes, for
on personal blogs tasks relating to their self-
example: the performance of projects involves
observation while developing awareness of
personal and cooperative learning; the use of a
their strengths and weaknesses in relation to
group forum allows them a space in which they
teaching. They also investigate their choice
can gain advice, deliberate and elicit help from
of the teaching profession relating especially
their peers. They use Google.docs to create and
to their expectations and the internal and
write-up collaborative group knowledge. The
external motivations that led to this choice.
pre-service teachers also document the stages of
3. Personal cultural identity deals with the
their work in personal blogs and write their
cultural identity to which the pre-service
reflections on the learning process they undergo.
teacher belongs and aims to clarify the
The use of data bases helps them to create a
cultural perception for the individual and the
reservoir of book sites, links and references
group and their values and beliefs. These are
relating to a particular subject. Additionally, the
recorded in their personal blogs, examining
data bases serve as their personal spaces and can
their implications for teaching, since the
be used to present the products of their work.
teachers role includes the development and
In Year 2 Getting experience the pre-service
attention to a range of different attitudes, and
teachers are asked to manage a self-learning
the fostering of freedom of opinion and
frame in which they identify their learning needs,
independent thinking in a multi-voiced
use information critically, deduce conclusions
culture.
and attain insights. In this year, they practice
observation
of
4. Education as it is reflected in the field
teaching in school, as part of their training
focuses on learning-teaching processes and
process. They learn about the managerial and
diversity among the learners. It is taught
learning aspects of the school and gain
with innovative pedagogy based on projects
experience in computer-assisted teaching, while
(Project Based Learning PBL). This
relating to the needs of the learning program,
constructivist approach familiarizes the pre-
needs of the learners and the need for evaluation.
service teachers with innovative learning-
Year 3 relates to ICT and innovative teaching
teaching processes [36].
experience the pre-service teachers include

components of computerization in their specialist
222
disciplines. They gain experience in innovative
provided for teachers practicing this teaching in
teaching in the training schools. They perform a
the school. This provided a challenge for the
final project including a methodical process of
college that needed to alter its training for future
planning innovative teaching with the assistance
teachers.
of computer skills, practicing teaching and
In Year 1 Creative and challenging thinking
evaluating and reflecting on the innovative
skills, the pre-service teachers develop thinking
teaching.
and creativity skills according to a wide range of
In Year 4, in-service training the pre-service
educational theories such as:
teachers undergo internship and learn as novice
Blooms taxonomy
teachers in a school. They experience various
Gardners multiple intelligences
teaching models and learning environments and
Sternbergs thinking styles
prove their ability for intelligent teaching work
DeBonos thinking styles
including
Perkins theory of intelligence
the
use
of
discretion
in
the
implementation of learning-teaching methods
This stage is mainly characterized by theoretical
that they have acquired during their training,
learning
integrating computerized tools in their pedagogy.
education with the integration of high order
concerning
the
fundamentals
of
thinking and reflective abilities. Learning at this

3.2 Ohalo college program (CMEI)
stage is accompanied by the use of technological
The anagram representing this course includes
tools found on the Internet.
the following subjects:
Year 2 relates to management and leadership in
C - Creativity,
organizational
M - Management,
development. At this stage the pre-service
E- Experimentation
teachers learn leadership and management skills
I Implementation
for a changing technological world, assisted by
In 2010 Ohalo College established its vision of
Internet technological tools such as open tools
training future educators in light of the
(Google.docs, Wiki applications, creation of
assimilation of different technologies in the
forums
education system. Their program was adapted to
disciplines). Care is taken to use technological
fit the four year studies of pre-service teachers,
tools in teaching the different courses (education
emphasizing the need to adapt training to be
and different disciplines). At this stage, the pre-
suitable to 21
st
century teaching.
Schools in
and
change
blogs
learning
concerning
paths
different
service teachers specialize in teaching and
Northern Israel were equipped with a wide range
management
of
including:
including limited practice in school, in order to
computers, interactive whiteboards, and Internet
introduce the innovations of technological
access throughout the school, and training was
progress into the school, and serving as models
technological
equipment
and
lead
different
projects
223
for imitation for the more senior teachers in the
technological tools in teaching. The new teacher
school.
finds that the school is already equipped with
Year 3 focuses on experimentation in schools &
technology that allows them to implement what
classrooms, specific needs identification and the
they have learned and practiced during their
project
college training.
based
approach.
Learning
is
characterized by the transition from theoretical
The training process (CMEI) for these future
learning and partial experience while still in the
teachers, who will teach the students of the 21st
college to implementation in the different
century includes familiarization with innovative
schools. At this stage the pre-service teachers
skills and pedagogy guided by the colleges
practice the use of computerization skills in their
professional staff together with Ministry of
different
(mathematics,
Education mentors. This program prepares
sciences, Jewish studies, English language,
tomorrows generation of educators under
music and movement). They are asked to
optimal conditions that include the integration of
perform educational projects in the school,
innovative technology-assisted teaching methods
guided
with strong emphasis on teaching-learning
teaching disciplines
by
professional
mentoring
from
instructors in the field of education and the

different
disciplines.
The
integration
processes in the classroom.
of
technological means in their teaching constitutes
3.3 Assimilating 21st century skills from
an important stepping stone in their training
application to evaluation
process.
Education systems throughout the world are
Year 4 relates to in-service implementation and
faced with the need to adapt to the information
synthesis. The pre-service teachers serve as
era and to train student teachers to function
novice teachers, in a part-time role in the school.
effectively and meaningful within this reality.
They are mentored by the college staff and
The programs of two Israeli teacher education
Ministry of Education professional mentors. This
colleges for the assimilation of 21st century skills
mentorship begins with a teaching process that
relevant to new technology and science are
challenges both sides involved in the teacher
presented in this paper. The introduction of these
training (the college and the school staff that
programs necessitated change on three levels: (1)
absorbs the student-teacher). This synthesis with
the lecturers (mentors) who needed to be open
mentorship enables the novice teacher to
to
deliberate, to think and to develop additional
professionals in new disciplines needed to adopt
tools to cope with the innovative methods of
changes in teaching styles and perceptions of
teaching of the 21st century. This stage is
teaching and alterations in the learning syllabus
characterized by the full implementation of the
for the student teachers. (2) the organization
studied methodology with the integration of
change in
innovations
and
willing
to
become
the organizations policies, the

224
technical and pedagogical support system, the
All the components of the organizational-system
infrastructure and resources; and (3) the student
change process are essential. Many reform
teachers changes in the courses studied and in
programs fail due to lack of awareness of the
their training and practical experience in schools.
importance of these stages, especially the last
In sum, the assimilation of 21st century skills in
three stages [41; 42].
teacher education colleges involves the adoption
Surry, Ensminger and Jones [43] found that the
of innovations and organizational change.
factors influencing the integration of Information
Systems Theory may help to explain system
Computer Technology (ICT) in teaching in
intervention processes [38; 39] and contribute to
higher education institutions were: the allocation
the understanding of social and psychological
of budgetary resources, the creation of an
aspects involved in the changes (Berger &
infrastructure (materials, hardware etc.), support
Luckmann, 1966).
for policy by the institutions management, staff
Kezar
[40]
defined
eight
stages
in
the
training
and
provision
of
technical
and
introduction of change with the involvement of
pedagogic support, staff attitudes viewing the
agents of change (who are usually leaders and
change as a means to attain learning goals, and
directors):
consolidation of evaluation that investigates the
1. Establish a vision together with the staff
influence of the change on teaching.
2. Analyze the system and staff attitudes
The evaluation stage shapes the pedagogic and
towards the goals of change
organizational aspects of the institution and the
3. Compare the vision to the existing state
tools used for continuous improvement.
The
of the system and determine priorities
evaluation stage is seen as extremely important
4. Schedule a program including stages,
to follow up on the assimilation of 21st century
resources, support, training, expected
skills in the colleges.
Thus we suggest an
products, communication channels within
evaluation model to test this assimilation process
the organization.
at the level of the lecturers, the organizational
5. Implementation
level and the level of the student teachers. This
6. Follow-up and evaluation with the help
evaluation produces a picture of the status quo in
of data-collection concerning the extent
both colleges. For this purpose the RIPPLES
of
(Resources,
effectiveness
of
the
change,
Infrastructure,
Policy,
People,
identifying difficulties and side-effects
Learning, Evaluation) model can be used as
7. Forming new policy and standards to
suggested by the researchers, Sherry, Ensminger
establish the change

8. Construct a plan to maintain the change
and prevent regression.
and Jones [44], in the context of the integration

of ICT in teaching. An examination of the
above-mentioned factors can be used as a
foundation for the analysis of factors influencing
225
the assimilation process of 21st century skills in
qualitative tools will be used to validate the
the colleges.
findings.
The research questions encompass the three
The study is planned for the end of the academic
levels at which the change should take place: the
year
lecturers, the colleges for teacher education and
evaluations and teaching methods that were
the student teachers:
adapted to 21st century skills. It is hoped that
2013-2014,
aiming
to
examine
the
To what extent and how do the teacher-
this examination will support the continuation of
education colleges train student teachers
the
to assimilate 21st century skills?
performance of a suitable future program for
To what extent and how do the lecturers
teacher training.
assimilation
of
these
skills
and
the
integrate 21st century skills in their
teaching for pedagogic and academic
3.6 The research tools
needs.
Evaluative data-collection tools will be specially
To what extent and in which ways do the
developed to answer the research questions,
colleges consent to train the teachers for
including: a questionnaire testing students
the assimilation process and support it?
attitudes towards the integration of 21st century

skills in teaching and learning through their
3.4 The research procedure
learning and practice experiences in courses
Two Israeli teacher-education colleges were
conducted at the colleges and in distance-
chosen for the study: Kaye College and the
learning courses, using on-line synchronic and a-
Ohalo College. Each college will conduct a self-
synchronic environments.
investigation whose results will be presented for
A second questionnaire for teaching staff will
a follow-up study comparing the two colleges.
examine methods used to integrate 21st century
The study will examine challenges alongside
skills in teaching, dealing with the teaching
successes, and will identify factors promoting or
staffs professional development in relation to
hindering the process of assimilation of change
ICT. It will also investigate the issue of models
and the correlation between investment and
for the integration of ICT through innovative
outputs. Results of the comparative research
methods in the different disciplinary courses, in
should hopefully assist the implementation of the
education courses and in pedagogic mentoring.
assimilation of 21st century skills in other
These models will also be tested through the
teacher-education colleges.
testimonies of lecturers, student-teachers and

other college role-holders.
3.5 The research method
The policy of each college will be checked
The study will focus on the training programs for

student
teachers.
Both
quantitative
and
according to several parameters: the integration

of computerization in the college, the process of
226
assimilation of an infrastructure and technical,
for the future and to advance their professional
pedagogic and administrative support. In this
development.
context, evaluations of lecturers, student-teachers
pedagogic innovation and constitute foci for learning,
and role-holders will constitute evidence for
Both colleges lead in the field of
research and educational innovation. They both see

the computerization program as an opportunity to
evaluation.
Documentary analysis of learning programs,
policy statements of the colleges, newsletters and
establish and advance their vision.
Each of these
colleges, in their own way, has answered this

challenge and developed different programs for the
Internet sites, reports and evaluation studies will
assimilation of 21st century skills in the teaching-
also be used for the study.
learning processes as an integral part pre-service
Triangulation
between the different collected data will be
teachers
conducted
implementation of these training programs in the
through
various
tools
enabling
validation of the findings.
training.
This
article
described
the
Kaye College (FGIN) and the Ohalo College

(CMEI). Both programs deal with the training of pre-
4. SUMMARY
service teachers at all stages of their academic
Israels national program for the adaptation of
development to implement a substantive pedagogy
the education system to the needs of the 21 st

century sees the integration of computerization
in teaching as a present priority. According to
the Ministry of Education, General-Managers
Directive [45] the proposed program offers a
technological and pedagogical infrastructure for
the teaching of 21st century skills and allows for
the preparation of Israeli education system
graduates to cope with contemporary local and
global demands. The transition to computerassisted learning-teaching processes for the
assisted by 21st century skills and computers.
Evaluation
is
an
important
part
of
the
assimilation and implementation process. Thus,

we suggest that each college that adopts a
process of assimilation of ICT, adoption of
pedagogic innovation and the incumbent changes
should be supported by evaluation according to
the RIPPLES model. Hopefully, the results of
the research evaluation should constitute/serve as
milestones for the assimilation of 21st century
skills in other colleges.
realization of this purpose constitutes a complex

challenge. The goal is not only to integrate this
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Education System for the 21st Century Proposal Paper,
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the mission, as academic institutions, to train teachers
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230
Spatial Variability of VHF/UHF Electric Field Strength in Niger State, Nigeria

Moses Oludare Ajewole1, Onyedi David Oyedum2, Adekunle Titus Adediji1,
Abiodun Stephen Moses2* and Julia Ofure Eiche2
1
Department of Physics, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
2
Department of Physics, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
*E-mail: mosesdotcom@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the coverage areas of VHF and
UHF signals from three television stations in Niger
State, Nigeria, by quantitatively measuring the signal
levels of these signals. The signal levels of the
transmitters of Nigeria Television Authority (NTA),
Minna, Channel 10, (210.25 MHz); NTA, Kotangora,
Channel 8, (196.25 MHz) and Niger State Television,
Minna, Channel 25, (503.25 MHz), and
the
corresponding distances were measured along some
radial routes with the transmitting stations at focus.
These measurements were taken using Digital Signal
Level Meter and Global Positioning System (GPS).
From the data obtained, Surfer 8 software application
was used to draw contour maps of the signal levels
around the transmitting stations to determine the
coverage areas of the stations. The results obtained
show that the present configurations of the transmitters
of the three television stations do not give an optimal
coverage of the state. Only 25.82% of the entire land
mass of the state has television signal coverage.
Consequently, greater percentage of Niger State is
completely out of television signal coverage. So, there
is need to have repeater stations at some intervals to
ensure reception of television signals throughout the
state.
KEYWORDS
Signal level, coverage areas, VHF, UHF, transmitter
1 INTRODUCTION
At broadcast frequencies in the VHF and UHF
bands (30 MHz 3 GHz), propagation is usually
by ground waves which consist of direct wave,
ground reflected and surface wave. Therefore, in
these frequency bands, the electrical parameters of
the ground, curvature of the earth surface, height
of the antenna and weather conditions influence
wave propagation. The degree to which these
factors affect propagation depends primarily on

the frequency of the wave and the polarization [1].
The electric field strength at a given distance from
the transmitter is attenuated by these parameters,
with the result that radio services in the VHF and
UHF bands are limited to distances close to the
transmitter.
The coverage areas of broadcast stations are
usually classified into primary, secondary and
fringe areas. Apart from weather conditions; the
size of each of these areas also depends on the
transmitter power, the directivity of the aerial, the
ground conductivity and the frequency of
propagation. The coverage area decreases with
increase in frequency and reduction in the ground
conductivity [2].
The primary coverage area is defined as a region
about a transmitting station in which the signal
strength is adequate to override ordinary
interference in the locality at all times, and
corresponds to the area in which the signal
strength is at least 60 dBV. The quality of service
enjoyed in this area can be regarded as Grade A1.
The appropriate value of the signal strength for
this quality of service is also dependent on the
atmospheric conditions and man-made noise in the
locality. The signal strength also depends on
whether the locality is rural, industrial or urban.
The secondary coverage area is a region where the
signal strength is often sufficient to be useful but
is insufficient to overcome interference completely
at all times. The service provided in this area may
be adequate in rural areas where the noise level is
low. The secondary coverage area corresponds to
the area in which the signal strength is at least 30
dBV, but less than 60 dBV. The quality of
231
service enjoyed in this area can be regarded as
Grade B1.
The fringe service area is that in which the signal
strength can be useful for some periods, but its
service can neither be guaranteed nor protected
against interference. This is an area in which the
signal strength is greater than 0 dBV, but less
than 30 dBV. Such an area may be said to enjoy
Grade B2 service [3].
This study investigates the coverage areas of the
Nigeria Television Authority, (NTA), Minna,
Channel 10 (210.25 MHz); Nigeria Television
Authority (NTA), Kotangora, Channel 8 (196.25
MHz); and Niger State Television, Minna, UHF
25 (503.25 MHz), by means of quantitative
measurement of the signal levels of the
corresponding signals at increasing distances from
each transmitter until the signals completely fade
out.
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
All electromagnetic waves obey the inverse-square
law in free space. The inverse-square law states
that the power density of an electromagnetic wave
is proportional to the inverse of the square of the
distance from the source. That is, if the distance
from a transmitter is doubled, the power density of
the radiated wave at the new location is reduced to
one-quarter of its previous value. Also, the
electromagnetic waves coming from a transmitter
may experience three other phenomena: reflection,
diffraction, and scattering. All of these factors
affect the transmitted signal as it is "carried"
through the air medium to the distant receiving
antenna [4].
The range of a VHF transmission depends on the
transmitting antenna height, transmitter power,
receiver sensitivity, and distance to the horizon,
since VHF signals propagate under normal
conditions as a near line-of-sight phenomenon.
Radio waves are weakly bent back toward the
Earth by the atmosphere, so the distance to the
radio horizon is slightly extended over the
geometric line-of-sight to the horizon.
An approximation to calculate the line-of-sight

horizon distance (on Earth) is given as [5]:
(km)
(1)
where hb is the height of the antenna in meters.

This approximation is only valid for antennas at
heights that are small compared to the radius of
the Earth. In communications systems, more
complex calculations are required to assess the
probable coverage area of a proposed transmitter
station [5].
2.1 Influence of Clear-Air Aspect of the
Troposphere on VHF and UHF Propagation
In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves propagate
along straight lines with velocity c (velocity of
light in vacuum). The electromagnetic properties
of the air are slightly different from that of a
vacuum, and are characterized at each point by the
refractive index, n=c/v, with v as the local
electromagnetic wave propagation velocity [6].
Clear-air effects refer to atmospheric influences
that do not involve condensed water vapour (such
as cloud, rain, wet, haze, hail, and so on); but the
effects of dry haze and dust particles are included
[7].
Electromagnetic waves propagating through the
troposphere are refracted and scattered by
variations in the radio refractive index, n which in
turn are caused by variation in pressure P(mb),
temperature T(K), and water vapour pressure e
(mb) according to the formula:
(2)
Here N is the refractivity which is a practical
quantity often used in preference to n. The
refractive index at the earths surface, denoted by
ns, is about 1.0003. It falls to the value of unity at
great heights. The little difference in the value n
from unity in the troposphere is the reason for the
use of practical unit N. Its value, denoted by Ns,
at earths surface is about 300. Values of N are
often expressed in N-units though it is a
dimensionless quantity.
232
The water vapour pressure e is usually calculated
from the relative humidity, and saturated water
vapour, using the expression:
(3)
where H = relative humidity (%) and t =
temperature (C) [8].
The macroscopic structure of the troposphere
varies much more rapidly vertically than
horizontally. For this reason, the troposphere is
said to be vertically stratified. The same vertical
stratification may persist over a horizontal region
tens or hundreds of kilometers in extent. As
temperature decreases with altitude, the air above
a certain level is saturated and excess moisture
precipitates out. This water vapour pressure, e,
decreases more rapidly with height than pressure,
P, and to all intents and purposes is negligible
above 2 or 3 km [9].
The net effect of the variation in pressure P,
temperature T and water vapour pressure e is that
N decreases with height. The average behaviour of
N in the troposphere is the exponential decrease
given as:
Values Zd = 9 km and Zw = 2.5 km are typical. The

dry term Ds makes a relatively constant
contribution to Ns of about 265 whilst the wet term
Ws provides most of the variability of N.
The decrease of N with height bends rays towards
the earth. In average conditions, N decreases by
about 40 N-units/km in the lowest kilometer of the
troposphere. However, the troposphere is a
varying medium and quite significant deviations
from average condition occur.
Over a given height range, refractivity profiles can
be designated as: sub-refractive, normal, superrefractive or ducting, according to [9]:
Sub-refractive
(8)
Normal
(9)
Super-refractive
(10)
Ducting/Trapping
(11)
Typical propagation ray profiles under these

refractivity conditions are as shown in Figure 1.
(4)
where Ns is the surface value of N, z is height
above the earths surface and Z is a scale height.
The two terms in the refractivity N in equation (2)
are often separated into dry term D and wet term
W:
(5)
(6)
Both terms decay with height but at different rates
leading to the bi-exponential model with
corresponding surface values Ds, Ws and scale
heights Zd, Zw respectively:
(7)
Figure 1. Four classifications of tropospheric refraction [10]
3 STUDY AREA
Niger State is a State in North central Nigeria and
the largest state in the country. It is named from
the River Niger and Minna is the State capital.
Niger State is located between latitudes 820'N
and 1130'N and longitude 330'E and 720'E.
Niger State is bordered to the north by Zamfara
233
State, to the northwest by Kebbi State, to the south
by Kogi State, to the southwest by Kwara State;
while Kaduna State and the Federal Capital
Territory border the State to the northeast and
southeast, respectively (Figure 2).
Furthermore, Niger State shares a common
international boundary with the Republic of Benin
at Babanna in Borgu Local Government Area of
the state. Currently Niger State covers a total land
area of 76,363 sq. km, or about 9 percent of
Nigeria's total land area. This makes the State the
largest in the country. Niger State has a population
of 3,950,249 (2006 Population Census) and
population density of 52/km2 [11, 12].
Climate and Vegetation: Niger State experiences
dry and wet seasons within a year. The annual
rainfall varies from 1,100mm in the northern parts
to 1,600mm in the southern parts. The maximum
temperature is recorded between March and June
which is usually not more than 37 C, while the
minimum temperature is between December and
January (usually not less than 19 C), when most
parts of the state come under the influence of the
tropical continental air mass which blows from the
north. The rainy seasons last for about 150 days in
the northern parts to about 120 days in the
southern parts of the state. The fertile soil and
hydrology of the state support the cultivation of
most of Nigerias staple crops and still allows
sufficient opportunities for grazing, fresh water
fishing and forestry development [13].
The Southern Guinea Savannah vegetation covers
the entire landscape of the state. Like in other
states of similar vegetation, it is characterized by
woodlands and tall grasses interspersed with tall
dense species. However, within the Niger trough
and flood plains are taller trees and a few oil palm
trees. In some areas, traces of rain forest species
can be seen [13].
Figure 2. Location of Niger State in Nigeria (10 o.00'N,

6o.00'E) [11]
4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

This research was carried out for three different
television stations, namely: Nigeria Television
Authority (NTA), Minna, Channel 10, Nigeria
Television Authority (NTA), Kotangora, Channel
8 and Niger State Television, Minna, Channel 25.
NTA Minna transmits at 210.25 MHz for video
signal and 215.25 MHz for audio signal. The
output power of the transmitter during the period
of this work was substantially constant at 7.5 kW.
NTA Kotangora transmits at 196.25 MHz for
video signal and 201.75 MHz for audio signal with
an output power of 2 kW. Niger State Television,
Minna, transmits at 503.25 MHz for video signal
and 508.75 MHz for audio signal. The output
power of the transmitter in this case fluctuates
between 100 and 500 W.
The signal levels of the transmitters of the three
television stations were taken along some radial
routes from the transmitting stations as shown in
Figure 3, using Digital Signal Level Meter GE5499. The corresponding transmitter-receiver
distances, elevations above the sea level and
locations were also measured using GPS 72
Personal Navigator. Measurements were taken (at
distances further from each transmitter) around the
towns and villages in all the local government
areas in Niger State until all the signals faded
234
away completely. Data obtained along one of the
radial routes in Minna is shown in Table 1.
based on the following classification of signal

strength E:
From the data obtained, Surfer 8 software

application was used to draw contour maps of the
signal levels around the transmitting stations to
determine the coverage areas of the stations. The
coverage area is divided into three different areas
i. Primary Coverage Area, E > 60 dBV

ii. Secondary Coverage Area, 60 dBV > E > 30
dBV
iii. Fringe Coverage Area, 30 dBV > E > 0
dBV
Table 1. Data obtained along one of the radial routes in Minna, Niger State
Distance (km)
(from the
transmitting
Station)
Signal Levels
(dBV )
Location
Elevation (m)
Latitude (oN)
Longitude (oE)
90.0
9.610
6.559
298
3.35
80.1
9.573
6.572
256
6.97
73.0
9.553
6.582
236
8.54
65.4
9.542
6.582
231
14.29
51.4
9.526
6.581
277
18.08
56.5
9.467
6.638
309
21.97
42.5
9.422
6.621
307
23.11
45.3
9.429
6.662
367
25.62
38.1
9.422
6.694
374
29.06
45.2
9.406
6.724
392
31.28
42.0
9.402
6.750
381
34.02
39.6
9.393
6.777
378
37.48
32.5
9.392
6.819
363
40.48
47.3
9.395
6.856
373
45.49
27.0
9.398
6.913
393
50.53
27.0
9.390
6.969
454
60.26
9.278
6.995
294
235
Figure 3. Map of Niger State showing the transmitting

station sites and radial routes used
Figure 4. Coverage area of the NTA Minna in Niger State
5 RESULTS
Figures 4 to 7 show the contour maps of the signal
levels around the three transmitting stations and
their coverage areas in the state, while Figure 8
shows elevation of the ground around the coverage
areas of the stations under study. Tables 2 to 5
show the television signal coverage areas as
percentage of the total land mass and the local
government areas. The results obtained show that:
i.
ii.
The present configurations of the transmitters

of the three television stations do not give an
optimal coverage of the state. Only 25.82% of
the entire land mass of the state has television
signal coverage. So, greater percentage of
Niger State is completely out of television
signal coverage.
Figure 5. Coverage area of the NTA Kotangora in Niger

State
The contour maps show the need for repeater

stations at appropriate intervals to provide
reception of television signals for the entire
state.
Figure 6. Combined coverage areas of the NTA Minna and

NTA Kotangora in Niger State
236
Figure 8. Surface map showing elevation of the ground

above sea level around the coverage areas of the television
stations in Niger State
Figure 7. Coverage area of Niger State Television in Niger

State
Table 2. Percentage of the coverage areas of the television stations relative to the total land mass of Niger State
Stations
% of Primary
coverage area
% of Secondary
coverage area
% of Fringe
coverage area
Total % of
coverage area
NTA Minna
0.65%
4.15%
9.38%
14.18%
NTA Kotangora
0.22%
4.74%
6.68%
11.64%
Niger State
Television
0.005%
0.32%
1.97%
2.295%
Table 3. Percentage of the local government areas covered by the NTA Minna station in Niger State
L.G.A
Average Distance (km)

(from the transmitting
station)
% of L.G.A.
with primary
coverage area
% of L.G.A.
with secondary
coverage area
% of L.G.A.
with fringe
coverage area
Total % of
L.G.A.
coverage area
Chanchaga
3.82
100%
100%
Bosso
16.73
7.14%
64.29%
28.57%
100%
Paikoro
30.37
3.80%
46.20%
7.70%
57.70%
Shiroro
36.06
2.80%
22.20%
19.40%
44.40%
Kaicha
44.93
2.27%
45.45%
47.72%
Muya
39.7
5.00%
2.50%
7.50%
Wushishi
54.55
69.20%
69.20%
Gurara
60.38
25.00%
25.00%
Gbako
59.3
73.10%
73.10%
Rafi
78.41
13.60%
13.60%
Lavun
99.13
5.26%
5.26%
Agaie
79.05
3.85%
3.85%
Lapai
72.79
6.70%
6.70%
237
Table 4. Percentage of the local government areas covered by the NTA Kotangora station in Niger State
L.G.A

station)
% of L.G.A.
with primary
coverage area
% of L.G.A.
with secondary
coverage area
% of L.G.A.
with fringe
coverage area
Total % of
L.G.A.
coverage area
Kotangora
16.22
7.70%
61.50%
23.10%
92.30%
Magama
28.27
37.90%
27.60%
65.50%
Mashegu
26.46
3.60%
29.10%
32.70%
Mariga
44.63
2.60%
7.90%
10.50%
Table 5. Percentage of the local government areas covered by the Niger State Television station in Niger State
L.G.A

station)
% of L.G.A.
with primary
coverage area
% of L.G.A.
with secondary
coverage area
% of L.G.A.
with fringe
coverage area
Total % of
L.G.A.
coverage area
Chanchaga
7.88
3.00%
47.00%
50.00%
100%
Bosso
11.93
3.13%
50.00%
50.13%
Paikoro
20.54
6.67%
20.00%
26.67%
Shiroro
25.34
7.50%
7.50%
6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The coverage areas of the transmitting stations
show that less than 1% of the entire land mass of
Niger State has television signals strong enough to
override ordinary interference in the locality at all
times, and comprise the primary coverage area.
About 9.21% of the state also enjoys good
television signals but not strong enough to
overcome interference completely at all times,
thus within the secondary coverage area. But the
service provided in this area may be adequate in
rural areas where the noise level is low. Also, 18%
of the state is in fringe service areas. In such areas,
the service can neither be guaranteed nor protected
against interference, and antennas with high
antenna gain and heights higher than the
surrounding buildings and obstacles are needed to
receive good signals. In summary, only 28.82% of
the entire land mass of Niger State has television
signals coverage. More than 71% of Niger State
does not receive television signals from any of the
three television stations in the state. Thus, the
present configurations of the transmitters of the
three television stations do not give optimal

coverage of the total land mass of Niger State.
The rate of attenuation of the VHF and the UHF
signals is very high in Niger State. This may be as
result of high loss of television signals due to
diffraction by some physical features like hills and
vegetations covering about 60% of the entire land
mass and irregular elevation of the surface of the
ground. The ground elevation is extremely high in
some places and extremely low in some other parts
of the state as shown in Figure 8.
It is also noted that none of the two NTA coverage
areas overlap at any point. Therefore, there is no
town or village in Niger State that can receive
television signals from the two NTA television
stations at the same time. So, installation of
repeater stations at certain intervals of distance to
provide reception of television signals for the
entire state is necessary.
The coverage areas also show that none of the
television stations in Niger State constitutes
potential interference to any of the television
238
stations in the neighboring states. Hence, the
stations are in compliance with the Nigeria
Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) regulation.
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5.
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University of Ife, Nigeria, pp. 3-4 (1975).
Ajayi, G.O. and Owolabi, I.E.: Coverage Area of the
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and Feasibility Studies for full Radio Coverage of
Niger State. Technical Report of the Electrical
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taken
from
http://transition.fcc.gov/pshs/techtopics/techtopics17.ht
ml
Very
High
Frequency,
taken
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequency
ITU-R, Document 3/11-E, 10 March, 1995, Working
Party 3J: Draft Handbook on Radiometerology, pp. 2568.
Oyedum, O.D.: Effects of Tropospheric Conditions on
Microwave Propagation in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of
Space Research (NJSR). Vol. 3, 81-100 (2007).
Adediji, A.T. and Ajewole, M.O.: Vertical Profile of
Radio Refractivity Gradient in Akure South-West
Nigeria. Progress in Electromagnetic Research C, Vol.
4, 157168 (2008).
Rotheran, S.: Clear air aspects of the troposphere and
their effects on propagation mechanisms from VHF to
millimetre waves. In: Hall, M.P.M. and Barclay, L.W.
(Ed); Radio Wave Propagation - (IEE Electromagnetic
Wave Series). Peter Peregrinus Ltd, London, United
Kingdom, pp. 150-172 (1991).
Bruce,
W.:
Atmospheric
Refraction:
How
Electromagnetic Waves Bend in the Atmosphere and
Why
It
Matters.
www.weather.nps.navy.mil/.../Atmospheric_Refractio
n_of_EM_Waves.doc
Niger
State,
taken
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_State
About
Niger,
taken
from
http://www.nigerstate.gov.ng/about-niger.html
Nigeria: Physical setting Niger State, taken from
http://www.onlinenigeria.com/links/nigeradv.asp?blurb
=330
239
Human Resources Preparation for Digital Information Processing

Ladislav Burita1,2 , Vojtech Ondryhal1
Dep.of CIS, Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence, Kounicova 65, Brno, CR
2
Dep.of IEaIS, Faculty of Management and Economics, Tomas Bata University, Mostn 5139, Zln, CR
ladislav.burita@unob.cz, vojtech.ondryhal@unob.cz
1
ABSTRACT
The article describes the content and teaching
methodology of information systems development and
processing of information sources. The authors present
the structure of courses, motivational aspects applied
and the approaches leading to the development of
creative abilities of students. The illustrative example
of students work is shown. As a theoretical approach,
the structured methodology for information systems
development is applied.
The term of creative ability is analyzed. SW Tovek
Tools have been applied as a process tool for
information retrieval and analysis. A discussion is held
on whether to provide the students with detailed care,
or rather let them struggle on their own to find a
creative solution to tasks.
KEYWORDS
Teaching, information system, information retrieval,
analysis, structured methodology, creative ability,
Microsoft Access, Tovek Tools.
1 TEACHING OF IS DEVELOPMENT
The development of information systems (IS) for
commercial use is being executed through agile
methodologies
and
object
approaches.
Predominantly, web applications are being
created, and working with IS by using mobile
devices is being solved.
Yet we should not condemn some historical
methodology approaches, such as structured
methodology; we should use them appropriately
with respect to the new conditions, bearing in
mind what is important and how they can be
useful in teaching. Although the structured
methodology is rather historical, its application is
still required, e.g. 4.
The first part of article presents the experience
gained in teaching the course named
Development and administration of IS, which is
based on a structured approach. It is specified in
studies for bachelors degree as follows:

1. The introductory course in the Information
Systems programme for future specialists
in information technology (IT).
2. The course providing basic information
about IS for future specialists in business
(economics, management, etc.).
Authors describe the structure and content of the
course, pay attention to its motivating factors,
show an example of students work and evaluate
the benefits of the course.
1.1 Structure and content of the course
The course begins with the analysis of IS issues. It
includes the following topics: the concept of IS,
its meaning and classification, data - information
knowledge, database system (DBS), data
structures of database systems, the function of
database management system (DBMS) and
database (DB) properties.
Then follows the teaching of the IS modelling. It
includes the topics of the IS model, general
principles of modelling, IS life cycle, explanation
of terms methodology - method - technique - tool.
After that a structured approach to IS development
and a conceptual level of modelling are
introduced.
This part can be described as the core for
understanding the field and the proper basis for
analytical thinking of an IS creator. The structured
methodology (levels and dimensions of
modelling, application of general approaches to
modelling, a conceptual level model) are
explained. The constructs and rules of the entityrelationship diagram (ERD), functional scheme
(FS) and data dictionary (DD) are presented.
The course also includes the creation of IS by
students themselves. The necessary information is
conveyed through an example, starting with the
specifications and finding requirements for the IS,
proceeding to various levels of modelling,
creating the custom application and documenting
240
the process and outcome. The theme for the
creation of an IS is chosen by the students
themselves. The procedure for the IS development
and the outcome are given by detailed guidelines.
In the last part of the course, the logical and
physical levels of IS modelling are introduced.
They include the relational data model (RDM),
the transformation of the ERD to RDM, RDM
normalization, and relational operations. The
development environment of the DBMS MS
Access and the description of the basic elements
of the application (table, query, form and report)
are presented.
The above mentioned structure of the course is
suitable for teaching the IT specialists. In the case
of the business oriented students, some of the
passages can be omitted or modified, and thus the
learning objectives can be adapted to the students
needs. It is not necessary to present the details of
DBS, it is possible to replace the definition of the
RDM by the table view of data, to omit
normalization and relational operations. In
addition, this group of students could become
more familiar with the work in MS Access. The
course requirements include a course credit and an
examination. The credit is earned for documenting
an IS. Students use a textbook 3.
Music (music bands and singers, recorded

music, DVD, musical instruments).
Sports competition (soccer, fire sports,
athletics, shooting, body building).
Teaching (student records, future practice
for students, eLearning exercises).
The structure of instruction and the way the tasks
are assigned and evaluated lead the students to
independence. This is especially evident when
they work on their course credit task. Brief
orientation and basic demands for their credit task
are given to students in the form of written
instructions. After the approval of the theme for
their IS development and specification of the IS
requirements, they proceed, if possible, on their
own. The important progressive phases of work
(conceptual and logical model) are discussed with
the teacher, and the students continue only after
submitting the outcomes and obtaining the
teachers approval.
The actual development tool for the
implementation of IS is not presented in detail at
lectures. It is up to the students to master work
with MS Access; they themselves have to acquire
the necessary aids. The submission of the course
credit assignment is interactive; the students
respond to the teachers comments via electronic
means of communication.
1.2 Motivational aspects of the course

1.3 Example
The basic motivational tool is continuous
repetition of the teaching content and checking the
students skills and knowledge by testing them.
Their test results are part of the final evaluation.
In addition, the process of the IS creation is
checked individually, the ERD design and its
transformation into the RDM are discusses.
A well-proven motivational tool is the choice of
the IS theme according to students interest. It is
easier to design and create an IS when the student
is familiar with its environment and has a positive
relationship with it. After several years of
assigning this task, it can be summarized that the
most popular topics for IS creations are:
ICT (computers, graphic cards, mobile
phones, software, data media, satellite
communication, errors of security codes,
overview on signals).
Trade and services (car or motorcycle sales,
car service, mobile phones, music, food).
Machinery (automobiles, motorcycles,
weapons).
The example presents an outcome of students

work. Its theme is Guitars 9. The following
parts are presented:
Assignment for the IS development.
Entity-relationship diagram (ERD),Figure 1.
Functional scheme (FS), Figure 2.
Data dictionary (DD), Table 1.
Relational data model (RDM), Figure 3.
Description of the final application.
Assignment specification: Create an information
system (IS) about internet shop with guitars.
Register vendors and producers, their name,
website, contacts (phone, email).
Figure 1. Entity-relationship diagram
241
Description of the final application: The IS

about guitars was created in MS Access DBMS.
The IS provides to users convenient and clear
working with data, browsing through database and
produce information (reports according to selected
criteria). The main menu (see Figure 4) offers six
groups of function buttons.
Figure 2. Functional scheme
Table 1. Data dictionary
Figure 4. User interface of the application
Additionally to record data on the guitar, its name,

type, price, colour, sensors, wood, scale, frets,
tremolo, and the number of pieces on a stock.
These items is possible to insert into IS, update,
sort, and search. For users of IS must be available
a list of developers, of stores, report of guitars by
price, producer and vendor.
Figure 5. Insert data about guitar
In group INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE is the

database administrated. The functions for
inserting, updating, and deleting data are
available. Example of inserting data about guitars
is at the Figure 5. Group PRODUCERS
SUMMARY and VENDORS SUMMARY
enable to users view data about producers and
vendors, etc.
1.4 Importance, benefits, and discussion
Figure 3. Database structure on the RDM
The importance of the course for business

oriented students lies in obtaining comprehensive
theoretical information and practical experience in
IS and their development. Certainly, the subject
242
contributes to the students ability to document the
results of their work and to work independently on
an assignment.
The future IT specialists should benefit from the
course by acquiring strong knowledge of basic
concepts of IS, which can be developed in their
further study and practice. The students do not
need expansion of the knowledge concerning the
relational data model in the future, which, despite
all the advances in IT, is nearly 100% presented in
current DBMS.
An important benefit of the course is the
development of students ability to work
independently and to document the results of their
work. In both groups of students, the evaluation of
the documentation of their IS is aimed at
encouraging students to work professionally with
a text editor. It is truly surprising that most of our
secondary schools graduates are not ready to
create quality documents and are very poorly
trained in the use of the office automation
software.
The preparation of undergraduate students
includes the described course as an introduction to
the study. They have obtained substantial
foundations for further education in IS and gained
deep interest in the study program.
2 INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
The article reports on the experience from the
courses called Analysis of information sources
and Designing communication and information
systems (CIS) - Information management at the
University of Defence in Brno. The courses are a
part of the Masters Study Programme. Their goal
is to master work with Tovek Tools (TT) created
by TOVEK [2] and established within the
Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic.
Students gain knowledge from using the TT. They
undergo orientation training and then they can
manage the information resources workflow. The
course has been designed to contribute to the
development of creative abilities of individual
students. There is also a course book [3] available
for them. The courses are suitable for both faceto-face instruction and distance learning.
After the introduction, this part of the article
analyzes the concept of creative ability, introduces
the tools used for teaching, and discusses the
courses and teaching methods, which should
contribute to the students creative abilities.
2.1 Creative ability

A number of information sources dedicated to
creativity and creative thinking (for example [6],
[8]) agree that there are many definitions of this
term. A widely accepted definition of creative
thinking describes it as "A process leading to the
production of a result, or a concept, that is unique
and usable" [1]. This particular definition
incorporates the common themes found within a
number of pre-existing theories of creativity;
effective novelty and the requirement for the
end-product to be original and useful appear to
be of most importance. Two essential processes,
which occur during the act of creative thinking,
include the cognitive process (what we know) and
the non-cognitive one (what we feel). Hence, the
thinkers emotional state is intrinsically linked to
the effectiveness of creative thinking.
Some information sources, such as dissertations
[7], refer to the source [6], in which the concept of
creativity is divided into four parts. It defines
creativity as "Imaginative activity fashioned so as
to produce outcomes that are both original and of
value." Creative processes necessarily involve
behaving and thinking imaginatively, positing
alternative solutions to problems, thinking around
situations, and engaging in mental play. They are
a form of purposeful activity, an active, engaged
application of imagination to meet a particular
goal. They involve the generation of something
original, which may be original in relation to the
creators own experience, that of her peer group,
or just uniquely and historically original. Finally
they must be of some value, as defined in relation
to the original objective of the process. For a
creative activity to be valuable it doesnt have to
produce something good, or beautiful, or useful,
or possess any other subjective quality; instead
value is assessed on an individual basis, and
requires judgment and criticism [and] critical
thinking.
2.2 Tovek Tools applied
The TT software is applied for professional work
with information resources in class sessions; it is
the set of modules for advanced analyses of
information in various textual data (documents,
messages, records, etc.). It includes [2]:
Index Manager (IM) to index data.
Tovek Agent (TA) to search in data sources.
243
Query Editor (QE) to create the queries.
Harvester (HA) to content analysis.
InfoRating (IR) to context analysis.
Working with the data source starts with indexing
using the IM. Data sources are marked; it is
necessary to distinguish the language in them and
to set it in the IM because of the correct
lemmatization and then the sources are indexed.
All other activities in the analysis of information
are already underway over the indexed collection.
Of course, there is an access to the source
document, if it is needed in any of the TT
modules. The query takes place in the TA.
A query can be prepared in the form of a Boolean
expression, in free text, and as TOPIK the result
of work in the QE. The search interface of the TA
component is shown in Figure 6.
neighbour words and displays the context in the

table or graph.
The HA is a module for content analysis. The
interface to the analyzed documents offers
individual words and their successors and
predecessors, and the graph of the terms
occurrence in the documents; see Figure 8.
Figure 8. Harvester for a content analysis
Figure 6. Search interface of the Tovek Agent
The analysis of the documents is based on

specified goals and is not predetermined. It will be
affected by the current results of the analysis,
when the exploration may be conducted in
different directions to obtain:
Lucid and detailed information.
Contexts in documents, the relationships
between analyzed events and their actors.
Trends of the reality being analyzed.
The analysis of the documents is a creative issue,
and thus its teaching allows students to develop
creative abilities. It is only necessary to prepare
an appropriate assignment. An ideal form is
blended learning, in which the theoretical part is
explained in face-to-face instruction and
individual work continues through distance
learning.
2.3 Methodology of teaching
Figure 7. InfoRating for a context analysis
For the actual document analysis the IR and the

HA modules are further applied. Into their
environment, a set of selected documents from the
TA is exported. The IR is a module for context
analysis; the user interface is shown in Figure 7.
It analyses the context of the selected words, their
The class instruction includes well-proven

teaching methods: lectures, exercises and
practical, as well as training for mastering the SW.
The initial session is focused on the information
system (IS) issues. The following topics are
covered: concept of the IS, its meaning and
structure; data information knowledge;
metadata; unstructured and structured data;
databases and data structures of database systems.
244
Also, the historical horizon of data search is
mentioned: from library index systems through
Boolean to the concept search.
The further teaching block deals with Document
IS: individual phases of text processing and the
respective approach to it are explained. Then the
teaching block of the key topics follows; it
explains working with TT modules when
searching and analyzing information. The
teaching takes the form of training. Working with
TT modules is at first tried on a small Czech
document base which includes about two hundred
documents. The indexing of documents proceeds
within a few seconds after the document base is
identified, which does not pose a slightest
problem for the students.
Searching in the document base is performed at
first with individual key words, then with a pair of
words linked with different operators (OR, AND,
NOT, ACCRUE).
The search result is explained and students must
always understand it. ACCRUE becomes the
favourite operator for students future work (it
searches using the operator OR and arranges the
search results by the operator AND).
Then they search in the documents as required by
the task. After that the creation of more complex
queries in the form of TOPIK follows; it is
arranged in a hierarchical query structure, see
Figure 9.
Figure 9. TOPIK for a complex query
The last part of the lecture is the use of the IR and

the HA modules. The application of both modules
in analytical work is illustrated by examples.
Another teaching block includes controlled
individual work with all modules with a small
English document base subsequently followed by

independent work of the students who analyze a
large English document base, comprising several
thousands of documents.
3 CONCLUSIONS
The first part of article summarizes the experience
in teaching the foundations of IS. By stepwise
refinement of the content and process of teaching,
the course has reached the stage which guarantees
its stability with the useful pieces of knowledge
gained from methodological procedures applied,
including the activation of students and their
independent work development.
It is shown an illustrative example of students
work, which is presented without any corrections.
The students' feedback on the course is positive;
they appreciate the opportunity to become familiar
with one of the approaches to IS development, and
are grateful for the strong knowledge concerning
the theory of IS modelling.
The IS modelling and development is an interest
of many organizations and conferences, for
example The International Association for
Computer Information Systems (IACIS) [5] that is
a non-profit association founded in 1960 and
dedicated to the improvement of IS and the
education of information systems and computer
professionals. The article meets the ideas of the
IACIS, because offers experiences in IS
education.
The second part of article presents the content and
experience of teaching the subject analysis of
information sources. It explains the possibilities of
the TT modules and approaches which develop
independence and creative abilities of students.
Many teachers believe that they must serve the
students with the task together with accurate and
detail instructions on how to solve it.
This approach, however, does not force the
students to think and find their own way to fulfil
the task. Thus, when the first problem and
uncertainty occurs, the students receive detailed
support, they ask for clarification of the
instructions and want to be literally spoon-fed.
The method of developing a creative approach is,
on the contrary, based on the precondition that the
students get rather vague assignment with the
desired result. It is their task to determine the
process and the teacher does not intervene in this
activity.
245
The teacher ignores students requirements to
explain the details of tasks; they have to cope on
their own. In their lives, there will not be a tutor
available all the time to provide them with explicit
instructions.
The results evaluation of the approach describing
in the paper are still not very optimistic. The
students are not yet prepared to innovative think
and work, because in other subjects is that culture
not applied.
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The article presents the results of the experiences
in the education at the University of Defence in
Brno, Czech Republic, Faculty of Military
Technology, Department of Communication and
Information Systems; and Tomas Bata University
in Zln, Czech Republic, Faculty of Management
and Economics, Department of Industrial
Engineering and Information Systems.
5 REFERENCES
1. ALDOUS, C. R. Creativity in Problem Solving:
Uncovering the Origin of New Ideas. International
Education Journal, 5(5) (2005)
2. Analytical SW Tovek Tools, TOVEK company. [Cit.
2013-01-03]. Available at: www.tovek.cz. (2013)
3. BURITA, L., ONDRYHAL, V., TRUNDA, M.
Information systems. Coursebook U-3099. Brno, Czech
Republic: The University of Defence Press (2005)
4. GIANNOCARRO, R. at al. A Structured Methodology
for Developing Performance Measures in any
Environment.
Available
at
http://maja.unimb.si/files/apem/ APEM2-2_91-99.pdf (2012)
5. IACIS. Available at http://www.iacis.org/ (2012)
6. NACCCE report. 2. The National Advisory Committee
on Creative and Cultural Education. All Our Futures:
Creativity, Culture and Education. [Cit. 2013-01-03].
Available
at:
http://sirkenrobinson.com/skr/pdf/
allourfutures.pdf (2013)
7. RALLEY, James D. ICT and Creativity in Education:
Examining the Effect That New Labour Policy Had on
Creative ICT Practice, and Why This Practice is
Important. [Cit. 2013-01-03]. Available at: http://
www.scribd.com/doc/77932877/ICT-and-Creativity-inEducation (2013)
8. RILEY, Nigel R., AHLBERG, Mauri. Investigating the
use of ICT-based concept mapping techniques on
creativity in literacy tasks.. [Cit. 2013-01-02]. Available
at: http://scholar.google.cz/scholar_url?hl=cs&q=http://
education.korea.ac.kr/innwoo/edu603/computers_in_edu
cation/investigating. (2013)
9. VLAIC, Zbynk. IS Guitars. Course credit assignment:
IS Development and Administration Course. Brno:
University of Defence (2010)
246
Received Signal Strength Estimation in Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications Using

Neural Networks
Zeinab Talepour1, Hamide Kondori2, Masoud Barakati3, Mehri Mehrjoo4, Javad Ahmadi Shokouh5
University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Department of Electrical Engineering, Zahedan, Iran.
1
Talepour.z@gmail.com, 2Kondori2007@gmail.com, 3mehrjoo@ieee.org, 4smbaraka@ece.usb.ac.ir and
5
shokouh@ece.usb.ac.ir
ABSTRACT
Received signal strength (RSS) is a major performance
metric in vehicular communication system design.
Experimental measurements of the RSS for vehicular
communications are not cost effective. Therefore, offthe-shelf ray-tracing packages are deployed to
substitute the costly measurements with RSS
simulations. However, the simulation process is too
time-consuming if the RSS is required over a long
interval of time. We propose a new RSS estimation
approach using neural network (NN) to reduce the
computation time. First, ray-tracing is used for
simulating the RSS in some instances of time and
training the NN. Then, the NN is deployed to estimate
the RSS afterward. We apply the new approach to an
antenna placement problem in vehicle-to-vehicle
(V2V) communications. The numerical results show
that RSS computation time reduces significantly by
using the proposed estimation approach, and the
approach is as effective as ray-tracing in the RSS
simulation for the antenna placement problem in
vehicular communications.
KEYWORDS
Antenna placement, neural networks, received signal
strength,
vehicular
communications,
wireless
propagation.
1 INTRODUCTION
Today, increasing number of vehicles has led to a
dramatic increase in traffic jam and car accident
occurrences. Therefore, researches on mobile
automotive communications for the purpose of
safe driving have attracted much attention.
Communicating traffic information between
vehicles-to-vehicles (V2V) in a right time and
right place plays a major role in reducing the
endangerment [1]. Having traffic information and

sufficient knowledge of a vehicle surrounding, a
driver can react appropriately in different events,
such as, over-speed, inappropriate distance, or
failure to stop at red lights. Due to the mobility of
vehicles, the wireless channel should be deployed
for communicating the traffic information.
Wireless channel suffers from several impairments
such as path-loss, multipath, and shadowing. The
signal strength on the receiver is affected
dramatically by these impairments both in nonline-of-sight and line-of-sight propagations.
However, appropriate antenna placement on the
transmitter and the receiver can reduce the channel
impairments effects and improve the signal
strength on the receiver antenna. Accordingly, the
received signal strength (RSS) can be considered
as a mean of an antenna placement
appropriateness.
The RSS can be measured experimentally, but this
approach is too specific, i.e., the results will
depend on the specific scenario which has been
considered. Generalizing the experimental results
requires repeating the experiments for many
different scenarios of traffic pattern and
geographical area models which is not cost
effective. Therefore, simulation softwares, such
as, Radio-Wave Propagation Simulator (RPS), are
deployed for less expensive RSS computation
instead.
RSS measurement and simulation in vehicular
communications have been addressed in some
research works. The RSS measurement of V2V
communications among parked vehicles at 900
MHz has been addressed in [2]. For an urban area,
simulation and evaluation of the V2V
communication channel at 5.9 GHz, has been
carried out in [3]. The RSS has been measured at
247
3.5 GHz and 5.2 GHz, respectively, in rural area
[4] and urban and highway area [5]. An error
model for inter-vehicle communications in
highways at 5.9 GHz frequency band has been
proposed in [6]. Influence of antennas placement
on the V2V communication channel is
investigated in [7].
All of the aforementioned RSS measurements and
simulations are valid for a set of time instances
where the measurements or simulations have been
carried out. In other words, the RSS values over
the whole interval of time are not determined
because RSS computation in all moments is very
time consuming and not efficient.
To reduce the computational time of RSS
simulations, we suggest estimating RSS based on
some simulated values. In other words, we use a
simulator once for RSS simulation in some
random moments. The simulated RSS values are
fed to an estimation method to estimate the RSS
afterward. We deploy neural network (NN) for the
estimation. The simulated RSS at the sample
moments are used to train the NN. Our proposed
approach is advantageous in terms of reducing the
computation time because, first, the estimation is
performed much faster than the simulation process
with the cost of some negligible errors, second, the
RSS simulation for a small number of sampling
instances is required to determine the RSS over
the whole interval of measuring time.
To evaluate the performance of the proposed RSS
estimation method, we apply it to the antenna
placement problem in V2V communications,
where the RSS is used as a decision metric for
locating the transmitter and receiver antennas. We
compare the effectiveness of the estimated RSS
(achieved by our proposed method) with the
simulated RSS (achieved by a ray-tracing
simulator) in solving an antenna placement
problem. Using RPS simulator, we simulate the
RSS for different cases where one of the
transmitter/receiver antennas is fixed on a vehicle,
and the other is located in different places on
another vehicle. Then, for the same cases, we use
the proposed estimation method for the RSS
computation. Comparing the RSS values
computed by the two methods, we show that,
while the estimation method is faster than the RPS
simulation, the latter is as effective as the former

in solving the antenna placement problem.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. In
Section 2, the system model including the
transmitter and receiver antennas, traffic
characteristics, and wireless channel, as well as
the urban models are presented. Section 3 explains
the ray tracing approach for RSS measurements
using RPS simulator. In Section 4, our proposed
NN and its parameters are presented. Section 5
demonstrates the numerical results of RSS
simulation using our proposed approach for an
antenna placement problem. Finally, Section 6
concludes the paper and explains our further
research.
2 SYSTEM MODEL
The characteristics of wireless channel, urban area
and traffic distribution, as well as the antenna
models are explained in this section.
The wireless channel impairments, such as,
multipath propagation, path-loss, shadowing, and
Doppler effects are vital processes which should
be taken into account in the RSS measurements.
The multipath propagation causes the transmitted
signal to arrive at the receiver, not only from a
direct propagation path, but also from multiple
existing paths between the transmitter and the
receiver. Due to the different power loss over
distances and shadows, the received signal is a
combination of all scattered, reflected, and
diffracted electromagnetic waves from other
objects in the transmission media. The received
waves have different attenuations, time delays,
phase shifts, arrival angles, and polarization,
which cause the frequency-selectivity, directionselectivity, and time-variant behaviour of the
wireless radio channel.
An urban area containing moving vehicles,
buildings, and trees is considered.
Three types of vehicles are used: vans, buses, and
small vehicles. Antennas can be located on every
vehicle or other objects, but we have placed them
only on small vehicles in this work. A transmitter
antenna is located on the roof of a vehicle, and a
receiver antenna is located at different places of
another vehicle in each instance of our simulation.
The vehicles have different speeds with respect to
248
each other. The vehicles are perfect electrical
conductors with cubic shapes and different sizes.
Rectangular boxes model the buildings located at
0.1m from the road side. The permittivity, r, of
the buildings and the trees equals 2.25-j0.05 and
2.25-j0.035, respectively.
The dimensions of the objects compared to the
wavelength
should
be
small
enough
(approximately, 10 time smaller). So, the
frequency is set to 1.8 GHz. The antennas are
isotropic. Therefore, the RSS is independent of the
angle of arrival in the receiver.
3 RPS IMPLEMENTATION
The system model parameters are set and the
urban area is implemented in RPS simulator in this
section.
RPS has the geographical map generating
facilities. The map generator locates the
environment objects on the map and assigns the
electrical parameters, such as, permittivity, r,
permeability, r, and the standard deviation of the
surface roughness, , to the objects. The objects
material parameters are set based on the chosen
frequency band. These parameters affect
reflections, diffractions, and transmissions of rays.
Figure 1 shows the traffic distribution and the
urban area implemented in RPS. The transmitter
speed, the receiver speed, and the distance
between them are important parameters in the RSS
simulation. The transmitter and the receiver
speeds are 80 Km/h and 55 Km/h, respectively.
The initial distance between the transmitter and
the receiver is 80 m. The simulation is run until
the distance reaches 120 m.
The
aforementioned
wireless
channel
impairments, explained in Section 2, are
considered in the ray tracing simulators.
After implementing the system model, the RSS is
simulated at different moments. We need a
number of random inputs to train the NN. We use
a series of simulated RSS at random moments for
this purpose. Based on the numerical results of the
implemented scenario (see Section 4), if the
number of samples is less than 115, the NN is not
trained appropriately. With respect to the relative
speed of the transmitter and the receiver, samples
should be taken every 0.05 on average to achieve
115 samples.
Figure 2 demonstrates dominant multipath
components of running the simulator once. The
transmitter antenna is on the front bumper of a
vehicle and the receiver antenna is on the roof of
another vehicle.
Figure 2. Multipath demonstration using RPS.
4 NEURAL NETWORK DESIGN

Designing an NN includes the selection of its
architecture, model, learning algorithm, and
activation functions of neurons according to the
requirements of a problem. We design an NN for
estimating the RSS at the receiver antenna of a
moving vehicle for the V2V communication
scenario described in Section 2 and 3.
4.1 NN model
Figure 1. Implemented V2V communication scenario in

RPS.
Model selection for the NN is a function

approximation problem. Due to the high
efficiency, a Back-Propagation NN, with one (or
more) sigmoid-type hidden layer(s) and a linear
output layer can approximate any arbitrary (linear
or nonlinear) function [8]. A perceptron network
249
with one output layer is selected for this work.
Figure 3 shows the architecture of a generic
perceptron network. The network consists of three
layers: an input layer, a hidden layer (with a
sigmoid activation function), and an output layer
(with a linear activation function).
Figure 3. Architecture of a generic NN.
4.2 Input layer

The input layer is determined from the features of
the inputs. Here, the input layer consists of 115
samples of time obtained from the implemented
scenario with RPS.
4.3 Input layer
Hidden layer extracts the characteristics of the
input pattern. In this work, to determine the
number of neurons in the single hidden layer, we
use a hit-and-trial method. It was found that with
only 8 hidden neurons a small training error is
achieved. Sigmoid activation function of hidden
layers is expressed as [9]:
a i1
1
1 e jni1
The output layer of the network is designed

according to the requirements of the application
output. Since the output of the NN is expected to
produce the RSS at the receiver, the number of the
output neurons is one. Thus, the pure linear
activation function is selected for the output
neurons and expressed as:
a2=n2
(3)
where a2 shows the output layer, and n2 is the
column-vector containing the network's inputs fed
to the output layer. n2 is calculated from:
n2=W21a+b2
(4)
where W21 is the weight matrix between the
hidden layer and the output layer, and b2 is the
column containing the inputs of the output
neurons. Each row of W21 matrix contains the
weights for the output neuron. Simulation program
has been developed to design and train the
proposed NN. The program divides the training set
into two parts: a) raining set (for training the
network), b) testing set (for testing the
performance of the network after training). The
training set and the testing set were chosen to be
about 3/4th and 1/4th parts of the dataset,
respectively. In each of the three cases, the error
corresponding to the NN has reached its lowest
value. Figure 4 shows the error changes with the
transmitter antenna on the front bumper of the
vehicle and the receiver located on the roof.
(1)
where j, is the symbol of complex number, ai1,

containing the outputs from the hidden neurons, is
the ith element of a1 vector, and ni1, containing the
inputs fed to the hidden neurons, is the ith element
of n1 vector which is calculated from:
n1=W10P+b1
(2)
where P is the input pattern, b1 is the vector of

bias weights of the hidden neurons, and W10 is
the weight matrix between the input layer and the
hidden layer. Rows of W10 are the weights of the
hidden neuron.
4.4 Output layer
Figure 4. Trend of error change in the NN.
In the first and the second scenarios of error,

decreasing trend was similar. Thus, we have
avoided bringing them.
5 NUMERICAL DESIGN
250
The performance of the proposed RSS simulation
approach is compared with the ones of RPS raytracing simulators in this section. The trained NN
in Section 4 is used for RSS estimation in an
antenna
placement
problem
in
V2V
communications. A vehicle with a mounted
receiver antenna on the roof is communicating
with a vehicle whose transmitter antenna can be
mounted on the roof, the right side, or the front
bumper. The RSS is computed for the three cases,
where the place of the transmitter antenna
changes:
In the first case, the transmitter is placed

on the right side of the vehicle.
In the second case, the transmitter is placed

on the front bumper of the vehicle.
In the third case, the transmitter is placed

on the roof of the vehicle.
To ease the notations, the three cases are
represented with S, F, and R, respectively.
The NN training error of R, S, and F cases
are, respectively, 0.506%, 0.6086%, 0.5418%.
The effect of insufficient input for the NN for S
case is represented in Fig. 5.
and 8 show the RSS for S, F, and R cases,

respectively. In all figures, red graph shows
simulated RSS by RPS, and the blue graph shows
estimated RSS by the NN.
When the transmitter antenna is mounted on the
roof, the RSS is smoother than the ones of S and
F cases because of the increasing line-of-sight
propagation components between the transmitter
and the receiver antennas. Inversely, because of
reducing line-of-sight components between the
transmitter and the receiver in S case, by
increasing destructive combinations of multipath
components and occurring deep fading, the RSS
falls down dramatically and then there exists a
disruptive communication which is not acceptable.
When the transmitter antenna is mounted on the
bumper, the RSS fluctuation is reduced with
respect to the ones of R case, because in our
scenario there is no shadowing vehicle between
the transmitter and the receiver.
Figure 6. RSS of S case.
Figure 5. effect of using different number of inputs for

training the NN on the RSS of S case.
Accordingly, the use of 70 samples for training the

NN is not sufficient, and the network cannot
follow the inputs. However, with 115 samples
(blue graph), the NN follows the inputs
successfully. The rest of the results are based on
training the NN with 115 samples. The output of
the NN is extracted every 0.01 sec. Figures 6, 7,
Figure 7. RSS of F case.
251
2.
3.
4.
5.
Figure 8. RSS of R case.
Our conducted simulation shows the RSS

estimation approach is time-saving in comparison
to the RSS simulation using RPS. The
approximate average RPS running time, for every
instance of the RSS simulation, is 8 sec. If the
RSS is required every 0.01 sec, the computation
time is 4608 sec when RPS is used, while the time
reduces to 1720 sec using the trained NN.
6.
7.
6 CONCLUSION
A new RSS estimation method based on neural
network has been presented for the antenna
placement problem in V2V communications.
Three V2V communication scenarios in an urban
area where the transmit antenna is placed on the
right side, the front bumper, and the roof of a
vehicle and where the receiver antenna is fixed on
the roof of another vehicle have been considered.
The RSS values for the three scenarios have been
computed using RPS ray-tracing simulator and the
proposed estimation method. The numerical
results demonstrate that the proposed RSS
estimation method can be deployed for effectively
solving the antenna placement problem. Besides,
the RSS computation time of the proposed
approach is much less than the ones of the RSS
simulator.
8.
9.
Davis, J. S., Linnartz, J. P. M. G.: Vehicle-to-Vehicle

RF Propagation Measurements. In: proc. the 28th
Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and
Computers, pp. 470-474, (1994).
Reichardt, L., Pontes, J., Sturm, Ch., Zwick, Th.:
Simulation
and
Evaluation
of
Car-to-Car
communication Channels in Urban Intersection
Scenarios. In: proc. the 71st IEEE Vehicular
Technology Conference, pp. 1 5 (2010).
Eggers, P. C. F., Brown, T. W. C., Olesen, K., Pedersen,
G. F.: Assessment of Capacity Support and Scattering in
Experimental High Speed Vehicle-to-Vehicle MIMO
Links. In: proc. the 65th IEEE Vehicular Technology
Conference, pp. 466-470 (2007).
Paier, A., Karedal, J., Czink, N., Hofstetter, H.,
Dumard, C., Zemen, T., Tufvesson, F., Mecklenbruker,
C. F., Molisch, A. F.: First Results from Car-to-Car and
Car-to-Infrastructure Radio Channel Measurements at
5.2 GHz. In: proc. the 18th IEEE International
Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio
Communications (PIMRC), pp. 1-5 (2007).
Zang, Y., Stibor, L., Reumerman, H. J.: An Error Model
for Inter-Vehicle Communications in Highway
Scenarios at 5.9GHz. In: proc. the 2nd ACM
International Workshop on Performance Evaluation of
Wireless Ad-hoc, Sensor, and Ubiquitous Networks
(PE-WASUN 05), Montreal, Quebec, Canada, (2005).
Reichardt, L., Fgen, Th., Zwick, Th.: Influence of
Antennas Placement on Car to Car Communications
Channel. In: proc. the 3rd European Conference on
Antennas and Propagation, pp. 630 634, (2009).
Demuth, H., Beale, M.: Neural Network Toolbox for
Use with MATLAB: Users Guide (v. 4), The
Mathworks, Inc., (2001).
MATLAB On-line Help Documentation.
7 REFERENCES
1.
Car-2Car Communication Consortium website [Online]:

http://www.car-2-car.org, (14.07.2012).
252
Knowledge Systems Applications Based on SW AToM

Ladislav Burita1, Pavel Gardavsky2
Dep.of CIS, Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence, Kounicova 65, Brno, CR
2
AION CS, Ltd., nm. T.G.Masaryka 1280, Zln, Czech Republic
ladislav.burita@unob.cz, pavelg@aion.cz
ABSTRACT
The article presents the knowledge systems developed
by using the software AToM and the experience with
their application for teaching and universities
cooperation. The theoretical bases of the solution are
Topic Maps; the software AToM is described and
individual cases of the knowledge systems are
introduced. The article reflects the years of experience
in the cooperation of the knowledge systems
development with the AION CS Company. Two
examples are presented in detail: Conferences
knowledge system used for education and MilUNI
system for military universities cooperation.
KEYWORDS
Knowledge System, education, university cooperation,
Topic Maps, AToM, MENTAL, MilUNI.
1 INTRODUCTION
via web applications to content management

systems intended for the preparation of new
encyclopaedias. The main advantage of the AToM
environment in terms of encyclopaedia makers is
the repeated use of information for typesetting of
books and creating of web or mobile applications.
1.2 The Project MENTAL
The research defence project Knowledge
Management of the ACR NEC - MENTAL 2
resulted in a Knowledge Management System
(KMS) whose aim was to carry out the analysis
of knowledge approaches, ontologies and
ontology languages, and to assess their suitability
for using them in the Army of the Czech Republic
(ACR); to propose a methodology for knowledge
systems development in the ACR; to elaborate a
knowledge system proposal in the ACR NEC
administration and to implement it. 8
The joint article of the software company

representative, the AToM (Aion Topic Maps
Engine) software (SW) creator, and the
representative from a university environment
presents several years of experience in the
creation of knowledge systems and an indication
of their potential to support teaching and
university cooperation.
First are introduced some examples of using the
software AToM for creating knowledge systems,
which have become the source of our experience
and lessons learned as well as the cornerstone for
further application in the university environment.
Second is given information about SW AToM and
third are described Conferences and MilUNI.
1.3 Laws for People" a New Concept of the

Legal System
1.1 Digital Encyclopaedias
The aim of the knowledge system Military

Universities 4 (MilUNI) is to provide an explicit
platform for the cooperation of military
universities in teaching, research and exchange of
teachers and students.
In the past, encyclopaedias were the carrying

projects of AION CS, Ltd. The most important
Czech encyclopaedias were digitized in the range
of many tens of thousands of pages 1 and were
presented in various forms - from CD versions,
The service Laws for People brings the users the

regulations of the Law Digest of the Czech
Republic in the current consolidated version 3. It
is accessible for free, without registration, with
easy use, simply "for people", yet with many
unique features allowed by the AToM SW
application. The Laws for People was launched in
the summer 2011 and has been visited by
unexpectedly large audience in the Czech and
Slovak Republic.
1.4 The Project MilUNI
253
The system contains information on universities,
their structure and focus, members of universities;
it includes publications from conferences in full
text so that they can be studied or cited by
partners.
1.5 Knowledge System Conferences for
Education Support
The knowledge system Conferences is an
simple system about conferences that is used for
education. The complete methodology developed
in project MENTAL 2 is applied. The steps of
the methodology are father explained.
2 SOFTWARE ATOM
The software AToM, based on Topic Maps (TM)
concept, is briefly characterized, its principles of
operation are described and now some details of
functional possibilities are added in this chapter.
2.1 ISO Standard 13 250: Topic Maps
The TM model consists of the three basic
elements: topic, association between topics, and
occurrences of the topics 5. The TM is
standardized in ISO/IEC 13250:2003.
Each topic represents just one subject and it can
be anything: a person, thing, entity, process, etc..
It is a place in TM where all known information
on the given subject is available by means of
relations and occurrences. Subject is a part of the
real world, which is described in TM.
Associations represent relationships between
topics, are bidirectional, and express unary,
binary, or N-nary relationship between subjects.
Occurrences are formed by information relevant
to a given topic; they can refer to information or
they might just contain it.
2.2 Implementation of TM in AToM SW
One of the goals and benefits of the AToM SW is
to support the implementation of projects of
knowledge
systems,
especially
effective
development of powerful web applications.
This has necessitated some extensions or
specification of the TM standard. Changes in the
processing of occurrences of classes, work with
associations and development of the user
interface, to name some of them.
2.3 Extending Internal Occurrences

A simple set of basic features for TM Internal
Occurrences has been renamed to a Variant type
property. The following data types have been
further complemented:
Code and Ident for the unique
identification of the entity, where
uniqueness is checked directly in the SW.
Group Tree a simple built-in taxonomy.
Taxonomy is the fundamental building
block of knowledge systems; in the TM
standard it is necessary to create them
always from the beginning, which is time
consuming and difficult to maintain.
Selection forms a one-level code list,
applied cardinality 1: N and M: N.
Text this feature allows inserting text
in XHTML; provides the built-in text editor.
Picture, File storage of images and files.
2.4 Extending or Changing Associations
In the definition of associations the following
changes were finalized:
Order (Sort) each association can provide
a structure of embedded occurrences.
Power of relationship in % (Rate), e.g. to
express supplier-consumer relationship.
Hierarchy a special type of association for
Parent-Child relations. This feature is for
example the basis for hierarchical view of
documents related to legislation within the
service Laws for People (see 1.3).
The starting types of the AToM SW
associations are binary associations. Unary
associations are replaced by an extended set
of features; especially Group Tree and
Selection. The main reasons for the use of
N-nary associations are addressed through
Sort, Rate and Hierarchy.
The above mentioned changes in associations are
appropriately reflected in the creation of web
applications in higher performance of applications
and further in saving the lines of code which is
needed for the service.
2.5 AToM Software
AToM is a SW for sharing data with co-workers,
customers, or friends via web browsers. AToM is
a non-programming web database SW that does
254
not require special knowledge. Anyone can easily
construct a knowledge system on the web.
The AToM web database can be used for intranets
with more powerful features than typical shared
spreadsheets like SharePoint or box.com.
It can be used as a construction kit for building
web applications with powerful information
retrieval, and for various encyclopaedias,
dictionaries, knowledge bases in applications
where wiki approaches are not enough.
2.6 How Does It Work?
At first, create ontology of your problem domain
in the Ontology designer module.
Figure 3. Information retrieval through AToM Studio
And after that you are able to work with data,

realize information retrieval (see Figure 3) or even
visualize them, see Figure 4.
AToM Studio and Data Editor are the basic
components of the AToM SW.
Figure 1. Ontology design in AToM
Figure 2. Entering data
You can design the ontology by drawing which is

similar to drawing on a flip board or writing it
through filling in forms and using pre-prepared
templates and adjusting them to your needs (see
Figure 1).
Immediately is possible to enter data through the
forms which are generated on-fly from the
ontology in the Data Editor module, see Figure 2.
Figure 4. Visualizations of information
3 KNOWELEDGE SYSTEM FOR

EDUCATION SUPPORT
The chapter presents the possibilities how to use
the knowledge systems that apply AToM in
learning and education.
The procedure and method of teaching the
knowledge approaches and creation of knowledge
255
systems to students reflects the methodology used
in the project MENTAL.
The sequence of work is based on the mentioned
methodology. Its steps include:
1. Collecting information sources and their
processing utilizing.
2. Clarification of the terms in the area in
focus and verification them regarding the
document base.
3. Ontology classes and associations design
and their verification; the use of VUE SW.
4. Ontology characteristics design and their
assignment to classes.
5. Editing the ontology into the AToM SW
environment.
6. Creating a knowledge base.
At first, the basic concepts and work with
information sources are introduced to students,
and simultaneously, the used SW is described.
The task assignment for student work is
intentionally general and ambiguous, so that the
students have to search their own approach to the
analysis of information sources. For example:
Analyse the information sources of the
conference, produce an overview of the
information systems field, the processing of
knowledge, social networks and communication
systems that were discussed at conferences.
Without any more details stated in the assignment,
the students are expected to carry out analysis of
information sources, and to select the articles that
cover the given field and examine them in detail.
The students are supposed to find the details of
each article (about the authors and their
workplace, research and implementation tasks
carried out, methods and tools used, the results
obtained).
If the students reports on processing the
information sources are not satisfactory, they have
to correct them. At the same time, the students get
familiar with the specific domain, as a preparation
for building the knowledge base.
Consequently, the students are introduced to
knowledge approaches, creating ontology and the
AToM SW environment. The assignment is built
on the previous activity; for example:
Create a knowledge base on the conference;
within the knowledge base, process selected
articles on information systems, knowledge
processing, social networks and communication
systems.
Figure 5. Ontology design on conferences
It results in the ontology design in Visual

Understanding Environment 7 (see Figure 5),
characteristics definition and their assignment to
the classes (see Table 1).
Table 1. Classes and their characteristics
Then the ontology is prepared to implement into

AToM environment and the knowledge base
prepared, see an example in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Ontology and data in the AToM environment
The opportunity of the KMS for the learning

results from its characteristics. The embedded
information and knowledge can be divided into
small parts and connected in a requirement net.
The ontology driven system offers the chance to
study various themes according ontology concepts
(classes). Each occurrence of the class is a starting
point for the new study problem, see Figure 7.
256
The next advantage is complex environment
where it is no problem to add or to change a new
study material.
Figure 7. Various starting points for the study
3 KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM FOR

UNIVERSITIES COOPERATION
The first aim of the knowledge system is to
support the cooperation among NATO Military
Universities and facilitate education and research
of information about the universities members. In
order to fulfil this goal, the content of the system
was built according to a specific organization and
has to respect the following:
Universities and research organizations have
to be related to the NATO countries, then
European Union (EU) countries (nonNATO) and European countries (non-EU).
The domains of interest include many fields
of interest, as Military Science, Engineering,
ICT, Medicine, Social Science, etc.
The universities are linked to the countries
and cities. They highlight international
cooperation among educational institutions
in the EU.
The system contains NATO Centres of
Excellence, Network Enabled Capability
(NEC) events and institutions and is related
to the field of interest.
The main feature of the MilUNI is a user friendly
access to the information about the structure of the
system, its main educational areas, program of the
faculties education, list of departments, research
and conference activities, etc.
3.1 Related Works to MilUNI

A similar example of the military universities
information source is the free encyclopaedia
Wikipedia. On this website, we can find a
heading named Military Academy 6.
The choice done by the system is to sort military
universities by the country. Although this
classification is easy to be executed, it does not
permit the users to find a university by the domain
of study.
The greatest advantage of Wikipedia is the fact
that this encyclopaedia is free and so many people
can add some information about the subject. It
increases clearly the number of inputs into the
information source.
There is a great risk to have erroneous
information, and thus to harm the credibility of the
information source because of the lack of
hierarchy and user role. Wikipedia still remains an
efficient model for obtaining a great quantity of
information; however, we must stay aware that
some of them could be wrong.
It is not difficult to obtain information resources
on universities. Just enter the word university in
the internet search engine and get a number of
results, which are not organized and you can never
be sure that the result is complete.
Another possibility is to find a link to universities
in the national search engine or to search the site
of the Ministry of Education with an overview of
the universities, or find a website with a list of
universities, e.g. http://www.vysokeskoly.com,
where you can search high schools in the Czech
Republic by type, orientation and geographic
location.
All of these references, however, only lead to a
basic overview of the university, mostly with
regard to the needs of future students considering
a university to enrol at; it is not a complex
material supporting collaboration, and moreover,
only in the national environment.
3.2 Ontology of the System
The contents of a knowledge system is defined in
ontology which includes classes with attributes,
relationships among classes, and a set of
occurrences meaning specific contents of the
knowledge system. The MilUNI ontology
contains the following set of classes:
257
UNIVERSITY
Military universities in NATO countries
Other military universities of EU countries
which are not NATO members, and other
military universities in Europe (apart from
the EU countries)
UNIVERSITY-PART
Organizational units of a university
(faculties and departments)
ORGANIZATION
Research organizations
Organizations for NEC
International cooperation (such as
ERASMUS and SOKRATES)
Organizations listed in the CIA World
Factbook
PRODUCT
for example, IS for Command and Control
COUNTRY
World geography
CITY
Location of a university, organization,
conference, ...
PERSON
University staff member, organization,
author of a conference paper, ...
DOCUMENT
A document includes sections and/or text
CONFERENCE
For example, EJC-2012 (European-Japanese
Conference on Information Modeling)
ACTIVITY
All other activities apart from a conference
DOMAIN
Areas of interest of a person, organization,
document, conference, activity)
Figure 8. MilUNI - Schema Editor
Figure 9. MilUNI - Data Editor (set of universities)
3.3 Structure of the System

The system MilUNI consists (based on AToM
SW) of the three frameworks:
1. AToM Studio ontology definition and
update, administration of users, data
manipulation, portal formation,
2. Data Editor for data input and update
3. Knowledge Portal user access
AToM Studio and Data Editor is described in the
Chapter 2. Related to the MilUNI are shown user
interfaces for Schema Editor (see Figure 8), for
Data Editor (see Figure 9 and 10).
Figure 10. MilUNI - Data Editor (class of university)
The Knowledge Portal (KP) covers the system

MilUNI to shield users from details of knowledge
system implementation. The KP is prepared as a
typical portal template that is designed for any
similar type of knowledge systems based on
258
AToM. KP MilUNI is a typical web application
and is available at http://www.atom.miluni.eu/.
The KP consists of 3 types of pages:
1. Title page
2. List page with the result list
3. Detail page
KP includes some menus and boxes for access and
search information. Almost all parts are under
administration in the MilUNI ontology.
Content of the title page is the complete menu and
search boxes with the actualities, see Figure 11.
Figure 13. MilUNI list page (set of universities)
Figure 11. MilUNI title page
The list page includes search result list in the form

that correspond with the current menu choice, see
Figure 12, 13, and 14.
Figure 14. MilUNI list page (universities of the Czech)
Figure 15. MilUNI detail page (University of Defence)
Figure 12. MilUNI list page (universities and country)
The detail page includes information about the

final class occurrence; see Figure 15 (class
university) and Figure 16 (class conference).
3.4 MilUNI-State of Art and Father

Development
The system is composed from the public resources
of nearly 120 universities divided into 250
university parts (Faculties, Departments, etc.) in
40 countries, 130 cities. The domains of interest
are subdivided into domain areas; they are linked
to the conferences and papers.
259
The existing state of the MilUNI system
development is only a starting point for its further
improvement. The primary requirement of such a
system is its acceptance and utilization by users.
The author assumes that this process will take one
to two years. At first, it is necessary to address
colleagues from military universities who have
already shown their interest in mutual
collaboration, and to encourage them to use the
system.
Supposedly, these colleagues will inform their
colleagues, and thus the awareness of the MilUNI
platform for cooperation within military
universities will raise. Naturally, an interest group
will form which will secure the verification and
editing of the existing data about each university,
and then, step by step, they will add further
information to meet the objectives of the
knowledge system. It primarily includes research
activities, publications in scientific journals and at
conferences.
This community will gradually make suggestions
on the improvement of the ontology, and it will
also put forward the requirements for adding other
vital relations.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The article presents a large variety of areas and
ways how the AToM SW was applied while
creating the knowledge-based systems supporting
learning and cooperation between universities. It
also introduces the experience and the best
method how to teach the creation of knowledgebased systems and how to use them in practice.
The created knowledge systems based on the
AToM SW are only at the mere beginning of the
application process, but they convincingly
demonstrate the wide range of application
possibilities.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The article presents the results of the defence
research project MENTAL, results of the project
in the area of eGovernment of the Czech
Republic, and the results of other the research at
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Information Systems.
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Knowledge Management System based on NATO
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ISSN 1802-3525 (2010).
260
Skip Trie Matching: A Greedy Algorithm for RealTime OCR Error Correction on Smartphones
Vladimir Kulyukin
Department of Computer Science
Utah State University
Logan, UT, USA
vladimir.kulyukin@usu.edu
Aditya Vanka
Logan, UT, USA
aditya.vanka@aggiemail.usu.edu
AbstractProactive nutrition management is considered by

many nutritionists and dieticians as a key factor in reducing
diabetes, cancer, and other illnesses caused by mismanaged diets.
As more individuals manage their daily activities with
smartphones, they start using their smartphones as diet
management tools. Unfortunately, while there are many visionbased mobile applications to process barcodes, especially aligned
ones, there is a relative dearth of vision-based applications for
extracting useful nutrition information items such as nutrition
facts, caloric contents, and ingredients. In this article, we present
a greedy algorithm, called Skip Trie Matching (STM), for real time
optical character recognition (OCR) output error correction on
smartphones. The STM algorithm uses a dictionary of strings
stored in a trie data structure to correct OCR errors by skipping
misrecognized characters while driving down several paths in the
trie. The number of skipped characters is referred to as the skip
distance. The algorithms worst-case performance is n , where
n is the length of the input string to spellcheck. The algorithms
performance is compared with Apache Lucenes spell checker
[1], a state of the art spell checker where spell checking can be
done with the n-gram matching [2] or the Levenshtein edit
distance (LED) [3]. The input data for comparison tests are text
strings produced by the Tesserract OCR engine [4] on text image
segments of nutrition data automatically extracted by an Android
2.3.6 smartphone application from real-time video streams of
grocery product packages. The evaluation results indicate that,
while the STM algorithm is greedy in that it does not find all
possible corrections of a misspelled word, it gives higher recalls
than Lucenes n-gram matching or LED. The average run time
of the STM algorithm is also lower than Lucenes
implementations of both algorithms.
Keywordsvision-based nutrition information
nutrition
management,
spellchecking,
optical
recognition, mobile computing
I.
extraction,
character
Introduction
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S.

residents have increased their caloric intake by 523 calories
per day since 1970. Mismanaged diets are estimated to
account for 30-35 percent of cancer cases [5]. Approximately
47,000,000 U.S. residents have metabolic syndrome and
diabetes. Diabetes in children appears to be closely related to
increasing obesity levels. Many nutritionists and dieticians
Haitao Wang
Logan, UT, USA
haitao.wang@usu.edu
consider proactive nutrition management to be a key factor in

reducing and controlling diabetes, cancer, and other illnesses
related to or caused by mismanaged or inadequate diets.
Research and development efforts in public health and
preventive care have resulted in many systems for personal
nutrition and health management. Numerous web sites have
been
developed
to
track
caloric
intake
(e.g.,
http://nutritiondata.self.com), to determine caloric contents
and
quantities
in
consumed
food
(e.g.,
http://www.calorieking.com), and to track food intake and
exercise (e.g., http://www.fitday.com).
Online health informatics portals have also been
developed. For example, theCarrot.com and Keas.com are
online portals where patients can input medical information,
track conditions via mobile devices, and create health
summaries to share with their doctors. Another online portal,
mypreventivecare.com, provides a space where registered
patients and doctors can collaborate around illness prevention.
HealtheMe (http://www.krminc.com/) is an open source,
personal health record (PHR) system at the U.S. Department
of Veterans Affairs focused on preventive care.
Unfortunately, while these existing systems provide many
useful features, they fail to two critical barriers (CRs): CR01:
Lack of automated, real-time nutrition label analysis: nutrition
labels (NLs) have the potential to promote healthy diets.
Unfortunately, many nutrition label characteristics impede
timely detection and adequate comprehension [6], often
resulting in patients ignoring useful nutrition information;
CR02: Lack of automated, real-time nutrition intake
recording: Manual nutrition intake recording, the de facto
state of the art, is time-consuming and error-prone, especially
on smartphones.
As smartphones become universally adopted worldwide,
they can be used as proactive nutrition management tools. One
smartphone sensor that may help address both critical barriers
is the camera. Currently, the smartphone cameras are used in
many mobile applications to process barcodes. There are free
public
online
barcode
databases
(e.g.,
http://www.upcdatabase.com/) that provide some product
descriptions and issuing countries names. Unfortunately,
although the quality of data in public barcode databases has
improved, the data remain sparse. Most product information is
261
provided by volunteers who are assumed to periodically
upload product details and associate them with product IDs,
almost no nutritional information is available and some of it
may not
be reliable. Some applications (e.g.,
http://redlaser.com) provide some nutritional information for a
few popular products.
While there are many vision-based applications to process
barcodes, there continues to be a relative dearth of visionbased applications for extracting other types of useful nutrition
information from product packages such as nutrition facts,
caloric contents, and ingredients. If successfully extracted,
such information can be converted into text or SQL via
scalable optical character recognition (OCR) methods and
submitted as queries to cloud-based sites and services.
In general, there are two broad approaches to improving
OCR quality: improved image processing and OCR engine
error correction. The first approach (e.g., [8], [9]) strives to
achieve better OCR results by improving image processing
algorithms. Unfortunately, this approach may not always be
feasible, especially on mobile off-the-shelf platforms due to
processing and networking constraints on the amount of real
time computation or the technical or financial impracticality of
switching to a different OCR engine. The second approach
treats the OCR engine as a black box and attempts to improve
its quality via automated error correction methods applied to
its output. This approach can work with multiple OCR
engines, because it does not modify the underlying image
processing methods.
This article contributes to the body of research on the
second approach. In particular, we present an algorithm, called
Skip Trie Matching (STM) after the trie data structure on
which it is based, for real time OCR output error correction on
smartphones. The algorithm uses a dictionary of strings stored
in a trie to correct OCR errors by skipping misrecognized
characters while going down specific trie paths. The number
of skipped characters, called the skip distance, is the only
variable input parameter of the algorithm.
The remainder of our article is organized as follows.
Section 2 presents related work. Section 3 discusses the
components of the vision-based nutrition information
extraction (NIE) module of the ShopMobile system [10, 11]
that run prior to the STM algorithm. The material in this
section is not the main focus of this article, and is presented
with the sole purpose of giving the reader the broader context
in which the STM algorithm has been developed and applied.
Section 4 details the STM algorithm and gives its asymptotic
analysis. In Section 5, the STM algorithms performance is
compared with Apache Lucenes n-gram matching [2] and
Levenshtein edit distance (LED) [3]. Section 6 analyzes the
results and outlines several research venues for the future.
II.
Related Work
Many current R&D efforts aim to utilize the power of mobile

computing to improve proactive nutrition management. In
[12], the research is presented that shows how to design
mobile applications for supporting lifestyle changes among
individuals with Type 2 diabetes and how these changes were
perceived by a group of 12 patients during a 6-month period.

In [13], an application is presented that contains a picturebased diabetes diary that records physical activity and photos
taken with the phone camera of eaten foods. The smartphone
is connected to a glucometer via Bluetooth to capture blood
glucose values. A web-based, password-secured and encrypted
SMS is provided to users to send messages to their care
providers to resolve daily problems and to send educational
messages to users.
The nutrition label (NL) localization algorithm outlined in
Section 3 is based on vertical and horizontal projections used
in many OCR applications. For example, in [9], projections
are used to detect and recognize Arabic characters. The text
chunking algorithm, also outlined in Section 3, builds on and
complements numerous mobile OCR projects that capitalize
on the ever increasing processing capabilities of smartphone
cameras. For example, in [14], a system is presented for
mobile OCR on mobile phones. In [15], an interactive system
is described for text recognition and translation.
The STM algorithm detailed in Section 4 contributes to a
large and rapidly growing body of research on automated spell
checking, an active research area of computational linguistics
since early 1960s (see [16] for a comprehensive survey).
Spelling errors can be broadly classified as non-word errors
and real-word errors [17]. Non-word errors are character
sequences returned by OCR engines but not contained in the
spell checkers dictionary. For example, polassium is a nonword error if the spell checkers dictionary contains only
potassium. Real-word errors occur when recognized words
spelled correctly but inappropriate in the current context. For
example, if the OCR engine recognizes nutrition facts as
nutrition fats, the string fats is a real-word error in that it is
correctly spelled but inappropriate in the current context.
Real-word error correction is beyond the scope of this paper.
Many researchers consider this problem to be much more
difficult than non-word error recognition and require natural
language processing and AI techniques [2].
Two well-known approaches that handle non-word errors
are n-grams and edit distances [2, 3]. The n-gram approach
breaks dictionary words into sub-sequences of characters of
length n, i.e., n-grams, where n is typically set to 1, 2, or 3. A
table is computed with the statistics of n-gram occurrences.
When a word is checked for spelling, its n-grams are
computed and, if an n-gram is not found, spelling correction is
applied. To find spelling suggestions, spelling correction
methods use various similarity criteria between the n-grams of
a dictionary word and the misspelled word.
The term edit distance denotes the minimum number of
edit operations such as insertions, deletions, and substitutions
required to transform one string into another. Two popular edit
distances are Levenshtein [3] and Damerau-Levenshtein
distance [18]. The Levenshtein distance (LED) is a minimum
cost sequence of single-character replacement, deletion, and
insertion operations required to transform a source string into
a target string. The Damerau-Levenshtein distance (DLED)
extends the LEDs set of operations with the operation of
swapping adjacent characters, called transposition. The DLED
is not as widely used in OCR as the LED, because a major
source of transposition errors are typography errors whereas
most OCR errors are caused by misrecognized characters with
262
similar graphic features (e.g., t misrecognized as l or u as
ll). Another frequent OCR error type, which does not yield
to correction by transposition, is character omission from a
word when the OCR engine fails to recognize it or merges it
with the previous character (e.g., the letter i with a missing
dot is merged with the following letter k when k is placed
close to i).
III.
NFT Localization & Text Segmentation
The objective of this section is to give the reader a better

appreciation of the broader context in which the STM
algorithm is applied by outlining the nutrition information
extraction (NIE) module that runs prior to the STM algorithm.
The NIE module is a module of the Persuasive NUtrion
System (PNUTS), a mobile vision-based nutrition
management system for smartphone users currently under
development at the Utah State University (USU) Computer
Science Assistive Technology Laboratory (CSATL) [10, 11,
19]. The system will enable smartphone users, both sighted
and visually impaired, to specify their dietary profiles securely
on the web or in the cloud. When they go shopping, they will
use their smartphones to extract nutrition information from
product packages with their smartphones cameras. The
extracted information is not limited to barcodes but also
includes nutrition facts such as calories, saturated fat, sugar
content, cholesterol, sodium, potassium, carbohydrates,
protein, and ingredients.
The development of PNUTS has been guided by the Fogg
Behavior Model (FBM) [23]. The FBM states that motivation
alone is insufficient to stimulate target behavior; a motivated
patient must have both the ability to execute the behavior and
a trigger to engage in that behavior at an appropriate place and
time. Many nutrition management system designers assume
that patients are either more skilled than they actually are, or
that they can be trained to have the required skills. Since
training can be difficult and time consuming, PNUTSs
objective is to make target behaviors easier and more intuitive
to execute.
A. Vertical and Horizontal Projections
Images captured from the smartphones video stream are
divided into foreground and background pixels. Foreground
pixels are content-bearing units where content is defined in a
domain-dependent manner, e.g., black pixels, white pixels,
pixels with specific luminosity levels, specific neighborhood
connectivity patterns, etc. Background pixels are those that are
not foreground. Horizontal projection of an image (HP) is a
sequence of foreground pixel counts for each row in an image.
Vertical projection of an image (VP) is a sequence of
foreground pixel counts for each column in an image. Figure 1
shows horizontal and vertical projections of a black and white
image of three characters ABC.
Figure 1. Horizontal & Vertical Projections.
Suppose there is an m x n image I where foreground pixels

are black, i.e., I x, y 0, and the background pixels are
white, i.e., I x, y 255. Then the horizontal projection of
row y and the vertical projection of column x can defined as
f y and g x , respectively:
f y x 0 255 I x, y ;
n 1
(1)
g x y 0 255 I x, y .
m 1
For the discussion that follows it is important to keep in

mind that the vertical projections are used for detecting the
vertical boundaries of NFTs while the horizontal projections
are used in computing the NFTs horizontal boundaries.
B. Horizontal Line Filtering
In detecting NFT boundaries, three assumptions are made: 1) a
NFT is present in the image; 2) the NFT is not cropped; and 3)
the NFT is horizontally or vertically aligned. Figures 2 shows
horizontally and vertically aligned NFTs. The detection of
NFT boundaries proceeds in three stages. Firstly, the first
approximation of vertical boundaries is computed. Secondly,
the vertical boundaries are extended left and right. Thirdly, the
upper and lower horizontal boundaries are computed.
The objective of the first stage is to detect the approximate
location of the NFT along the horizontal axis xs' , xe' . This
approximation starts with the detection of horizontal lines in
the image, which is accomplished with a horizontal line
detection kernel (HLDK) described in our previous
publications [19]. It should be noted that other line detection
techniques (e.g., Hough transform [20]) can be used for this
purpose. Our HLDK is designed to detect large horizontal
lines in images to maximize computational efficiency. On
rotated images, the kernel is used to detect vertical lines. The
left image of Figure 3 gives the output of running the HLDK
filter on the left image of Figure 2.
263
Figure 2. Vertically & Horizonally Aligned Tables.
Figure 4. VB Extension (left); HP of Left HFLI in

Fig. 2 (right).
Figure 3. HLFI of Fig. 2 (left); its VP (right).
C. Detection of Vertical Boundaries

Let HLFI be a horizontally line filtered image, i.e., the image
put through the HLDK filter or some other line detection filter.
Let VPHLFI be the vertical projections of white pixels in
each column of HLFI. The right image in Figure 3 shows the
vertical projection of the HLFI on the left. Let VP be a
threshold, which in our application is set to the mean count of
the white foreground pixels in columns. In Figure 3 (right),
VP is shown by a red line. The foreground pixel counts in the
columns of the image region with the NFT are greater than the
threshold. The NFT vertical boundaries are then computed as:
x min c | g x c VP ;
'
l
(2)
xr' max c | g x c VP & xl' c .

The pairs of the left and right boundaries detected by (2) may
be too close to each other, where too close is defined as the
percentage of the image width covered by the distance
between the right and left boundaries. If the boundaries are
found to be too close to each other, the left boundary is
extended left of the current left boundary, for which the
projection is at or above the threshold, whereas the right
boundary is extended to the first column right of the current
right boundary, for which the vertical projection is at or above
the threshold. Figure 4 (left) shows the initial vertical
boundaries extended left and right.
D. Detection of Horizontal Boundaries

The NFT horizontal boundary computation is confined to the
image region vertically bounded by xl , xr . Let HPHLFI
be the horizontal projection of the HLFI in Figure 3 (left) and
let HP be a threshold, which in our application is set to the
mean count of the foreground pixels in rows, i.e.,
HP mean f y | f y 0. Figure 4 (right) shows the
horizontal projection of the HLFI in Figure 3 (left). The red
line shows HP .
The NFTs horizontal boundaries are computed in a
manner similar to the computation of its vertical boundaries
with one exception they are not extended after the first
approximation is computed, because the horizontal boundaries
do not have as much impact on subsequent OCR of segmented
text chunks as vertical boundaries. The horizontal boundaries
are computed as:
(3)
r min r | f r ;
u
HP
rl max r | f r HP & r ru .
Figure 5 (left) shows the nutrition table localized via

vertical and horizontal projections and segmented from the
image in Figure 2 (left).
E. Text Chunking
A typical NFT includes text chunks with various caloric and
ingredient information, e.g., Total Fat 2g 3%. As can be
seen in Figure 5 (left), text chunks are separated by black
colored separators. These text chunks are segmented from
localized NFTs. This segmentation is referred to as text
chunking.
264
Figure 5. Localized NL (left); NL Text Chunks (right).
Text chunking starts with the detection of the separator

lines. Let N be a binarized image with a segmented NFT and
let pi denote the probability of image row i containing a
black separator. If such probabilities are reliably computed,
text chunks can be localized. Toward that end, let l j be the
length of the j-th consecutive run of black pixels in row i
above a length threshold l . If m be the total number of such
runs, then pi is computed as the geometric mean of
l0 , l1 ,..., lm . The geometric mean is more indicative of the
central tendency of a set of numbers than the arithmetic mean.
If is the mean value of all positive values normalized by
the maximum value of pi for the entire image, the start and
end coordinates, y s and y e , respectively, of every separator
along the y axis can be computed by detecting consecutive
rows for which the normalized values are above the threshold:
y s i | pi 1 & pi ;
On many mobile platforms the trie has been used for word
completion. The STM algorithm is based on an observation
that the tries efficient storage of strings can be used in finding
closest dictionary matches to misspelled words. The only
parameter that controls the algorithms behavior is the skip
distance, a non-negative integer that defines the maximum
number of misrecognized (misspelled) characters allowed in a
misspelled word. In the current implementation, misspelled
words are produced by the Tesseract OCR engine. However,
the algorithm generalizes to other domains where spelling
errors must be corrected fast.
The STM algorithm uses the trie to represent the target
dictionary. For example, consider a trie dictionary in Figure 6
that (moving left to right) consists of ABOUT, ACID,
ACORN, BAA, BAB, BAG, BE, OIL, and ZINC.
The small balloons at character nodes are Boolean flags that
signal word ends. When a nodes word end flag is true, the
path from the root to the node is a word. The children of each
node are lexicographically sorted so that finding a child
character of a node is Olog n, where n is the number of the
nodes children.
Suppose that skip distance is set to 1 and the OCR engine
misrecognizes ACID as ACIR. The STM starts at the root
node, as shown in Figure 7. For each child of the root, the
algorithm checks if the first character of the input string
matches any of the roots children. If no match is found and
the skip distance > 0, the skip distance is decremented by 1
and the recursive calls are made for each of the roots
children. In this case, A in the input matches the roots A
child. Since the match is successful, a recursive call is made
on the remainder of the input CIR and the root nodes A
child at Level 1 as the current node, as shown in Figure 8.
(4)
ye j | p j 1 & p j .
Once these coordinates are identified, the text chunks can
be segmented from the image. As can be seen from Figure 5
(right), some text chunks contain single text lines while others
have multiple text lines. The actual OCR in the ShopMobile
system [19] takes place on the text chunk images such as
shown in Figure 5 (right).
IV.
Skip Trie Matching
The trie data structure has gained popularity on mobile

platforms due to its space efficiency compared to the standard
hash table and its efficient worst-case lookup times,
On , where n is the length of the input string, not the number
of entries in the data structure. This performance compares
favorably to the hash table that spends the same amount of
time on computing the hash code but requires significantly
more storage space.
Figure 6. Simple Trie Dictionary.

The algorithm next matches C of the truncated input
CIR with the right child of the current node A at Level 1,
truncates the input to IR, and recurses to the node C at
Level 2, i.e., the right child of the node A at Level 1. The
skip distance is still 1, because no mismatched characters have
been skipped so far.
265
Figure 10. End Position Errors along X-axis.
Figure 7. STM of 'ACIR' with Skip Distance of 1.
Figure 8. Recursive Call from Node 'A' at Level 1.
At the node C at Level 2, the character I of the

truncated input IR is matched with the left child of the node
C, the input, i.e., the node I, is therefore truncated to R.
The algorithm recurses to the node I at Level 3, as shown in
Figure 9. The last character of the input string, R, is next
matched with the children of the current node I at Level 3
(see Figure 10). The binary search on the nodes children fails.
However, since the skip distance is 1, i.e., one more character
can still be skipped, the skip distance is decremented by 1.
Since there are no more characters in the input string after the
mismatched R, the algorithm checks if the current node has a
word end flag set to true. In this case, it is true, because the
end word flag at the node D at Level 4 is set to true. Thus,
the matched word, ACID, is added to the returned list of
suggestions. When the skip distance is 0 and the current node
is not a word end, the algorithm fails, i.e., the current path is
not added to the returned list of spelling suggestions.
Figure 12 gives the pseudocode of the STM algorithm. The
dot operator is used with the semantics common to many OOP
languages to denote access to objects member variable. The
colon denotes after the IF condition signals the start of the
THEN clause for that condition. Python-like indentation is
used to denote scope. Lines 1 computes the length of the
possibly misspelled input string object stored in the variable
inputStr. Line 2 initializes an array of string objects called
suggestionList. When the algorithm finishes, suggestionList
contains all found corrections of inputString.
The first call to the STM function occurs on Line 3. The
first parameter is inputStr; the second parameter d is a skip
distance; the third parameter curNode is a trie node object
initially referencing the tries root; the fourth parameter
suggestion is a string that holds the sequence of characters
from the tries root curNode. Found suggestions are added to
suggestionList on Line 10.
Let len(inputStr) = n and d = d. The largest branching
factor of a trie node is
Edit Distance:
Figure 9. Recursive call at node 'I' at Level 3.
, i.e., the size of the alphabet over
which the trie is built. If inputStr is in the trie, the binary

search on line 14 runs exactly once for each of the n
characters, which gives us On log . If inputStr is not in the
trie, it is allowed to contain at most d character mismatches.
266
Thus, there are n d matches and d mismatches. All matches
V. Experiments
run in On d log . In the worst case, for each mismatch,
lines 18-19 ensure that
nodes are inspected, which gives
us the run time of O n d log O n log . The

worst case rarely occurs in practice because in a trie built for a
natural language most nodes have branching factors equal to a
small fraction of the constant . Since d N is a small nonnegative
constant,
O n log On .
d
Since
1. inputLength = len(intpuStr)
2. suggestionList = [ ]
3. STM(inputStr, d, curNode, suggestion):
4. IF len(inputStr) == 0 || curNode == NULL: fail
5. IF len(inputStr) == 1:
6.
IF inputStr[0] == curNode.char || d > 0:
7.
add curNode.char to suggestion
8.
IF len(suggestion) == inputLength &&
9.
curNode.wordEnd == True:
10.
add suggestion to suggestionList
11. ELSE IF len(inputStr) > 1:
12.
IF inputStr[0] == curNode.char:
13.
add curNode.char to suggestion
14.
nextNode = binSearch(inputStr[1], curNode.chidren)
15.
IF nextNode != NULL:
16.
STM(rest(inputStr), d, nextNode, suggestion)
17.
ELSE IF d > 0:
18.
FOR each node C in curNode.children:
19.
add C.char to suggestion
20.
STM(rest(inputStr), d-1, C, suggestion)
21.
ELSE fail
Figure 11. STM Algorithm.
and log are small constants for the natural languages

d
with written scripts, the STM algorithm is asymptotically

expected to run faster than the quadratic edit distance
algorithms and to be on par with n-gram algorithms.
Two current limitations of the STM algorithm, as is evident
from Figure 11, are 1) that it finds spelling suggestions that
are of the same length as inputStr (Line 8) and 2) that it does
not find all possible misspellings of a misspelled word because
of its greedy selection of the next node in the trie (Lines 14
16).
Both limitations were deliberately added into the algorithm
to increase the run-time performance. In Section VI, we will
discuss how these limitations can be addressed and possible
overcome. In particular, the second limitation can be
overcome by having the algorithm perform a breadth-first
search of the current nodes children instead of selecting only
one child that matches the current character. While this
modification will not chance the asymptotic performance, it
will, in practice, increase the running time.
A. Tesseract vs. GOCR

Our first experiment was to choose an open source OCR
engine to test the STM algorithm. We chose to compare the
relative performance of Tesseract with GOCR [22], another
open source OCR engine developed under the GNU public
license. In Tesseract, OCR consists of segmentation and
recognition. During segmentation, a connected component
analysis first identifies blobs and segments them into text
lines, which are analyzed for proportional or fixed pitch text.
The lines are then broken into individual words via spacing
between individual characters. Finally, individual character
cells are identified. During recognition, an adaptive classifier
recognizes both word blobs and character cells. The classifier
is adaptive in that it can be trained on various text corpora.
GOCR preprocesses images via box-detection, zoning, and
line detection. OCR is done on boxes, zones, and lines via
pixel pattern analysis.
The available funding for this project did not allow us to
integrate a commercial OCR engine into our application. For
the sake of completeness, we should mention two OCR
engines that have become popular in the OCR community.
ABBYY [24] offers a powerful and compact mobile OCR
engine which can be integrated within various mobile
platforms such as iOS, Android, Windows mobile platforms.
Another company called WINTONE [25] claims that its
mobile OCR software can achieve recognition accuracy to the
tune of 95 percent for English documents.
The experimental comparison of the two open source
engines was guided by speed and accuracy. An Android 2.3.6
application was developed and tested on two hundred images
of NL text chunks, some of which are shown in Figure 5
(right).
After the application starts, it first app creates necessary
temporary directories and output files, it also ensures the
presence of necessary training files for Tesseract on the
sdcard. Both the modified Otsus method and modified
Niblacks method of binarization [26] are applied to each
image read from the input image directory on the sdcard.
These binarized images are stored in the binary images
directory. All three images (the input image and the two
binarized images) are subjected to OCRed either on the device
itself or on the server. The recognized text is obtained and is
subjected to spelling correction. Finally the processed text is
both saved to a text file.
Each image was processed with both Tesseract and GOCR,
and the processing times were logged for each text chunk. The
images were read from the smartphones sdcard one by one.
The image read time was not integrated into the run time total.
The Android application was designed and developed to
operate in two modes: device and server. In the device mode,
everything was computed on the smartphone. In the server
mode, the HTTP protocol was used to send the images over
Wi-Fi from the device to an Apache web server running on
Ubuntu 12.04. Images sent from the Android application were
handled by a PHP script that ran one of the OCR engines on
the server, captured the extracted text and sent it back to the
application. Returned text messages were saved on the
267
smartphones sdcard and later categorized by a human judge
into three categories: complete, partial, and garbled.
The three categorizes were meant to estimate the degree of
recognition. Complete recognition denoted images where the
text recognized with OCR was identical to the text in the
image. For partial recognition, at least one character in the
returned text had to be missing or inaccurately substituted. For
garbled recognition, either empty text was returned or all
characters in the returned text were misrecognized. Table 1
gives the results of the OCR engine text recognition
comparison. The abbreviations TD, GD, TS, and GS stand for
Tesseract Device, GOCR Device, Tesseract Server, and
GOCR Server, respectively. Each cell contains the exact
number of images out of 200 in a specific category.
Table 1. Tesseract vs. GOCR (%).
Complete
Partial
Garbled
TD
146
36
18
GD
42
23
135
TS
158
23
19
GS
58
56
90
The percentages in Table 1 indicate that the recognition
rates on Tesseract are higher than those on GOCR. Tesseract
also compared favorably with GOCR in the garbled category
where its numbers were lower than those of GOCR.
To evaluate the runtime performance of both engines, we
ran the application in both modes on the same sample of 200
images five times. Table 2 tabulates the rounded processing
times and averages in seconds. The numbers 1 through 5 are
the run numbers. The AVG column contains the average time
of the five runs. The AVG/Img column contains the average
time per individual image.
can be further optimized through server-side servlets and

faster image transmission channels (e.g., 4G instead of Wi-Fi).
After we performed these experiments, we discovered that we
could get even better accuracy from the Tesseract OCR engine
through the character whitelist and blacklist options.
Whitelisting characters will limit the set of characters for
which Tesseract looks. Blacklisting on the other hand instructs
Tesseract not to look for certain characters in the image. A list
of frequent NL characters was manually prepared and used for
whitelisting after the experiments. Further evaluation is
necessary to verify the conjecture that whitelisting improves
accuracy.
B. STM vs. Apache Lucenes N-Grams and LED
After Tesseract was chosen as the base OCR engine, the
performance of the STM algorithm was compared with the
Apache Lucene implementation of n-gram matching and the
LED. Each of the three algorithms worked on the text strings
produced by the Tesseract OCR running on Android 2.3.6 and
Android 4.2 smartphones on a collection of 600 text segment
images produced by the algorithm described in Section IV.
Figure 12 shows the exact control flow of the application used
in the tests.
Table 2. Run Times (in secs) of Tesseract & GOCR.

1
2
3
4
5
AVG AVG/Img
TD
128
101
101
110
103
110
0.5
GD
50
47
49
52
48
49
0.3
TS
40
38
38
10
39
38
0.2
GS
21
21
20
21
21
21
0.1
Table 2 shows no significant variation among the

processing times of individual runs. The AVG column
indicates that Tesseract was slower than GOCR on the sample
of images. The difference in run times can be attributed to the
amount of text recognized by each engine. Since GOCR
extracts less information than Tesseract, as indicated in Table
1, its running times are faster. Tesseract, on the other hand,
extracts much more accurate information from most images,
which causes it to take more time. While the combined run
times of Tesseract were slower than those of GOCR, the
average run time per frame, shown in the AVG/Img column,
were still under one second. Tessaracts higher recognition
rates swayed our final decision in its favor. Additionally, as
Table 2 shows, when the OCR was done on the server,
Tesseracts run times, while still slower than GOCR, were
faster, which made it more acceptable to us. This performance
Figure 12. Application Flowchart.

Android applications cannot execute long-running
operations on the UI Thread. The application force-closes if an
operation takes more than 5 seconds while running on the UI
Thread. Since in our application we have some long-running
operations such as OCR processing, and network
communication, we have used the Pipeline Thread model. The
Pipeline Thread holds a queue of some units of work that can
be executed. Other threads can push new tasks into the
Pipeline Threads queue as new tasks become available. The
Pipeline Thread processes the tasks in the queue one after
another. If there are no tasks in the queue, it blocks until a new
task is added to the queue. On the Android platform, this
design pattern can be easily implemented using the Loopers
and Handlers. A Looper class makes a thread into a pipeline
268
thread and a Handler makes it easier to push tasks into a
Looper from other threads.
The Lucene n-gram and edit distance matching algorithms
find possible correct spellings of misspelled words. The ngram distance algorithm divides a misspelt word into chunks
of size n (n defaults to 2) and compares them to a dictionary of
n-grams, each of which points to the words in which they are
found. A word with the largest number of matched n-grams is
a possible spelling of a misspelled word. If m is the number of
n-grams found in a misspelled word and K is the number of ngrams in a dictionary, the time complexity of the n-gram
matching is O(Km). Since the standard LED uses dynamic
programming, its time complexity is O(n2), where n is the
maximum of the lengths of two strings being matched. If there
are m entries in a dictionary, the run time of the LED
algorithm is O(mn2).
In comparing the performance of the STM algorithm with
the n-gram matching and the LED, time and accuracy were
used as performance metrics. The average run time taken by
the STM algorithm, the n-gram matching, and the LED
distance are 20 ms, 50 ms, and 51 ms, respectively. The
performance of each algorithm was evaluated on non-word
error correction with the recall measure computed as the ratio
of corrected and misspelled words. The recall coefficients of
the STM, n-gram matching, and the LED were 0.15, 0.085,
and 0.078, respectively. Table 3 gives the run-time and the
corresponding recalls.
Table 3. Performance Comparision.
STM
N-Gram
Run Time
25ms
51ms
51ms
Recall
15%
9%
8%
VI.
LED
Discussion
In this paper, we presented an algorithm, called Skip Trie

Matching (STM), for real time OCR output error correction on
smartphones and compared its performance with the n-gram
matching and the LED. The experiments on the sample of over
600 texts extracted by the Tesseract OCR engine from the NL
text images show that the STM algorithm ran faster, which is
predicted by the asymptotic analysis, and corrected more
words than the n-gram matching and the LED.
One current limitation of the STM algorithm is that it can
correct a misspelled word so long as there is a target word in
the trie dictionary of the same length. One possible way to
address this limitation is to relax the exact length comparison
on Line 8 in the STM algorithm given in Figure 8. This will
increase the recall but will also increase the run time. Another
approach, which may be more promising in the long run, is
example-driven human-assisted learning [2]. Each OCR
engine working in a given domain is likely to misrecognize
the same characters consistently. For example, we have
noticed that Tesseract consistently misrecognized u as ll or
b as 8. Such examples, if consistently classified by human
judges as misrecognition examples, can be added by the
system to add to a dictionary of regular misspellings. In a
subsequent run, when the Tesseract OCR engine
misrecognizes potassium and as potassillm, the STM

algorithm, when failing to find a possible suggestion on the
original input, will replace all regularly misspelled characters
in the input with their misspellings. Thus, ll in potassill
will be replaced with u to obtain potassium and get a
successful match.
Another limitation of the STM algorithm is that does not
find all possible corrected spellings of a misspelled word. To
make it find all possible corrections, the algorithm can be
forced to examine all nodes even when it finds a successful
match on line 12. Although it will likely take a toll on the
algorithms run time, the worst case asymptotic run time,
O n log On, remains the same.

d
An experimental contribution of this research presented in

this article is an experimental comparison of Tesseract and
GOCR, two popular open source OCR engines, for visionbased nutrition information extraction. GOCR appears to
extract less information than Tesseract but has faster run
times. While the run times of Tesseract were slower, its higher
recognition rates swayed our final decision in its favor. The
run-time performance, as indicated in Tables 1 and 2, can be
further optimized through server-side servlets and faster image
transmission channels (e.g., 4G instead of Wi-Fi).
Our ultimate objective is to build a mobile system that can
not only extract nutrition information from product packages
but also to match the extracted information to the users
dietary profiles and to make dietary recommendations to effect
behavior changes. For example, if a user is pre-diabetic, the
system will estimate the amount of sugar from the extracted
ingredients and will make specific recommendations to the
user. The system, if the users so choose, will keep track of
their long-term buying patterns and make recommendations on
a daily, weekly or monthly basis. For example, if a user
exceeds his or her total amount of saturated fat permissible for
the specified profile, the system will notify the user and, if the
users profile has appropriate permissions, the users dietician.
Acknowledgment
This project has been supported, in part, by the MDSC
Corporation. We would like to thank Dr. Stephen Clyde,
MDSC President, for supporting our research and
championing our cause.
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270
Optimum Vdbscan(O-VDBSCAN) For Identifying Downtown Areas
Wei Wang
International School, Beijing University of Posts
and Telecommunications
Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, BUPT
Beijing, China
Email: WW100ANG@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Clustering is an important part of data mining
techniques, and VDBSCAN is a well-known
density-based one. VDBSCAN is robust against noise
and can recognize arbitrary shapes of clusters. Besides,
it works effectively when dealing with datasets with
varying densities. A main drawback of VDBSCAN is
that it still requires a user-specified parameter K. An
inappropriate choice of K can seriously degrade the
accuracy of results. So in this paper we propose a
totally parameter-free algorithm, OVDBSCAN, to find
the global optimum K automatically, using the concept
of derivative. The basic idea of OVDBSCAN is
regarding
as the derivative of k-dist, which
means the distance between an object and the kth
nearest object of it. Then it chooses the largest K on
condition that
oesnt excee the threshol we
set. In OVDBSCAN, the determination of K is based
on the distances among objects within a dataset, thus
the generated K reflects the property of this dataset.
Weve applie OVDBSCAN to a two-dimensional
sample dataset, and the result shows that it can identify
dense areas of varying densities.
KEYWORDS
Data mining; Clustering algorithm; VDBSCAN;
Downtown area; Derivative
*Shuang Zhou, Qingqing Xiao

School of Software Engineering, Beijing
University of Posts and Telecommunications
Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, BUPT
Beijing, China
Email: zhoushuang924@hotmail.com
stored in various databases. Clustering is a major

part of data mining. It can divide data objects into
groups in a wa y that maximizes intragroup
similarity and minimizes intergroup similarity.
There are four basic clustering techniques,
partitioning methods, hierarchical methods,
density-based methods and grid-based methods 0.
Clustering can be used to address a variety of real
world problems, and different methods are
appropriate to different ones.
What we are addressing in this paper is problem of
downtown area identification. The distribution of
downtown areas can be of great business value, as
it can be the basis of lots of business analysis. In
electronic maps, any place worth notice is
identified as a POI (point of interest). It can be a
restaurant, a store, a railway station, a building in a
university and so on. The areas in which POIs are
very dense are more likely to be prosperous, thus
they can be identified as downtown areas. So what
we need to do is to recognize the dense areas,
namely, clusters.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In
section 2 well present some previous wor that
helps understand the work proposed in this paper.
The proposed work is discussed in Section 3. A
simulated application of our work on a sample
dataset is provided in Section 4. Finally a
conclusion is given in Section 5.
INTRODUCTION
2
Data mining is becoming a very active field

nowadays, due to the growing volume of data
PREVIOUS WORK
2.1 DBSCAN Algorithm

271
VDBSCAN was proposed on the basis of
DBSCAN, so before we introduce VDBSCAN, we
have to look into DBSCAN. DBSCAN is a
density-based clustering algorithm which finds
core objects and connects them to their
neighborhoods iteratively to form dense regions,
that is, clusters. The two user-specified parameters,
Eps (short for Epsilon), which means the radius of
a neighborhood we consider for every object, and
MinPts, which means the density threshold, are
crucial in etermining the results accuracy.
DBSCAN works as follows.
Finds the objects that have at least MinPts
objects within their -neighborhood and
marks them as core objects[1,2].
The objects within at least one core objects
-neighborhood are regarded as border
objects.
Objects that are not within any core objects
-neighborhood are marked as outliers and
they are disposed of once recognized.
Any core objects that share one or more
objects within their -neighborhoods are
called connected. Each group of connected
core objects merge into a separate cluster.
All border objects are assigned to the
clusters that contain their associated core
objects [2].
Although DBSCAN has been widely applied, there
are two problems with it. The parameters affect the
result significantly. If the threshold is too low,
some unnatural clusters may be formed, if it's too
high, some natural clusters would be left out[3].
More importantly, because of the fixed parameters
MinPts and Eps, it can't deal with datasets with
clusters that have varying densities.
2.2 VDBSCAN Algorithm
To address the second problem, D. ZHOU and P.
LIU proposed VDBSCAN (Varied DBSCAN) in
2009[4]. VDBSCAN provides a set of different
Eps for a user-specified K (or MinPts) that can
recognize clusters with varying density. Before we
look into VDBSCAN, we have to explain the
concept of k-dist0: The k-dist of an object means
the distance between this object and the kth nearest

object of it. Now we briefly describe the way
VDBSCAN works[4,5].
Calculates and stores the k-dist of all
objects.
Determine the number of densities
according to the k-dist plot.
Choose
Apply DBSCAN with each
psi intuitively for each density.

psi to get
clusters of varying densities.

VDBSCAN can automatically choose
psi based
on the atasets inherent property, hence it

efficiently reduces the inaccuracy caused by
inappropriate Eps selection.
3
OUR PROPOSED METHOD
3.1 Motivation
VDBSCAN is a great choice when dealing with
downtown area identification problems. In reality,
owntown areas scales vary greatly, an typically
it makes clustering much more difficult. But
luckily, VDBSCAN can recognize clusters with
different densities. Besides, it is robust against
noise, so that areas with scarce POIs are neglected.
However, its still not a perfect choice.
Although VDBSCAN has successfully proposed a
method for the Eps selection, it still requires users
to specify K (or MinPts). And different selection of
K almost certainly leads to different clustering
result. So in OVDBSCAN, we propose a solution
to the problem of K selection.
Firstly, take a look at the sample dataset shown in
Fig.1. Lets say object p is in the small cluster
surroun e by the re circle. Now we consi er ps
k-dist. When K=3, the K-dist is
, when K
increases to 4, the K-dist becomes 2 . The
difference
. But when K increases
2
to 5, the K-dist of p suddenly rises to , the
difference becomes
2 , which is
much larger than
. So for object p, 3 and 4
would be valid K selections, because they basically
272
represent the density of that cluster. However, 5 is
not a good K selection, because the corresponding
K-dist cannot correctly indicate the density of that
cluster. So we can conclude that sudden rises of
are likely to suggest the edge of clusters.
Note that here K=4 is better than K=3, because a
larger K within the valid domain leads to a better
clustering result[4].
Fig.1 Sample of relation between K and K-dist when p is in

a cluster
We can summarize that when

suddenly
increases sharply as K increases by degrees,
chances are that the Kth nearest neighborhood of
object j is now on the edge of the cluster where
object j is in, just as the sample in Fig.1 suggests.
So this K-dist can indicate the density of the
cluster most precisely. In other word,
can
indicate the size of natural clusters.
OVDBSCAN makes perfect use of this property of
. It has four steps.
Calculates and stores k-dists of all objects
for every k in a given domain (initial
domain).
Calculates the overall change rate of k-dist
(as outliers wont affect the appearance,
therere no nee to remove them because
that would lower the efficiency):
Now lets see what will happen if the object p is an

outlier. In Fig.2 we show the object p and the
nearest cluster of it. We can see that although
and
are all pretty large, yet theyre
2
very close. This means that
should be very
smooth without any sudden rises. So, when we
take all the objects into consideration, outliers
wont affect the general appearance of su en
rises.
4
Fig.2 Sample of relation between K and K-dist when p is an
outlier
3.2 Steps of OVDBSCAN

First of all, we define an initial domain for possible
Ks. The initial domain specifies the scope we
consider. Also we assume that K only increases in
the granularity of 1. Then we can use variable
to represent the change rate of k-dist. We define
that
(1)
where
(2)
in which n stands for the number of objects

in this dataset.
Finds the first
that exceeds the defined
threshold. Here the threshold is usually
determined by the calculated values of all
.
Apply VDBSCAN with the k selected in (3)
on the dataset.
APPLICATION OF OVDBSCAN
In order to corroborate that OVDBSCAN works,

we need to simulate the whole process. We choose
an area in which there are 20 POIs as our sample
dataset, and each POI will be treated as an object.
This experiment is implemented with JAVA
language.
The dataset objects are shown in Fig.3 (The
coordinates have been normalized). According to
the appearance of objects, we can easily tell that a
good algorithm should recognize the upper-left
cluster and the upper-right cluster, and recognize
the three objects in the right bottom as noise.
represents the k-dist of object j.

273
on the dataset with the K selected to generate
Eps(s). The k-dist plot of this dataset when k=5 is
given in Fig.5. The two sharp rises, 12 to 14, and
17 to 18, indicate[3] that two densities can be
intuitively recognized (the one in the end is caused
by an outlier). So 0.1178 and 0.2995 are selected
as Eps[4].
Fig.3 Sample dataset containing 20 objects
4.1 Obtaining The Value Of K

For this dataset, we define the initial domain of K
as [1, 10], that is, K= , 2 , 0. Next, we
calculate and store the k-dist of all objects each
time k increases from 1 to 10, then we calculate
for each increase. Thus we get Fig.4.
Fig.5 k-dist plot when k=5
4.3 Applying DBSCAN With Generated K And

Eps(S)
The two parameters for DBSCAN are both
determined, so now we apply DBSCAN on this
dataset twice with these two pairs of parameters.
When k=5, Eps=0.1178, only one cluster is
generated, as shown in Fig.6.
Fig.4
plot when k
with threshold
We can see that the

varies from 0.2396 to
2.9560, so now we need to define the threshold of
. We recommen a percent below metho for
setting the threshold. That is, set a threshold so that
a certain percent of
are smaller than it. For
this ataset, we efine a 80 percent below
threshold. There are 10 values of
, so we just
th
have to choose the 8 biggest one. (Shown in Fig.4)
Apparently, when k=5, the
exceeds the
threshold for the first time. Thus we choose 5 as
our parameter.
Fig.6 clustering result when k=5, Eps=0.1178
And when k=5, Eps=0.2995, two clusters are

generated, as shown in Fig.7.
4.2 Using K In VDBSCAN

Now we have obtained the global optimum k, all
we have to do next is simply applying VDBSCAN
274
Fig.7 clustering result when k=5, Eps=0.2995
So, finally, two clusters are recognized, and three

outliers are identified. Now the whole process of
OVDBSCAN is completed.
4.4 Matched Group With Other K Selections
To prove that K=5 is the optimum selection, weve
also carried out several matched group with other
K values for comparison.
Established that when K=5, the clustering result is
natural an reflects the atasets inherent property,
we use it as the criterion to evaluate other groups
accuracy. And the accuracy is calculated with the
following rules:
(1) If an object within a cluster is recognized as
an outlier, count it as inaccurate, and vice
versa.
(2) If the number of clusters exceeds two
(according to the criterion), find two clusters
that share the most objects with the two of
our criterion, respectively, and treat other
clusters as inaccurate (all objects in them).
(3) Lets say there are N inaccurate objects, so
the accuracy of this experiment is (20-N)/20.
We consi er K to vary from to 0, as its the
initial domain of our experiment, and apply each K
to VDBSCAN on our dataset. The accuracy of all
results are shown with a line chart, Fig.8.
Fig.8. Accuracy of results with K rising from 1 to 10
As we can see, the accuracy keeps rising before

K=5, and suddenly drops afterwards. In this case,
the limited number of objects leads to similar
results for K=4 and K=5. Nevertheless, the
matched group has proved that the accuracy
reaches the maximal value at, or at least around, 5.
Hence, it in turn proves that OVDBSCAN can
obtain the optimum K.
5
CONCLUSION
Identifying downtown areas is of high business

value, for it can support a lot of business analysis.
To name one, each downtown area can be tagged
according to the types of POIs in it, then each area
can have a characteristic on the whole. So if we
want to analyze someones pattern base on the
coordinates it has been on, we can just try to find
which area the points are in, an then we can
deduce what did it do and when did it like to do it.
Density-based clustering methods are suitable for
this kind of problem. Compared to traditional
clustering algorithms, VDBSCAN is very effective
dealing with datasets of varying density. But
requiring K as an input from users deteriorates the
accuracy of this algorithm. In OVDBSCAN, the
selection of K is determined by examining the
k-dists of all objects in datasets as K changes. In
this way, the selected K can well reflect the
inherent property of the datasets. So, OVDBSCAN
is a totally human interference-free algorithm, thus
it objectively reveals the characteristics of data.
However, perfection of this method calls for future
research. A systematic determination of when K is
too large in OVDBSCAN may be an interesting
topic. Minimizing the initial domain of K to raise
275
the efficiency of OVDBSCAN is also a big
challenge.
6
REFERENCES
[1]
J. Han, M. Kamber, J. Peng: Data Mining Concepts and

Techniques.3ed, 2012, Page(s): 482-484, 507-509.
R. Chowdhury, E. Mollah, A. Rahman: An Efficient
Metho for subjectively choosing parameter
automatically in VDBSCAN. The 2nd International
Conference on Computer and Automation Engineering
(ICCAE), 2010 IEEE, Page(s): 38-41.
J. Mu, H. Fei, X. Dong: A Parameter-Free Clustering
Algorithm Based on Density Model, ICYCS.2008.415,
Page(s): 1825-1831, 2008 IEEE Publication.
P. Liu, D. Zhou, N. Wu: VDBSCAN: Varied Density
Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise. In:
International Conference on Service Systems and
Service Management (ICSSSM), 9-11 June, 2007,
Page(s): 1-4.
A. Wahid, M. Parvez: Data set property base K in
VDBSCAN Clustering Algorithm. In: World of
Computer Science and Information Technology, Vol. 2,
No. 3, 2012, Page(s): 115-119.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
276
A Market-oriented Agents-based Model for Information Retrieval

Djamel Eddine MENACER1, Christophe SIBERTIN-BLANC2, Habiba DRIAS3
1
National Computer Science School of Algiers (ESI)

Algiers, Algeria.
2
Universit Toulouse 1 - Capitole
Toulouse, France
3
Houari Boumedienne Sciences and Technologies University of Algiers (USTHB)
Algiers, Algeria
d_menacer@esi.dz; hdrias@usthb.dz; sibertin@irit.fr
ABSTRACT
Information Retrieval in the World Wide Web
(Web IR) is essential for a number of activities
and it is an active domain of research and development. The main challenges concern the relevance of the results provided to users' queries
and the performance regarding respond-time. On
the other hand, agent-based market systems
prove to be efficient for implementing ecommerce or B2B applications on the internet,
thanks to inherent properties such as prominency
of interactions, scalability, flexibility, interoperability, etc. Although the use of agents in other
application domains is not yet widespread, the
integration of mobile agents into market mechanisms bring clear and efficient solutions to Quality of Service issues encountered in most distributed applications and notably in Web IR
systems. Mobility allows defining the seller
buyer model of interaction, where agents act on
behalf of final users or devices providing resources, while the generic Market Place architecture provides an organizational setting for the
matching of demands and offers. The paper
shows how this framework applies to Web IR
and provides experimental validation results
from a Jade implementation
KEYWORDS
Agents, Mobile Agent, Information Retrieval, Seller
Buyer model, Market Place Architecture, Jade.
1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the current systems for locating information on the World Wide Web, known as
Web Information Retrieval systems (Web IR),
rely on the use of search engines which manage
and attempt to keep up-to-date indexing information by a variety of tools based on spiders,
web crawlers, etc [1]. These engines are then
queried by users to locate and find information
on particular topics.
The main issue in IR systems is to quickly return the relevant information to end-users. The
relevance and the performance become then the
most important requirements in IR systems. In
order to optimize the relevance, many approaches have been proposed, such as the personalization of requests [2] and the semantic Web [3].
However, these approaches are not yet feasible
because they are hard to implement.
The use of centralized engines in IR systems
is a drawback that creates bottlenecks in the
search for locating information. The growing
size of the information to be indexed and the
processing power required to serve search requests jeopardize the suitability of the search engines technology to meet the needs. At any moment, a given search engine is estimated to cover
no more than 40% of the web in its database [1].
To perform an exhaustive search, the user must
employ several search engines and assume that
each one has access to a different 40% part. To
avoid the bottleneck problem, indexes need to be
distributed.
In [4], the authors suggest, as a possible
means for achieving this end, to use mobile
agents that wander across the web in a directed
fashion for seeking the information on behalf of
users. The proposed scheme, called AgentSeek
system, involves three types of mobile agents:
- ferrets which act on behalf of web searcher users, seek for information providers
277
and advertise the location of information
consumers
- publicists which act on behalf of web site
creators (people providing information),
advertise the location of information providers and seek information consumers
- gurus which facilitate encounters between
ferrets and publicists
However, the proposed scheme uses specific
concepts, ferrets, gurus and publicists that cannot be applied to other systems.
NetSA [5] is a multi-agents system for the IR
on heterogeneous distributed sources. This system comprises essentially the following agents:
- User agents that collect and filter information from and to the clients
- Broker agents that associate the requests
to agents which are able to respond to
them
- Resources agents, which are linked to an
information resource (internal or external)
and are able to update the data
uted e-Health applications. More precisely, they

describe experiences based on this technology
concerning emergency scenarios. The authors
show that the use of mobile agents in Medical
Information Retrieval in Mass Casualty Scene is
very beneficial in terms of performance.
In [9], the authors argue that one of the best
means for getting services or finding particular
information on a network is the use of Jade mobile agents [10] together with a Web interface
that connects users and resources in a transparent, open and scalable way. The authors argue
that the deployment of Jade agents eases the development of applications thanks to its open
source-code, interoperability with other agents,
availability and easiness to use.
Calvin [6] is a multi-agents system that provides the following agents:

- Calvin Web, an interface agent;
- Analysis agents (TFIDF, WordSieve and
DocStats) that perform analysis of the users profile and behavior;
- Research Agents (AltaBot and GoogleBot)
that perform profile-based searches for the
users.
In line with these technical proposals, the paper proposes a novel integrated mobile agentbased approach for IR in the WWW.
The remainder of this paper is organized as
follows. Section 2 outlines our proposition based
upon mobile agents and market-oriented interaction model. Section 3 describes a new mobile
agents model, the seller buyer model, while
section 4 describes its implementation through a
generic mobile agents-based framework, the
Market - Place architecture. Section 5 presents
how to perform IR tasks by means of market
mechanisms and how to apply the MP architecture to IR applications. Section 6 presents the
MP-IR platform, a jade implementation of the
framework and section 7 provides an experimental validation. Finally, section 8 concludes
the whole paper.
The Calvin system is also a static multi-agent

system.
2 MOBILE AGENTS FOR WEB

INFORMATIONN RETRIEVAL
In [7], an interesting study suggests a components-based approach including mobile agents in

order to simplify the development and the deployment of adaptable information retrieval systems in the context of distributed heterogeneous
peer-to-peer networks. This promising proposal
uses mobile agents as a solution to the deployment problem.
The importance of the quality of service (QoS)

in distributed applications (non functional aspect) is becoming critical. The quality of service
includes non functional aspects such as [11]: the
performance, the security and the safety of functioning (or reliability). The QoS depends also on
the distributed application.
However, the NetSA system is a static multiagent system.
In [8], the authors discuss the use of mobile

agent technology as an enabler for open distrib-
In Information Retrieval (IR), the performance

should be more important than security and reli-
278
ability. The performance can be measured by the
relevance and the response time.
a received agent. There is no complete security solution to this kind of attacks.
In order to improve the performance in IR, we

should give answer to the two main issues regarding IR systems:
Using distributed indexes instead of a centralized index
Improve the relevance
A MA needs a specific execution environment

on each of the sites that constitute its itinerary.
The execution environment is provided by a MA
platform. Another issue in using MA is the need
of similar MA platforms in each node in the
network. Hence, many efforts are made to provide interoperability between MA platforms:
FIPA [12] and MASIF [13] are the two most
known standards.
In order to distribute indexes, we can use

agents provided with the mobility capability.
Each agent may convey one index. Moreover,
the users requests can also be conveyed by mobile agents which can act on behalf of users.
In order to improve the relevance, we propose
to generalize the market interactions paradigm,
which proves its suitability in market applications such as e-commerce, to non-market applications such as IR. In market applications, a set
of services or goods is proposed by servers and
requested by client users. A client agent is delegated by a user to look for the location and
availability of a service (so-called a buyer-agent)
while a server agent is delegated by remote services to sell a service (so-called a seller-agent).
A seller-agent is intended to propose items or
services to buyer-agents. Both agents interact
according market mechanisms, such as negotiation and competition, in order to achieve the intended service.
Mobile Agents (MA) are software agents [11]
with the feature of mobility. The MA can be
used in distributed applications to reduce the
bandwidth consumption in the network and allow disconnected operations. MA represent a
good idea to implement IR applications. However, the security problem blocks their development. Indeed, MA is target to two types of security threats:
Attacks during the migration (on the network), also called exogenous attacks. This
kind of attacks can be solved by traditional
security means.
Attacks within the host that receive the
MA. This is known as endogenous attacks.
This kind of attack lies on the possible existence of malicious hosts that can tamper
Therefore, if we use MA in Web IR, we must

take into consideration to the following issues:
Security issue in MA
Interoperability between MA platforms
The security of MA is an important concern. In
IR systems, security is not required as QoS. In
our proposition, agents should convey users only requests and indexes. Therefore, the security
of agents is not a critical issue in agents-based
IR systems.
Finally, our proposition should be independent
of the MA-platforms standard (FIPA or
MASIF) used in the nodes of the network (Internet for example).
3 THE SELLER BUYER MODEL

MA are a good way to implement distributed
applications. However, a direct use of MA is not
recommended due to their security and interoperability issues. To avoid these issues, we have
built an extended Mobile Agent (MA) model
towards a more suitable model, the Seller-Buyer
model (SB) [14].
In SB, there are two kinds of MA: buyeragents and seller-agents. Both agents have just to
meet on dedicated sites called market places
(MP). In a MP, a buyer agent can meet several
seller agents that offer similar service.
In this scheme, a buyer agent should visit multiple MP (in order to optimize its satisfaction),
thus it must be mobile. Selling a service does not
require mobility but a seller agent must move in
the two following situations:
279
-
At the creation of the agent, it must migrate on an appropriate place.

When the current place becomes less profitable, the seller agent should migrate to a
more profitable place.
Provider site
Client site
Agent mobile
Endogenous Attacks
Exogenous Attacks
(a)
Agent mobile
Attacks by agents and other

network entities
Masquerading Attacks
MP
Buyer Mobile
agent
Migration
Return
Client site
Seller Mobile
agent
Migration
Provider
site
Client site
Buyer Mobile
agent
Buyer Mobile
agent
Negotiation
Negotiation
Seller Mobile
agent
Server site
Competition
Buyer
agent
Buyer
agent
Seller
agent
Attacks by agents and other

network entities
Seller Mobile
agent
Market place
Seller
agent
(b)
Fig. 2. Improvement of the MA (a) security by the SB model (b)
Fig. 1. The seller-buyer model
3.2 The SB model for multi-agents systems

In SB, both client and server processes are mobile. This is called service mobility. Figure 1
shows an overview of the SB model.
Finally, seller agents should only carry the minimum resources from their providers. In order
to complete the service rendering, seller agents
can run remote invocations with their providers.
This is the key of service mobility in SB.
3.1 Security in the SB model
In the SB model, the security model is based
upon trust. Mobile agents should move only to
trusted nodes. This is done by preventing an
agent from migrating directly to a host and a
host from receiving mobile agents. This is possible if we dissociate the rendering of services and
the hosting of visiting agents; in fact, a mobile
agent (buyer agent) representing the client
meets, on trusted sites (market places), a service
provider representative (the seller agent). Mobile
agents (buyer and seller) may migrate only on
market places.
Although our proposition does not require security, the SB model allows reducing the security
issues in the MA model, by removing the endogenous attacks as shown in the figure 2. A complete survey of the security in SB model is presented in [15].
The SB interaction model extends market

mechanisms to distributed systems. Buyer agents
perform negotiation with seller agents in the MP
so that the seller agents are in competition. The
negotiation is based upon a price p that can be
the QoS of the requested service. Facilitator
agents are used to ease the migration of MA.
Figure 3 shows the different interactions within a
SB multi-agents system.
Procedure negotiation (p=QoS)
For each visited MP
1. Send CFP to seller agents agents
2. Perform reverse auction to selected agents by the CFP
3. Choose the best agents
Next MP
Client site
Migration
Facilitator
agent
Buyer agent
Market place
Seller agent
Procedure request migration (S, Itinerary)

Request services base (S, MP list)
Interroger base stratgique (MP list, Itinerary)
Buyer agent
Facilitator
agent
Seller agent
Seller agent
Server site
Migration
Facilitator
agent
Seller agent
Procedure locate sellers (S, SA list)

Request directory (S, SA list)
Fig. 3. The SB multi-agents system
4 THE SB MODEL FOR

DISTRIBUTED APPLICATIONS:
THE MP ARCHITECTURE
We now propose a general framework based
upon the SB model for the development of mobile agents-based distributed applications. We
will call this framework the MP (Market - Place)
architecture. This architecture addresses the following objectives:
to provide a general multi-agents framework based upon the SB model, regardless
of the agent platforms used to manage
agents
280
to provide mobile agents with a protection
based upon trust
to distribute the provided services by
means of seller agents
to provide acceptable level of QoS by
market interaction between agents
4.1 MP Components
There are two external actors considered by
the MP architecture: clients that send requests by
means of buyer mobile agents and providers that
offer services at MP by means of seller mobile
agents. The basic idea is that each service S in a
MP system belongs to a class of services SC and
each class of services SC belongs to an application domain D (see figure 4).
Place de march
Service Classes
Eshop
Services
Type Service
The MP architecture consists of several components as shown in the figure 5:

Shop
Eshops
Market places
Agents Negotiation
Agent Service Providers (ASP). This site

is responsible for the creation of mobile
buyers or seller agents, according to the
type of user (client or provider). We refer
this site to as Agent Service Provider
(ASP) [16].
MP Name Servers (MPNS). When a mobile agent requests or offers a service S

that belongs to the class SC, it searches
MP providing the class SC. To do this, the
agent sends a request to MP Name Servers
(MPNS). The answer is a list of MP that
offers the class of service SC, constituting
the itinerary of the agent.
Trust and Security Authorities (TSA). A

mobile agent must be certified before it
visits MPs. We propose to add PKI (Public
Key Infrastructure) components [17] to the
architecture. The ASP provides a pair of
keys (private, public) to mobile agents by
means of a cryptography service. The PKI
certification authorities are hosted in sites
called Trust and Security Authority (TSA).
Domaine
Fig. 4. Class diagram of the service organization in MP architecture
Catalog
shops. The information on e-shops and

services are stored in directory services
provided by the MPDS (MP Directory
Services) managed by the MPSM (MP
Service Manager). Each MP is protected
by a firewall called MPSS (MP Security
Service).
MP
MPNS
MP services Localisation
MPDS
Directory
MP
Archirecture
ASP
Entry Point
Agents Creation
TSA
PKI
Authorities
MPSS
Agent Firewall
Clients
Providers
Fig. 5. Overview of the MP architecture
Market places (MP). In order to give

mobile agents a directed way to request a
service, the MPs are organized according
to the class of the offered services. One
MP hosts one service class. The services
are located, within the MP, in e-shops
[16]. Each e-shop hosts one service.
Therefore, the dialogue between buyer
agents and seller agents takes place in e-
4.2 The dynamics of the MP architecture

Each request of a client user is associated to a
specific service S that belongs to a service class
SC. This request is linked to a buyer mobile
agent created in the ASP site. Before migrating,
the buyer agent asks the MPNS for an itinerary
for the SC class of service. The buyer agent obtains its private and public keys from a local
cryptographic service. The buyer agent registers
to the TSA by its public key and obtains a certificate. Almost the same process is applied to the
seller agents that represent providers. We can
represent the dynamics of the MP architecture
through the diagram shown in figure 6.
281
C
Clients
Providers
Subscription-request/response
MPi
Subscription-service
ASP
2: Grant
FAi
Cryptographic
service
Itinerary
MA2
MA1
Fai+1
MA1
MA3
4: Move
Fig. 8. The global migration of agents
Return of
Buyer agent
Certificat
With results
Certificat
MPNS
1: Move-request
ASP
Cryptographic
service
Itinerary
MPi+1
3: Notify
MPNS
TSA
Migration
Buyer agent
Step i
CA
Migration
Seller agents
MP(Sci)
MP(Scj)
Migration
Buyer agent
Step j
MPDS
Eshop
Si1
Eshop
Si2
MPSM
MPSS
MPSS
MPSM
Eshop
Si3
MPDS
Eshop
Sj1
Eshop
Sj2
Eshop
Sj3
Fig. 6. The MP architecture dynamic
4.2.3 The MP interaction model
4.2.1 Agents in the MP architecture

There are two types of agents: mobile agents that
comprise buyer agents and seller agents, and
static agents that comprise manager agents and
facilitator agents. Manager agents manage different sites in the system: ASP, MP. For MP, the
manager agent acts as the MPSM. Facilitator
agents are used to ease the migration of mobile
agents [18]. There is one facilitator agent at:
ASP, MP and e-shops. The figure 7 shows the
hierarchy of agents classes in MP.
Agents
Mobile Agents
Manager Agents
ASP_GA
The negotiation between a buyer agent and seller

agents takes place in e-shops that comprises one
or more seller agents. The FIPA Contract-Net
[19] interaction protocol is used to implement
negotiation between agents by using CFP (call
for proposal). The initiator of CFP is the buyer
agent, and the seller agents are the participants.
The CFP allows getting a list of interested seller
agents. Then, the buyer agent has to choose the
appropriate seller(s). To this end, it starts a new
negotiation through a reverse auction mechanism. The e-shop becomes then an auction room.
The algorithm 1 describes how a buyer agent interacts with the seller agents of an e-shop:
*
Static Agents
The MP facilitators help buyer and seller agents

to migrate on the e-shops within the same MP by
using the MPDS service. This second kind of
migration is called internal (or local) migration
and is similar to the migration process provided
in FIPA platforms as Jade [10]. The protocol of
the local migration is similar to global migration.
Finally, the e-shop facilitators help buyer agents
to locate seller agents within the e-shop.
Facilitator Agents
MP_GA
ASP_FA
*
1
Buyer MA
1.
*
1
Seller MA
2.
3.
MP_FA
E-shop_FA
Fig.7 . Agents classes hierarchy in MP
4.
5.
4.2.2 The MP migration model

6.
The ASP facilitators help the buyer and seller

agents to migrate to the MP sites by providing
them an itinerary obtained by querying the
MPNS servers. The address of the facilitators is
included in the itinerary provided by the MPNS
server to the mobile agent. This kind of migration is called external (or global) migration. The
protocol of the global migration is shown by figure 8.
7.
/* CFP process */
The buyer agent issues a call for proposal by sending a CFP
message to all seller agents;
The seller agents interested by the CFP answer the buyer
agent by sending a service offer;
The buyer agent selects one (or several) of the sellers having
sent an answer;
The buyer agent sends its request to the selected seller
agents;
The selected seller agents answer the buyer agent with a
proposition;
/* reverse auction process */
The buyer agent defines the wished (and hidden) price wp
/*price between a maximum and a minimum prices*/
For each round in (1..MaxRnd) do
/* MaxRnd is the maximum number of rounds allowed */
a. While number of iterations MinIt do
/* MinIt is the minimum number of iterations */
Selected seller agents send public propositions to the buyer agent;
End while;
b. if wp is lesser than all the propositions then
Seller agents are invited to decrease their
propositions;
Else
282
8.
The buyer agent selects the first lesser

proposition
Exit;
/* End of auction */
End if;
Next round;
End of auction /* The auction ends if the maximum round
number is reached without results with seller agents */
Algorithm 1: The MP interaction model
The figure 9 shows the different interactions

within the MP multi-agents system.
Procedure MG (S, APG)
AG() //MPNS Access
Request Catalog (S,SC)
Request MPNS (SC, MP list )
Request MPNS (MP list , APG)
Procedure ML (S, APL)
AL() //MPDS Access
Request MPDS (S, eshops list)
Request MPDS (eshops list , APL)
Procedure NEG (p=QoS)

For each visited MP
For each eshop
1. Send CFP to seller agents
2. Run reverse auction for selected agents
by the CFP
3. Choose the best agents
Next Eshop
Next MP
Procedure SL (S, SA list)

//Get list of sellers (seller agents)
AL() //MPDS Access
Request MPDS (S, SA list)
Procedure synchro ()
//Infos Synchronization
//A class gathers similar services so
similar properties
ASP
MG
AG
Market Place
AL
MP_GA
Eshop
MP_GA
AL
SL
ML
MP_FA
ASP
MG
AG
ML
eshop_FA
Buyer agent
Seller agent
NEG
Local Migration (APL)

Buyer agent
Seller agent
Migration
Seller agent
ASP_FA
According to the search category SC of the request, the metasearch agent asks the MPNS
server for an itinerary that comprises a list of
places belonging to SC. After migration, the
metasearch agent meets the index agents in the
e-shops corresponding to the search theme S and
located in a place that belongs to the search category SC; the metasearch agent can then ask
several index agents, merge and filter the different results and return the best result to the user.
Global Migration
Buyer agent
ASP_FA
theme S. To facilitate the users' searches, we

propose a distributed index through index
agents.
Local Migration
Seller agent
ASP_GA
Fig. 9. The MP multi-agents system
5
APPLICATION
TO
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
THE
Each MP becomes a search place and corresponds to a search category. The e-shops become negotiation rooms and host a search
theme.
A buyer mobile agent is a search agent or
metasearch and acts on behalf of a user. A seller
agent owns an index and a search code, and can
be considered as an index agent which acts on
behalf of a provider. It is reasonable that an index agent carries only an index of a search
Search
Buyer agent
Light metasearch
Index
Seller agent
Engine agent
Fig. 10. Light metasearch and search engine agents
If the representation model of the seller agents

is the same, the SEARCH code must be implemented on the metasearch agent that becomes a
heavy metasearch agent; in this case, the seller
agents become a just index agent (figure 11).
Request
5.1 Adaptation of the MP architecture to the

IR
Interation
Request
Request
Search
The MP architecture is aimed to support any

distributed application. We will now show how
it operates for IR in the WWW. As other IR systems our approach should also use distributed
indexes, users agents, providers agents and facilitators agents. However, it relies upon the
generalization of the MP architecture market
mechanisms to IR systems. To do this, we define
the application domain "IR" as including the
class of service "Search Category", and the service as "Search theme". For example: D=IR,
SC=general, S=general, for general purpose
search and D=IR, CS=IT, S=software, for specific search.
A metasearch agent holds a code (called

SEARCH code) used to express the request according to a representation model. The SEARCH
code is matched with the index. If the seller
agents do not use the same representation model,
the SEARCH code must be included in the seller
agent that becomes a search engine agent; in this
case, the metasearch agent just carries the request as a set of keywords and becomes a light
metasearch agent (figure 10).
Interation
Matching
Buyer agent
Heavy metasearch
Index
Seller agent
Index agent
Fig. 11. Heavy metasearch and index agents
5.2 The IR Negotiation protocol

In negotiation rooms, the negotiation process
must decide how much the client's request may
be satisfied by the index agents. Several index
agents can offer the same theme S but with different qualities of service (QoS). The QoS in IR
applications is mostly measured by performance.
The performance can be evaluated according to
283
the relevance and the size of the returned results.
We assume that each index agent is able to return, in addition to results, the average relevance
and the size of these results. The negotiation
process, based upon the relevance R and the size
of the results S, can be summarized in the algorithm 2:
For each MP in the metasearch agents itinerary
For each e-shop in the MP visited by the metasearch agent
/* CFP process */
1. The metasearch agent makes a call for proposal by sending
a CFP message (SC, S) to all index agents present in the eshop;
2. Each index agent interested by the CFP is added to the selected index agents
3. The selected index agents answer the metasearch agent by
sending a service offer; /* Ns is the number of selected
agents */
/* Reverse auction process */
4. The initiator of the auction, the metasearch agent, defines
the wished (and hidden) price that reflects the Rmin relevance and the Szmax size of the results corresponding to the
search request.
5. The metasearch agent sends its request (SC, S, (k1, k2,...,
kn)) to the selected index agents (matching) ; /* ki are the
keywords */
6. For each round in (1.. Rdmax) /* Rdmax is the maximum
number of rounds allowed */
a. While number of iterations j < Jmin, (1<JminNs)
/* Jmin is the minimum number of iterations */
Each selected index j (0jJmin-1) sends public
proposition (SC,S,Rj,Szj) to the metasearch agent;
End while;
b. if (Rj<R or Sj>Sz j) then
Index agents are invited to decrease their propositions for another round (decrease Sz and/or increase R);
Else
the metasearch agent selects the three most suitable propositions (the answers that feature the maximum relevance R, the minimum size Sz and the
auction ends.
Exit; /* End of auction */
End if;
Next round;
7. The
metasearch
stores
the
results
(SC,S,(url1,url2,...,urlm),Sz,R) in its memory; /* urli are the
URL of the relevant documents */
Move to next e-shop;
Move to next place;
ASP
ASP
Metasearch
agent
Migration
Index
agent
Request = key words

Theme S
Category SC
Index
Theme S
Category SC
Search Place : Search Category SC
Migration
Negotiation Room
Theme S
SN
Index
agent
Metasearch
Agent
SN
NEG
Index
Agent
Index
Agent
Index
agent
QoS = Max (relevance) + Min(Size)

QoS=OPT(Recall, Precision)
Fig. 12. Overview of MP-IR architecture
6 A JADE IMPLEMENTATION OF
MP-IR
6.1 Implementation of the MP architecture
using jade and Java
Jade [10][20][21] is a free and open source
platform for the development of FIPA agentsbased systems.
The MP-IR architecture can be implemented
as a set of Jade platforms distributed over several computers in a network. A market place is a
set of computers including a jade main platform
server and one or several jade platforms without
main container (known as containers) servers
that implement e-shops. The ASP is a main Jade
platform and the other MP components (MPNS
and TSA) may be java services. As a result, such
an implementation of the MP architecture is
called MP-Jade framework. This framework uses Jade for agents management and java as programming language (figure 13).
MP
MPNS
MPSS
Algorithm 2. The interaction protocol between metasearch and

index agents within IR e-shops.
MPDS=HSQL
Main
container
MPNS=HSQL
MPSM=AMS
FA=DF
ASP
5.3 The MP-IR framework

According the considerations above, we are
able to outline a MP-based architecture for Web
Information Retrieval systems. We refer this architecture to as MP-IR. Figure 12 shows an
overview of MP-IR, where NEG represents the
IR interactions protocol defined by the algorithm
2.
Container 1
Seller
agent
Container 2
FA=Sub-DF
Seller
agent
Seller
agent
Container 3
Sub-DF
Buyer agent
Eshop
Seller
agent
FA=DF
TSA
Buyer agent
Eshop
Main
container
Sub-DF
GA=AMS
IPMS
Eshop
Fig. 13. The MP-Jade framework
284
The MP-IR architecture can then be implemented by the MP-Jade framework.
6.2 Agents in MP-IR
Every agent inherits the Agent class of the
package jade.core.agent. The tasks of each Jade
agent are called behaviours. Jade allocates one
thread for each agent. Each jade platform is controlled by the AMS (Agent Management System) agent. Information about agents which are
available on the platform is provided by the DF
(Directory Facilitator) agent.
6.2.1 Static agents
The static agents implement a cyclicBehaviour
(a repetitive behaviour issued from the class CyclicBehaviour
of
the
package
jade.core.behaviours) since they run repetitive
tasks.
The DF agent of the main platform (for example
a market place) can act as MP facilitator agent.
The AMS agent of the main platform manages
the places and can act as the MPSM agent.
6.2.2 Mobile agents
-
The metasearch agents may have an advanced decision autonomy model. We

think that the Jade finite state machine
(FSM) model is suitable for this type of
agent. FSM are instances of the class
FSMBehaviour
of
the
package
jade.core.behaviours.FSMBehaviour and
can implement behaviours. The request of
the client is included in the behaviour of
the agent.
In this section, we will show the experimental

tests we did in order to validate our proposition.
The tests address the relevance of the results it
provides to requests. For this purpose, we have
developed two IR systems. The first one is a
classical IR system based upon Terrier [22]. Terrier is a highly flexible and efficient open source
search engine, used in large collections of documents. Terrier is a complete and transparent java platform for research and experimentation in
the text retrieval. The second IR system is MPbased IR system using market interactions according to the algorithm 2 (see figure 14). We
have also used two benchmarks: the first one is a
huge benchmark taken from a collection of XML
documents called INEX 2005 [23] that contains
17 000 items, a set of requests and a list of relevant documents for each request. The second
one is a personalized benchmark called corpus
that contains a set of documents, a set of requests and a list of relevant documents for each
request. The corpus we used contains 500 documents and 40 requests.
The relevance is measured by two factors: the
precision and the recall [24]. The recall
measures the ability of the system to retrieve all
relevant documents. The precision measures the
ability of the system to retrieve only relevant
documents and reject all irrelevant documents.
Market Place
Jade platform
Client
Main-container
Information Provider
Jade platform
Envoi
Main-container
Envoi
Negotiation Room
Migration
or Remote
interaction
Search agent
Search agent
Ask
Publish
Thematic
Provider AgentIndex.xml
Publish
Broker Agent
Thematic
Provider Agent
Index.xml
Envoi
Publish
The index agents may also implement a finite state machine but lighter than those of
the metasearch agents because it do not
performs
multiple
migrations
as
metasearch agents do. The service
(code+index) of the provider is included in
the behaviour. At its arrival in a place, an
index agent registers its services to the
sub-DF agent of the appropriate e-shop.
Finally, an index agent can interact remotely with its provider site by sockets.
7 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION
Thematic
Provider Agent
Index.xml
Browser
Negotiation Room
Search Engine
Full Index Base
Negotiation Room
Fig. 14. Overview of MP-IR Jade prototype
7.1 Basic Tests

We perform our tests on the Inex benchmark.
In order to evaluate the quality of our system, we
have chosen assessment files in the Inex collection containing requests and corresponding relevant documents. To do our tests, we have chosen
six requests (Q1..Q6) as shown in the table 1.
285
Table 1. Chosen Inex requests
Q
Requests
Problems physical limits miniaturization

microprocessor
Mining frequent pattern itemset sequence
graph association
Gibbs sampler
User-centered design of web sites
Computer assisted composing music
notes MIDI
Capabilities limitations commercial
speech recognition software
2
3
4
5
6
Assessment
files
206. xml
209. xml
213. xml
217. xml
218. xml
221. xml
Using category and theme search

We calculate the recall and precision measures
corresponding to the requests Q1Q6 for
searches with and without consideration of category and theme (see table 2 and figure 15). We
have fixed the following parameters:
Rdmax (see algorithm 1) = 1
Number of providers = 3
Varying number of negotiation rounds

We study the impact of the number of negotiation rounds on the relevance. We have calculated
the recall/precision measures for the requests
Q1Q6 by varying the number of rounds from
1 to 3 (see table 3 and figure 16). We have fixed
the following parameters:
Number of providers=3
Advanced search (choosing category
and theme)
Table 3. Recall-precision in function of the number of rounds
Request
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Average
1 round
Recall
0,85
0,75
0,2
0,72
0,67
0,84
0,67
Precision
0,66
0,42
0,88
0,53
0,5
0,47
0,58
2 rounds
Recall Precision
0,92
0,66
0,9
0,42
0,4
0,75
0,72
0,57
0,8
0,47
0,8
0,5
0,76
0,56
3 rounds
Recall Precision
0,92
0,78
0,9
0,47
0,2
0,92
0,72
0,57
0,7
0,41
0,84
0,5
0,71
0,61
Table 2. Recall-precision with and without category and theme
Request
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Average
Basic search
Recall Precision
0,38
0,13
0,45
0,27
0,28
0,7
0,2
0,18
0,4
0,11
0,5
0,24
0,37
0,27
Advanced search
Recall Precision
0,85
0,66
0,75
0,42
0,2
0,88
0,72
0,53
0,67
0,5
0,84
0,57
0,67
0,59
Fig. 16. Recall-precision in function of the number of rounds
We can notice that there is an optimal Rdmax in

which the recall-precision is the best. In our
case, when Rdmax=2, the recall-precision is optimal.
Fig. 15. Recall-precision measures with and without category

and theme
We can notice that the recall/precision values of

the advanced search are better than those of a
simple search. This is due to the fact that the
number of relevant documents in a given category and theme is higher than the number of the
relevant documents in a general collection.
Varying number of providers

We study the impact of the number of providers
on the relevance. We have then calculated the
recall-precision measures for the requests
Q1Q6 by varying the number of providers
from 3 to 7 (see table 4 and figure 17). We have
fixed the following parameters:
Rdmax = 1
Advanced search
286
Table 4. Recall-precision in function of the number of providers
Request
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Average
3 providers
Recall Precision
0,85
0,66
0,75
0,42
0,2
0,88
0,72
0,53
0,67
0,5
0,84
0,47
0,67
0,58
5 providers
Recall Precision
0,9
0,61
0,84
0,43
0,27
0,9
0,76
0,48
0,9
0,41
0 ,8
0,51
0,61
0,56
7 providers
Recall Precision
0 ,8
0,55
0,86
0,4
0,27
0,9
0,85
0,56
0,9
0,55
0,85
0,53
0,62
0,58
Fig. 18. Recall-precision curves of both systems
7.2.2 Using the personalized benchmark

We also did our tests on the personalized
benchmark. Both systems use the same corpus.
The table 6 summarizes the average precision
depending of the recall for the 40 requests.
Table 6. Average precision depending on the 11 recall levels
Fig. 17. Recall-precision in function of the number of providers
We can notice that when the number of providers grows, the recall-precision reaches first an
optimum and then decreases. In our case, the optimum is with 3 providers.
7.2 Comparison with classical IR system
7.2.1 Using the Inex benchmark
Using Inex benchmark, we now compare the
precision and the recall of both systems. We
have fixed the following parameters:
Advanced search
Rdmax=1
Number of providers = 3
Terrier
MP-IR
50
16.03
15.00
0
69.96
60.51
Standard recall levels (%)

10
20
30
55.45
48.67
31.48
50.44
43.92
29.17
Standard recall levels (%)

60
70
80
90
12.65
10.88
9.12 5.55
11.64
10.88
9.12 5.55
40
22.07
20.05
100
1.75
1.75
The figure 19 shows the average precision

curve using the 11 standard recall levels for the
40 requests. Globally, it is interesting to note
that, although Terrier is a bit better, both curves
are similar.
The measures we did are based upon the recall

and precision curves. Table 5 summarizes the results and figure 18, shows the recall-precision
curves. Globally, it is interesting to note that,
although Terrier is better, both curves are almost
similar.
Fig. 19. Average precision of the Terrier and MP-IR
Table 5. Precision/recall values of both systems

MP-IR
Request Recall
Q1
0,85
Q2
0,75
Q3
0,2
Q4
0,72
Q5
0,67
Q6
0,84
Terrier
Precision Recall
0,66
0,9
0,42
0,33
0,88
0,15
0,53
0,5
0,5
0,85
0,47
0,92
Precision
0,4
0,4
0,95
0,6
0,21
0,41
8 CONCLUSION
WORKS
AND
FUTURE
There is an increasing need for World Wide

Web Information Research systems to offer a
very high level of relevance. However, while
287
the volume of information increases, the index
bases grow and the relevance of the documents
returned to users requests tends to dramatically
decrease. Many approaches have been proposed
to improve the relevance but still do not satisfactorily succeed.
In further work, we intend to complete the

MP-IR prototype by improving the algorithm 2
and to perform deeper experiments against classical IR systems by using the whole Inex collection.
REFERENCES
Using MA to distribute indexes and to convey
users requests is a good idea. However, MA address the issues of security and interoperability.
To answer those issues, we have proposed a
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which buyer agents meet seller agents only in
market places, and developed a global architectural design called MP architecture based upon
the SB model. To achieve our proposition, all interactions between agents are based upon market
mechanisms such as negotiation and competition. Finally, we apply MP architecture to IR
systems. The IR framework based upon MP architecture is called MP-IR.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
The MA approach reveals to be efficient to

distribute indexes: indexes are managed by
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The experimentations show that our approach
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give better results if we improve our algorithm 2.
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289
Learning Games or Learning Stimulating Games:

An Indirect Approach to Learning Stimulating Effects from Off-the-Shelf Games
Mats Wiklund and Peter Mozelius
Department of Computer and Systems Sciences
Stockholm University, Forum 100, 16440 Kista, Sweden
matsw@dsv.su.se
mozelius@dsv.su.se
ABSTRACT
Playing games to support learning is a classic concept
that is seeing a revival today in the widespread use of
computer games. Inserting educational content into
various types of computer games is a strong trend
that some researchers have described as a mad rush.
The aim of this article is to discuss possible learning
stimulating effects of commercial off-the-shelf
(COTS) games in a long-term perspective. We argue
that COTS game players attitudes towards learning
may change in a positive direction even in cases
where direct learning outcomes are not aimed for.
This may be the case when in-game skills are
described in terms of real life skills commonly
associated with higher education. When a high
enough skill level is achieved, then and only then is
the player rewarded with pleasant in-game
experiences.
The causality of the perceived experience is ideally
that with high enough skills, positive stimulation
follows. The contribution of the gaming lies not in
the short-term learning outcome, but rather in the
long-term effects it may have on future educational
choices. Even if such a game do not fulfil the criteria
for learning games it may still be seen as a learning
stimulating game.
KEYWORDS
Learning stimulation, Computer games, Commercialoff-the-shelf games, Learning stimulating games,
Games and learning.
1 INTRODUCTION
Computer games may have an effect on what
learning is going on in a society in several ways.
With a direct approach to game based learning,
the goal is to train the player using computer
games containing relevant information and/or
setups supporting the learning process of the
player, either using specifically developed

educational games, or by using Commercial OffThe-Shelf (COTS) games for learning purposes.
In addition, a possible long-term learning
stimulating effect of playing computer games
may exist; games that reward players with
increased (simulated) skills in areas commonly
associated with higher education could play a
role in attitudes towards future academic studies.
2 RESEARCH SUPPORTING COMPUTER
GAMES IN LEARNING CONTEXTS
Research in the area of specific advantages of
computer games as educational tools has pointed
out several aspects where games fit very well
into key patterns of successful learning. As Gee
points out, these aspects need not be related to
such features that are often noted regarding
computer games, such as the graphics: The
secret of a videogame as a teaching machine
isnt its immersive 3-D graphics, but its
underlying architecture. Each level dances
around the outer limits of the players abilities,
seeking at every point to be hard enough to be
just doable. [1]
Indeed, the idea to use games as learning tools
emerged long before computers with today's
ability to render realistic game worlds existed.
Early examples include large simulation games
such as the RAND corporations logistics
simulator modelling relevant activities of the US
Air Force supply system with players acting as
inventory managers [2], and the first business
simulation game being used in college education
as early as 1957 [3]. Duke suggested in 1974 that
games might become an entirely new form of
communication in education [4], and in a more
computer dense landscape 30 years later Woods
expands on this idea, claiming that gaming is
a futures language, a new form of
290
communication emerging suddenly and with
great impact across many lands and in many
problem situations". [5]
Their underlying architecture, as Gee puts it,
separates computer games from many other
activities in modern society that instead reward
the participant with easy instant gratification, as
remarked by Steven Johnson in his analysis of
popular culture: Youll often hear video games
included on the list of debased instant
gratification that abound in our culture, right up
there with raunchy music videos and fast food.
But compared to most forms of popular
entertainment, games turn out to be all about
delayed gratification sometimes so long
delayed that you wonder if the gratification is
ever going to show. [6]
The positive aspect of something being hard, and
the danger of making things too easy, is also
discussed by Papert: What is best about the best
games is that they draw kids into some very hard
learning The fact is that kids prefer things
that are hard, as long as they are also
interesting. [7] A high difficulty level can also
act as a strong motivator to collaboration in
games that support this, as described by
Hmlinen et al. regarding ways of making
players cooperate rather than play separately
from each other: one option is to design
highly difficult and even frustrating puzzles. In
fact, apparently impossible tasks seem to be one
of the strongest factors promoting player
collaboration. After all, games are all about
facing challenges and succeeding after a series
of failures. [8]
This touches on the Practice Principle, outlined
by Gee as one of several principles involved in
successful learning situations: Learners gets
lots and lots of practice in a context where the
practice is not boring (i.e. in a virtual world that
is compelling to learners on their own terms and
where the learners experience ongoing
success).[9] Among other notable such
principles are the Achievement Principle: For
learners of all levels of skill there are intrinsic
rewards from the beginning, customized to each
learners level, effort, and growing mastery and
signalling the learners ongoing achievements,
the Ongoing Learning Principle (abbreviated):
The distinction between learner and master is
vague, since learners must, at higher and
higher levels, undo their routinized mastery to

adapt to new or changed conditions , and the
Probing Principle: Learning is a cycle of
probing the world (doing something); reflecting
in and on this action and, on the basis, forming a
hypothesis; reprobing the world to test this
hypothesis; and then accepting or rethinking the
hypothesis. [9]
Regarding the interaction with computer games
it has been pointed out by Jenson and de Castell
that new types of input devices is increasingly
making possible a particular type of learning
related activity that should be distinguished from
using simulations in general: imitation. While a
simulation can use the pressing of various
buttons as inputs, these buttons are conceptually
unrelated to the actions they initiate. There is
typically no morphological correspondence
between the players action of pressing a button
and the resulting in-game action: There is of
course an entirely arbitrary relation between the
players actions (press A, for example and
Marios jumping). A button press is the
technologically mediated means to the avatars
jumping, but it is of course nothing like the
jumping. A button press bears no resemblance to
a jumping event.. [10]
Imitation, on the other hand, implies mimicking
an action morphologically, requiring more
sophisticated position/movement sensing input
devices: In order to play, the player must
imitate a golf swing, or a tennis swing, a
baseball swing or even rolling a bowling ball
with the controller. In effect, the player imitates
the real world action that is correlated with the
action within the game. [10]. Jenson and de
Castell argues that the trend with increasingly
sophisticated input devices constitutes a
substantial epistemological shift, away from
simulation of actions and instead enabling
imitation in computer games arriving at a
situation closer to that of traditional learning,
where for instance young children imitate the
behaviour of adults. [10]
Focusing not only on aspects of computer games
alone, but broadening the picture to include the
nature of today's learners as a result of their high
exposure to, and natural relationship with
computer games and computer mediated
communication in general, further arguments for
using games as learning tools have been
291
presented. Prensky argues that Todays students
are no longer the people our educational system
was designed to teach. and remarks that
Todays average college grads have spent less
than 5,000 hours of their lives reading, but over
10,000 hours playing video games". [11]
Coining the term digital natives for the
generation having grown up with computer
games and other recent information technology,
Prensky outlines some of their typical
characteristics: They like to parallel process
and multi-task. They prefer their graphics before
their text rather than the opposite. They prefer
random access (like hypertext). They function
best when networked". [11]
In addition, Prensky links recent habits of
playing computer games to research on
neuroplasticity, summarising that there is no
longer any question that stimulation of various
kinds actually changes brain structures and
affects the way people think, and that these
transformations go on throughout life. [12].
Gaming habits come into focus regarding why
behaviour-changing neuroplasticity has not been
obvious in the past, where Prensky expands: A
key finding of brain plasticity research is that
brains do not reorganize casually, easily, or
arbitrarily. [12]. Instead, extensive practice is
needed for neuroplastic changes to occur, and
with the introduction of computer games into
society, the type of repeated practice needed to
induce such changes is now in place. As Prensky
points out, in reference to a learning programme
involving extensive practice: Several hours a
day, five days a week, sharply focused attention
does that remind you of anything? Oh, yes
video games!. [12]
In the light of these aspects in combination with
the previously mentioned key features of
computer games, it becomes clear that games can
fit very well as an educational tool. To exemplify
we can consider the NASA massively
multiplayer on-line learning game initiative
launched by the Goddard Space Flight Center in
an effort to increase learning in science,
technology, engineering and mathematics,
something which is important for NASAs
human resources regrowth in the future. As
detailed in the associated announcement for
research document [13], this project is aimed at
using computer games for learning purposes in
the direct sense discussed so far: Virtual worlds

with scientifically accurate simulations could
permit learners to tinker with chemical reactions
in living cells, practice operating and repairing
expensive
equipment,
and
experience
microgravity, making it easier to grasp complex
concepts and transfer this understanding quickly
to practical problems. [13]
3 RESEARCH CRITICIZING COMPUTER

GAMES IN LEARNING CONTEXTS
However, a number of disappointments
regarding the direct approach, implemented in
the form of specifically developed game based
learning software sometimes referred to as
edutainment or serious games, have been noted.
Such edutainment is the result of efforts trying to
explore the advantages of the game format and
fill it with more traditional school curriculum
oriented material. The usefulness of such
edutainment software has been questioned in
many cases, as observed by Kirriemuir:
However, when game-oriented entertainment
and learning or educational material are
combined, the result has often been
disappointing; the educational value is
debatable or irrelevant, and the gaming and
engagement qualities compare poorly to those of
pure games. [14]
A similar standpoint is taken by Papert, viewing
this edutainment offspring from games and
education software as one possessing none of the
best features from either parent: Shavian
reversals offspring that keep the bad features
of each parent and lose the good ones are
visible in most software products that claim to
come from a mating of education and
entertainment.
[7]
More
specifically,
Kirriemuir and McFarlane identify several
reasons for these shortcomings: Most
edutainment has failed to realise expectations,
either because:
The games have been too simplistic in

comparison to competing video games
The tasks are poorly designed and do not

support progressive understanding
The target audience becomes aware that

it is being coerced into learning, in
possibly a patronising manner. [15]
292
In addition, it can also be noted that edutainment
products that rely on the users first having
familiarised themselves with instructions or
introductions in order to play the game
successfully, face the risk of being especially
unsuccessful. This has been discussed by Jenson
et al. after observing users of a computer game
intended to aid learning about baroque music:
In none of the play sessions did we observe
anyone paying attention to or reading in any way
instructions for the game, and they would
not look to instructions even after failing and
would instead seek out something more
playable . [16]
Furthermore, even if an educational game is
successful in the sense that it is engaging while
also containing relevant material as discussed by
Kirremuir, McFarlane and Papert above, an
additional problem is described in [17]. Coining
the term Gamer Mode, Frank observed students
detaching themselves from the underlying
domain that is in focus from a learning
perspective, instead focusing partly or fully on
the game itself, exploiting its functionality in
order to win the game at any cost [17].
By distancing themselves from the subject to be
studied, the learning occurring is that of
mastering the game as such, and not the domain
the game simulates. Such a situation constitutes a
break from the effectiveness criterion as
described by Hays who found that an
instructional game will only be effective if it is
designed to meet specific instructional objectives
and used as it was intended.. [18] Students
going into gamer mode as described by Frank
above, is an example of the game not being used
as it was intended in Hayss sense.
The gamer mode phenomenon described by
Frank above also highlights a difference
regarding ambiguity between games for
entertainment versus educational games. In an
entertainment game, ambiguity resulting from
unclear graphics or interface issues is less of a
problem, as long as the player still can master the
game through a gamer mode approach, learning
how to play the game successfully without any
deeper analysis of what concepts the ambiguous
graphical element stands for. In an educational
game however, the underlying domain that
graphical elements represent is a main priority
and must be clearly communicated through the
game interface for the learning potential

regarding this domain to remain.
In an effort to improve the quality of serious
games Pereira and Roque have formulated a set
of design guidelines, and in doing so addresses
the issue of misconceptions that may arise in
educational games due to possible ambiguity in
the interpretation of the game interface: To
prevent the player from building a mental model
inconsistent with the game model, in a serious
game all representations should have a clear
and consistent purpose either in the
interpretation of the game state or as an
aesthetic contribution [19]. The underlying
problem is illustrated by a students
misinterpretation of cars being shown adjacent to
a village as an indicator of development:
People dont want to go to the village, the cars
get there and leave right away [19], further
emphasizing that edutainment is not an
unproblematic area.
Another potentially problematic aspect of
particularly online games involving many
participating players relates to the real-time
nature of several simultaneous tasks necessary to
handle. While the communication potential of
such games is perceived positively by most, it is
interesting that the parallel processing required is
perceived as a problem by some. As pointed out
by Juul [20], many games employ a 1:1 mapping
between player time and event time. In
multiplayer games, the event time is shared by
participating players, so there is no way to go
back in time by reloading a saved game state.
The players thus need to simultaneously manage
chatting and playing, with no possibility of
redoing the exact same sequence of events. In a
survey by Wiklund, most of the negative
comments regarding communication issues
related to the flow of game time: It can stop the
game (boy, grade 4), When you miss
something because you chatted. In games I
mean (boy, grade 7), and That there is no time
to play too (boy, grade 8). [21]
Finally, there is the critique formulated by
Linderoth regarding certain types of games
having a design that may give the illusion of
learning rather than actual learning. While not
rejecting the concept of learning games in
general, Linderoth [22] describes cases where
the underlying design of some games reward the
293
amount of time spent playing, rather than tasks
hard to complete. This can be done explicitly, or
implicitly by requiring the player to perform
repetitive tasks, or rewarding him/her for doing
so.
Such a game design may give a sense of
achievement and progress even if only repetitive
and non-challenging task are performed by the
player: From the ecological perspective,
observations of someone being able to play and
progress in a game cannot be taken for granted
as constituting the outcome of advanced learning
processes. What we see might just as well be
progression that is built into the game system,
and a practice that, compared to other domains,
requires very little learning from its
practitioners. and Games can give us the
sensation of progress and empower us without
demanding that we develop the kind of skills that
many other domains require. Thus, perhaps
some good video games offer a pleasure that
comes from a continuous illusion of learning.
[22]
4 POSSIBLE LONG-TERM LEARNING
STIMULATING EFFECTS FROM
COMPUTER GAME USE
On the other hand also an indirect, or meta level
learning increasing effect from games is
conceivable, by which none or very little actual
learning takes place in the game, but instead the
player is indirectly stimulated to undertake
learning at a later time. This could be staged on a
symbolic level in the game world, due to the way
skills are typically represented in many computer
games.
Using the NASA case as an example, with the
direct game based learning approach first
mentioned, there might be such things as quests
failing if a player in orbit around a planet tried to
travel much faster than another vehicle in the
same orbit, as this would traverse him or her into
another higher orbit, as illustrated in figure 1.
Given that the player then realizes that two
objects cannot travel with different speeds in the
same orbit, learning will have occurred.
Unfortunately, this approach may suffer from the
drawbacks regarding edutainment, or serious
games, described earlier.
Hypothetical direct approach edutainment example
Orbit
Capsule
Inadvertent
higher
orbit
Space station
Figure 1. The catch up problem. Two objects cannot travel

with different speeds in the same orbit without the
presence of additional forces. A player in an orbiting
capsule faced with the task to catch up with a space station
will inadvertently end up in a higher orbit unless
compensating measures are taken. The quest architecture
directly involves learning issues relevant to the simulated
domain.
With an indirect meta approach aiming at longterm effects regarding later learning however,
there might instead be such things as labs with
confused scientists and experiments having gone
wrong. The related quests might have goals
vaguely describing the need to help the scientists
by locating missing equipment, symbolically
turning knobs on the lab equipment, or even
fight experimental robots wreaking havoc,
without any actual knowledge being gained in
this immediate process.
The acting mechanism with this meta approach
would instead be the quest reward, typically
consisting of increased skills in fields related to
the type of lab, as indicated in figure 2. This
could be indicated by an increasing numerical
skill level value accessible through the game
interface, as well as associated positive messages
informing the player that he or she has gained
skills in fields commonly associated with higher
education studies.
294
Hypothetical indirect/meta approach example
Quest objectives to help scientists by

Locating missing equipment
Operating equipment
Fighting robots wreaking havoc
Lab
Lab
Increased chemistry, engineering,

and space technology skills, etc
Figure 2. Quest architecture not directly involving

learning issues relevant to the simulated domain. While no
actual learning need to take place at game time other than
purely operational skills in order to play the game,
successful completion of quests lead to skill gains in fields
commonly associated with higher education.
If the meta, or indirect learning approach game is

then designed so that when a high enough skill
level in say, space technology is achieved, then
and only then can the player proceed (through
space travel) to an amazing-looking space station
on the surface of the moon, then the game has a
potential to trigger an important psychological
reward mechanism in the players mind.
Through the gradual fulfilment of the involved
skill level requirements as indicated in figure 3,
the causality of the perceived experience is
ideally that with high enough skills, I could
travel to the moon and beyond.
Hypothetical indirect/meta approach skill checks
Control
center
Skill
check
Space
camp
Skill
check
Space
station
Skill
check
Moon
Skill
check
Mars
Proxima
centauri
IX
Skill
check
Progress associated with higher (simulated real life) skills
Figure 3. Skill checks applied before allowing

advancement to higher game levels or desirable areas of
the game associates the concept of possessing high skills
with pleasant experiences. Using simulated real life skills
such as electronics, physics or space technology in this
context may indirectly influence the player when making
later higher education choices.
With this approach it would not matter that the

actual learning will have to take place elsewhere,
and most likely later when the player makes
decisions about his or her higher education. The
important thing with this concept would rather
be positive experiences associated with reaching
in-game goals of high enough skills and the
subsequent rewards of going into space and
similar pleasant adventures. The meta level goals
strived for by the game developer would be these
positive feelings and their association with
acquiring skills, residing in the players mind,
and remaining as (conscious or unconscious)
memories long after the computer game has
ended.
What would happen at game-time in a game with
such a (hypothetically working) meta approach is
not learning in the classical sense, but something
perhaps even more interesting from a long term
society perspective: the players attitude towards
learning may change in a positive direction. This
would not be a learning game, but a learning
stimulating game.
That this suggested learning stimulation effect
may result from playing games not specifically
designed for learning purposes is particularly
interesting, as learning games and serious games
have been criticised for lack of stimulation and
that they sometimes tend to be too serious and
not particularly engaging [23]. This also means
that at least indirect learning effects may result
from games closer to the Dutch historian and
cultural theorist Johan Huizingas definition of
play. In his well-known book Homo Ludens,
Huizinga claims that play should be seen as a
non serious and free activity. [24]
How Huizingas view of play should be
interpreted and related to game based learning
has been discussed and there is no clear
consensus [25], [26]. Huizingas description of
Homo Ludens as a naturally playing man with
play as a prime condition for the generation of
culture could be traced back to the romantic idea
of Friedrich Schiller on play drive (spieltrieb).
Here man is found to be fully human only when
he is playing. In his series of letters On the
Aesthetic Education of Man [27] Schiller stated
that:
Man plays only when he is in the full sense of
the word a human being, and he is only fully a
human being when he plays.
295
Even if the essential ideas in Huizingas book are
on playing rather than on gaming [26] the book
has brought in ideas in to modern game research
in articles on playing everything from digital
online multiplayer games like World of Warcraft
[28] to more traditional multiplayer games like
Football [29]. Play and logic are essentially
different phenomena and there must also be a
distinction between playing and gaming [26].
Games are defined by rules and with abstract
challenges that result in quantifiable outcomes
[30]. To insert educational content into various
kinds of educational games is a strong trend that
some researchers have described as a mad rush
where sound educational principles and theories
sometimes are absent [31].
This touches on the issue of whether playing and
learning could be viewed as intertwined
activities both contributing together to
knowledge acquisition, or as a pair of separate
activities where the former is limited to a being
motivator for the latter. Restricting the role of
the game playing component to a motivator for
learning still means that considerable care has to
be taken to implement the pair in a suitable way.
As Sigurdardottir summarises: One of the
fundamental discussions related to DGBL is the
discussion about play on one hand and learning
on the other. While most of the contributors to
the debate argue that playing is a good
motivator for learning, some have claimed play
to be overestimated. Amongst those who do view
play as a good motivating factor there is still a
debate about whether or not it is adequately
employed in educational games. [32].
In a broad sense educational games might be
defined as games that are designed to teach
someone something and that almost any
initiative that combines gaming and education
can be considered as game based learning [33].
Serious games on the other hand should be
designed for a distinct purpose and not for pure
entertainment [30], and they have also been
presented as:
a mental contest, played with a
computer in accordance with specific
rules, that uses entertainment to further
government or corporate training,
education, health, public policy, and
strategic communication objectives.

[34]
In the widest sense, the suggested learning
stimulating effects from COTS games discussed
here could be included under the umbrella of
game based learning. This could be the case even
though the involved games are not actual
learning games by design, a concept that also has
support in the field of pedagogy. Especially in
constructivism, the potential of combining games
with learning has been discussed.
In older constructivism intelligence has been
defined as the development of an assimilatory
activity elaborated by the interaction between
itself and the external environment [35]. With
the existence of todays virtual game worlds, this
external environment has grown larger, with
increased possibilities of interaction through
numerous varying game types. Sometimes, these
game themes and environments are strongly
aligned with the game type and its associate
functionality, while in other cases the underlying
domain is merely a backdrop for quite
contrasting game actions.
In a basic definition all games are built upon a
set of defined rules dictating functionality,
playing options and challenges. Rules, narration
and reward structures can have large variations,
with conflict and competition games differing
from cooperation and collaboration games [30].
Narration and game themes are not always
aligned and sometimes the game titles can be
misleading. Gamers that expected Halo Wars
and Brutal Legend to be about intense combat
got disappointed when they found out that these
games were of strategy type [36]. This is by far a
new concept since even pure strategy games like
chess originally are built on a symbolic warfare
concept.
A recent example is Spore, a game with
evolution as the main theme, although one
criticism from subject matter experts has been
that the connection to evolution is weak, and that
the games popularity seems to be based more on
players interest in creativity and fantasy rather
than curiosity about biology [36]. On the other
hand, a classic example of type and theme
alignment is former president John F. Kennedys
favourite game Diplomacy, which might be seen
as a learning game including diplomatic
296
negotiation techniques. Flight simulators and
music games also have high type-theme
cohesion, while purely abstract games like Tetris
can be highly addictive even without any defined
theme (ibid). In the light of this, the game type
seems more important than the backstory, and
learning games and serious games lacking
playability are risking to be unplayed and seen as
boring from a gamers perspective [23].
There are still quite few educational games that
enchant players, one possible reason being the
relatively small development funding compared
to
standard
budgets
for
mainstream
entertainment games. The excitement over the
actual game type is seen to be superior to content
[36], however if a player spends hundreds of
hours in a realistic space environment or a wellarranged historical setting it is hard to rule out
theme related influence completely. Even
without any game mechanisms at all a wellformed virtual environment like Second Life is
claimed to stimulate curiosity, creativity and
learning activities [37], [38], which can be seen
as an example of constructivist ideas regarding
interaction with ones environment in the
learning process.
The meaning of interaction and playing games
has been described by the Russian pedagogue
Lev Vygotsky [39], another constructivist that
find games to have a potential for training that
might be applied in real world situations. He has
also distinguished between a learners actual
development and the potential development that
is possible only under guidance and
collaboration.
A more radical constructivist view in which
knowledge is only inter-subjectively or even
only subjectively constructed seems harder to
combine with curricula at university level, at
least in natural and computer sciences. The
Situated
learning
concept
related
to
constructivism that has been described by Jean
Lave and Etienne Wenger appears to be more
applicable to modern adult learning. This is a
type of learning where individuals are supposed
to construct knowledge by socialisation,
visualisation, and problem solving [40].
However, it is not possible to find any guidelines
in constructivism covering how games should be
designed more in detail to be engaging and to
support learning at the same time. On the other
hand, as some researchers have pointed out in

the exploration of game design for the modern
Homo Ludens generation, it is likely the case
that: pleasure comes before performance and
engagement before clarity [41].
As the potential learning stimulating effect of
playing games discussed in this paper is separate
in time from future learning environments, this
particular aspect of games and learning does not
suffer from some problems otherwise arising
when combining these areas. To illustrate this,
Heideggers concept of breakdown and the
related terms ready-to-hand and present-at-hand
[42] may be in conflict with the concept of flow
[43], [44]. As discussed in [45] breakdown may
be beneficial from a learning perspective, while
on the other hand it may be a desirable game
design goal to keep the player in a highly
enjoyable mental state of uninterrupted flow as
much as possible [46]. These mechanisms are
not in conflict with each other if not occurring in
the same context.
It is interesting that in the critique put forward by
Linderoth that some game designs may give the
illusion of learning rather than actual learning,
one possible positive effects of such an illusion
is touched upon: Since one of the reasons why
players might feel motivated could be that games
give us a feeling of having achieved more than
we have, this design pattern gives us an illusion
of learning. An experience of becoming better
and progressing towards a goal without having
to develop skill might not be something that
educational institutions benefit from. Maybe it
can be used in order to enhance self-esteem for
low achieving students where the illusion of
progression can be something positive and have
an effect on real performance. [47].
The view suggested in this paper is both in line
and at the same time not in line with Linderoths
comment above, when we expand the learning
illusion effect to a wider scenario. While
agreeing that illusion of progression may have an
effect on learning performance where enhancing
self esteem is an issue, we argue that educational
institutions may also benefit from the illusion of
learning in a wider sense. When seen in a longterm societal context, memories of previous ingame success enabled by illusorically achieving
skills may be a factor when decisions to apply
for higher education are made.
297
6.
Johnson, S.: Everything Bad is Good for You.

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5 FUTURE RESEARCH
9.
To further investigate the learning stimulation

effects discussed here, a long term as well as
large scale study is needed. Initially, key
variables might be level of higher education in
relation to previous gaming experience. This first
step could be carried out through a survey
focusing on quantitative data from respondents
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age group.
Gee, J. P.: What video games have to teach us about

learning and literacy. Palgrave Macmillan, New York
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This possible long-term effect of games

portraying skill increases in areas associated with
higher education is something that goes beyond
the debate on pros and cons of learning games.
Learning stimulating games can be seen as a
third thing in game based learning, with
indirect acting mechanisms which may affect
what later learning is undertaken.
Comparing average prior gaming activity among

university students with that of other groups may
show a distinct pattern, but is in itself only a first
step towards a deeper understanding. To get a
deeper understanding of the topic, the
quantitative study may be complemented with an
in-depth qualitative study based on interviews.
Through this combination of data sources, issues
regarding causality can be discussed such as the
possible learning stimulating effects suggested in
this paper.
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300
A Framework for Adopting Blended Learning in Traditional School Based Learning

Aisha Othman, Crinela Pislaru, Ahmed Impes
University of Huddersfield, School of Computing & Engineering, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
Email u1050030@hud.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Poor traditional learning methods have been a main
concern in learning and teaching activity. These
traditional methods (talk and chalk) is being
replaced by online learning, it helps students to get
all the knowledge using diversified tools, it places the
student at the centre of the educational process rather
than the teacher, and the role of the teacher is to
improve their skills, and promote research and
curiosity to seek the information, and then analyse,
evaluate and use it. Generally school-based learning
(SBL) and laboratory-based learning (LBL) activities
are delivered via a blended learning approach. The
novel framework includes an e-learning package
which enables the development and improvement of
students ICT skills, digital age literacy, inventive
and higher-order thinking before they attend the
practical lab sessions. The proposed pedagogical
approach will enable the current generation of
students to be better prepared for a workplace where
computers, the Internet and related technologies, are
becoming more and more ubiquitous.
Keywords: blended learning; ICT skills; laboratory
based learning; virtual learning environment; digital
literacy.
1. INTRODUCTION
More and more lecturers in higher education
have experience with technology, and are
looking for new ways to adapt their traditional
ways of training and teaching and for flexible
tools capable of supporting blended learning. As
lecturers in higher education institutions all over
the world with experience of technology attempt
to take advantage of it in their profession, it is
important to realize that their role as lecturers
has remained basically the same over the years:
to inspire students, to educate, and to provide
them with the necessary means to build solid
foundations for a effective future. Given the
significance of the usage of new technology to
the different areas of the state, online learning is
a significant modern method for delivery,
facilitation and interaction of both learning and
teaching processes. With access to this new

technology assisted by globalisation trends there
appears to be a significant opportunity to
develop the higher education in the Arab
countries. [1]
There is an urgent desire to develop the quality
of higher education. In fact, current Libyan
higher education is still based on traditional
methods; however, as far as Libya is concerned,
a set of studies has been conducted in relation to
higher education (HE) exploring improvement
potential. These studies have underlined the
significance of training the teaching team to
employ electronic education methods [2],[3],[4].
As a matter of fact the institutions of HE in
Libya are facing several of problems, for
example the growing number of students. Other
issues take account of the lack of teachers. There
is, however, still further research required to
fully understand what needs to be done to
develop the competence of the institutions and
the performance of higher education overall in
Libya [5],[6]. A review of previous research
concerning the employment of modern
technology in HE in Libya indicates that most of
these studies have focussed on the theoretical
perspective like identifying the potential barriers
as well as defining the use of modern technology
[6]. Also, these studies have analysed the
different opinions of students and academics
related to the application of modern technology
in international HE. By contrast, a limited
number of studies have concentrated on the
practical application of modern technology in
education particularly in Libya. The current
research is attended to provide a contribution to
developing the competence and performance of
the Omer AL-Mukhtar University in Libya. The
implementation of digital tools in learning and
teaching has attracted significant interest from
practitioners in Libyan higher education.[7]
Several public universities have started to
implement and adopt (ICT) solutions such as the
online environment as a tool for flexible learning
and teaching processes either in the classroom
301
outside. This method is referred to as the online
learning method. They aim to position it as a
transmission centre in the educational process
from the teacher. to the student, to build interest
in online learning in public education, and for it
to be an important pillar for the upgrading of
knowledge for students. A virtual environment
based on e-learning technology is used to send
and receive information. However, for online
learning to be interactive, it has to be blended
with face-to-face forms. This method is called
the blended learning approach. This paper
proposes a pedagogical framework for a
computer programming module to improve the
effectiveness of lab based learning.[8]
Traditional classes require the teacher to provide
interaction and discussion, demonstration and
communication with students face-to-face. In
addition learners communicate and interact with
each other. Teachers have to give all the
exercises and assignments to students by
themselves. The traditional classroom provides
many chances for interaction between learners
and teachers and among learners. However, this
interaction is restricted to one place at one
scheduled time which may not be convenient.
Furthermore, the lack of tools in the laboratory
or class session may not support an effective
learning and teaching process. Integration of
information and communication technology in
learning and teaching has changed the design of
the curriculum, the way students learn, and the
way they and the teachers communicate. Online
learning has become an increasingly important
part of the experience in the field of teaching and
learning for teachers as well as students. Online
learning allows the difficulties and restrictions
imposed by the traditional school based learning
to be overcome. This method makes a variety of
sources, global networks managed to provide
resources and information for educational
communities available. Yet, e-learning has some
limitations; one being that it requires more
discipline from students. It has limited
communication between the teacher and
students, and may lead to lower attendance. All
of these obstacles and constraints tend to lead to
reduced efficiency of teaching and learning.[9]
An advocate of the concept of online learning
believes that this style of education has its tools
and methods, and is not merely random requiring
simply the plugging in of technology in our
schools and universities, but rather we need to

have a set of steps based on evidence and
research to teach the inputs, processes and
outputs to cover the full gamut of elements and
components to be integrated into the learning
environment where there are communication
channels and digital interaction between students
and teachers through the exchange of
experiences and educational views, discussions
and dialogues aiming to exchange views with the
aid of various communication channels such as,
email and online chat and virtual classroom. The
present disadvantages of e-learning include: [10]
Focus on the skills side without paying
attention to the emotional side and
encourages inwardness in the students.
Furthermore, it uses only two senses, hearing
and sight, and not the others.
Difficulties can be encountered in applying
these methods and it requires a certain type
of teacher. It also neglects human
interactions and relationships between
teacher and student and many students still
prefer the traditional way of attending
lectures.
From the above, we find that online learning is
difficult to apply, so we are still in need of a
transition that will move from traditional
learning to online learning and this stage should
be a specific period for the institution before it
enters the world of E-Learning. This transition
phase is sometimes called blended learning. It
represents a mix between traditional education
and e-learning and helps us to train in ELearning and build knowledge of its features and
disadvantages so that its usefulness for students
can be fully understood. As both traditional
education and e-learning have strengths and
limitations, it is best to blend the best parts of
both approaches. This paper focuses on
understanding the implementation steps for
blended learning and the definition of blended
learning. It also suggests the advantages of
blended learning in order to improve learning
and teaching experiences.[10] This approach
blends traditional learning and e-learning
together, in the processes of teaching and
learning, so that the use of e-learning tools
become a part of education in the classroom.
Many specialists who support this theory see its
relevance in the application of e-learning, as it
combines the advantages of e-learning with
302
classroom benefits. This approach will be
discussed in more detail further on in this paper.
Blended Learning is a term that refers to the
confusion between face-to-face and e-learning; it
does not require the use of high-quality
techniques, but instead consists of multiple
approaches to teaching and learning. learning is
facilitated by the effective combination of
different modes of delivery, models of teaching
and styles of learning, and founded on
transparent communication amongst all parties
involved with a course.[ 11].For the majority of
people who apply this model, blended learning is
a combination of traditional learning and elearning, which can be used to teach and learn in
the classroom, where the virtual environment
becomes a natural extension for face-to-face
learning. For this study, blended e-learning shall
be employed. Blended E-Learning has an
important role, and real potential to gather the
best elements of the e-learning approach and
traditional learning in university teaching. The
significant benefits are: flexibility, reduction of
cost, and the saving of time. The next section
aims to present the main benefits for blended elearning. [ 12]
2.
QUALITIES OF THE TEACHER

EDUCATION UNDER THE BLENDED
LEARNING
Blended Learning needs a special type of teacher

who has the ability to deal with modern
technology and modern software, use the
Internet and understand the design of electronic
tests so that he or she can explain the lesson in
the traditional way and then conduct the practical
application on the computer, solving electronic
tests and using the links related to the lesson,
which explain the subject and enables the student
to share in the search process so that the role of
the student is important and participative and is
not merely a recipient in the process. The teacher
also has greater flexibility in designing the
lesson themselves and is not necessarily
restricted to the material physically available
within the school. It is important the teacher has
the ability to combine traditional teaching with
skills such as designing electronic tests,
multimedia, email as well as creating spirit of
participation, and interactivity in the classroom.
3.
IMPORTANCE
LEARNING
OF
LAB-BASED
Firstly, the laboratory enables students to

develop experience and skills in conducting
experiments, and to gain familiarity with the use
of devices as well as the ability to define some of
the materials used. Secondly, since laboratory
experiments often rely on accuracy, students
develop awareness of the need to be accurate in
the weights of materials used and the importance
of precision in operating conditions. Finally,
laboratory experiments encourage students to
think, discover and research, which helps to
familiarize them with the methodology and
design of scientific research [6].
Henige [7] identifies five categories of aims that
may be achieved by usage of the lab in science
classes:
2. Skills investigative,
organizational,
manipulative, inquiry, communicative;
3. Concepts - for instance, taxonomic category,
hypothesis, theoretical model;
4. Cognitive abilities - application, analysis,
critical thinking, problem solving, synthesis;
5. Understanding of scientific learning scientists, scientific enterprise and how it
works
interrelationships
between
technology and science; Attitudes - such as
risk taking, objectivity, curiosity, interest,
precision,
responsibility,
consensus,
collaboration, confidence, perseverance,
satisfaction and enjoyment of science.
The computer science lab: is an academic place
within the university for students who have
already learnt the principles of computer use and
followed preparation courses in the field of
computers, as they will have studied in the
information technology teaching lab for basic
computer education classes. In the computer
science lab, the computer can be used as a means
to design research programs, print reports and
undertake activities. Students can use the lab
during leisure hours to gain further computing
skills; it can also be used for team training if a
particular school chooses to hold workshops in
the computer lab [8]. The computer lab is a
designated, separate room within the university
department, and is designed to accommodate
approximately 35 computers. Learners should
have an understanding of the majority of the
303
software in the computer science laboratory. The
main goal is to gain practical experience and to
learn teamwork through the use of a set of
software programs, as well as to develop
knowledge and skills. Such skills include the
implementation and testing of programmable
hardware; programming language; the design
and testing of software and supporting tools
which can be used to conduct practical work;
research, and exploration of various aspects of
computing knowledge. The lab can also be used
to do homework.
Students
attend
obligatory
schoolroom
laboratory exercises and tutorials. To get an
acceptable final mark the students must pass a
written test at the end of the schoolroom lectures,
achieve all the exercises in the LBL and pass the
final examination, in the form of a computerbased exam. Undergraduates are not allowed to
take the final examination unless they have
finished the laboratory exercises which are based
on LBL and classroom tutorials which are based
on SBL. The learners have classes and lectures
(SBL), which are obligatory, and include the
introduction of new concepts.[12] Students are
expected to prepare the programming exercises
in the (LBL) and complete this in their own time.
Of course, the main assessment of the session is
currently considered a closed book containing a
mixture of multiple choice questions and article
questions. The computer learning course is a
hard course, with an average exam pass rate of
50%. The aim of the course is to offer students
introductory knowledge of programming
languages and computing based learning to make
them capable of solving problems using search
production rules and algorithms. In the LBL,
students use computers in order to solve some
practices which are taught theoretically in SBL.
Each year, more than 100 learners apply for this
course. Some students are ghosts who never
come to the labs or show up at lectures.
Recently, the academic staff within the
department has observed that students display a
lack of practical experience and understanding of
theoretical subjects that are essential to the
success of lab sessions. Internal review reports
show issues related to the learning processes and
traditional teaching methods, limited access to
IT, a lack of development processes, poor
curriculum review, and a limited link between
the practical tasks and course material.[13]
Due to the large class sizes, especially at

undergraduate level, many Libyan universities
face significant challenges in adequately
assessing student learning and providing
feedback to students. Additionally, there are
shortages of adequate teaching facilities and
science educators. Some universities have opted
to increase the number of faculty members, or to
alleviate some of the strain by increasing the
number of students who use one computer, but
the majority of students still display a lack of
practical experience and understanding of
theoretical subjects during the computer lab
sessions.
For the above mentioned reasons, the novel
framework includes an e-learning package which
enables the development and improvement of
students ICT skills, digital age literacy,
inventive and higher-order thinking before they
attend the practical lab sessions.
First, we will decide which is the most
appropriate delivery method for the content and
objectives of the course. The theoretical lessons
are still delivered via a traditional way which is
face-to-face and tutoring in the LBL within three
months (one semester). The rest of the activities
and communication will be conducted using an
e-learning package though we will add blend
where appropriate. Course conversion will
organize in four steps according to the Process
model of the blended LBL module (see figure 2).
The conversion of the course will be realised in
three steps; the first step is to upload and prepare
the content which will be delivered. Because the
teachers in the department do not have enough
experience of e-learning we recommend a full
month for the processing of pre-existing content
and advise them to study the opportunities and
possibilities offered by the platform, as well as
the study of digital tools that can help strengthen
the traditional education to design a new
educational model. The second step is to
organize the community and adjust the content
and organization of activities on a discussion
board, which will evaluate the activities of
students and application groups of students,
including a laboratory and send mail and
download links for students. The third step is to
ask students to fill in a questionnaire to evaluate
the effectiveness of web based learning
304
Figure 2. Process model of the blended LBL module
The course content will be provided via the

Internet, audio and video tapes, satellite and CDROMs. Tavangarian et al. (2004 ) indicated that
online learning is a comprehensive term that
includes each form of educational technology
that technologically and electronically support
teaching and learning., Online learning may be
described computer-based training (CBT) or
digital educational collaboration [9]. Online
learning is a method of learning where the
delivery of information to the learner is based on
the modern technologies of the computer and the
World Wide Web such as: CD-ROMs,
educational software, e-mail, chat rooms and
discussion forums.[2]The content and sources
will be developed in such a way that many
features are available through a range of
software programs that can be used with all of
the e-learning packages and interactive CDROMs.
Content delivery: The key elements to provide

content for the proposed computer programming
course are:
Multimedia components will be on CD only.
The purpose of this is to help the student
understand the step-by-step lesson without the
risk of a slow Internet connection, and to
provide self-learning materials through
PowerPoint slides and e-tutorial to supplement
the text before going to the lab.
Feedback with self-evaluation (both on elearning package and CD). This will consist of
self-evaluation and continuous assessment for
all modules in the form of learning practical
tasks, short answer questions, quizzes, and a
questionnaire to assess the modules. All of
these are part of the educational curriculum.
An interactive learning forum will be provided
in the prototype via email, blog, wiki, and
discussion board.
Synchronous teaching lessons: This kind of elearning needs instructors and students to be
involved online at same time from anywhere.
Style and learning techniques based on the
global information network "Internet" to connect
305
and share lectures and research topics between
the learner and the teacher in real-time via:
Virtual Classroom, Videoconferencing, and Chat
rooms. The positives of this type of education for
learners include immediate feedback and
reduced cost and time attending the place
ofstudy, and the disadvantages are the need to
acquire modern equipment and a good
communications network. The most common
types of e-learning are complex and
sophisticated, involving online meetings
between learner and teacher. The author agrees
with specialists who see that synchronous elearning may also occur in the classroom and
using the media of computer technology and the
Internet and under the supervision and guidance
of a teacher.
Asynchronous teaching lessons: In indirect
education, students get educated on courses
which permint them to select times and places
that suit their circumstances, by employing some
of the methods and tools such as e-learning, email, the World Wide Web (www), file transfer,
and CDs. Positive: This kind of education in
which the learner chooses a time and place
appropriate to them also enables them to refer to
learning materials in electronic form at any time.
Negatives: the learner is unable to get immediate
feedback from the lecturer. It is indirect
education which does not require the presence of
learners at the same time .However,, there is a
global development in both the technology and
e-learning, and this has lead to the emergence of
various ways and techniques of learning and
teaching; for example virtual classrooms. This
classroom can work more effectively offering an
easy way to share materials, uploading and
reviewing students tasks, and for holding
debates through online chats. The virtual
classroom is a teaching and learning
environment located within a computer-mediated
communication system . A set of software tools
that enables the teacher to design activities for
the modules is to be considered (such as Author
Plus) with which you can design activities
according to the inclinations and abilities of the
students studying the module. These tools can be
used to design individual lessons or entire
courses and are suitable for all teachers with
basic computer skills.
Personal computer-based flash technology, for

instance Camtasia Studio and Adobe Captivate,
can be used to make asynchronous lessons. It can
simply produce demonstrations and software
tutorials in streaming video and flash models for
students. Camtasia is also good for making
lessons for learning management systems and
software packages. When presented in the
laboratory, the demonstrated actions are
frequently too difficult or too quick to see and
absorb. It is a screen recording platform that
records both the audio and video elements of any
action that can be presented or demonstrated on
a computer screen including demonstrations of
Java applets, PowerPoint lectures, computer labs
assignments, software. This video can be
converted to Real Player, Flash, and Media
Player, which then can be offered for viewing on
the Internet. The microphone, Camtasia Studio
and a web camera are all that is needed to make
the video. Recording of PowerPoint lessons in
video presentations is also possible. The
researcher has been developing a complete elearning solution based on users requirements.
The text content is integrated with the
application. Integration of the electronic modules
is in progress. After integration, the e-learning
package of the training program is to be hosted
on the network, and flash technology will based
on the personal computer. Furthermore, a flash
file is highly compressed which requires only
small storage space; also it has a good level of
synchronous audio and visual integration. Flash
can be good for creating step by step
corresponding and animations to make the
learning materials more persuasive and
memorable. For instance, when programming in
C++, the lecturer could encounter mistakes after
the software package is compiled. This package
software is very helpful for recording the
common errors and how these can be corrected
in the real application. The course will be
completed by the author using PC-based flash
technologies like Camtasia Studio. The author
suggests these teaching materials will be more
effective for students in support of the learning
experience in both lab and classroom learning
environments associated to normal PowerPoint
notes. There are specialized programs and
websites on the Internet that can be used to
design lessons and create teaching material such
as Program Author Plus which is used in the
306
design of lessons and modules of the English
language, and the program Hotpotatoes which is
used in the design of lessons and modules of the
read-only variety, and there are also programs
available that can be used in the design of any
module in any discipline including Macromedia,
Authorware, and programs such as PowerPoint
and Netscape Communicator which can be used
in the design of lessons and to conduct
presentations and can be used on the Internet and
outside the network. The teacher completes the
entire design process, writing texts, forming
questions adding still and moving images,
sounds, music, links etc.
4.
PROPOSED
PEDAGOGICAL
FRAMEWORK FOR ICT MODULE
The pedagogical design should link together the
course contents, learning environments, teaching
and learning styles, assessment methods,
learning outcomes, learning processes, and
learning activities. The design of the proposed
pedagogical framework considers these aspects
(see Figure 3).
Step 1 - Pre-analysis
In order to make sure that blended learning can
be utilized, a set of analyses and observation
must first be carried out. These analyses should
contain three elements:
(1) Analysis of student characteristics,

learning styles and preferences, and an
assessment of learners. It is important to
identify learner characteristics, and to assess
the extent of their readiness to learn the
material. A diagnostic test should be
conducted to determine students range of
mastery of the subject matter, and to identify
any obstacles to learning. Once a lecturer
knows how students approach learning, the
lecturer can offer more support and
encouragement by building a blended learning
environment to meet students learning needs .
Table 1 shows details about considering a new
dimension for affective skills. The proposed
pedagogical framework will be applied for a
computer programming course which is
generally attended by students who are
between 22 and 24 years old. Most students
lack practical experience and understanding of
theoretical subjects that are essential to the
success of lab sessions. Students have studied
an introductory module during their third year
of study. So they should have a clear
understanding of the Higher Education
demands, familiar with the classroom
technology, and have the basic skills in using
those
tools
and
technology.
Table 1. The new dimension for affective skills related to ICT course [6]
307
(2)Needs analysis. Based on Blooms Taxonomy
and Kolb model for the learning cycle, an
analysis must be undertaken to determine and
develop appropriate teaching and learning styles
for the LBL module [3]. This analysis may
consist of tests, questionnaires, discussions, or
the examination of previous school records and
documents. The model contains components of
emotional intelligence which can enhance
personal qualities, and assist in the intellectual
growth of the students, as well as affecting
emotions under the guidance of memory,
judgment and final decision. As a result, learners
can motivate themselves to manage their
emotions to improve their relationships with
others. So it seems that after entering the college
of colleges, what distinguishes between the
students and their success is not linked to their
intelligence but is often linked to social and
emotional factors and some studies indicate that
emotional and social skills to help improve
cognitive function. Moreover, the private sector
as future employers require graduate recruits
with high levels of emotional intelligence. The
cultural awareness which is defined as [9] being
prepared to realize the behaviour of others and to
react in a positive manner to the differences
between cultures. Moreover, students must be
able to make a better impression and should be
more culturally aware in the LBL. This should
also assist students of computer science to
understand the acts of others, beliefs and values.
Social competence is an individual's ability to
interact effectively with those around him, which
includes the ability to find a suitable place for
the individual in social situations, and determine
personality traits and emotional situations for
others successfully, and the selection of
appropriate means of treatment and to achieve
these means during the interaction, and develop
social competence at a time where the individual
learns how to relate during joint activity with
others. Lab demonstrators confirmed that social
competencies should be taught to students of
computer science in the SBL to be seen in reality
during the LBL.
(2) This dimension concentratess on the way
which things can be dealt with things
emotionally,
such
as
appreciation,
enthusiasm, feelings, values, attitudes and
motivation.
(3) This analysis will provide the lecturer

with an initial idea about various learners
needs. So one can decide how to utilize
educational multimedia in order to advance
the overall cognitive and emotional growth of
the learners by taking into account any
shortages in technology.
Computer science students transfer their
knowledge in practice, mathematics and
programming language skills. Students must
know about the device processes, safety
standards, computer applications, and the use of
the device, etc. These skills are usually easy to
monitor, measure and identify, through the SBL.
Students must show a high level of competence
in specific technical skills through the LBL
program in order to increase the chance to get a
job in future. In addition to the above, there are
some skills that should be available to both the
teacher and the student:
Ability to use Windows commands
Ability to use Word
The ability to download software from the
Internet and CD-ROMs
The ability to move from one program to
another
Ability to use e-mail
Knowledge of Internet terms.
The ability to use search terms to locate
required information
The ability to communicate in writing.
Considerations to be taken into account to
increase the effectiveness of the online
module.
Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) was an
educational psychologist who was interested in
improving student learning. In the late 1940s,
Bloom and other educators worked on a way to
classify educational goals and objectives, which
resulted in three learning categories or
domains and the taxonomy of categories of
thinking. Each of the three categories requires
learners to use different sets of mental
processing to achieve stated outcomes within a
learning situation. Thus, instructional goals and
objectives should be designed to support the
different ways learners process information in
these domains.
308
Cognitive domain (knowledge) verbal or

visual intellectual capabilities
Affective domain (attitudes) feelings,
values, beliefs
Psychomotor domain (skills) physical
skill capabilities
There are some examples of students future
skills which should be developed in accordance
with Blooms Taxonomy:
Knowledge Level: Knowledge in this research
context refers to the students ability to recall
software engineering concepts that they have
learnt in classes. Knowledge level questions
include the keywords define, list, arrange, order,
and state. Below are some sample questions that
fall under this level:
What is a global variable?
List 5 reserved words in C programming.
Understanding Level: Comprehension in this
research context refers to the students ability to
understand and restate or describe a learnt
concept using their own words or explanation.
Comprehension level questions include the
keywords
explain,
describe,
discuss,
identify,review, select, and predict. Below are
some sample questions that fall under this level:
Identify the value of x after running this
program fragment:
Predict the output of this program fragment:
Describe 4 types of coupling in software design.

Describe the Pareto Principle in statistical
software quality assurance.
Application Level:Application in this research
context refers to the students skill in using the
theories learnt to solve new problems.
Application level questions include the keywords
classify, write, apply, choose, and interpret.
Below are some sample questions that fall under
this level:
Write a for loop that produces this output
Write an if statement to compute and
display the average of a set of n numbers.
Calculation should only be done if n is
greater than 0, or else an error message

should be prompted.
A software system is to be developed for
Company XYZ. The client is unsure of
what the final system should be. Which
software development model would be
Analysis Level:Analysis in this research context
refers to the students ability to separate a whole
into various component parts. Analysis level
questions include the keywords analyze,
compare, contrast, distinguish, categorize,
calculate, differentiate, and test.
Below are some sample questions that fall under
this level:
Differentiate printf function calls for displaying
prompts and for echoing data.
Given that there are five members in a
democratic team, calculate the number of
communication paths needed.
Synthesis Level:Synthesis in this research
context refers to the students ability to relate
learnt software engineering concepts and
produce a new idea. Synthesis level questions
include the keywords create, construct, design,
develop, manage, organize, plan, predict,
and propose. Below are some sample questions
that fall under this level:
Construct a complete C program that reads text
strings from a text file into a suitable data
structure, sorts the list in ascending order,
displays the list on the screen and stores the list
in sorted order into the text file. Justify your
choice of data structure.
Write a C program that accepts integer inputs
from the screen, computes the total and average
values; and displays the values on the screen.
Evaluation Level :Evaluation in this research
context refers to the students ability to judge,
critic and decide on value of ideas or materials.
Evaluation level questions include the keywords
argue, debate, recommend, prioritize, justify,
rate, and decide. Below are some sample
questions that fall under this level:
Given the two solutions to the stated
programming problem, rate the solutions in
terms of efficiency and readability.
Which of the two algorithms, bubbles ort or
quick sort, is more efficient? Justify your
answer.
Given two possible solutions, A and B, to
solving the given software development
309
problem, decide on the best solution. Give your
justification.
(3) Analysis of the blended learning
environment. It is necessary to define the
features of the environment. The goal of this
framework is to determine the level of
proficiency of learners and to clarify the learning
tasks [27].
Step 2 - Design of Resources and Activities

The blended learning design differs from normal
instructional design, which focuses specifically
on resources and activities that can be used
within the SBL context. The process of
identifying the main tasks students must perform
in order to successfully function can be
implemented as required. For example, the
students can use multimedia to facilitate group
discussion by using digital tools in an e-learning
package. The digital tools can incorporate sound,
moving pictures, and animation, which can
prompt students to take a more active role in
learning by allowing them to view practices in
up close in action, and to engage with a
keyboard or mouse to navigate interactive
materials, simulation, and images. Multimedia
allows quick and effective information transfer
to all students engaged in SBL.
In our case, we will blend video, audio, text,
simulations, images and multimedia into the elearning package that will be available to
students. The lecturer will choose suitable
methods to deliver the necessary information,
such as moving pictures or animation. This will
help to engage the learners with the subject
matter. For example the lecturer may organize
the students into groups. One group may draw a
flow chart for an exercise of C programming,
and will present the idea to the other groups. A
second group may take part in a simulation
activity of C programming and discuss how to
use the program step by step (perhaps using an
online tutorial). Other students might work
individually, using the Internet and various
multimedia to carry out the editing and
organization of the elements of code and writing
scripts.
As appropriate, the lecturer and students will use
a combination of the following materials:
Flip-chart: A group of students may utilize a

flip-chart to present their ideas and explain
the use of basic commands for running
programming.
Computer: Individual students will use
online tutorials and videos for solving
problems.
Handouts: The lecturer will give to students
handouts to help them focus more on their
research for specific functions and
commands. Multimedia: Students will use
multimedia tools on the e-learning package
to discuss the issues and ideas as a group.
The digital tools will allow the incorporation
of sound into lessons, moving pictures, and
animation, which gives students a more
active role in the learning environment. They
can watch practices in action, see small
things up close, and use the keyboard or
mouse to navigate interactive materials,
simulations, and images. The use of
multimedia helps to transfer information
effectively and quickly to all students, and
can keep students interested. The lecturer
can blend video, audio, text, simulations,
images and multimedia into a single online
environment via a Moodle application
available to students from school or home.It
is more important to review and inspect each
material before providing it to students; this
stage can be used to pilot-test the lesson
materials
Review the materials. Learners will be aware
that the lecturer needs to gather the tests,
worksheets, and handouts distributed during
the SBL.
Prepare the materials. The lecturer will show
students a visual display of the basic
commands of the C programming by online
tutorial or chart, and students can write notes
during the explanation.
Prepare the environment. The lesson will be
in two different places: in the classroom and
in a lab.
The classroom setting (SBL) is arranged to
encourage student participation. The tables
are arranged for easy interaction in small
group work. A Smart Board is connected to a
computer and projected on a wall where all
students can easily see it.
The laboratory based learning (LBL)
310
provides students with access to computers
that are connected to the Internet and on
which are installed C programming and other
required programs. Students can use the
computer as a means to design research
programs, print reports and activities, and
can use the lab during leisure hours to gain
additional practice. The computers can also
facilitate team training and workshops in
computer lab. Students receive practical
experience learn teamwork with a set of
software programs, they gain experience
designing, implementing and testing
programmable hardware and software which
can use to do practical work, research, or
homework.
Step 3 Development of e-learning package
The e-learning package (which will support SBL
and LBL activities) will include:
Media unit (MU) will contain multimedia
elements without further sections. The element
of the media can be simulation, video, text,
animation or audio sequences. This is the
process of actually composing an LBL module
and preparing and producing educational
pieces and outputs (such as texts, audio
recordings, video clips, still images, computer
software, etc). This phase often begins with a
prototype (a preliminary version of the
product) in which the developer and
programmer presents a storyboard for each
screen that includes any links. This prototype
allows for checking design specifications and
may be modified once it is presented to a
sample audience. Based on the resource and
activities, the blended learning approach will
be created so the learning activities will meet
the requirements of all computer science
students, regardless of their limitations on
internet access. Consequently, a dual delivery

status (ie CD-ROM based and e-Learning
package) could be considered. While the elearning package can be used to interact
simultaneously
asynchronous
and
synchronous, the CD will include self-learning
materials multimedia.
Learning unit (LU) is a composition of objects
(learning elements and media elements) which
contain slides for lectures, documents or
questions for a test which include the
components graphics, text, and user
interactivity. Multimedia components will be
on CD only in order to help the students
understand the step-by-step lesson without the
risk of a slow Internet connection, and to
provide self-learning materials through
PowerPoint
slides
and
e-tutorials.The
feedback with self-evaluation will be included
in the e-learning package and CD. This will
consist of self-evaluation and continuous
assessment for all lectures in the form of
performing practical tasks, multiple-choice
questions, quizzes, and questionnaires. Also an
interactive learning forum will be provided so
the students and lecturers can communicate
through emails, blogs, wikis, and discussion
board. Blending technology with traditional
education in an integrated manner will enable
the students active participation to the
teaching and learning activities through cooperative and experiential learning. For
example if the students have read a CD with
relevant material before coming to the lecture
then they have developed an initial perception
of the lesson. So they will be able ask more
questions and to become involved in the
process of their own learning by doing the
thinking and drawing the conclusions from
their own thinking and experiences.
311
Figure3. The pedagogical framework of the blended learning approach

Step 4 Implementation of e-learning
package
The computing science courses are more than
theoretical courses because the lecturer should
provide explanations about how to write
programmes. Bath and Bourke [10] underline
that it is important to have course aims and
learning objectives set before considering
blended learning opportunities for your course.
So the students will attend the lecture presented
by an experienced lecturer where the theoretical
concepts will be introduced.
Then they will have to access the new e-learning
package which will contain the lecture notes and
supplementary material and exercises which will
enable the development of students skills which
will be relevant to the practical lab sessions. So
resources and time will be offered to the learners
in order to acquire the knowledge and skills
required to use certain technology before they
will actually use it.
The students will attend the practical lab session
and their answers will be stored in e-wallets that
can be accessed by different lecturers,
demonstrators, and students themselves. These
records offer evidence that students achieved
their work in a good way or not by providing the
best skills and competencies.There are three
element will cosider when implement the elearning package
Material to be learned: The material to be
learned refers to the techniques and conceptual
ideas that could be presented in the session.
These materials can be regulated and identified
by two key headings - technology and concepts.

The materials used will be independent of the
method used to provide information; effectively,
what will be learned is independent of how
this material is offered. The split between
technique and concepts will be developed from
the idea of a computer programming course
provided in two formats. Concepts may be
presented, for example, through a project, where
students can discuss issues via an online module
which is not possible in school-based learning
.Teachers comments are also a useful source of
materials for acquisition of knowledge-based
learning, and this approach enables students to
review the content of the module at home at any
time. Techniques which are usually taught
through methods such as the teacher drawing a
technical flow chart or demonstrating how to
write programming software can be learned via
the interactive facilities which are available on
the online module. The authors seek to increase
the use of digital tools in computer programming
courses, in order to help students organize
information and to visualize and understand the
internal
relationships
between
different
components of the scientific content. This can be
achieved through cooperative educational
activities, wherein students are divided into
small electronic discussion groups to achieve
common educational goals. The online module
will contain multimedia elements as additional
sections. The media elements may include
simulations, video, text, animation or audio
sequences. This part of the process involves
actually composing an LBL module by preparing
and producing educational elements and outputs
312
(such as text, audio recordings, video clips, still
images, computer software, etc.). This phase
often begins with a prototype (a preliminary
version of the product), in which the developer
and programmer presents a storyboard for each
screen that includes any links. This prototype
allows design specifications to be checked,
which may be modified once it has been
presented to a sample audience. Based on the
resources and activities, a blended learning
approach will be developed to ensure that the
learning activities meet the requirements of all
computer science students, regardless of their
limitations in terms of Internet access.
Consequently, a dual delivery method (i.e. CDROM based and e-Learning package) could be
considered. While the e-learning package can be
used for simultaneous interaction, both
synchronously and asynchronously, the CD will
include multimedia self-learning materials.
Presentation method: it refers to the method(s)
used to present the material to students in
various sessions. The style of presentation is the
dimension in the framework whereby the
academic staff decides how the materials will be
presented and how the technology will be
organised and structured. E-learning applications
offer several flexible methods to deliver
materials. This flexibility provides an exciting
opportunity for teachers to take selective
advantage of technological choices in their
presentation. As an example of how presentation
techniques can be organized, it will be useful to
consider the difference between two methods of
presentation. In a traditional laboratory-based
learning environment, the materials provided can
be presented to students in one classroom by a
teacher who speaks, using a projector or
chalkboard. The online learning module, in
contrast, places more emphasis on student
interaction, having several types of tutorial
material (e-tutorials, activities, pictures and
videos) instead of a personal face-to-face
lecture.[10]
Learning strategies : it refer to the different
ways in which material is presented to students
by the teacher in order to achieve a goal, and
these include the various means adopted by the
teacher to adjust the levels and management of
learning. This is in addition to the general

atmosphere experienced by students and
arrangement of the physical characteristics that
contribute to the process of communicating the
desired concepts and ideas. In our case, it is
therefore important to consider learning
strategies in building the online module. This
means we need to consider the process of
delivering knowledge to the learner, creating
motivation and developing the learners desire to
research, explore and work towards access to
knowledge; a clear method is required to allow
him to achieve his goal. It is no secret to the
practitioner that the process of teaching and
learning entails teaching aids, which are of great
importance in providing sensory experiences that
are difficult to achieve in the natural conditions
of the educational experience, and which help to
overcome obstacles that hinder the process of
clarification.[10].An interactive learning strategy
depends on the method of interaction between
student, lecturer and scientific material, and this
concept can be applied through several means
such as collaborative learning, e-learning,
brainstorming, problem solving, etc
Step 5 Evaluation of e-learning package
Expert evaluation - the e-learning package will
be initially reviewed by the original designer
and other design experts regarding the
following aspects: content, interface design,
technical functionality, timing, and interaction.
The prototype will be improved in accordance
with the experts comments.
User evaluation the improved prototype will
be tested on a small number of individual
students in the first instance. They have to
complete a questionnaire and adjustments may
be made before the e-learning package will be
field-tested again on a larger group.
5. CONTEXT ANALYSIS FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF LBL MODULE
User analysis: The author suggested that the
framework must consider stakeholders profiles,
technological, institutional and the pedagogical
contexts of products implementation. The
designed e-learning packages stakeholders are
the lecturers, demonstrators, and students.
Stakeholders
313
Faculty science lecturers: They teach computer
programming language at postgraduate and
undergraduate level to learners over the age of
19. The lecture is delivered by an academic
teacher based on traditional facilities, e.g.
blackboard and chalk and other basic electronic
facilities (within LBL and SBL). The lecture
material is hard copy sheets and students notes
recorded in a textbook. The lecturers, who
deliver practical and theoretical modules during
SBL, are required to hold a PhD or Masters
degree.
Faculty
science
Demonstrators:
The
demonstrator who works in the lab enables
students to understand theoretical subjects during
SBL and prepare learners for the lab exercises.
Demonstrators write programmes and solve the
most difficult problems. Demonstrators also
observe learners during their LBL programmes.
Faculty science students: are enrolled into
faculty science at age 19 based on their learning
capabilities and preferences; also they must
obtain the secondary school certificate. The
degree which they can get from faculty is the
Bachelors degree which needs four years of
study on most courses.
Institutional context
Strategy and policy - Omer AL-Mukhtar
University needs a clear mission and well
designed academic programs. The mission of the
Department of Computer Science is to prepare
graduate and undergraduate students for
productive careers in government, academia and
industry by offering an outstanding environment
for learning, teaching and research in
applications of computing and the associated
theory. The department provides theoretical and
practical educational services to colleges and
departments that need this specialization and
implementation of training courses in the use of
computers for staff and students at the university
and to supervise and follow-up and provide
maintenance of the computers at the university.
The department performs research and scientific
studies and practicals in the field of computers
and the relationship of this discipline to other
academic areas.
Qualification offered-The science faculty offers

the B.S. degree in Computing and other degrees
for different departments. The computer science
course is a compulsory course offered
throughout the eight semesters of studies of the
Department of Computing which take four years
study each year comprises two semesters, and
each semester takes three months. Learners who
register for the course come from all over Libya,
as the Department of Computing is extremely
popular with learners who need to study
programming. The computer science course is
organized into two parts, as at all universities,
one delivered through lectures which is the
theoretical part also known as School Based
Learning (SBL), with three hours of lecturing for
each module per week. SBL is based on a
lecturer-centered approach in which experienced
lecturers offer information and theoretical
knowledge via traditional tools (e.g., a chalk and
blackboard), and the students receive textbooks
and printed lecture notes. The other is the
laboratory part, with two hours per week of lab
instruction which is called laboratory based
learning (LBL). The LBL part aims to apply
empirical theories for understanding, measuring,
and improvement of the software improvement
process in the computing department. The main
objective of LBL is to train students in
techniques, technologies and equipment used on
the computing learning course. Currently, the
LBL and SBL are not working well, so it is
necessary that the faculty change the strategy of
the teaching system. Students have only two
hours each week for exercise and practical
learning in LBL, the rest of time going to
theoretical learning.
Form and assessment - Students attend
obligatory schoolroom laboratory exercises and
tutorials. To get an acceptable final mark
students must pass the written test at the end of
the schoolroom lectures, achieve all the exercises
in the LBL and pass the final examination..
Undergraduates are not allowed to sit the final
examination unless they finish the laboratory
exercises which are based in LBL and classroom
tutorials which are based on SBL. The learners
have classes and lectures (SBL) every week.
Lectures, which are obligatory, introduce new
concepts. Students are expected to prepare and
complete the programming exercises in the LBL
314
in their own time.
Of course, the main
assessment of the session is currently considered
a closed book assessment and contains a mixture
of multiple choice questions and article answers.
The computing course is a hard course, with
average exam pass rate of 50%. In order to
develop the computing course to support the

establishment of more effective learning
activities, it is necessary to review the
institutional context currently available to
support the implementation of the e-learning
package
(see
Figure
4).
Figure 4: Institutional Context

Pedagogical Context
The learning context: In order to develop the

computing course to support the establishment of
more effective learning activities, it is necessary
review the tools which are used currently to
support learning along with a summary of the
theoretical understanding of learning and how
these can be applied in the context of e-learning.
For more details see figure 5. Learning is
influenced by a set of interrelated factors. Biggs
(1999) describes the design of a good education
.
to ensure that there is no conflict between the

teaching methods, environment, curriculum, and
evaluation. He discusses learning activities
within a particular context (in terms of the
environment in which it occurs activity,
institutional procedures and educational methods
adopted restrictions), and aims to meet a set of
learning outcomes with specific evaluation
criteria through a series of tasks using a range of
tools
and
resources
315
Figure 5: Technological contexts

Technological contexts
The LBL module is based on a simple website,
which contains a set of drawings and texts on the
module, and a set of exercises and tests and
records kept of test scores. This module may be
developed to contains the animation, simulation
and audio group and the visuals and add links to
scientific material, all of which can be found on
the World Wide Web. The online module
includes a set of tools that enable the student to
communicate with the teacher and his or her
fellow students, and to look at the information
and participate in discussion. There is also the
module home page, module tools, academic
calendar, bulletin board, panel discussion, room
dialogue, module-specific information. The
course content includes scientific articles and
accompanying multimedia, readings and tasks,
lectures and special instructions and glossary,
notes and so on, both in written and spoken
format,, photos and simulations, slide shows, and

attached documents, notes, images and organizes
topics scheduled in the form of files and folders
with links leading students to different scheduled
classes.
Requires the use of online module: A PC,
operating system Windows 95, 98, 2000, 23 MB
of available memory, minimum 28.8 kbps
modem, sound cards, screen resolution of 600 x
800 pixels, earphones, storage media, certain
programs
(Realplayer,
Acrobat
Reader,
InterVideo Win DVD), browsers, such as Internet
Explorer, Internet connection, E-mail account.
A camera and special software so the student
and the teacher can capture and send images,
microphone, VOIP software and file transfer
capabilities, authoring software such as Author
Plus, Hotpotatoes, Macromedia Authorware),
programs to prepare a slide presentation and
316
visualization, such as PowerPoint, and design
programs such as Adobe Photoshop.
6. STRATEGY PLAN
If Omer Al-Mukhtar University wants to
implement blended learning then it needs to
produce a strategy plan, which would offer a
clear starting point. This plan will define the new
environment and will explain the main steps
which may include challenges faced by Libyan
universities when introducing e-learning, it
requirements which are essential to adopt a
successful blended e-learning programme. The
strategy plan of implementing blended learning
has the following summaries:
In general, behind each successful project is
leadership. Leadership plays an important role in
implementing a new project which offers
significant support for new training; without
leadership the organisational acceptance could
be slow. As research has shown that the success
or failure of an e-learning operation depends on
the structure of the organisation that is expanded
by an institutions leaders, to prepare for the
adaptation of e-learning, in order to improve
teaching and learning methods. Leaders at all
levels should reinforce participation across the
university to implement e-learning. Each leader
must have ownership of the plan of the change
management for adopting blended learning.
They should help in performance, execution and
full development.
The University should offer the essential
technical infrastructure to build an on-line
environment that is accessible to all its students.
This means providing good-quality computer
rooms and a minimum technological platform,
such as necessary access to software, current
browser versions, hardware, etc. As part of
adopting a new environment, the University will
have to provide suitable technological capability.
The system must be fully tested and anticipated
problems addressed. The University must select
the model of on-line environment and the
appropriate on-line environment platform
Learning Management System (LMS).Its
essential that the University provides training for
the tutors, to give them the essential technical
skills necessary to use the system. Since staff
development training is the main concern for
institutions in implementing any form of new
learning methods, it is essential to focus
lecturers training on how to use hardware and

software.
At the beginning of their study, the University
should provide necessary training for students to
realize a new environment, and to get the
essential skills. Quite simply, the University
should provide the students with a profile of
Internet skills, computers, understanding of
Windows and basic typing abilities, and give
students English courses to learn English
language because most of the e-sources, like
software and web content are in English, which
makes ICT and e-learning in the Libyan
education system
more
difficult.
The
government must offer the money for: an ICT
structure;
a
proper
e-learning
infrastructure ;Libyan experts to develop an
online learning and teaching environment; tutors,
due to the increase in work; developing a
software environment ;courses to train
developers and technical departments, who can
help in operation and installation of software.
7. CONCLUSIONS
The proposed pedagogical framework is
intended to raise the educational competencies
and performance of computer science lecturers
and students, and to help them achieve their
educational goals. It will encourage lecturers and
students to employ ICT in the classroom, and
this can be achieved by properly utilizing a
blended learning environment. This will
ultimately foster a spirit of cooperation and
understanding between lecturers, administrators,
and students. This study has shown that the use
of computer animations can assist students to
better understand complex and difficult concepts
in various computer courses. The LBL course
training will allow the incorporation of sound,
moving pictures, and animation into lessons,
which extends lecturers capabilities to deliver
materials that increase learners interaction with
the subject matter. Through these media,
students can watch practices in action, see
micro-views of larger structures, and navigate
interactive materials, simulations and images. Etutorials will offer step-by-step directed tours of
the entire e-learning package. Multimedia can
transfer information effectively and quickly to
all students, and can keep students interested in
317
SBL. The authors intend to blend video, audio,
text, simulations, images and multimedia into
online applications available to students at
school or home. The e-learning package will
help learners to improve research and technical
skills, which cannot be accomplished by reading
a textbook during SBL or LBL activities.
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318
Analysing the Effectiveness of IT Strategy in Libyan Higher Education

Institutes
Aisha Othman, Crinela Pislaru, Thuraya Kenan, Ahmed Impes.
University of Huddersfield, School of Computing & Engineering, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
Email u1050030@hud.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
The use of Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) has increased rapidly in the entire
education sector and teaching process. Libyan
universities, and most Libyan Higher Education
Institutes (LHEIs), are trying to update their
processes and to make Information Technology (IT)
a major factor in their education systems. This paper
will present an analysis of feedback from a group of
Libyan students studying abroad, in response to
questions about their attitude, awareness and
motivation with regard to IT. It will then evaluate the
ICT gap in Libya, using a SWOT analysis model,
which indicates the main issues for Libyan HEIs and
significant features of online teaching and learning.
The paper also discusses some online learning
activities that can be used in the design of many types
of courses, modules and programmes. In addition, the
effectiveness of different IT strategies, and the
numerous requirements for the transition from
traditional to online learning are addressed in the
narrative, including a set of proposals that could
contribute to the use of ICT and IT in achieving the
goals of educational curricula in Libya. Finally, the
authors suggest a number of recommendations for the
effective design and successful implementation of IT
strategies in Libyan HEIs.
KEYWORDS:
E-learning,
Information
and
communication
technology (ICT), Libya, student attitudes, student
satisfaction.
. INTRODUCTION
The civil war in Libya in 2011 crippled the
country's economy and has badly affected its
telecommunications sector. It is estimated that
more than US$1 billions worth of telecom
infrastructure has been destroyed, including
about 20% of the country's cell sites.
Reconstruction efforts are underway, and with an
estimated 76% growth in GDP, the country's
economic output is expected to return to pre-war
Levels[] .Libya has a good rating for literacy in

the context of the Arab world, according to the
United Nations Human Development Index [2].
Libya remains at the top of the list of African
countries in terms of education, not only
geographically, but also strategically. Libya has
always been keen to ensure access to appropriate
education for all members of its society, male and
female. The government plans to improve and
develop the ICT infrastructure of Libya, and it
seeks to develop and renovate the entire
educational process, including the development
of curricula and updating its scientific content.
The adoption of ICT within education, including
higher education, is an essential factor in its
overall development plans.
Kenan et al. [3] discuss the pedagogical,
technological and attitudinal challenges related to
this matter. The introduction of online learning
programmes in the educational system of a
specific country must take into consideration the
social and cultural aspects as well as the
technical infrastructure of that society; therefore
these elements will play a significant role in the
future success of the higher education system.
The significance of these factors differs from one
society to another, according to the values of the
society, and its customs and traditions.
The Libyan Department of Education has
emphasized that ICT will create new methods of
learning and training, and has the potential to
enhance the management of, and improve the
level of, education in Libya. The global spread of
ICT has enabled people to use technology in all
spheres of life, be it at work, at home, in schools
or in the field of entertainment. This has led to an
increased number of learners and trainers in
Libyan universities, institutes and colleges
delivering distance-learning courses [4].
319
There is a need for professional technicians who
are well trained in ICT, capable of using ICT
systems and developing them. Locally based
technicians are also required to maintain
equipment and tools leading e-fields such as elearning, e-teaching, e-business, e-healthcare and
e-government and to make them successful [5].
The proliferation of such e-fields has been
growing since the computer was developed and
made available for both personal use and as a tool
to deliver material. The use of the computer in
education has hugely increased due to the
availability of such technology. The adoption and
development of Information Technologies (ITs)
as tools will provide students in Libyan Higher
Education Institutes (LHEIs) with the
opportunity to use a wide variety of applications
and to communicate through all available forms
of technology.
The advantages of ICT for both academics and
the higher education system are countless. It can
offer communities access to digital sources and
references which are not available locally or in
hard copy; it can provide learners and tutors with
the ability to communicate remotely without
needing to be present in the classroom, give
access to interactive tutorials, and also make it
easier to obtain educational equipment for
inventions and designs [6]. However, the greatest
benefits of ICT are online learning, whereby
students have access to material at any time and
have no excuse for missing courses unless they
do not have an Internet connection [7]. Online
learning courses offer the chance for students
who cannot attend class to follow the lesson
regardless of location or time. Students can
obtain announcements, access assignments, take
notes, contribute to discussion boards, chat and
study with other students, and create their own
schedules [8].
restrictions on financial resources and staff

training, and the administrational system [9].
In spite of the known weaknesses of such an
approach, traditional teaching has provided
teachers with the means to deliver the required
course material to an ever-increasing number of
students, and to provide those students with a
clear-cut minimum of material such that they can
easily memorize it [10]. Therefore, postgraduate
students cannot generally contribute to the
learning process in the classrooms: they only
listen and take notes. Furthermore, the usage of
new technology in Libyan HEIs, such as
computers and multimedia in general, is way
behind international best practice.
Although the introduction of online learning to
Libyan HEIs faces serious challenges, the
government has been concentrating on ICT,
which has consequently opened up an
opportunity for the higher education sector to
adopt online learning. There are further studies
regarding these challenges. The government
started a 60 million e-learning pilot project in
September 2009, as a sign of approval and
support [8]. Due to the advantages of ICT,
several traditional structures are shifting towards
the online environment []. Libyan HEIs could
also benefit from the notion of active learning
and develop it, whereby the attitude of students
will change as they become not only listeners in
the class, but can also interact with the teacher
and discuss together the knowledge offered by
the subject [12].
However, it is widely agreed among a number of
Libyan educators, including Rahema et al .[13];
Elzawi et al .[14]; Kenan et al .[9] and Othman
[15] that students on postgraduate programmes in
Libyan HEIs encounter the following difficulties:
1.
2.
2.ATTITUDE,
AWARENESS
AND
MOTIVATION OF LIBYAN ICT USERS IN
LHEIS.
Teaching and learning are the cornerstones of any
HEI. However, maintaining the quality of such
processes is a continuous challenge. The main
teaching methods used by Libyan HEIs are
traditional for three main reasons: the annual
increase in the number of students enrolled,
3.
4.
5.
Lack of clear philosophy and objectives;

Absence of a plan for building the human
resources needed by society;
Absence of effective administration;
Lack of staff development in Libyan HE. It
is only recently that structured staff
development has become available to
academic staff;
Lack of a common policy (based on
scientific and international criteria) regarding
the acceptance of students onto a research
degree;
320
6.
Absence of any effective research

contribution from academic staff members,
due to their high teaching load;
7. Shortage of research activities in science and
engineering in Libyan HEIs due to the lack
of necessary facilities;
8. Ineffectiveness of postgraduate programmes
and inability to realise their goals and
objectives;
9. Reliance on traditional teaching methods;
10. Reliance on traditional methods for assessing
student performance, which do not consider
the real readiness, capability and skills of the
student.
Hence, responsible bodies in Libyan HEIs should
work towards adopting an effective IT strategic
plan that considers and efficiently tackles the
issues listed above. Naturally, achieving such a
plan will require Libyan HEIs to create a network
to enhance the flow of information and provide
mutual support and cooperation. Online learning
has the potential to be a significant part of the
solution for these issues.
3. EVALUATION OF ICT GAP IN LIBYA:
The Libyan business executive survey/global
competitiveness report (LBES/GCR) ranks Libya
97th out of 111 countries in university/industry
research collaboration [16].
SWOT is an acronym for Strengths,

Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. The
opportunity and threat should both focus on
possible future consequences, whilst strength
and weakness may involve the generation of a
list of both positives and negatives of the
analysed situation.
However, Scott [17] underlines that people who
use SWOT might conclude that they have done
an adequate job of planning and ignore such
sensible things as defining the firm's objectives
for alternate strategies. [17].
Thus, it is also important to consider various
solutions after examining the results of SWOT
analysis.
The SWOT analysis model was designed in
2012, based on experiences with LHEIs in
general, [18], and in particular on experiences at
Tripoli university where it considered the
perspectives
of
instructors,
students,
administrators and technical staff towards using
web-based instruction.
The information was obtained through
observations, experiences, many survey results
and other studies relating to students, academics,
administrators and technical staff, and represents
many attempts to analyse IT implementation by
using the SWOT model in different HEIs in
Libya in the past. This paper will present the
updated SWOT model as shown in Figure .
3.1 SWOT Analysis Model:
321
The conclusions of modern SWOT analysis
should help managers and users to choose a
convenient IT strategy for education. The aspects
which should be considered are improvement of
learners knowledge, learning outcomes,
efficiency of the teaching and learning processes,
and reduction of costs.
3.2 SWOT Model Strategy:
This indicates the main issues for Libyan HEIs

which need to be addressed, which are as
follows:
The annual increase in the number of
students enrolled
Restrictions on financial resources and staff
training
The administrational system
(mismanagement)
Development the traditional method in the
teaching & learning to e- (teaching&
learning).
The SWOT analysis results show that the
strategy is useful for determining methods to
achieve successful implementation of IT in the
Libyan universities. This strategy aims to help
decision makers at departmental level to decide
on opportunities with respect to the experience
as well as the perceptions of instructors,
students, administrators and technical staff about
using web-based instruction with the institution.
An online learning and IT strategy will offer a
framework for assessment of the impact of all
the implementation steps. The strategy should be
sufficiently flexible to accommodate changes
and developments in online learning products,
services and technology. The implementation
steps in an official setting require inclusive
strategic planning.
Having presented the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats for the new IT strategy,
there are other factors which must be considered
in relation to online learning within the
university teaching process.
Figure (1): SWOT model analysis of online learning
implementation in Libyans HEIs. 2012 [18].
3.3 Significant Properties of Online Learning in

University Teaching:
The main features and benefits of online learning

in university teaching are that it provides a new
culture, which can be called a digital culture; it
helps in providing educational opportunities for
The Strength points:

1.The proliferation of digital technology, use of computers
by all categories of society and enjoyment of internet
applications
2.Annual increase in numbers of students attending
universities
3.Lack of HEIs and universities in the south of Libya, and the
expansion of the country
4.The need to eliminate all aspects of administrative
corruption
5.The need for more control of management structure of
most LHEIs and universities
6.The need for e-libraries in LHEIs
7.Libyas strategic geographical location in Africa.
The Weakness points

1. Lack of training courses for academic staff
2. Lack of technological support and periodic
maintenance
3. The mismanagement in HEIs
4. Lack of awareness and fear of the consequences of
technology in educational bases
5. Chaos (postwar) that pervades all sectors of Libya
6. Lack of support from the government
7. Increased emigration of academics.
SWOT Model
The Opportunity points:

1. Chance to start from scratch with new strategies for most
LHEIs
2. Recognition by Ministry of Education of certificates in elearning or distance education
3. Creation of new business strategies to acquire and attract
academics and graduate students from other African countries
which still lack the basics of e-learning in their HEIs; this will
bring a new renaissance to Libyan higher education.
4. Attractive experiences will encourage academics to remain,
and so reduce their emigration from Libya
5. Creation of a techno-educational environment which is
competitive with that of neighboring countries
6. Acquisition of new languages in HEIs among, especially after
Libya has opened up to countries all over the world
7. Culture changing gradually
8. The geographical situation of Libya in Africa can play a
strategic role in the success of e-learning systems in LHEIs.
Threat points
1. Many barriers confront the implementation of IT
applications and online learning
2. Academics are stuck in traditional methods of
education
3. Prevalence of corruption in many sectors and in
the management of LHEIs.
various
segments
of
society;
it
provides
322
education at any time and in any place; it
contributes to the development of thinking, and it
enriches the learning process. Education through
electronic mail helps universities to reduce the
cost of education, and the greater the number of
students, the more students will come to rely on
this approach.
By featuring easily updated sites and educational
programs, and modifying and updating the
information provided therein, as well as speeding
up the transfer of this information to students
depending on the digital information network, the
possibility of students and their teachers
communicating to exchange views, experiences
and perspectives is greatly increased. For many
students, this will give them the freedom and
boldness to express themselves. Online learning
overcomes the problem of increasing numbers in
narrow halls and the lack of available resources
in colleges, and especially in theoretical
disciplines, students can be given continuous
feedback during the learning process. It facilitates
students access to a mentor at any time, as well
as to the diversity of various sources of learning.
The teacher's work can focus on teaching
students, and by reducing effort in school; the
system provides a means of delivering a
consistent and high quality education to an
unpredictable number of students in a variety of
places. Students and teachers will gain sufficient
capacity to use modern technologies, information
technology and computers, and will be able to
access scientifically designed material based on
interactive multimedia or hypermedia (voice,
pictures, movies, comics), all of which will be
reflected in its impact on students' lives and
learning. [19]
There are many courses that are taught through
online learning, and these modules are
characterized by providing opportunities for
study that are flexible in timing and content. Such
programmes allow the development of a
timetable suitable for the performance of the
learner, and the possibility of communication
between teacher and learner, which may be
synchronous or asynchronous, individual or
collective, which gives a new dimension to the
learning style. They offer the facility to
individualize education and take into account
individual differences, whereby the learner
chooses the content, time, learning resources,
learning methods, teaching aids and evaluation
methods that suit them. For example, content on

the Internet is not only displayed in the form of
text, but can be viewed using multimedia such as
images, sound and movement as well as text.
Online learning is characterized by many features
that should encourage educators to use them.
Firstly, there is an abundance of sources of
information such as electronic books,slaoidoirep ,
databases, lencyclopaedias and educational sites.
Secondly, synchronous direct contact can be
used, where communication can be made by
several methods at the same time, including
conversational writing (relay-chat) where the
participant writes the name of the person he
wants to address by using the keyboard and the
respondent sees what is written at the same
moment. In the same way, directly afterwards the
respondent can write what he wants to say.
Another method is by conversational voice
(voice-conferencing) where voice conversations
can take place at the same time by telephone via
the Internet. A further method is conversational
voice and video communication (video
conferencing), where the communication is live
on air using sound and image. A third feature of
online learning is the opportunity for indirect
(asynchronous) contact, where learners can
communicate among themselves indirectly,
without needing to be present at the same time.
This can be done using several means, including
e-mail and voice-mail. [20]
3.3.1 Online Learning Activities:
Educational activities used in online learning to

achieve the objectives of the school curriculum
can be divided into three main areas as follows:
A. First area: communication and
exchange of information between individuals.
This area includes the following educational
activities:
- Online communication: Activities of
this kind include correspondence via email and participation in dialogue and
debate through mailing lists, news groups,
newsletters and electronic forums.
- Virtual classroom: in which the learner
is able to communicate with students in another
class (inside or outside the school) to discuss
specific topics.
323
- Invited guests: where scholars and
experts are invited to answer questions raised by
learners via e-mail.
- Contact with experienced experts:
interaction with educated persons, whether
experts or scholars, who are able via e-mail to
answer questions that students might have.
- Services to answer questions: whereby
many companies, educational institutions,
government
agencies,
associations
and
professional organizations can answer questions
raised by learners over the Internet. [21]
B. Second area: collection and analysis of
information. This area includes the following
educational activities:
- Exchange of information: through email and the www, teachers and learners can
participate in summarizing books, reports and
news.
- Creation of databases: in which
information is gathered from a variety of sources
and arranged in databases for later use by
multiple participants.
- Common data analysis: this involves
examining and analyzing data obtained from
multiple sources in order to classify and gain
access to specific patterns and trends which can
be used in practice.
- Electronic publishing: reports are
collected together with similar articles and then
posted on the Internet.
C. Third area: problem solving. This area
includes the following educational activities:
- Finding information: learners are asked to
solve a problem and provided with access to a
variety of information sources in order to detect
and identify relevant data.
- Solving problems simultaneously: learners
who are in different locations work
independently to solve a problem, and then are
briefed to ask each other about methods which
they applied to find a solution.
- Means of online learning: there are many
ways to achieve students learning objectives,
such as mail, module-mail, e-books and others.
- E-module: This is one of the most important
applications for the use of information and
communications technology in the educational
process. E-module allows the use of any media,
such as text, image and graphics or sound and
movement, which can be used to design activities
and educational materials depending on access to

computers and the Internet.[8]
- The importance of e-module: it is open 24
hours a day, seven days a week and during
holidays; thus there is no limit to time or place of
use, as the student can access it at any time, day
or night from anywhere in the world. It does not
require access to classrooms, and it is not
necessary that computers are available in the
university or school, because the material can be
used from home. Students can use it several
times and look at the scientific material of the
course and lectures constantly. This gives the
student a positive and active role in the online
module, and increases the process of interaction
and communication between the teacher and
students, since each student contributes to the
preparation of the scientific material with the
module and is able to express his opinion and
comment on the submissions made by other
students. It provides an opportunity for students
to access a wealth of information, and can be
used by students from all over the world, giving
them also the opportunity to learn about different
cultures. In addition to scientific learning, it
allows students to gain computer skills. The
process is characterized by flexibility and
provides opportunities to enrich and audit
learning, whereby the teacher can use multiple
methods of teaching, such as simulation,
exploration, experience-based learning and
individual therapy. If teachers are appropriately
trained in the use of well-designed tests, they will
be able to diagnose the difficulties that hinder
students' mastery of a certain point, and provide
them with explanations and additional or
alternative training to be proficient in that point.
The teacher facilitates the correct tests and
assignments, which offer him the facility to
collect statistics on student progress both as
individuals and as a group. It also allows the
parents of the students to familiarize themselves
with the scientific material presented in modulemail and to see their childrens results first hand.
[11]
3.3.2 Types Of Courses and Modules:
There are several types of e-courses and emodules. The most significant of these are listen
below, together with an indication of how they
may be used.
324
(1) E-module not based on the Internet: This
type of module involves a set of software that
enables the teacher to design activities; for
example, Author Plus facilitates the design of
activities according to the inclinations and
abilities of students who are studying the module.
These programs can be used to design exercises
for one lesson or training for an entire course,
and are accessible for use by teachers with only
basic computer skills. All that is required is a
preliminary understanding of commands for
Windows.
The module consists of programs, which are
not designed to be based on the Internet, and
comprises two versions - one which the teacher
uses to prepare the training, and a copy, which
the student uses to solve exercises and answer
questions. The teachers version is on a computer
of its own, and is not used or seen by the
students, whilst the student version is on a special
computer which allows the teacher to see it. The
student version is loaded on the students
computers, and they cannot change, erase or
modify exercises prepared by the teacher, or add
their own exercises. The program has its own
database, and when the teacher sets any exercises
or tests, the results are stored in the database.
This can include longer exercises, or tests with
different formats, such as fill the gap tests,
multiple choice or reordering tests etc. The
teacher can add question or phrases to the text, or
features such as pictures, animations or extracts
from films or music, and can preview the sound
effects and images associated with these before
storing them permanently. It is possible to set the
time for reading and student response to
questions, as well as the time to open the text. It
can also correct student responses in several
ways: immediate correction, which lets the
student know whether the response is right or
wrong after each question, or deferred correction,
where the student is told whether the responses
are right or wrong after completing answers to all
the questions. It can allow the student to choose
the response method he prefers, and give the
student the percentage of correct responses, with
comments on the level of performance. Students
can be given the correct answer with an
explanation of the errors, which occurred during
the course of answering questions. There is also
the option to offer hints to help the student in
choosing the correct answer. [15]
The program presents a set of lists at the top of

the screen offering commands or instructions in
MS Word, and a group of small windows inside
the computer screen gives the teacher's
instructions, texts and questions. There are a
range of options that determine the mechanisms
and functions that can be used in the preparation
of the lesson, such as a list of types of questions
and quality of feedback, quality of training
correction and whether this should be temporary
or not, and options to add effects such as sounds,
images and colours.
(2) Online module based on the Internet: This
type of module is based on a simple Internet
format and contains a set of drawings and texts
for the module, a set of exercises and tests, and
records of test scores. The module may be
developed to include animation, simulation,
audio and visuals, and offers the possibility to
add links to scientific material which can be
found on the Internet or the World Wide Web.
The Internet-based module consists of a set of
tools that enable the student to communicate with
the teacher and with his fellow students, and to
look at and participate in the information relating
to the module by using the following tools: home
module, tools module, academic calendar,
bulletin board, panel discussion, room dialogue
and module-specific information. It consists of
scientific
course
content
written
with
accompanying vocabulary and multimedia, and
the scientific material can take the form of
reading, tasks, lectures, special instructions,
glossary, notes and so on. It may include visual
and audible material, photos, simulations
prepared by the computer, slide shows, attached
documents, notes and images, and topics are
organized in the form of files and folders with
links, which lead students to different scheduled
classes. [21]
3.3.3 Programs That Can be Used in The
Design of E-courses:
There are specialized programs and websites on

the Internet which can be used to design lessons
and modules by making use of private material,
such as Program Author Plus, which is used in
the design of lessons and modules to teach
English language, and the program Hotpotatoes,
which is used in the design of read-only lessons
and modules. There are programs available that
325
can be used in the design of any module in any
discipline, such as Macromedia and Authorware,
and programs such as PowerPoint and Netscape
Communicator can be used in the design of
lessons and presentations that can be used either
on the Internet or outside the network. Here the
teacher has complete control over the design
process, and can add texts, questions, still and
moving images, sounds, music, links, etc. [22].
3.4 Requirements for use of the online module:
The requirements are as follows:
A PC computer; operating system

Windows 95, 98 or 2000; 23 MB memory;
modem with a speed of at least 28.8 kbps; sound
card; screen clarity of 600 x 800 pixels;
amplifier; floppy and compact disks; software
programs such as Realplayer, Acrobat Reader,
InterVideo, Win DVD); browsers, such as
Internet Explorer; Internet access and e-mail
subscription.
A camera and special software with
which the student and teacher can capture and
send images, a microphone and a suitable
program to enable transmission and reception of
voice for both student and teacher. A program
that enables the student and the teacher to send
and receive visual and auditory images, and a
program that enables students in a particular
location to view a picture of students in another
location. Also a program that enables students in
a particular location to change the image of
students in another location. Authoring software,
such as Author Plus, Hotpotatoes or Macromedia
Authorware. Programs to prepare a slide
presentation and visualization, such as
PowerPoint, and an image re-design program
such as Adobe Photoshop.
In addition to the above, there are some skills
which both the teacher and students should be
familiar with, including:
Ability to use commands (Windows)
Ability to use Word
Ability to download software from the
Internet and CD-ROMs
Ability to move from one program to
another at the same time
Ability to use e-mail
Understanding of some Internet terms
Ability to search for a particular subject

in particular locations
Ability to communicate in writing.
The above considerations should be taken into
account to increase the effectiveness of online
modules. [19].
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
The researcher is pleased that the qualitative and
quantitative data suited her study needs; a
within-stage mixed model research approach was
selected to gather these data. Therefore, the
researcher used a questionnaire tool to collect
both qualitative and quantitative data by
providing open and closed questions. The use of
a questionnaire is supported by research done by
Johnson and Christensen in 2007 [23], which
states that, An example of within-stage mixed
model research would be where you used a
questionnaire during data collection that
included both open-ended (i.e., qualitative)
questions and closed-ended (i.e., quantitative)
questions.
Mixed methods were selected to suit study needs
within-stage to gather data. A questionnaire was
sent to Libyan students in different areas in the
UK by e-mail.
5. FINDINGS
5.1 Computers usage by mode of study and age:
As could be expected, analysis of use of

computers by age of students discloses strong
links with the mode of study, as younger
students (especially students aged 2135) were
full-time students. As Figure 2 illustrates, fulltime students used a computer every day and had
a strong tendency to using technology compared
with other students, such as part-time students.
Important differences were noted, for example:
Very rarely, if ever (12% compared with

73%);
Occasionally (19% compared with 18%);
Every day, Im addicted! (69% compared

with 73%).
However, there was a similar number who
reported occasional use (19% compared with
18%); notably, younger students were more
likely to use computers for different reasons
compared with students aged 35+.
326
years, and those students were aged 35+ years, as
illustrated in the graph below.
Figure 2: Computer use by full-time students aged 2135

Figure 4: How long have you been using computers?
Figure 3: Computer use by part-time students
5.2 Usage of computers by gender:
Analysis of the data revealed a set of significant

differences in the way males and females used
computers: males were more likely than females
to use computers. These differences in computer
usage between males and females could be
related to the different subjects that students tend
to study. The study suggested that males were
more likely to study subjects which related to
usage of computers, or which required students to
use computers for different reasons, for instance,
Advanced Computer Science, Accounting and
Engineering (54% compared with 15% females).
In contrast, females were more likely to study
Chemistry (23% compared with 15% males) and
English (31% compared with 8% of males).
However, most students, both female and male,
had been using computers for over ten years. The
percentage was 67%, compared with other
students who stated that they had been using
computers for two years or five years. The rest
said they had been using computers for eight
These results suggest that students aged 35+ were

at a disadvantage, as they were not using
computers as much as younger students to access
e-resources. The findings also suggest they were
not sending e-mails or employing methods
embracing new knowledge (such as using
computers to create photos and graphs) as much
as the younger students. This would be related to
the kinds of course older students had studied
years ago; for example, they were not likely to
have studied computer skills. Moreover, 58% of
the students spend approximately 15 hours or
more per week on the Internet at home or
elsewhere. Those studying Engineering and
Computer Science were most likely to spend over
15 hours per week on the Internet, as illustrated
in the graph below, whilst other students spent
between 5 and 10 hours per week.
Figure 5: Hours using the Internet per week
In order to discover how students feel about

using computers, the students were asked to state
which of these statements most closely related to
them:
327
I.
I am not confident in using computers,

because I am not good at all at using
technology.
II.
I am good at using computers for some
essential tasks.
III.
I am very confident in using computers
for many tasks.
The majority of students were confident in using
computers, as illustrated in the graph below;
about half (47%) stated that they were very
confident in using computers for many tasks,
whereas 38% of students said that they were
good at using computers. Males were more likely
than females to be confident (37% of males
compared with 10% females).
Figure 7: Students confidence in using computers by

gender
Figure 6: Students confidence in using computers by

gender
Age was a significant element, with older

students less confident than younger learners.
10% of students aged 35+ felt confident
compared with 41% of 2135-year-olds, as
shown below. Students studying Advanced
Computer Science and Engineering were the
most confident in using computers, whereas
students studying Business, English, Chemistry
and Health and Social Care were the least
confident in using computers. Full-time students
stated more confidence in using computers than
part-time students.
The analysis showed that 70% of Libyan students

found online learning interesting; they liked the
online environment and wished to take another
online course. In addition, 60% would
recommend the online environment to Libyan
students who study in Libya. Only 23% were not
interested
in
the
online
environment.
Interestingly, 90% agreed that if traditional
learning were blended with e-learning, it would
be more useful.
Based on the findings, the main factors analysed,
which were tutor support, learning styles, and
time management, do influence student
satisfaction; however, gaining knowledge was
the factor, which had the most impact in
determining student satisfaction with online
learning. Moreover, the general opinion of
online learning is that flexibility and tutor
support were the main reasons for students
satisfaction. The majority of students in this
research were comfortable and confident
concerning usage of computers, as well as the
online environment in general. Most students
spent over ten hours per week on the Internet in
their home or other places; also, most of them
had over ten years experience of using a
computer, and the majority of students
recommend blending this environment with
traditional learning. In addition, some of them
would recommend the online environment to
Libyan students who study in Libya. However, a
328
few students preferred traditional learning to
online learning; the main reason for this was lack
of skills to learn and lack of time to access the
online environment. The findings showed that
Libyan students had positive attitudes towards
online-learning; it was felt by most respondents
that e-learning supports traditional learning
methods, these results being based on the
respondents gender, educational level and age.
The findings also showed that online learning is
an effective teaching method to motivate
students to learn and encourage them to continue
in further education. Thus, technology plays an
important role in improving and developing
teaching methods as well as giving students
wider opportunities to learn.
6. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF IT STRATEGY:
To increase the effectiveness of IT in Libya,
universities should take the following issues into
account:
The need for Libyan companies to
translate programs that are used in the design of
e-courses into Arabic language; also, the need for
the development of Arabic sites on the Internet,
so that teachers can design modules in the Arabic
language for students at different stages.
The need to train pre-service education
students in the use of online modules and
methods, in order to prepare them to make use of
ICT skills in general and develop their ability to
use and design courses; this should be an integral
part of their training and should form one of the
requirements for graduation.
Training courses should be established for
teachers at all levels and all disciplines on the use
of module-mail and design methods.
It is important to interest universities in
teaching online courses, and to encourage them
to create sites for electronic modules rather than
using teaching traditional methods. This would
contribute to solving the problem of shortage of
faculty members, lack of classrooms and
overcrowding of classrooms, and would address
the steady increase in the number of students
applying who are interested in education. [19]
When designing online course there are a
number of things that should be taken into
account, which are: the importance of setting
goals, tasks and electronic discussions clearly;
the use of public and private messages to give
feedback on all targets and tasks; meeting with
students on face-to-face visits before the start of

study; the integration of chat rooms and
discussion threads with modules; emphasis on the
need for time commitment and encouragement of
students to commit to this; the need to train
students to connect to the Internet and gain
access to sites several weeks before the start of
their course of study, and training in additional
techniques used for remote connection such as by
audio, image and phone when necessary.
Before placing any module on the
Internet, the following should be considered: the
justification for the use of online or e-learning
should be determined, the needs of students and
teachers should be identified, and the teaching
strategies should be reconciled with the
environment of distance education.
When using e-courses for the first time,
the following should be considered. The skill
level of students in the use of the computer
should be determined before starting registration
for study on the online module. The requirements
of the existing computer use policy should be
identified and strengthened. Students skills and
attitudes should be continuously evaluated, and
diversification of the educational components
should be ensured. Students should be provided
with the necessary technical support by the
school or the department, particularly in relation
to web design. The first lectures for university
students should be convened in the traditional
manner to enable students to meet face-to-face
with their colleagues at least once. Graduate
students should be used to help guide bachelors
degree students. Course content should be
provided in several ways, making use of a
number of channels of communication to ensure
flexibility. Contact should be made with students
by telephone and initial notes distributed to them.
To improve the teaching and learning process
through the Internet, goals should be set to
determine participation in the program and roles
should be identified to enrich the dialogue.
Struggling learners should be provided with
support and follow-up. Teachers should keep
abreast of developments and urge the students to
participate in debate by making them aware of
the importance of interaction in achieving
learning objectives. A range of sources of
information should be provided during
discussion. [15]
329
To raise the spirit of online learning
among the group, staff should consider the
following. To ease any tension caused by the use
of technology among members of the team, emails should be sent, motivating team members
to overcome the problems they face. Students
should be provided with different tools to support
them at different stages in the process of solving
problems. Staff should help them as they try to
reach consensus, and students should be
organised into groups based on their ability and
the task to be performed. Teachers should also
provide useful feedback in a timely manner.
Focus on discussion topics can be supported by
using topic threads. Groups should be
encouraged to develop their ideas by asking
questions and following links. To reduce the
sense of criticism and attack on others, staff
should use their imagination to highlight
common themes among students of different
opinion.
7. THE NECESSITY OF MAKING THE TRANSITION
FROM TRADITIONAL LEARNING TO ONLINE
LEARNING:
ICT has made rapid progress and has infiltrated

all areas, including the field of education.
Teachers and students in elementary, middle and
high schools and universities in all developed
countries use the Internet, and educational
multimedia classrooms and laboratories are
involved in the process of teaching and learning.
In schools and universities in Libya, however,
the educational process is carried out in the
classroom, and is based on the teacher as a
source of information using the traditional
methods of books, pens, blackboards and old
teaching aids. The use of computers, the Internet
and educational multimedia laboratories has not
yet found its way into a lot of our schools and
universities. The use of technology in education
has now become an inevitable necessity rather
than a luxury, because of its positive effects on
the teaching and learning process. Therefore, the
transition from education by traditional methods
to online-learning based technology - either
wholly or in part - must be made, and this
requires several steps involving time and effort.
[11] These steps are discussed below.
Amendment of education policy is

required at the level of schools and universities
in order to make technology an essential tool in
the educational process at all stages. This can be
achieved by the formation of committees at
university level or by school district to organise
the development process. Such committees
should consist of a team of specialists in several
areas, such as those experienced in the
development of the curriculum and instructional
technology. These teams should study the reality
of the use of technology in schools or
universities, and support the management of
these institutions by encouraging them to
integrate technology into education and enabling
teachers to use it.
A vision or a comprehensive long-term
plan should be established for the integration of
technology into education at the level of courses
and classes at different stages, and a period of
time should be identified for implementation of
the merger plan. The integration process should
be done in stages, each of which consists of
small gradual steps, and a budget should be
allocated for the integration of technology into
education to cover the costs of buying hardware,
software and teacher training expenses, as well
as the expense of hiring experts and trainers and
the
establishment
of
a
technological
infrastructure.
This
includes
supplying
universities and schools with hardware and
accessories, providing multimedia computer labs
and Internet service, and the replacement of old
hardware - if it exists - with more modern and
sophisticated devices.
It is essential to train students and
teachers on the use of computers and the Internet
in teaching and learning. This should be done
after the school or university has been provided
with computers and devices so that the necessary
direct extensions are in place.
A centre for curriculum design should be
established and, based on the technology at the
university or school, a team of specialists should
be employed to prepare an electronic multimedia
curriculum in different disciplines, which may or
may not be supported by the Internet. The
researchers Othman and Kenan suggest that the
specialist team which sets up the e-learning
programs should consist of: a project manager; a
curriculum designer; an author of texts for the
330
educational program; a designer to deal with
photographs; a programmer; an engineer to test
the validity of the program to be used; an editor
responsible for sustaining the program and
judging the compatibility of fonts and spin-offs;
a specialist to examine connections and make
sure the system works, and that the program as a
whole works well without causing crashes
during use with other programs; a team member
to deal with visual aspects including images and
graphics, and another to deal with audio output;
specialists in scientific material, and financiers
of the project. [8]
Research in the field of e-learning should
be conducted on an ongoing basis to inform
teachers and officials on the impact of the use of
technology in teaching and learning, and to
ensure that students benefit from the integration
process. It is also important to follow the latest
developments in the field of educational
technology and permanent provision of technical
support should be available for maintenance of
hardware and networks. When teachers use
technology in education, they may face some
problems, such as printing problems, the Internet
connection stopping suddenly or being unable to
open e-mail. The authors point out that this
requires a technician responsible for managing
the network and another who is permanently
responsible for maintenance of the network, to
repair malfunctions and assist teachers in
designing websites and web pages. The
technician should oversee training and planning,
and answer teachers questions, as well as
organising coordination between the networks of
a group of schools, or colleges at a university, or
a number of universities. [20]
The process of integration should ensure
that technology is part of daily classroom
activities, supports the curriculum and students,
and plays a positive role in the process of
teaching and learning. It should enable education
to become meaningful for students. However, it
is important to emphasize that no plan to
integrate technology into education will succeed,
even if provided with all potential financial,
spatial and advanced technological resources, if
we do not develop and train teachers to use this
technology. Training is therefore at the heart of
the process of integrating technology into the
educational process.
8.
PROPOSALS FOR THE CONTRIBUTION OF

COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
AND
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY TO ACHIEVING
THE GOALS OF EDUCATIONAL CURRICULA IN
LIBYA [11]:
There is a clear need to reconsider the

current curriculum in Libya, in order to find a
methodology more comprehensive and modern
than the current system. This can be achieved
only by reconsidering present approaches,
processes and output on the one hand, and
considering the variables of the modern era on
the other. A key part of this process will be to
reconsider the objectives of the educational
curriculum in Libya, bearing in mind the need to
include the dimension of information technology
and communications technology. [21]
In the educational process, there is a need
to emphasize the basic concepts of acquiring
information, making comparisons between data,
providing feedback sessions on the information,
considering different information processing
methods and the characteristics of good
information.
There is a need for the learner in Libya to
acquire basic skills for finding information,
classifying it and broadcasting or publishing it
from one place to another. It is imperative that
modern technology is used in achieving these
goals and that the learner is given the right vision
of the information revolution. Massive
recruitment of students to gain such
technological understanding will serve Libyan
development plans through their future
participation in manufacture, marketing and
global competition.
There is a need for the educational
curricula of the Arab world to utilize modern
tools and technology. The means offered by
modern communications technology, such as the
Internet, e-mail, satellite and video, etc. should
be used as methods of teaching and learning.
Such methods include self-education, individual
learning and distance education as well as
university education. There is also a need to
work on creating an Arab information network to
which all Arab countries should contribute as
fully as possible, in order to feed Arabic
educational political and economic systems all
the necessary data and information. This would
331
create a kind of Arabic technological informatics
unity, and could be done under the umbrella of
the Arab League. Courses of in-service training
should be provided for Libyan teachers on
methods of electronic data processing, and
methods employed to achieve the objectives of
the courses they are teaching.
Students recruited onto courses at
education colleges and colleges of teacher
training in Libya should be trained in the
practice of technology as part of teaching and
learning. Becoming familiar with such scientific
approaches will lead to improved use of methods
when the student teacher is assigned the task of
actual teaching after graduating from such
colleges. It is important to reconsider the
methods of educational management in all
Libyan educational systems, as flexibility in the
management of facilities and a sound
understanding of the objectives of successful
management will contribute directly to the
achievement of a qualitative and quantitative
improvement in the use of information and
communications technology in all processes of
the education system. [24]
9. RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR EFFCTIVE DESIGN

AND IMPLEMENTATION OF IT STRATEGY IN
HEIS.
ICT plays a huge role in knowledge transfer, and

for Libya to have sufficient competent
knowledge workers; the government must ensure
an education system able to play a keysupporting role. For example, ICTs must be
introduced in schools from an early age if the
success of online learning is to be ensured [25].
Over the past few years, many Libyan HEIs have
introduced online learning and many learners
have been enrolled, especially learners who want
to work full-time and study part-time.
ICT should be continually developed. Libyan
HEIs should hire an adequate number of support
staff to be responsible for administrative duties
and take this heavy burden away from academic
staff.
Support staff may be utilized to regularly check

that the course content has been updated. From
the challenges identified in this paper, it is clear
there are some factors that still need to be
addressed before ICT can be fully effective as an
online learning or teaching tool. Blended
learning can be used as a transitory phase
towards e-learning in Libyan HE Institutions.
Instructors should focus on the attitudes and
mindsets of learners, since these have an
influence and impact on e-learning that can be
derived from assessments done by learners. To
be successful, IT applications and online
learning should have the declared support of
senior management and a fixed budget that has
been set aside to maintain and develop ICT
facilities. Those responsible for course
development should be sent on high-level
technology courses to be able to develop and
maintain the programme to world standards in
terms of course development. There should also
be good incentives and rewards to motivate
teaching staff to invest their time in online
learning and IT applications in the teaching
process. Training should be offered to instructors
and course developers so that they can be more
familiar with learning management systems.
They should be encouraged to attend internal and
external workshops so that they can be updated
on changes to software and hardware.
Technological learning tools should be
maintained and kept up to date at all times.
Bandwidth and network systems should be
improved and computer applications should be
developed. With the support of senior
management and a budget available for online
learning activities, licences should be bought to
gain access to updated software and
technologies. More coordination and resource
sharing between different HEIs could be of
general benefit. Some HEIs have already shown
success in the implementation and management
of online learning and IT applications; those
institutions should be encouraged to share their
success with other institutions. Partnerships
should be developed between government, HE
and the private sector. Government departments
and the private sector should be encouraged to
sponsor the development of technologies in HE,
which will produce a workforce that is
competent in such technologies.
332
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Claude Ziad Bayeh

BETWEEN PEDAGOGY AND TECHNOLOGY: A TWO COLLEGE CASE

Moses Oludare Ajewole, Onyedi

HUMAN RESOURCES PREPARATION FOR DIGITAL INFORMATION Ladislav

KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS BASED ON SW ATOM

Ladislav Burita, Pavel Gardavsky

SKIP TRIE MATCHING: A GREEDY ALGORITHM FOR REAL-TIME OCR Vladimir

LEARNING GAMES OR LEARNING STIMULATING GAMES: AN

A FRAMEWORK FOR ADOPTING BLENDED LEARNING IN Aisha Othman, Crinela Pislaru,

ANALYSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF IT STRATEGY IN LIBYAN Aisha Othman, Crinela Pislaru,

Elliptic Jes Window Form 2 in Signal Processing

Claude Ziad Bayeh1, 2

Window functions, Signal processing, Mathematics,

In this paper, the author introduced a new window

The Elliptic Jes function is a function of the

For going from - to + the sign of the function

Particular case: for

( ) on the unit circle.

Figure 3, multi form signals of the function

Important signals obtained using this function:

So the truncated Fourier series using the Elliptic

3.1 Variable shapes of window formed by

% Elliptic Jes Window form 2

In fact, this window is very important as it has

3.2 Programming the function Elliptic Jes

3.3 Advantages of the function Elliptic Jes

%-------------------------------%Elliptic Jes Window form 2

Similar to other windows used in signal processing

Other windows are designed to moderate these

4 EXISTING WINDOW FUNCTIONS

Figure 6, Triangular window function (from Wikipedia).

The end samples are positive (equal to 2/(N + 1)).

Figure 5, Rectangular window function (from Wikipedia).

Figure 7, Welch window function (from Wikipedia).

The defining quadratic polynomial reaches a value

Figure 9, Tukey window function (from Wikipedia).

Figure 8, Hann window function (from Wikipedia).

4.5 Tukey window

Figure 10, window function in the frequency domain (from

This problem is resolved with the proposed

1. H. Baher, Signal processing and integrated circuits,

37. C. Bayeh, Application of the Elliptical Trigonometry in

Fourrier Transform and its Applications, 3 edition,

Ohalo Academic College for Education,

Sciences and Sports,

Katzrin, Israel 12900

education, Innovative pedagogy for the digital era,

Since 2012, the Israeli Ministry of Education has

Professional development of pre-service teachers,

administered a program to prepare the education

Periphery. Pre-service teachers, Learning-teaching

system for the requirements of the 21 st century,

beginning in the states peripheral regions. The

schools by introducing the use of information

In recent years education systems throughout the

technology. The program necessitates changes in pre-

world have undergone a transition involving

service teachers training in the teacher-education

paradigmatic changes from systems based on

dynamic 21st century digital culture. It appears that it

uniformity to systems focusing on difference. In

is insufficient to train these teachers to use existing