InternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015www.ijer.

org
doi:10.14355/ijer.2015.04.001

EvaluationofWaterQualityofCisterns
A.R.Dehghanisanij1,M.R.Khani2,A.Jalali2,M.Khani3,S.Narimannejad2
FacultyofEngineeringandAppliedScience,MemorialUniversityofNewfoundland,St.Johns,NL,A1B3X5,
Canada
1

DepartmentofEnvironmentalHealthEngineering,FacultyofHealth,IslamicAzadUniversity,TehranMedical
SciencesBranch,Tehran,Iran
2

DepartmentofPlantBreeding,FacultyofAgriculturalEngineering,IslamicAzadUniversity,KarajBranch,
Alborz,Iran
3

ads485@mun.ca;*2mkhani@iautmu.ac.ir

Abstract
Collectionandstorageofrainwaterforvariouspurposes,suchasdrinking,iscommoninmanyhotaridcitiesandcountries.
Thephysiochemicalqualityofthewaterofcisternswasinvestigated.Thisassessmentwillprovideeffectivewaystoimprove
thequalityofthecisternswater.Inthisstudy,tenvillageswithinthecountrysidesurroundingLarcitywereselectedandwater
samplesgatheredfromthemareanalyzedinregardstophysicalandchemicalparameters.Larcityisahotaridregioninthe
FarsprovinceofIran.SeveralvillagesinthesurroundingareasofLar,justlikemanycitiesinotherprovinces,stillusecisterns
astheirmainsourceoffreshwater.Theprimarywayinwhichwatergetsintothesecisternsisrainfall.Theresultsshowedthat
some parameters (i.e., pH, Temperature, Alkalinity, Nitrate, Nitrite, and Turbidity) in the water of all cisterns were at
appropriate levels when compared with national drinking water standards. However, other parameters, such as Electrical
Conductivity(EC),TotalHardness(TH),Chloride,Sulfate,andFluoridewerenotatthedesiredlevels.Generally,theamountof
some measured parameters, including Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Magnesium hardness was above that found in the
normal standard samples. Regarding the geographical location of Lar and the shortage of annual rainfall, the physical and
chemical quality of some cisterns sometimes is not suitable. However, provisions can be made to improve the physical and
chemicalqualityofwaterinthecisterns,leadingtoareliefofthewatershortageproblemtosomeextentandprovidinghigher
qualitywater.
Keywords
WaterQuality;SustainableDevelopment;Rainwater;Cistern

Introduction
Throughout human history, water has been understood to be a sacred element and a significant factor in the
developmentofcivilization.Althoughwateristheoriginoflifeandprosperity,itcanbelifethreateningaswell.
Becausecontaminatedwatersometimescontainsmicroorganismsandharmfulchemicalcompounds,itshouldnot
be consumed. In fact, enhanced public health is closely related to improved water quality. Developed countries
effectivelytackletheissueofwatertreatment,whereastherootofmanyhealthproblemsindevelopingcountriesis
connectedtothesupplyofpotablewater.TheinvestigationofarticlespublishedbytheWorldHealthOrganization
(W.H.O.)isa goodindication that theavailability ofpotable water is the mostimportant factor for the health of
individualandcommunity.Withthegrowthofpopulationandtheadvancementofindustries,waterresourcesare
in danger ofpollution more than ever,before. Therefore many countries haveadopted some basicstandardsfor
drinkingwater,whichvaryaccordingtotheirparticularconditionsandthedegreeofindustrialization.Likewise,
W.H.O. gathered a number of experts and specialists and tasked them to create an international standard for
drinkingwaterthatcanbeusedwithinallcountries.Theydidthisbyreviewingthenationalstandardsofmany
countriesaroundtheworld.
DuetoIransgeographicalconditionsandtheimpactofseveralotherfactors,themajorityofthelandisdry.The
amountofraininIranislessthanonethirdoftheworldaverage[12]andalsoannualrainfallinthemajorityof
regionsinIranislow[3].Oneofthesourcesofdrinkingwaterinmosthotaridcitiesandcountrysidesisrainwater.
Insouthernpartsofthecountry,particularlyLar,locatedinthesoutheastoftheFarsprovince,rainwaterplaysan
importantroleinprovidingthedailywatersupplyforthepeople.Inthisarea,acommonmethodofwaterstorage

www.ijer.orgInternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015

is constructing cisterns with covered roofs of different shapes and sizes (Fig. 1). Normally, rainwater is not
chemically polluted and can enter the cisterns. At present, many people living in villages around Lar use water
storedincisternsfordrinking,cookingandsometimeswashing.Duetorainshortage,cisternshavebeenusedfora
longtime.Infact,thecisternisoneofthemostimportantmethodsofstoringwaterinhotaridareas,includingLar.
Thiscity,witha193.22km2areaandapopulationofnearly210000,covers24%oftheprovinceofFarsandhasan
average annual rainfall of 90150 mm. The storage of rainwater in cisterns is generally done by collecting water
fromtherooforyardofthehouseandallofthesurfacesinthesurroundingarea,andconductingitintothecistern
forvillagesofLarcity.
Dehghanietal.[413]usedexperimental,analytical,numerical,andArtificialNeuralNetworks(ANN)methodsto
investigate the thermal stratification of water in cisterns. They filled a cistern in Yazd city on one of the coldest
winterdaysinearlyJanuary,2002.YazdisacitylocatedinthecentraldesertofIranandhasahotaridclimate.The
water in the cistern remained intact until early May. Then, the water was discharged according to the real
consumptionmodeluntiltheendofOctober[4,6,10].

FIG.1AVIEWOFTWOCISTERNSINTHEVILLAGESOFLARCITY,FARSPROVINCE

Thestudyrevealedthatthethermalstratificationofthewaterduringthedischargingperiodcanbedividedinto
two parts: the distribution of temperature in the lower part is linear, whereas, in the upper part, it is nonlinear
becauseoftemperatureexchangebetweentheupperlayersofwaterwiththeroofofthecistern,transferofwater
mass,andevaporationtemperatureduetoaircirculationfromwindcatchers.Also,variationoftemperatureinthe
lowerlayerordischargelayerofwaterduringtheevacuationperiodremainsbetween11.5Cand13.1C,whilethe
average variation of ambient temperature remains between 23C and 38C. Hence, during the six months of
discharge, when the demand for water was high and the ambient temperature could reach 42C, cold drinkable
waterwasavailablefortheresidents[413].Itshouldbenotedthatthetemperatureofthedrinkablewatershould
bebetween5Cand15C,andthebesttemperatureisbetween8Cand13C[14].
Inasystematicstudyof114cisternsinruralareasoftheGolestanprovince,wherethecollectedrainwateronthe
roofswasconductedtocisternsin1999(Fig.2),itwasdeterminedthatthechemicalelementsincludingtheones
effective in EC, Alkality, Hardness, Chloride, Nitrate, and Manganese were at acceptable levels when compared
withstandarddrinkingwater.However,thedensityofsomechemicalsubstancessuchasIron(9%),Lead(69%),
andChrome(6%)werehigherthantheacceptableamount[16,17].

FIG.2ACISTERNINGONBADEKAVUS,GOLESTAN,WHICHISLOCATEDUNDERTHEHOUSEYARDANDRAINWATERIS
CONDUCTEDINTOITTHROUGHWATERPIPES[15]

InternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015www.ijer.org

Asaresultofthestudyofmicrobesina100mlsampleofcisternwater,thesamplesColiform,EscherichiaColi,
andStreptococcusFaecalisexhibitedhigherthanstandardlevelsby56%,32%,and26%,respectively.Thequality
ofthewaterinaconsiderablenumberofcisterns,intermsofchemicalandmicrobialelements,wasunacceptable.
The chemical and microbial contamination of cisterns might be caused by the leaking of agricultural sewage,
humanandanimalwaste,and/orriverwaterfollowingintothecistern[1617].
InastudybyMohammadiandShahmansouri[18],thequalityofthecisternswaterwasinvestigatedinthetown
of Bandare Lengeh. In this study, 60 samples were taken from different cisterns from ten villages over three
months.Themicrobesofsampleswereanalyzed,includingColiform,EscherichiaColi,andStreptococcusFaecalis.
Thetestswerecarriedoutaccordingtothemultipipefermentationprocedure,differentialtests,andthepourplate
procedure.Theresultsofthetestshaverevealedthatin100mlofthesamples,microbialvariablessuchasColiform,
EscherichiaColi,andStreptococcusFaecalisexceededthemaximumacceptableratein100%ofcollectedsamples.
Human and animal feces and other factors are considered to be the most important microbial pollutant. The
Chlorideresidueofthewaterofallcisternswasreportedtobezero.
Microbial, physical, and chemical tests were performed on the water of cisterns in the villages of Sabzevar in
Khurasan Razavi province [19]. In microbial tests, variables of Coliform and Escherichia Coli, in physical and
chemical tests such as variables of pH, Color, Odor, Turbidity, Alkalinity, Hardness, Chloride, Fluoride, Sulfate,
Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Nitrite, and Nitrate were examined. The tests showed that all physical and chemical
factors were within the standard limits, except for one of the cisterns in which the Fluoride and Chloride was
beyond the limits. The probable reason for this could be the geophysical condition of the soil. The results of the
microbialtestsindicatedthatthenumberofColiformsin50%ofthesamplesandthatofEscherichiaColiin40%of
thesampleswerehigherthanstandardlevels.Themaincauseforthesehigherstandardlevelsisbelievedtobethe
microbialpollutionofthestoredwater.
In another investigation by Dehghani et al. [20], they carried out qualitative and quantitative investigations of
cisterns water in the town of Birjand. In this study, 12 samples of water were sent for analysis of chemical
parameters,and9samplesforthemicrobialanalysiswerecollectedfromdifferentvillagesintwostagesinApril
and July of 2009. The results showed that the physical and chemical parameters (i.e., Turbidity, pH, EC, TH,
Alkalinity, Chloride, Sulfate, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Nitrite, Nitrate, Fluoride, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium,
Potassium,Iron,Manganese,Ammoniac,andTDS)inallcisternswereatacceptablelevelswhencomparedwith
drinkingwaterstandards.Onlythedensityofsomesubstances,likeIron,wasgreaterin16%ofthesamples,and
Fluoridewasbelowthestandardlevelinallsamples.Intermsofmicrobialparametersin100mlofthesamples,the
numberofColiformsreached77%intheprobablestage,and33%intheconfirmationstate,whichwashigherthan
thestandard.In11%ofthesamples,fecalColiformwasobserved.Althoughthechemicalqualityofthesecisterns
wasatanacceptablelevel,butthelevelofmicrobeswasnot.
This study evaluates the water quality in cisterns of the villages in the urban areas of Lar city, which were
examinedthroughphysiochemicaltestsinordertofindtheprobablesourcesofpollutionandtoproposesuitable
andpracticalsolutionstoremovingthemandfinallytoensurethatthewaterissafefordrinking.Also,thisstudy
investigatestheroleofcisternsinsustainabledevelopmentandincopingwithwatershortage.
Methodology
InvestigationProcess
Inthisstudy,10samplesofwaterwererandomlycollectedfrom10differentvillagesofLarcity(Fig.3):Hourmood
Abbasi, Tange Assad, Ghallat, Haj Abdol Korsi, Khoneh Ouz, Seyed Kamal Mostafavi, Kholour, Eslam Abbad,
GolarandMohammadZinar.Thesamplesweresubjectedtophysicalandchemicaltests.Thevariablesinsamples
were as follows: Temperature, EC, TDS, Turbidity, pH, Chloride, Sulfate, Fluoride, Bicarbonate, Nitrite, Nitrate,
TotalHardness,Alkalinity,CalciumHardness,MagnesiumHardness,Sodium,CalciumandMagnesiumions.The
samples were collected according to the procedure outlined in the standard methods of water and wastewater
examinations[21]andweresenttothelaboratoryofShirazHealthCentertobequantified.Then,thefindingswere

www.ijer.orgInternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015

analyzed.
SamplingProcedure
The samples were obtained at the cisterns according to common procedures. For retrieving water, the measur
ementsofthetemperatureandpHwerecarriedoutonlocation.Then,sampleswerecollectedinspecialtesttubes
andsecuredinabag(Fig.4).

FIG.3MAPSOFIRAN,FARSPROVINCEANDLARCITY

FIG.4APICTUREOFHOWTHEWATERSAMPLEWASCOLLECTED

TestingProcedureandEquipment
Tomeasurethetemperature,adigitalthermometerwithdesirableaccuracywasused.TocalculatepH,apHmeter,
colorcomparisonkitanddigitalmeterwith0.01accuracy(tolerance)wereapplied.Hardnesswastestedthrough
EthyleneDiamineTetraacetic Acid (EDTA) titration. Alkalinity was defined by titration with sulfuric acid.
ChloridewasdeterminedthroughthenitrateprocedureusingtheDR2000Hatch,andturbiditywasdetermined
byNephelometry.
Results and Discussion
The obtained averages ofthe physicaland chemical parameters,including temperature, EC, TDS, Turbidity, pH,
Chloride, Sulfate, Fluoride, Bicarbonate, Nitrite, Nitrate, TH, Alkalinity, Hardness of Calcium, Hardness of

InternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015www.ijer.org

Magnesium,Sodium,andionsofMagnesiumandCalcium,areshowninTable1.
TABLE1RESULTSOFTESTSCARRIEDOUTONTHESAMPLES

Parameter

Average

Max.observed

Max.allowed

pH
EC
TDS
TH
Totalalkalinity
Calciumhardness
Magnesiumhardness
Calciumion
Magnesiumion
Sodium
Chloride
Nitrite
Nitrate
Fluoride
Sulfate
Bicarbonate

7.9
1604.45
1761
362.1
127.2
195.1
166.1
77.99
40.2
213.5
177.71
0.01451
12.7
0.82
196.5
152.74

8.2
5685
3641
912
196
464
468
185.6
112.3
900
1233.4
0.05
42
2.88
1060
239

6.58.5

1500
500

200
150
250
50
200
400
3
50
0.71.2
400

Forsampling,10villagesandonesamplefromeachwerechosen.

Inthefollowingdescriptions,theobtainedresultsofthephysicalandchemicaltestswereanalysedseparatelyand
thencomparedwithW.H.O.standardsforpotablewater.
1) EC:TheECofthesamplesfrom10cisternswasmeasuredas3205316mohs/cm.TheECinsomecisterns,
suchasthoselocatedinHourmoodAbbasi,TangeAssad,andGhallatwerehigher,whileinothervillages
(e.g., Haj Abdol Korsi, Khoneh Ouz, Seyed Kamal Mostafavi, Kholour, Eslam Abbad, Golar, and
MohammadZinar)itfellintherangeoflessthan500mohs/cm.ThereasonforhigherECinsomeofthe
cisternscouldbelittlerainfallinthoseareas,andalsoahighevaporationrateiscausedbytheclimateand
geographicalpositionoftheregion.
2) pH: The pH is an indicator of Alkalinity or Acidity of water. The pH variation of the samples is 7.38.2,
(desirablelessthan8).
3) Alkalinity: The Alkalinity is measured on the basis of the amount of calcium carbonate in mg/L. The
obtainedmeasurementsareintherangeof94196mg/L.
4) TotalHardness:Theobtainedmeasurementsareintherangeof120912mg/LofCalciumcarbonate.
5) Chloride:TheamountofChlorideisintherangeof51233.4mg/L(desirable250mg/L).
6) Nitrate:TheamountofNitrateisintherangeof543mg/L,(acceptablelimitis50mg/L)
7) Nitrite:TheamountofNitriteisintherangeof00.041mg/L,(maximumlimitis3mg/L).
8) Sulfate:Theamountofsulfateisbetween61060mg/L(themaximumacceptableis400mg/L)
9) Fluoride:TheamountofFluorideisintherangeof0.12.88mg/L(desirablelimit0.71.5mg/L).
10) Turbidity:Allthesampleshadthenecessaryclarity.
Theinvestigationofphysiochemicalparametersin10villagesofLarcityshowedthatthemeanofallparametersin
more than 90% of samples was within an acceptable range. Since these sources were not deemed to have any
microbial problems, they were determined to not be a significant health hazard if used as a drinkable source of
water. The cisterns water, a good, cheap, available water supply, without advanced treatment technologies and
withoutuseofenergyfortreatmentarereasonablesources,specialinruralandvillageswithdifferentpositionand
distancebetweenthem[22].Nevertheless,thecisternwaterresourcesmaybepollutedbymicrobes.Inthiscase,
the water of the cisterns must be disinfected by chlorine (such as simple droplet Chlorine instrument) or other
disinfectants,buttreatmentofchemicalandphysicalparameterswasnotnecessaryallthetime.

www.ijer.orgInternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015

Conclusion
At present, regarding the water crisis and its consequences, the key to succeess is achieving sustainable
developmentandselfsufficiencyincleanwateravailability.Infact,sustainablegrowthrequiresabalancebetween
environment and development. In order to attain this goal, it is extremely important to employ indigenous
knowledgeandmethods.Theindigenousexpertisehasbeenaccumulatedthroughcenturiesbasedonthecultural,
social, economical, and natural conditions of each region, and it has continually adapted to the changes of these
dynamicelements.Moreover,thelimitationsofthegeographicalconditionsandinaccessibilityofremoteresources
havemadetheindigenousknowledgeandexpertiseeconomical.Agoodexampleisthecistern,whichisapassive
coolingsystemtostorecoldwaterduringwinteranduseitinsummer.
There are many places in Iran which have salty water with too many minerals, which makes them unusable for
providing drinkable water. Furthermore, in many others, surface water is not available and there is no suitable
undergroundwater.Therefore,fromtheoldtime,inthemarginalareasofdesertsandindryandsemidryregions
ofIranwherethewaterisscarceanditisdifficulttogettoundergroundwater,therehavebeengreatattemptsto
storewater.
Thefindingsofthisstudyconfirmthefactthatthecisternswaterunderinvestigationwasacceptableintermsof
physiochemical characteristics (except in some cases, where the amount of Fluoride was less or more than the
standardsofW.H.O.).Iftherearewayscanbefoundtoremovetheagriculturalandlivestockwasteandsewagein
villagesinapropermanner,themicrobialcontaminationofwatermaybecontrolledtoagreatextent.
Another study showed that this research has the same advantageabout cistern waterquality. Dillana and Zolan
showedthatrainwatercatchmentsystemsinMicronesiaweresampledtoassesstheirbacteriologicalwaterquality.
TheyexplainedthatthetotalColiformandfecalColiformbacteriatestswereusedtoevaluate203catchmentson10
islands:57%ofthetherainwatercatchmentsystemshadnofecalColiformbacteria,and61%hadlessthan10total
Coliformbacteriaper100ml.Thus,thisinvestigationshowedthattherainwatercatchmentsystemswerefoundto
provide acceptable water for most areas of Micronesia, but disinfection of this source of water prior to
consumptionisstillhighlyrecommended[23].InruralNorthernKentucky(USA),rainwateriscommonlycollected
from rooftops and stored in cement block cisterns as one of the sources of drinking water. An average of 600
Coliforms/mlweredetectedinwatersamplesfromthebottomsofthecisternstoragetanks.CurrentUSregulations
for drinking water quality were discussed; a suggestion was made that fecal Coliform levels may be a more
approriateguidelineforinterpretingthewaterqualityofindividuallymaintained,nonchlorinated,nonpipedwater
supplies,suchascisternstoragesystems[24].TheresearchconductedbyChangetal.[25]inNacogdoches,Texas
studiedtherunoffqualityofwaterbyconstructingsixteenwoodenstructureswithtworoofseach.Theroofrunoff
wascomparedtorainwatercollectedbyawet/dryacidraincollectorfortheconcentrationsofeightwaterquality
variables,i.e.Cu2+,Mn2+,Pb2+,Zn2+,Mg2+,Al3+,EC,andpH.Thisstudydemonstratedthatroofscouldbeaserious
source of nonpoint water pollution. The important parameter was Zn [25]. Simmons et al. investigated water
quality in their research by collecting samples from onehundred and twentyfive domestic roofcollected
rainwater supplies in four rural Auckland districts. Samples of cold faucet water were analysed for
physicochemicalandmicrobiologicaldeterminants,includingZn,Cu,Pb,andbacterialindicatororganismssuch
asheterotrophicplatecount,totalCoilforms,fecalColiforms,andEnterococci.Thisstudyshowsthatroofcollected
rainwatersystemsprovidepotablesuppliesofrelativelypoorphysicochemicalandmicrobiologicalqualityinthe
Aucklandarea[22,26].
Peoplecantakeadvantageofthesecisternsandhavetherequiredqualityandamountofdrinkablewateravailable.
At present, many countries of the world, like Iran, are faced with the problem of water shortage. Thus, the
modificationand renovation of cisterns alongside educational training can lead people to healthier lives.Cistern
systems areinexpensive and simple, and thereis no need to conduct waterfrom long distances. Cisterns do not
requireelectricityforpumpsoranyotherelectricaldevices.Thismeansthatlessenergyisconsumedthroughout
theworld,andwhichcouldreducetheimpactofglobalwarming.
Sustainable Development has been defined in Brundland under a collective agreement: Our Common Future.

InternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015www.ijer.org

Sustainabledevelopmentisdevelopmentthatmeetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityof
futuregenerationstomeettheirownneeds[22,2728].Itisworthmentioningthattraditionalwaterstructureslike
QanatsandcisternsareindigenoussystemsforcollectingandusingwaterinhotaridregionsofIran;hence,they
playanimportantroleinsustainabledevelopmentandreducingtheproblemofwatershortage.
Suggestions
1) Regardingthefindingsofthisstudyandsimilarones,thefollowingsuggestionsareproposed:
2) Installationofpreventivenetsandnetteddoorstostopobjectsorbirdsfromenteringcisterns.
3) Since everyone couldaccess cisterns, itis possbible that many kinds of contamination would make water
polluted either intentionally or unintentionally. Water should be accessible through water pipes or other
simpleways.
4) Improving the condition of the area surrounding cisterns by setting a safe boundary. In addition, these
boundariesshouldbeconstructedatasafedistancefrompollutingcenterssuchassewageabsorbingwells.
5) Cleaningofcisternatleastonceayear.
REFERENCES

[1]

WorldAtlasofIranianProvinces.TheResearchUnitandAtlasAuthorship,UndertheSupervisionofSaeedBakhtiary,
Tehran:GeographyandCartographyInstitutePublications,2ndEdition,Summer2006.(inPersian)

[2]

M.R. Khani, A.R. Dehghani, Z. Mashhadi Heidar, and H. Hosseini. Study of Passive Cooling Systems and Chilling
SystemsRuleinEnvironmentalPollutionReduction.The1stConferenceandExhibitionofEnvironmentalEngineering,
Tehran,Iran,p.529,2007.(inPersian)

[3]

M.R.Khani,K.Yaghmaeian,andA.R.Dehghani.AnExperimentalStudyinPassiveCoolingSystemsandInvestigationof
Their Role in Diminishing Energy Usage and Environmental Pollutants. International Journal of Applied Engineering
Research(IJAER),Vol.4,No.4,pp.519528,2009.

[4]

A.R. Dehghani. Engineering and Architectural Cisterns (Aubanbars) of Iran. Yazda Publisher, Tehran, Iran, 2013. (in
Persian)

[5]

M. Razavi, A.R. Dehghanisanij, M.R. Khani, and M.R. Dehghani. Comparing Meshless Local PetrovGalerkin and
ArtificialNeuralNetworksMethodsforModelingHeatTransferinCisterns.Renewable&SustainableEnergyReviews,
Vol.43,pp.521529,March2015.

[6]

A. A. Dehghan, and A.R. Dehghani. An Experimental Evaluation of Thermal Stratification in Cisterns. A Research
Project,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,YazdUniversity,Yazd,Iran,2003.(inPersian)

[7]

A. Arefmanesh, A.A. Dehghan, and A.R. Dehghani. Modeling Heat Transfer in Cisterns: Experimental and Theoretical
Studies.AppliedThermalEngineering,Vol.29,No.1415,pp.32613265,2009.

[8]

A.A.Dehghan,andA.R.Dehghani.ExperimentalandTheoreticalInvestigationofThermalPerformanceofUnderground
ColdwaterReservoirs.InternationalJournalofThermalSciences,Vol.50,No.5,pp.816824,2011.

[9]

A. A. Dehghan, and A.R. Dehghani. An Experimental Evaluation of Thermal Stratification in Cisterns. A Research
Project,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,YazdUniversity,Yazd,Iran,2003.

[10] A. A. Dehghan. An Experimental Investigation of Thermal Stratification in an Underground Water Reservoir.

Proceeding of HTFED 200456784: 2004 ASME Heat Transfer/Fluids Engineering Summer Conference Westin Charlotte
andConventionCenter,Charlotte,NorthCarolina,USA,pp.14,2004.
[11] R. Madoliat,M. Razavi, and A.R. Dehghani. Modelingof Heat Transfer in CisternsUsing Artificial Neural Networks.
JournalofThermophysicsandHeatTransfer,Vol.23,No.2,2009.
[12] M. Razavi, A.R. Dehghani, and M. Khanmohammadi.Simulation of Thermal Stratification in Cisterns Using Artificial

www.ijer.orgInternationalJournalofEnvironmentandResourceVolume4,2015

NeuralNetworks.JournalofEnergy,HeatandMassTransfer,Vol.31,pp.201210,2009.
[13] H.R.AmeriSiahoui,A.R.Dehghani,M.Razavi,andM.R.Khani.InvestigationofThermalStratificationinCisternsUsing
AnalyticalandArtificialNeuralNetworksMethods.JournalofEnergyConversionandManagement,Vol.52,No.1,2011.
[14] C.Dahlhaus,andH.Damrath.Wasserversorgung,Abschnitt3.B.G.Teubner,Stuttgart,1982.
[15] A. Eskandarnejad. The Qualitative and Quantitative Study of the Water in the Aubanbars of Gonbade Kavous. BS
Thesis,DepartmentofEnvironmentalHealthEngineering,IslamicAzadUniversity,MedicalSciencesBranch,Tehran,Iran,
2008.(inPersian)
[16] H. Pourmoghaddas, M.R. Shahmansouri, and A. Zafarzadeh. Chemical and Microbial Investigation of Water in Rural
AubanbarsinGolestanProvince.WaterandWastewaterJournalofIsfahan,No.45,1999.(inPersian)
[17] A.Zafarzadeh.ChemicalandBacteriologicalInvestigationofWaterinRuralAubanbarsMinooDashtCityinGolestan
Province.MSThesis,SchoolofHealthEngineering,UniversityofMedicalSciences,Isfahan,Iran,1999.(inPersian)
[18] Z.Mohammadi,andM.R.Shahmansouri.BacteriologicalInvestigationofWaterinAubanbarsofBandareLengehCity.
HormozganProvince,4thNationalConferenceonEnvironmentalHealthinIran,YazdShahidSadoughiUniversity,Yazd,
Iran,2001.(inPersian)
[19] H. Karabi. Qualitative and Quantitative Investigation of Water in Sabzevar. BS Thesis, Department of Environmental
HealthEngineering,IslamicAzadUniversity,MedicalSciencesBranch,Tehran,Iran,2008.(inPersian)
[20] A.R.Dehghani,M.R.Khani,andM.Mohammadnia.StudyoftheQualityandQuantitytheWaterofCisternsofProvince
of South KhurasanBirjand. 12th National Congress of Environmental Health, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical
Sciences,Tehran,Iran,2009.(inPersian)
[21] American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association. Water Environment Federation, Standard
MethodsfortheExaminationofWaterandWastewater,USA,2006.
[22] G. Simmons, V. Hope, G. Lewis, J. Whitmore, and W. Gao. Contamination of Potable Roofcollected Rainwater in
Auckland,NewZealand.WaterResearch,Vol.35,No.6,pp.15181524,April2001.
[23] Th.A.Dillana,andW.J.Zolan.RainwaterCatchmentWaterQualityinMicronesia.WaterResearch,Vol.19,No.6,pp.
741746,1995.
[24] D. J. Lye. Bacterial Level in Cisterns Water Systems of Northern Kentucky. JAWRA Journal of the American Water
ResourcesAssociation,Vol.23,No.6,pp.10631068,2007.
[25] M.Chang,M.W.McBroon,andR.S.Beasley.RoofingasaSourceofNonpointWaterPollution.JournalofEnvironmental
Management,Vol.73,No.4,pp.307315,Dec.2004.
[26] World Commision on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, p. 43,
1997.
[27] International Institute for Sustainable Development. What Is Sustainable Development? Environmental, Economic and
SocialWellbeingforTodayandTomorrow.2013.
[28] TheWorldBankGroup,WhatIsSustainableDevelopment?2001.http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/english/sd.html