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H I G H L I G H T S
c
c
c
c
c
We estimate road transportation emissions for Rio de Janeiro from 1980 to 2010.
C gasoline was most responsible for CO (74%) and diesel for PM (91%).
Emissions/vehicle for Rio de Janeiro are (12% to 59%) smaller than Brazilian.
1,760,370 t of emissions was avoided using non-petroleum-based fuels.
Strategies to reduce the emissions of these air pollutants were proposed.
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 15 May 2012
Accepted 6 October 2012
Available online 13 November 2012
Road transportation has contributed to increased emissions of conventional air pollutants and,
consequently, to the increase in problems associated with the environment and human health,
depending on the type of pollutant and the concentration of it. To support the development of public
policies aimed to decrease total tonnes of emissions, we used a bottom-up approach to estimate the
amount of air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide (CO), total hydrocarbons (THC), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), particulate matter (PM), and aldehydes (RCHO), that are emitted by road transportation in the
state of Rio de Janeiro (RJ) from 1980 to 2010. The results from 2010 show that cars are responsible for
55% of CO emissions, 61% of THC emissions, and 93% of RCHO emissions. Due to the use of hydrated
ethanol and compressed natural gas (CNG) instead of petroleum based fuels during the period analyzed,
1,760,370 t of air pollutant emissions were avoided. Compared to Brazil, in 2010, RJ had a quantity of
emissions per vehicle from 12% (CO) to 59% (PM) smaller than the national average. As strategies to
reduce air pollutant emissions, we consider reducing the intensity of use, with a proportional reduction
in emissions, and increased the use of biodiesel.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Air pollutants
Vehicle emissions
Road transportation
1. Introduction
Due to an energy dependency on petroleum products such as
gasoline and diesel fuel, road transportation has contributed
decisively to the emission of atmospheric pollutants, with consequent problems for the environment and human health (Faiz,
ner
1993; Colvile et al., 2001; Saija and Romano, 2002; O
and Altun, 2009; Uherek et al., 2010; and Progiou and Ziomas,
2011).
According to the Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy
(MME), Ministerio de Minas e Energia [Ministry of Mines and
126
Table 1
Emission limits established by PROCONVE and PROMOT in Brazil.
Source: MMA (1993, 2002a, 2002b, 2003 and 2008).
PROCONVEVehicles with Otto engines
Phases
(a, b)
L1
L2
L3
L4
PROMOTMotorcycles
L5
L6
M1
M2
M3
o 150 cc
Emission Limits
Date of implementation
CO (g/km)c
HC (g/km)d
NOx (g/km)e
PM (g/km)f
RCHO (g/km)g
1989
4.00
2.10
2.00
1992
12.00
1.20
1.40
0.15
1997
2.00
0.30
0.60
0.03
2007
2.00
0.16
0.25
0.03
2009
2.00
0.05
0.12
0.02
Notes:
a
2014
1.30
0.05
0.08
0.02
2003
13
3
0.3
Z 150 cc
o150 cc
2005
5.5
1.2
2009
2
1
0.8
0.3
Z 150 cc
0.2
0.15
Emission Limits
Date of Implementation
CO (g/kW h)c
HC (g/W h)d
NOx (g/W h)e
PM (g/kW h)f
RCHO (g/kW h)g
P1h
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6b
P7
14.00
3.50
18.00
1992
11.20
2.45
14.40
0.60
1994
4.90
1.23
9.00
0.40
1998
4.00
1.10
7.00
0.15
2006
2.10
0.66
5.00
0.10
1.50
0.46
3.50
0.02
2012
1.50
0.40
2.00
0.02
Notes:
a
127
Table 3
Motor vehicle eet size, air pollutant emissions and distance traveled by year for1980 and 2010 in Brazil.
Source: MMA (2011).
Year
1980
2010
% Change
Total Fleet
(number of vehicles)
9,307,366
41,055,938
341%
km/yeara
Emissions (t)
CO
THC
NOx
PM
RCHO
4,702,658
1,372,103
71%
848,022
257,709
70%
716,330
966,578
35%2
42,675
28,807
32%
7330
7103
3%
174,728 106
672,075 106
285%
Note:
2
The increase in NOx could be attributed to the old Brazilian eet of heavy vehicles (buses and trucks) still in operation, with an average age ranging between 17 and
21 years.
a
128
Table 4
Categories of vehicles, type of fuel and air pollutants considered in this study.
Source: Authors elaboration.
Category of vehicle
Types of fuel
Motorcycles
C gasolineb
Hydrated ethanol
CNG
Flexible fuelc
C gasolineb
Hydrated ethanol
C gasolineb
Hydrated ethanol
Flexible fuel c C gasolineb
Hydrated ethanol
Dieseld
Carbon monoxide
(CO)
Nitrogen oxides
(NOx)
Particulate matter
(PM)
Aldehydes
(RCHO)
Total hydrocarbons
(THC) a
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Notes:
Legend: X means the atmospheric emissions from the intersection of vehicle category, type of fuel, and pollutant were considered;-means the emissions from the
intersection of vehicle category, type of fuel, and pollutant were not considered, because emissions factors were not available.
a
100%
90%
80%
100.0%
Cars
70%
80.0%
Light Commercial
70.0%
Trucks
60%
Light Commecial
60.0%
50%
Motorcycle
50.0%
40%
40.0%
30%
30.0%
20%
20.0%
10%
10.0%
0%
90.0%
Bus
0.0%
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Years old
10
15
20
25
30
35
Years old
Fig. 1. Scrap curves for vehicles with Otto and Diesel cycle engines in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
129
Table 5
Scrap curves used for vehicles with Otto and Diesel cycle engines in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Based on MMA (2011), Ribeiro (2011), ANTT (2010), and Rechder and Fonseca (2003).
Cycle
Vehicle
Coefcient
Otto
Cars
Light commercial
Motorcycles
Diesel
Bus
Trucks
Light commercial
Equation
t0
1.798
1.618
1.317a
0.923b
2.01
0.3
0.2
0.137
0.141
0.175a
0.093b
0.300
12.85
4.00
Notes:
Legend: S(t) fraction of remaining vehicles with age t; t age of vehicle [years]; a, b, and t0 variable parameters according to type of vehicle.
a
b
35
Cars
Light Commercial
Motorcycle
Trucks
2.5
2006-2010
1996-2000
Buses
25
106 vehicles
105 vehicles
30
20
15
10
5
0
2.0
2001- 2005
1991- 1995
1957- 1990
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1980
1985
1990
1995
Years
2000
2005
2010
1980
1985
1990
1995
Year
2000
2005
2010
Fig. 2. Evolution of estimated road motor vehicle eet by category and age in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
Table 6
Reference intensity of use by category of road motor vehicle [km/year] in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Based on Freitas (2011), Cachiolo (2011), Szwarcter (2004), MMA (2011), CETESB (2011a), and Borba (2008).
Cars
LCV
Cars/LCV_GNC
LCV_D
LT
MT
HT
UB
HB
20,000
20,000
30,000
20,000
12,000
16,530
60,000
90,000
90,000
90,000
Legend: LCV: light commercial vehicleOtto cycle; LCV_GNC: light commercial vehicleOtto cycle that use CNG; LCV_D: light commercial vehicles-Diesel cycle;
M: motorcycles; LT: light trucks; MT: medium trucks; HT: heavy trucks; UB: urban buses; HB: highway buses;
Table 7
Fuel economy by category in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Based on Szwarcter (2004), Borba (2008), Freitas (2011), Cachiolo (2011), MMA (2011),and CETESB (2011a).
Category
of vehicle
Fuel
C
Hydrated
gasoline ethanol
8.9
6.9
Minimum
yield
(km/l)
Maximum
yield
(km/l)
CNG
a
Flexible fuel
C gasoline
10.3
Flexible fuel
hydrated ethanol
6.9
12.0
8.0
12.0
12.0
8.7
LCV_D LT
MT
HT
UB
HB
C
Flexible fuel
gasoline C gasoline
Flexible fuel
hydrated ethanol
40.0
25.0
9.1
40.0
3.9
3.0
2.6
2.3
3.0
Note: LCV: light commercial vehicleOtto cycle; LCV_D: light commercial vehicles-Diesel cycle; M: motorcycles; LT: light trucks; MT: medium trucks; HT: heavy trucks;
UB: urban buses; HB: highway buses;
a
130
Table 8
Average emission factors considered in this study.
Source: MMA (2011) and CETESB (2011b).
Category of vehicle
Type of fuel
CO
Cars
Trucks
Bus
Motorcycles
NMHCevaporative
RCHOb
PM
1990
2000
2010
1990
2000
2010
1990
2000
2010
1990
2000
2010
1990
2000
2010
1990
2000
2010
34.58
18.24
0.560
30.99
17.56
0.560
0.77
1.81
2.32
2.70
3.06
2.32
19.70
6.69
15.71
2.65
14.90
0.48
0.60
0.99
3.10
0.48
2.67
0.14
0.13
0.32
1.20
0.05
0.06
0.17
1.06
0.06
0.05
0.001
NA
0.001
NA
0.010
0.130
0.003
0.013
0.52
1.14
0.19
1.04
0.04
0.05
0.16
1.13
0.07
0.78
0.06
0.05
0.002
NA
0.001
NA
0.001
NA
0.018
0.112
0.006
0.104
0.003
0.013
0.77
1.52
2.02
2.24
2.33
1.77
19.70
0.77
0.94
1.26
1.33
1.44
1.09
5.26
0.85
0.58
0.20
0.53
0.71
0.79
0.79
0.60
2.60
0.08
0.24
0.34
0.31
0.30
0.23
0.75
0.17
0.16
3.14
8.05
10.61
12.02
11.67
8.86
0.10
2.14
5.37
7.12
7.63
8.20
6.22
0.12
0.08
0.07
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.128
0.400
0.551
0.591
0.475
0.361
0.029
0.041
0.126
0.186
0.159
0.148
0.112
0.009
0.004
NA
0.056
0.158
0.004
0.053
0.148
0.004
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.021
0.137
0.25
2.13
0.13
0.12
0.002
NA
0.002
NA
0.275
0.641
0.822
0.958
1.087
0.825
0.029
0.002
NA
0.67
2.61
1.08
0.62
1.35
0.61
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.30
1.43
1.50
11.86
0.45
0.59
1.45
1.37
0.290
1.51
1.41
0.290
4.46
10.39
13.33
15.52
17.62
13.37
0.10
0.58
1.23
4.79
13.07
4.17
2.44
0.246
4.14
2.42
0.246
0.28
0.66
0.85
0.99
1.12
0.85
2.60
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Note:
Note: NA: Emission factor not available.
a
Light commercial
C gasoline
Hydrated ethanol
Flexible fuelc
C gasoline
Hydrated ethanol
CNG
C gasoline
Hydrated ethanol
Flexible fuel
C gasoline
Hydrated ethanol
CNG
Diesel
Light
Diesel
Medium
Heavy
Urban
Diesel
Highway
C gasoline
Flexible fuel
C gasoline
Hydrated ethanol
NOX
C observed c,y
131
Table 9
Total air pollutant emissions from road transportation by category and fuel2010 in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
Items analyzed
Category of vehicle
Otto cycle
Cars
Light Commercial
Motorcycle
Diesel cycle
Light commercial
Light trucks
Medium trucks
Heavy trucks
Urban buses
Highway buses
Fuel
C gasoline
Hydrated ethanol
CNG
Diesel
THCa
CO
RCHO
NOx
PM
Fuel consumed
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
C gasoline (l)
CNG (m3)
Diesel (l)
47,794
3,654
28,852
54.7
4.2
33.0
10,436
920
4,106
61.4
5.4
24.1
294
23
92.7
7.3
7,597
825
688
15.6
1.7
1.4
23
2
50
2.7
0,2
5.9
1559 106
169 106
139 106
692 106
52 106
2 106
820 106
149 106
342
206
383
2,489
3,384
286
0.4
0.2
0.4
2.8
4.0
0.3
36
52
102
583
717
60
0.2
0.3
0.6
3.4
4.2
0.4
944
1,179
2,157
14,290
19,303
1,629
2.0
2.4
4.4
29.1
40.0
3.4
18
28
56
297
349
29
2.0
3.2
6.6
35.0
41.0
3.4
49 106
56 106
100 106
718 106
1,024 106
84 106
64,573
9,215
6,512
7,090
73.9
10.5
7.5
8.1
10,833
1,777
2,852
1,551
63.7
10.4
16.8
9.1
149
124
44
47.0
39.1
13.9
4,947
792
3,372
39,502
10.2
1.6
6.9
81.3
75
778
8.8
91.2
1867 106
746 106
969 106
2033 106
Note:
a
800
10 t of THC
103t of CO
600
400
200
1980
1990
2000
2010
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1980
1990
Year
Cars
Motorcycles
Highway Buses
2000
Year
Diesel light Commercial
Medium Trucks
Heavy Trucks
Fig. 3. Emissions of CO and THC by road motor vehicle category in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
Urban Buses
2010
132
5. Discussion
Applying the methodology described in item 4, it was possible
to obtain an estimate of conventional air pollutant emissions from
road transportation for the period 19802010 in the state of Rio
de Janeiro.
Cars
103 t of RCHO
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Fig. 4. Emissions of RCHO by road motor vehicle category in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
100
4.0
3.5
80
103 t of NOx
103 t of PM
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
60
40
20
0.5
0.0
1980
1990
2000
2010
1980
Year
Heavy Trucks
Medium Trucks
Light Trucks
Diesel light Commercial
Otto Light Commercial
Fig. 5. Emissions of NOx and PM by road motor vehicle category in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
1990
Year
Highway Buses
Urban Buses
Motorcycles
Cars
2000
2010
shift in usage and regulatory measures for individual transportation (car and motorcycle).
The type of fuel used is another factor that impacts emissions
of atmospheric pollutants. In this context, the consumption of
biodiesel has increased 1679% from 2006 (60 103 m3) to 2009
(1228 103 m3), due to the fact that this fuel was introduced in
2006 and that was the growth stage of consumption. Considering
both the consumption of biodiesel and ethanol it was possible to
reach 18.8% of the energy consumed in 2009 in Brazil by the
transportation sector. The state of Rio de Janeiro has followed the
national trend; however, it can be assumed that initiatives can
expand the use of biofuels even further.
Therefore, for 2010, an increase in the use of biodiesel
(mixture of 80% petroleum diesel and 20% biodiesel-B20) was
estimated considering an energy-content-based substitution,
according to Table 13.
The use of ethanol from 1980 to 2010 has provided the
reduction of all air pollutants but RCHO due to the smaller
emission factors ethanol Otto cycle engine showed before 1996
Table 11
Selected results of air pollutant inventory for comparison between the state of Rio
de Janeiro and Brazil (2010).
Source: Authors elaboration based on MMA (2011).
Items analyzed
Regions analyzed
Fleet
Fuel consumption
(Vehicles)
(106 m3)
(106 m3/ vehicle)
Energy consumption (106 MJ)
(MJ/vehicles)
km/yearc
(106 km)
km/vehicle
(km)
CO
(106 g)
(g/km)
(g/vehicle)
THCd
(106 g)
(g/km)
(g/vehicle)
RCHO
(106 g)
(g/km)
(g/vehicle)
NOx
(106 g)
(g/km)
(g/vehicle)
MP
(106 g)
(g/km)
(g/vehicle)
133
Rio de
Janeiroa
Brazilb
(%) RJ/Brazil
2,979,317
4,647,597
1.56
176,801
3.68
48,102
16,145
87,390
1.817
29,332
17,015
0.354
5,711
318
0.007
107
48,613
1.011
16,317
852
0.018
286
41,055,938
82,850,070
2.02
2,591,891
3.86
672,075
16,370
1,372,103
2.042
33,420
257,709
0.383
6,277
7,103
0.011
173
966,578
1.438
23,543
28,807
0.043
702
7
6
77
7
95
7
99
6
89
88
7
92
91
4
63
62
5
70
69
3
41
41
Note:
a
Table 10
Motor vehicle eet size, air pollutant emissions and distance traveled by year for 1980 and 2010 in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
Year
1980
2010
% Change
649,397
2,979,320
359%
Note:
a
Emissions (t)
km/year
CO
THCa
NOx
PM
RCHO
583,667
87,390
85%
69,689
17,013
76%
68,400
48,613
29%
2917
852
71%
892
318
64%
19,256 106
48,102 106
150%
134
Table 12
Estimated emissions avoided due to hydrated ethanol and CNG use1980 to 2010 in Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
Alternatives analyzed
Base situation
Without using hydrated ethanol
Emissions avoided due to hydrated ethanol use
Without using CNG
Emissions avoided due to CNG use
THC1
PM
NOx
RCHO
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
11,963,781
13,268,397
1,304,616
12,166,612
202,831
10.90
1.70
2,059,296
2,100,026
40,729
2,056,559
2,738
1.98
0.13
73,858
74,199
341
73,945
87
0.46%
0.12
1,625,058
1,837,614
212,556
1,640,418
15,360
13.08%
0.95
38,023
23,897
14,126
38,737
715
37.15
1.88
Note:
1
Table 13
Sensitivity analysis for intensity of use and renewable fuels useyear 2010-Rio de Janeiro.
Source: Authors elaboration.
Alternatives analyzed
Base situation
5% reduction in intensity of use
10% reduction in intensity of use
15% increase biodiesel in B5b mixture
CO
NOx
THCa
PM
RCHO
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
(t)
(%)
87,390
83,020
78,651
87,333
5
10
0.07
48,613
46,182
43,751
48,613
5
10
0.00
852
809
7668
839
5
10
1.57
17,013
16,162
15,311
17,013
5
10
0.00
318
302
286.2
318
5
10
0.00
Notes:
a
b
the 1990s. During the period studied (1980 to 2010), the use of
alternative fuels avoided the emission of 1507,446 t of CO,
37,992 t of NOx, 428 t of PM, and 227,915 t of THC, with RCHO
increasing by 13,411 t.
The main limitation in this study was the difculty in obtaining reliable data on the states vehicle eet and the intensity of
use. Because of this limitation it was also not possible to include
the results of Inspection and Maintenance (I&M) programs in the
model (Eq. (1)).
As a complement to this study, we suggest a projection to the
years 2020 and 2030 of atmospheric air pollutants to predict
future trends. Strategies to reduce emissions can be simulated to
provide support in decision making.
In addition, we suggest that future studies estimate emissions
of greenhouse gases (GHG) from road transportation. It is also
possible to estimate and thereby compare emissions of GHG from
other forms of transportation.
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