ME-445

T H E R M O DY N A M I C S A N D F LU I D M E C H A N I C S
II LAB
ISO 9001:2008

MEL-05-I

Rev. # 01 Date: 27August-2015

Instructor Lab Manual

FOR

Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

II Lab
(MEL 5)

IN FME
Name
Prepared
by:
(a).Reviewe
d by
Lab
Incharge:
(b).Contrib
uting Lab.
In-Charges:
ISO
9001
Mr. Massab Junaid
Section:
Approved
by
Dr. S M Ahmad
Dean FME
Issued by
In-charge
Ms. Ayesha Khan
student
section

Signature

Preface
It is well known that hands-on experience is the best way to learn. This lab
manual is designed to give the students hands-on laboratory experience
to better reinforce certain topics discussed in course work as well as to
present a number of other principles. Each experiment begins with a
detailed discussion that provides all the information needed to understand
that particular lab experiment. The discussion section is followed by a
detailed step-by-step procedure. Figures and graphs are provided where
required. Each experiment concludes with a detailed exercise to help the
student interpret the results.
The need for proper lab manuals was long felt. However, the initiative was
taken by Prof. Dr. Muhammad Abid, Dean Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering to start work on the revision and up gradation of lab manuals,
keeping in view the course contents and new experimental setup.We wish
to thank Mr. Saad Ilyass and Saad Akhtar (Lab Engineer FME), for writing
these experiments and for his continued support of this effort till
publication. We also take the opportunity to thank Dr. Khalid Rehman for
his valuable suggestions and encouragement.
We would like to thank Mr. Safeer Khan, Mr. Faheem Ahmed and Mr.
Haroon for the modification of the manual. We cannot forget to
acknowledge Mr. Asim Shahzad (Lab Technician FME) who helped with the
revision of the lab manual.
It will be highly appreciated receiving feedback for revisions from the
instructors and students.

Contents
Preface........................................................................................................1
Health & Safety Regulations........................................................................5
Lab Regulations...........................................................................................5
Experiment # 1 Air Conditioning..............................................................7
Experiment # 2 Refrigeration.................................................................17
Experiment # 3Recirculation Air Conditioning.......................................24
Experiment # 4 Boundary Layer Development......................................31
Experiment #5 Drag Force Measurement..............................................48
Experiment #7 Introduction to Subsonic Wind Tunnel and measurement
of Co-efficient Drag of Test Specimen......................................................67
Experiment #9 Boiler Technology..........................................................87
Experiment #10 Francis Turbine............................................................97
Experiment #11 Universal Pump Test Rig............................................109
Experiment #12 Pelton Wheel Turbine.................................................122

Mechanical Engineering Lab V

Pre Mid-Term Course Content
The following experiments will be performed before Mid-Term Exam:
1. Air conditioning
2. Refrigeration
3. Recirculation Air conditioning
4. Boundary Layer Development
5. Drag Force Measurement
6. Gas Turbine

Mid Term Exam will be conducted in 8th week of the semester.

Course content will be above mentioned experiments.

Mechanical Engineering Lab

V
Post Mid-Term Course Content
The following experiments will be performed after Mid-Term Exam:
1. Introduction to Subsonic Wind Tunnel and measurement of Coefficient Drag of Test Specimen
2. Compressible flow through nozzles
3. Boiler Technology
4. Francis Turbine
5. Universal Pump Test Rig
6. Pelton Wheel Turbine

Final Exam will be conducted in 15th week of the semester. Final exam
course content will include the above mentioned experiments as well as
Pre Mid Term content.

Health & Safety Regulations

Users of any FME Laboratory must comply with the following safety
instructions. At the beginning of the course the instructor should brief the
students about health and safety. The students should know where the fire
exits, fire extinguisher, fire alarm and the assembly point are in case of
emergency such as fire or earthquake etc.

No experiments should be conducted without the presence of Lab

engineer and technician.
Smoking is strictly prohibited inside the Lab.
Always wear trousers, overall and safety shoes when you operate
any machine and perform any experiment. Shalwar Kameez and
sandals are not allowed at all.
There should be no over-crowding. Only one person should operate
one machine. In case, the experiment needs more than one person
for the operation, other group mates would join.
Watch for over-head hanging hoists and cranes.
Make sure that you stay away from hot exhaust lines and moving
parts of machines.
Before operating any machine, you must be aware of the following:
a. Location of fire extinguishers, fire blanket and the outside
exits.
b. How the machine operates. Read instructions or manual of the
machine before operating it.
c. How to turn off the machine in case of damages.
When you hear or see a danger alarm from the machine that you
using, stop the machine right away.
Make sure that there is no fuel or oil spill on the floor.
Do not run inside the lab and concentrate on the present task.
When moving heavy equipment or gas cylinders, use carts.
Always use the right tools for the given task.
Handle the tools and equipments with extreme care and return the
tools to their proper places.
For cleaning tools or equipments, use only the proper cleaner. Never
use fuels such as gasoline or diesel for cleaning.
Handle fuels with extreme caution.
Use the designated area for this purpose.
Use the proper containers (safety cans) to carry fuels.
Make sure there is no electric spark present.
Do not leave fuels in open containers.
Please leave the Lab clean and tidy at end of experiment.

Lab Regulations
Lab Course will be graded in the following way:
5

Upto mid exam (50%)

20 % mid
15 % lab reports
15 % viva + practical exam
After mid-term exam
20 % final
15 % lab Reports
15 % viva + lab experiments
Note: Above grading policy is subject to change. If needed Lab
Instructor can modify it.
All students should bring their own lab manual available in services
centre, pencil, ball point pen, graph paper etc.
Make up Lab: No Makeup lab. However, with the permission from the
Dean one can perform experiments. Such lab experiments will not be
graded.
Late Comers: Students should come on time for the lab. Late comers will
be marked absent.
Lab Exam: Lab exam/viva/practical exam will be during last week of
classes.
Schedule: Schedule will be provided at beginning of the course.
Duration: Duration of each practical experiment is 3 hours and no
student will be allowed to leave the Lab before time. The students should
keep themselves busy and get full understanding of the apparatus and the
experiments. The student who leaves the Lab before the end of time will
be marked absent.
Cheating will be handled in accordance with FME policy, the details of
which are given on FME website http://192.168.151.50.

Experiment # 1 Air Conditioning

Objective:
Application of energy and mass balances to different processes involved in
air conditioning while using different temperature and pressure
measurements as well as flow rates.
Nomenclature:
S
y
m
b Description
o
l
s
m
a Air mass flow rate

Orifice differential
pressure drop

U
n
i
t
s
k
g
/
s
m
m
H
2

O
m

v B Specific volume of
air at station B

Mass flow rate of

m w water vapors from
the boilers

Specific humidity at
station A

Specific humidity at
station B

/
k
g
k
g
/
s
k
J
/
k
g
k
J
/
7

k
g
k
B
Q
Boiler Heat input
W
k
PPre heater power
Q
input
W
k
Pf Fan power input
W
k
J
h A Specific enthalpy of
/
air at station A
k
g
k
J
h B Specific enthalpy of
/
air at station B
k
g
k
J
hW Specific enthalpy of
/
condensate
k
g
k between B and C from surrounding

QB CHeat transfer rate into the duct

W
k
J
hc Specific enthalpy of
/
air at station C
k
g
k
g
m
e Mass flow rate of
water condensate
/
s
k
J
he Specific enthalpy of
/
water condensate
k
g
k
g
m
r Refrigerant mass
flow rate
/
s
h1 Enthalpy of
k
8

refrigerant at
compressor inlet

Enthalpy of
h4 refrigerant at
evaporator inlet
r Re heater power
Q
input

Volume flow rate of

V 1refrigerant at
compressor suction

J
/
k
g
k
J
/
k
g
k
W
m
3

/
k
g

Equipment Description
Air-conditioning laboratory unit, shown in Fig. 1.1, is a model A574
computer test unit that allows the user to study various air-conditioning
processes as the air passes through various conditioning processes that
takes place in a close duct square in section, mounted on a steel frame.
There are seven heaters installed on the system (two preheat, two reheat
and three in the boiler) that are controlled through a control panel
consisting of buttons for each heater as well as fan speed control and the
compressor power button. An atmospheric boiler that has three heating
elements can be switched to create various rates of steam production
provides the steam to the unit. The water level in the boiler is controlled
by a float valve and observed through a sight glass.

Figure 1.1 Air Conditioning Unit

When the compressor is turned on, the following refrigeration cycle starts:
The refrigerant R-134a vapor is drawn from the evaporator (or the cooling
coil) into a hermetic (sealed) compressor which discharges into an aircooled condenser. The refrigerant liquid then passes through a flow meter
and thermostatically controlled expansion valve to the evaporator. Four
thermometers and two pressure gauges enable the state points of the
refrigeration cycle to be determined.
Air is drawn into a variable speed centrifugal fan past wet and dry bulb
thermometers at A and discharged into the duct. For humidification,
steam is added at the fan intake i.e. after A. Once in the duct, the air can
be pre-heated by two 1 kW finned electric heating coils, and then into a
stabilizing section, where its condition is measured by both wet and dry
10
Pressure
Gauge

bulb thermometers at point B. Then the air flows over the evaporator coils
of R-134a vapor-compression unit whose operation is discussed in the
previous paragraph. Here between B and C the air is cooled and, under
certain conditions, dehumidified, releasing some of its moisture content as
condensed water. The condensate is drained into a calibrated flask for
analysis purpose. Thermometers again measure the air condition before it
passes over 0.5 kW finned heating coils that are used for reheating
purpose to provide desired conditions. The final condition of the air is
determined by thermometers at point D. The mass flow rate can be
derived from a differential pressure drop across the sharp edged orifice
which is the exit portion of the duct.
Operating Instructions
(Please refer to schematic diagram)
Before turning on the unit be sure the refrigeration cycle is off
Switch on the unit at main switch. The fan should run as soon as
the switch is made. Allow the fan to run for at least 5 minutes, and
then turn on the refrigeration cycle.
Switch on pre-heaters as indicated in the Table 1.1.
Adjust the fan speed to 10 and allow the unit to run for10 minutes.
Take values of temperature and pressure etc. at different points and
note in Table 1.1.
Take at least five readings at different fan speeds and complete
Table 1.1 and 1.2.
Turn the heaters off

Steam Option
Turn on the water supply to the boiler and check that the water
level in the gauge glass stabilizes at a depth, which will cover all
the heater elements (i.e.about 120mm from the bottom of boiler).
For the steam to be generated, turn on the three boilers switches
and wait until steam is seen to eject from the distributor (this takes
about 5 minutes). Now adjust the boiler output to the desired rate
by switching up to any level by 1kwincrements up to a maximum of
5kw.
11

 Now repeat the above operating instructions and complete Table

1.2.
Precautions
Before switching off

Switch off all boiler heaters.

Switch off all air heaters.
Switch off refrigeration circuit.
Set the fan to maximum speed.
Then, allow the fan to run for at least five minutes after which the
main isolator maybe switched off

Data Analysis:
Calculation of air mass flow rate:
m a=0.0504

z
(1)
vD

(kg/s)

Where
m a= Air mass flow rate across the duct , kg/s
3

v D=Specific volume of air at station D , obtained psychromatric chart ,m /kg

z=Orifice differential pressure , mm of H 2 O
Application of energy-mass balance between A & B:
By conservation of mass between A and B:
m w =m a ( B A ) (2)

(kg/s)

where
m w =mass flow rate of water vapoursintroduced by the boiler between AB , kg /s
A =specific humidity of air at station A

( kgkgofofwater
air )

B=specific humidity of air at station B

( kgkgofofwater
air )

Applying steady flow energy equation between A and B:

Heat transfer rateWork transfer rate=Enthalpy change rate (3)

( kW )

12

Now the left hand side:

Heat transfer rateWork transfer rate=Q B + Q P(Pf ) (3 a)

(kW )

Where
Q B =Boiler heat input (kW )
Q P =Pre heater power input (kW )

P f =Fan power (kW )

And the right hand side:

Enthalpy change rate=m a ( hB h A )mw hw (3 b)
where
h A =specific enthalpy of air at station A , kJ/kg
h B=specific enthalpy of air at station B , kJ/kg
hw =specific enthalpy of steam the boiler , kJ/kg
Application of energy-mass balance between B & C:
Mass Balance:

Rate of condensation from air stream

(Kg/s)

m a ( B C )

...(4)

Where
B=specific humidity of air at station B

( kgkgofofwater
air )

C =specific humidity of air at stationC

( kgkgofofwater
air )

Energy Balance:
Heat transfer rateWork transfer rate=Enthalpy change rate (5)

(kW)

Q B C m a ( hC hB ) m e he m r ( h1 h4 )

(6)

Where
QB C =heat transfer rate into the duct between BC surrounding ,

(kW)

(kW)
13

hC =specific enthalpy of air at stationC , kJ/kg

he =specific enthalpy of condensate ,

kJ/kg

m e =mass flow rate of condensate the evaporator , kg/s

Energy balance between C & D:
Between C and D there is reheater only. Applying energy balance to the duct
between C and D:

Qr m a (hD hC )

. . ..(7)

(kW)

Q r=Reheater power input ,( kW )

Volumetric efficiency of compressor:
Volume flow rate at the compressor intake:

V 1 m r v1

. (8)

v 1=specific volume at compressor intake ,

m /s

m3/kg

m r=mass flow rate of refrigerant , ( kg /s )

Volumetric efficiency of the compressor is

vol

V1

swept _ volume

Guidelines for the instructor:

After completing the experiment arrange a visit to HVAC plant. Instruct students to observe
the system and compare what they observed in the lab with the HVAC system in the plant.
Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Visit
Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

Time Consumed
25 minutes
20 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
45 minutes
5 minutes
3 Hours
14

Worksheet: Experiment 1
Observation Tables
Table 1.1

Test Reference
DB of air at fan inlet(oC)
WB of air at fan inlet(oC)
DB of air after pre-heater(oC)
WB of air after pre-heater (oC)
DB of air after cooling,(oC)
WB of air after cooling(oC)
Refrigerant pressure on leaving
(kN/m2)

evaporator

Refrigerant temp on leaving evaporator(oC)

Refrigerant pressure before expansion valve
(kN/m2)
Refrigerant temp before expansion valve(oC)
Refrigerant pressure on entering evaporator
(kN/m2)
Refrigerant temp on entering evaporator (oC)
Refrigerant mass flow rate (gm/S)
Pre-heater
input
(kW)
Fan speed
Orifice differential pressure (mm of H2O)
Condensate collected (gm)

Table 1.2
15

DB
(oC)

of

Test Reference
air
at
fan

inlet,

WB of air at fan inlet

(oC)
DB of air after re-heater
(oC)
WB of air after re-heater
(oC)
DB of air after cooling
(oC)
WB of air after cooling
(oC)
Refrigerant
pressure
on
leaving
evaporator(kN/m2)
Refrigerant temperature on leaving evaporator
(oC)
Refrigerant pressure before expansion valve
(kN/m)
Refrigerant tern before expansion valve (oC)
Refrigerant pressure on entering evaporator
(kN/m2)
Refrigerant tern on entering evaporator (oC)
Refrigerant mass flow rate
( m/s)
Boiler heat
(kW)
Pre-heater
(kW)
Fan speed
Orifice
differential
pressure,
z,
(mm of H2O)
Condensate collected
( gm)
DB: Dry Bulb Temperature

WB: Wet Bulb Temperature

Demonstration: After completing the experiment there would be a visit to HVAC plant.
Observe the system and compare what you observed in the lab with the HVAC system in the
plant.
Analysis
On a psychometric chart, show processes for different flow rates of air you investigated.
Calculate the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
Exercise
16

Q1: Give an account of how industrial air conditioning systems differs from the one you have
performed experiment on?

Q2: Explain what does a thermostatic expansion valve do?

Q3: How does it control the flow rate of the refrigerant?

Q4: How does it cool the refrigerant?

Q5: What is the function of drier in the refrigeration cycle?

Q6: Write a short report on your trip to HVAC plant focusing on what new things you learnt.

Q7: Consider your findings in table 1. Explain how the condenser and evaporator pressure
varies with increase in flow rate of air. Why is it important to consider such effect?

Q8: Is mass continuity evident from your experimental results? (Show sample calculation). If
not, indicate the most likely sources of error in the mass calculations.
Q9: Is energy conservation evident from your experimental results?
(Show sample calculation). If not, indicate the most likely sources of error.
Q10: Is the volumetric efficiency of the compressor changes with airflow rate, as you would
expect?

17

Experiment # 2 Refrigeration
Objective
Production of Energy Balances of Special Refrigeration Laboratory Unit.

18

TEV

Condenser

Compressor

Evaporator

19

Nomenclature
Symbol
s

Description

Units

e
Q

Heat absorbed by refrigerant in the evaporator

Ve

Evaporator Volts

le

Evaporator Amperes

m
r

Refrigerant mass flow rate

kg/s

h1

Specific enthalpy at compressor suction

kJ/kg

h4

Specific enthalpy at evaporator outlet

kJ/kg

Cp, w

Specific heat capacity of water

kW
Volts (V)
A

kJ/kg.oC

t5

Temperature of cooling water before condenser

t6

Temperature of cooling water after condenser

h2

Specific enthalpy at compressor exit

kJ/kg

h3

Specific enthalpy at condenser exit

kJ/kg

Ps

Shaft power of compressor

kW

T
F
n
mr
Pf

Torque exerted by the motor on compressor

Force required to move the spring load
Angular velocity of compressor or motor
Mass flow rate of refrigerant

N-m
N
rpm
kg/s

Frictional Power

kW

Ff

Motor load cell reading with the compressor suction

valve closed

Pi

Compressor indicated power

kW

Heat losses from the compressor

kW

Pel

Electrical Power input

kW

Vm

Motor Volts

lm

Motor Amperes

Cos inverse of power factor

rad

net
Q

Net heat input to the plant

kW

Pnet

Net Power output by the plant

kW

c
Q

Heat transfer to the refrigerant in condenser

kW

e
Q

Heat transfer in the evaporator

kW

rad
Q

C
C

20

Major Uses
Some of the major uses of Refrigeration are:
In the process of cooling i.e. for Air-conditioning
Processing and preservation of food.
Removing heat from substances in chemical, petroleum and
petrochemical plants.
Other numerous applications as those in the manufacturing and
construction industries warehouses etc
Precautions

Set all the knobs to initial position before starting the equipment
Do not touch the fittings as it might result in refrigerant leak.
Wait for the readings to normalize before noting them.
At the end of experiment switch off the equipment and terminate
the water supply.

Procedure
Fully rotate evaporator input control in the anti-clockwise direction
Switch on the unit after I mm
Adjust the evaporator-input control to give 150 volts
Set the condenser pressure to 1050 KN/m2 by adjusting the
condenser water flow rate. The condenser pressure should remain
constant at 1050 KN/m2 throughout the experiment
Take 9 readings to complete the table with an increment of 10 volts
by adjusting the voltage with evaporator input control
The unit should be given at least (in7 nun for all the processes to be
in the steady state condition.
Shutting down at the end of test
Reduce the refrigeration load (evaporator heat input control) to zero. After
about one minute switch off at main switch and turn off the cooling water.
Data Analysis
Evaporator
Evaporator Heat Input:
21

Q.e= VeIe

(kW)

R134a Enthalpy Change Rate

= mr(h1-h4)

(kW)

Condenser
Heat Transfer to Cooling Water:

Qe C p ,w (t 6 t5 )

(kW)

R134a Enthalpy Change Rate= mr(h3 h2)

(kW) ; h3 = h4

Compressor
Shaft Power:
Ps = T

(kW)
2nm
0.165 F
60

Friction Power:
0.165 F f

2nm
60

Pf =
(kW)
Where Ff is the motor load cell reading with the compressor suction
valve closed, i.e. the compressor doing no network on the gas.
Compressor Indicated Power:
Pi = Ps - Pf

(kW)

R134a Enthalpy Change Rate=mr(h2 h1)

(kW)

Thus loses from the compressor in the form of radiated and convected
heat is represented,

Qrad

= mr(h2 h1) + Ps

(kW)

Electric Motor
Pel = VmImCos

(kW)

Hence the heat loses from the motor in the form of radiation and
22

convection,

Qrad

= Ps - Pel

(kW)

For the Complete Plant

Qnet
Pnet

(Ist Law)

Qc Qe Qrad
Pel

(kW)

(kW)

Some Useful Data

If Compressor RPM = 480
Motor RPM = 480 * 3.08 = 1478 (3.08 = Belt Pulley Ratio)
Compressor Friction Force = 5 N
Torque Arm Radius = 0.165 m
Sp. Heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg

Guidelines for the instructor:

After completing the experiment, explain the working of a cut away model of a domestic air
conditioning unit. Instruct the students to write a short report on their findings.

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Demonstration
Analysis
Attendance

Time Consumed
25 minutes
20 minutes
45 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
5 minutes
23

Total Time

3 Hours

Work Sheet: Experiment 2

Tes
t1

Tes
t2

Observation Table
Tes Tes Tes Tes
t3
t4
t5
t6

Tes
t7

Tes
t8

Tes
t9

Evaporator
Pressure(Pe)
Compressor
Suction
Temperatur
e(T1)
Compressor
Deliver
Temperatur
e(T2)
24

Liquid
Leaving
condenser
Temperatur
e(T3)
Evaporator
inlet
Temperatur
e(T4)
Water inlet
Temperatur
e(T5)
Water
outlet
Temperatur
e(T6)
Water Flow

m w

rate(
)
R-l34a Flow

m r

rate( )
Evaporator
Volts(Va)
Evaporator
Amperes(Ie)
Motor
Volts(Vm)
Motor
Amperes(Im)
Spring
Balance(F)
Compressor
Speed(Sc)
Motor
Speed(Sm)

Demonstration: After completing the experiment, observe the working of a cut away
model of a domestic air conditioning unit. Write a short report on your findings.
Q1: How does refrigeration differ with Air conditioning? How is it similar?
25

Q2: What is the purpose of employing heating coils inside the evaporator?

Q3: Why are we keeping the condenser pressure constant for this experiment?

Q4: What is the effect of changing heat input on:

a) Evaporator pressure
b) Compressor power input
c) Heat transfer across the condenser
Q5: Please explain how you can design a refrigeration system for commercial use
using this apparatus?

Experiment # 3Recirculation Air

Conditioning
Objective
Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient (Overall coefficient of
Performance COP) at various air velocities of recirculation air conditioning
unit and estimation of volumetric efficiency of compressor.
Nomenclature
Symbols

Description

Units

26

m
a

Air mass flow rate

z
V
E
Ip

Orifice differential pressure drop

Specific volume of air at orifice
Pre heater Voltage
Pre heater current

air mass flow rate

kg/s

hB

Enthalpy of air before pre heater

kJ/kg

hC

Enthalpy of air after pre heater

kJ/kg

s
Q

Boiler Power input

Is

Boiler current

wB

Specific humidity at pre heater inlet

kg/kg

wC

Specific humidity of air before evaporator

kg/kg

hS

Specific enthalpy of steam

kJ/kg

hW

Specific enthalpy of condensate water

kJ/kg

Rate of change of enthalpy

kW

'
H

Rate of change in enthalpy of air by passing thorough

fan

kW

kg/s
mm H2O
m3/kg
V

kW
A

hD

Specific enthalpy of air at evaporator exit

kJ/kg

m
w

Condensate flow rate

kg/s

hW

Specific enthalpy of condensate

kJ/kg

Ic

Compressor current

Cos inverse of compressor power factor

rad

v 13

Specific volume at compressor suction

m3/kg

V 13

Volume flow rate of refrigerant at compressor suction

m3/s

vs

Compressor swept volume

m3/s

Heat transfer rate to the junction between stations A

and B

kW

r
Q

Re heater power input

kW

Ir

Re heater current

Pf

Fan power

kW

If

Fan current

hD

Enthalpy of air after evaporator

kJ/kg
27

hE

Enthalpy of air after re heater

kJ/kg

m
E

Mass flow rate at fan inlet

kg/s

m
B

Air mass flow rate before pre heater

kg/s

m
A

Air mass flow rate ventilated

kg/s

hA

Specific enthalpy of air after entering through the orifice

kJ/kg

wA

Specific humidity of ait at the ventilation entrance

kg/kg

wB

Specific humidity of air at pre heater inlet

kg/kg

wE

Specific humidity of air after re heater

kg/kg

28

Figure 3.1 Recirculation Air Conditioning Unit

1.
2.
3.
4.

Operating Instructions:
Before turning the unit on. Be sure that refrigeration cycle is off.
Rotate the fan speed controller fully clockwise.
Switch on the electric supply at the isolator.
Switch on the unit at the main switch. The fan should run as soon as
the switch is made on. Allow the fan to run for at least 5 minutes.
Then turn on the refrigeration cycle (compressor).
29

5. Switch on re-heaters and pre-heaters as indicated in the Table given

below. As will be seen from the diagram. The lower row of switches
controls the adjacent components in the lower duct.
6. Fully close the re-circulation control window to give 100% recirculation.
7. Allow the unit to run for sufficient time to bring the system in
equilibrium.
8. Take values of temperature and pressure etc. at different points and
record in Table
9. Take readings at different window opening positions and complete
the Table.
Precautions

Before switching off

Switch off all boiler heaters. Switch off all air heaters.
Switch off refrigeration circuit. Set the fan to maximum speed.
Then, allow the fan to run for at least five minutes after which the
main isolator may be switched off.

Data Analysis
Heating:

m a 0.0757

z
v

(kg/s)

Where

= Air mass flow rate, kg/s

V = Specific volume of air at orifice, m3/kg

Pre-heater heat transfer =

EI p

(kW)

Enthalpy change rate=

m( hC hB )

(kW)

Steam Injection:

m a 0.0757

z
v

(kg/s)

Q s EI s

(kW)

Enthalpy change rate=

m(hC hB )

(kW)
30

Increase of moisture:

Moisture Increase=

m a (C B )

(kg/s)

Theoretical evaporation at boiler=

Qs
hs hw

(kg/s)

Cooling and Dehumidification:

H m a (hD hC ) m w hw W

(kW)

Refrigerator:
Electrical power input to compressor =

EI c Cos

(kW)

Over-all Coefficient of Performance:

COP=Cooling Rate/Power Input
Specific Volume at compressor suction=

v13

(m3/kg)

Volume flow rate at compressor suction=

m v13

(m3/s)

Volumetric Efficiency=

v13
vs

Reheating and Fan Power Input:

H Q P

Q r EI r
Pf EI f

H m(hE hD )

difference H H

(kW)

31

Recirculation/Mixing:

m E m m a

(kg/s)

Q m B hB ( m A hA m E hE )

(kW)
Assuming adiabatic flow

hB

m A h A m E hE

mB

(kJ/kg)
By water balance

m A A m E E

mA

(kg/kg)

Guidelines for the instructor:

After completing the experiment arrange a visit to Air handling units installed in the faculty.
Instruct students to observe the system thoroughly and systematically. Get the students
accustomed to various components in the air handling unit.

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Visit to AHUs

Time Consumed
25 minutes
20 minutes
45 minutes
40 minutes
32

Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

45 minutes
5 minutes
3 Hours

Exercise
Q1: What is the effect of changing recirculation values on the compressor input? Give proper
justification.
Q2: List different examples from the industry where recirculation values are of critical
importance.
Q3: Why does orifice differential pressure increase when decreasing the recirculation
amount?
Q4: How does volumetric efficiency of the compressor varies with the recirculation amount?
Give reasons for your answer.
Q5: Write a short account of your observation of Air handling units and duct system installed
at FME.

33

Work Sheet: Experiment 3

Observation Table
Observation No.
Pre-heater
Re-heater
DB of air after pre-heater, t5,
WB of air after pre-heater, t6,
DB of air after cooling, t7,
WB of air after cooling, t8,
DB of air after fan, t9,

100%

50%

25%

(oC)
(oC)
(oC)
(oC)
(oC)

WB of air after fan, t10

(oC)
DB of refrigerant before exp-valve,t11 (oC)
WB of refrigerant before exp-valve, t12 (oC)
Refrigerant temp on leaving evap, t13, (oC)
Refrigerant
mass
flow
rate,
(kg/S)
Condensate flow rate
(kg/S)
Condensate temperature
(oC)
Orifice differential (intake), z1,
(mm of
H2O)
Orifice differential (after fan), z2, (mm of
H2O)
Refrigerant pressure after cond,
(kPa)
Refrigerant pressure before comp.
(kPa)
Compressor voltage, V,
(volts)
Compressor current, I,
(Amps)
DB: Dry Bulb Temperature,

WB: Wet Bulb Temperature

Demonstration: After completing the experiment visit the Air handling units installed
in the faculty. Observe the system thoroughly and write a brief account on your
findings
Exercise

34

Q1: What is the effect of changing recirculation values on the compressor input? Give
proper justification

Q2: List different examples from the industry where recirculation values are of critical
importance.

Q3: Why does orifice differential pressure increase when decreasing the recirculation
amount?

Q4: How does volumetric efficiency of the compressor varies with the recirculation
amount? Give reasons for your answer.

Q5: Write a short account of your observation of Air handling units and duct system
installed at FME.
Q6: Show the processes on Psychometric Chart.

New Experiments:
1- To compute the COP and energy efficiency ratio (EER) of AC unit
2- To calculate theoretical and actual COP of Refrigeration apparatus
3- To determine COP and tonnage capacity of Refrigeration apparatus

35

Experiment # 4 Boundary Layer

Development
Introduction
The movement of air inside tubes or over bodies is encountered in many
disciplines in engineering. The losses incurred in pipes or ducts, the losses
associated in fittings, measurement of air flow and boundary layer
development form a basic part of most engineering courses and demand a
practical demonstration in the laboratory.
At the beginning of twentieth century, both the fields of theoretical
hydrodynamics and experimental hydraulics were highly developed and
attempts were being made to unify the two. In 1904, a classic paper was
presented by a German professor, Ludwig Prandtl (1857-1953), who
introduced the concept of fluid boundary layer which laid the foundation
for the unification of theoretical and experimental aspects of fluid
mechanics. Prandtls idea was that the flow next to a solid boundary, in
thin fluid layer (boundary layer) develops in which friction is very
important, but outside this layer, fluid behaves very much like a
frictionless fluid.
Nomenclature
Symbol
s

Description

Units

Thickness Of The Boundary Layer

mm

mm

Distance Between Upstream Fluid Entrance To Point Of

Consideration
The Velocity Of The Fluid
Wall Shear Stress

Density Of Fluid

m/s
Kg/
(m.s2)
Kg/m3

The Kinematic Viscosity Of Fluid

The Dynamic Viscosity Of Fluid

m2/s
Kg/m.s

g
h

Acceleration Due To Gravity

The Manometric Head Of The Fluid Under Consideration
(Air)
Pressure Difference Between The Pitot Tube And The Wall
Pressure Taping Measured By The Manometer Bank
Reynolds Number Based On Distance From Upstream
Fluid Entrance

m/s2
mm
Pa

36

Objective
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the development of
boundary layer in the entry length of a circular pipe, to determine the
thickness of boundary layer at various cross and to compare the results
with the existing theoretical solutions.

Theory
Inviscid Fluid Flow
Shearing forces develop in a moving fluid close to solid surface because of
the viscosity of the fluid. Flow fields far away from solid walls in which the
shearing stresses are negligible are said to be inviscid, non- viscous, or
frictionless.
Boundary Layer Development
Near the solid-fluid interface, the velocity changes rapidly from zero at the
wall (no-slip condition) to some relatively large value in a short distance
from the interface. This rapid change in velocity gives rise to a large
velocity gradient normal to the boundary and produces significant
shearing stresses even though the viscosity may be small. Of course if we
had a truly inviscid fluid, and flow would be irrotational everywhere. But
this is not the case for real fluids, so we typically have a layer (usually
very thin) near any fixed surface in a moving stream in which shearing
stresses are not negligible. This layer is called The Boundary Layer.
Outside the boundary layer, the flow can be treated as irrotational flow.
The thickness of boundary layer increases in the direction of flow, starting
from zero at the forward or leading edge of flow conduit. The flow within
the boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent depending upon the
Reynolds number Re.
Boundary Layer Structure
There can be a wide variety in the size of a boundary layer and the
structure of the flow within it. Part of this variation is due to the shape of
the object on which the boundary layer forms. A better appreciation of the
structure of the boundary layer flow can be obtained by considering what
happens to a fluid particle that flows into the boundary layer. As is
indicated in Figure 1, a small rectangular particle retains its original shape
as it flows in the uniform flow outside of the boundary layer. Once it enters
the boundary layer, the particle begins to distort because of the velocity
gradient within the boundary layer. The top of the particle has a larger
37

speed than its bottom. The fluid particles do not rotate as they flow along
outside the boundary layer, but they begin to rotate to as they pass
through the fictitious boundary layer surface and enter the region of
viscous flow. The flow is said to be irrotational outside the boundary layer
and rotational within the boundary layer.
At some distance downstream from the leading edge, when the Reynolds
number reaches a critical limit, the boundary layer becomes turbulent and
fluid particles greatly distorted because of the random, irregular nature of
turbulence.
Typical Characteristics of Boundary Layer Thickness
In theory the details of viscous incompressible flow past any object can be
obtained by solving the governing Navier Stokes equations. The
appropriate boundary conditions for those are that the fluid velocity far
from the body is the upstream velocity, and that the fluid sticks (no-slip
conditions) to the solid body surfaces. Although the mathematical problem
is well posed, no one has obtained an analytical solution to those
equations for flow past any object. Currently, much work is being done to
obtain numerical solutions to those governing equations for many flow
geometries.
By using the boundary layer concepts, Prandtl was able to impose certain
approximations (valid for large Reynolds number flows), and thereby to
simplify the governing equations. In 1903, Blasius (1883- 1970), one of
Prandtls students was able to solve these simplified equations for the
boundary layer past a flat plate parallel to the flow. Detailed treatment of
those equations is beyond the scope of this handout and only the final
results are given below.
= 5 (vx / V)

= 5 x / Rex

= 0.332 V3/2 ( / x)

Where

1/2

( mm )
( Kg/m.s2 )

is the thickness of the boundary layer

is wall shear stress

v is the kinematic viscosity of fluid

x is distance between upstream fluid entrance to point of consideration
V is the velocity of the fluid
Rex is Reynolds number based on distance from upstream fluid entrance
is the density of fluid
is the dynamic viscosity of fluid
38

Introduction to the Equipment

The equipment consists essentially of a long smooth walled pipe
supported on a steel frame; the pipe can be broken at the center for the
insertion of an orifice plate. One half of the pipe is connected to the
suction side of a centrifugal fan via a conical inlet duct whilst the other
half is open to atmosphere. Pressure tapings along the complete length of
the pipe permit the pressure gradient to be determined.
The fan discharge duct terminates in a flow control damper and a jet
dispersion orifice gate, which is easily adjustable. Air jet dispersion
experiments are carried out on the discharge side of the fan. A vertical
Pitot tube mounted on a graduated traversing carriage enables the Pitot
tube to be moved laterally across the jet and longitudinally along the jet
for jet dispersion profiles at various distances. The velocity in the pipe can
be varied by adjustment of the flow control damper. A traversing pitot
tube enables the measurement of the velocity profile at five different
stations along the pipe and hence the boundary layer growth can be
determined.
The centrifugal fan is mounted on a floor standing metal frame and is
driven by a constant speed motor. A fourteen-bank manometer allows
head loss and velocities within the pipe to be measured and can be
inclined to increase its sensitivity. A large and small nozzle permits flow
rates to be measured. A large bend and a metered cascade elbow allow
comparison of pressure losses for each fitting. A flow splitter can also be
fitted to the inlet nozzle of the pipe to prevent turbulence.
Procedure
Before performing the experiment, it is necessary to know the use and
underlying principle of a Pitot tube.
PitotTube
A Pitot tube is used to explore the developing boundary layer in the entry
length of a pipe, which has air drawn through it. The Pilot tube is used to
determine the velocity distribution profiles at a number of cross-sections
in the pipe at different distances from the pipe inlet. Because the air is
drawn along (sucked) by connecting the fan inlet to the pipe outlet, the
developing air flow in the entry length of the pipe is unaffected by flow
disturbances caused by the fan. The profiled bell-mouth ensures that
there is no flow separation from the pipe at inlet and flow straightening
vanes suppresses any tendency for an inlet vortex to form.
Velocities in the pipe are determined by using the Pitot tube to measure
the dynamic pressure of the moving air in the pipe and comparing this
with the static pressure in the pipe at the same cross-section and flow
39

velocity. The Bernoulli equation applied to the find impinging on the tip of
a Pilot tube gives the following relationship for the air velocity V.
V = (2 g h)

1/2

= (2 p/ )

( m/s )

Where
p is the pressure difference between the pitot tube and the
wall pressure taping measured by the manometer bank
is the density of air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure
g is acceleration due to gravity
h is the manometric head of the fluid under consideration (air)

Steps for Performing the Experiment

Five mounting positions are provided for the Pitot tube assembly. These
are 54, 294, 774, 1574, and 2534 mm from the pipe inlet as shown in
Figure 3.
1. Ensure that the standard inlet nozzle is fitted for this experiment
and that the orifice plate, which can be inserted at the pipe break
line, is not in position.
2. Mount the Pitot tube assembly at 54 mm position (nearest to the
pipe inlet).
3. Connect the pressure tapping at the outer end of the assembly to a
convenient manometer tube.
4. Connect the appropriate pipe wall static pressure tapping to the
neighboring manometer tube. This should always be the one
immediately upstream from the Pitot tube position in use at that
time
5. Position the Pitot tube in the center of the pipe and start the fan
with the outlet throttle closed.
6. Open the throttle slowly making sure that the fluid levels in the
manometer tubes do not approach too close to the top and bottom
of the visible tubes. Ideally, this throttle should be set such that the
difference in level between the dynamic and static manometer
tubes is almost 2/3 of the maximum available range. If the
separation of the manometer tube levels is not achieved with the
filly open fan discharge throttle, then incline the manometer board
from its normal vertical position until this ratio is achieved.
7. Carry out the velocity traverse of the pipe with the Pitot tube, being
sure to record its transverse position at each reading point using the
short scale provided on the Pitot tube assembly. Ensure that the
40

Pitot tube traverses right across the pipe until it is in contact with
the wall of the pipe.
8. Read and record both manometer tube levels and the transverse
position scale at each measurement station, in the tables given in
observations section. Space the measurement station more closely
together in regions where the velocity gradient is large.
9. Repeat the velocity traverse for the same air flow at each of the
other cross-sections. Replace the blanking plugs provided in the
Pitot tube mounting holes not in use. If the manometer is used in an
inclined position, record the correct manometer head.
10.
Record the air temperature and barometric pressure in the
laboratory at the time of the experiment so as to obtain accurate
values of air properties.

Guidelines for Instructor:

Show videos highlighting the importance of boundary layer in fluid mechanics. Also tell
students about modern research trends aiming at studying boundary layer in depth.
Exercise
Q1: Why is the study of boundary layer important?
Q2: Write a short report on some modern developments in numerical and experimental
studies of boundary layer.
Q3: What is the primary purpose of a pitot tube?
Q4: Differentiate between static, stagnation and dynamic pressure.
Q5: How would you differentiate between a laminar and a turbulent boundary layer?
Short Project: Conduct a research on state of the art experimental facilities used for studying
boundary layer and give a group presentation on your findings.

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Visual Aid
Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

Time Consumed
20 minutes
20 minutes
40 minutes
30 minutes
60 minutes
10 minutes
3 Hours
41

Work Sheet: Experiment 4

Table 4.1
Position x = 54 mm

Obs.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

y
mm

h
(kerosene
)
m

h
(kerosene)
m

ho (kerosene) =
h
(air)
m

V
m/s

mm

r
mm

42

Table 4.2
Position x = 294 mm
Obs
.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

y
mm

h
(kerosene
)
m

h
(kerosene)
m

ho (kerosene) =
h
(air)
m

V
m/s

mm

r
mm

43

Table 4.3
Position x = 774 mm
Obs.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

y
mm

h
(kerosene)
m

h
(kerosene)
m

ho (kerosene) =
h
(air)
m

V
m/s

mm
r
mm

44

Table 4.4
Position x = 1574 mm
Obs.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

y
mm

h
(kerosene)
m

h
(kerosene)
m

ho (kerosene) =
h
(air)
m

V
m/s

mm
r
mm

45

Table 4.5
Position x = 2534 mm
Obs.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

y
mm

h
(kerosene)
m

h
(kerosene)
m

ho (kerosene) =
h
(air)
m

V
m/s

mm
r
mm

Figure: 4.1

46

Figure: 4.2

Figure: 4.3

47

Figure: 4.4: velocity profiles along test pipe

48

Data Analysis
Plot the velocity against the radius for all five positions on the same
graph

49

Demonstration: A video will be shown to the students highlighting the importance of

boundary layer in fluid mechanics. Also student will be instructed about modern
research trends aiming at studying boundary layer in depth.
Q1: Why is the study of boundary layer important?

Q2: Write a short report on some modern developments in numerical and experimental
studies of boundary layer.

Q3: What is the primary purpose of a pitot tube?

Q4: Differentiate between static, stagnation and dynamic pressure.

Q5: How would you differentiate between a laminar and a turbulent boundary layer?

Q. 6. Determine the boundary layer thickness at the five stations from the graph.

Q.7 Compare your graphs with those provided in this handout at the end and
account for discrepancies.
Short Project: Conduct a research on state of the art experimental facilities used for
studying boundary layer and give a group presentation on your findings.

50

Experiment #5 Drag Force Measurement

Objective:
Part I
To measure drag force on a range of axi-symmetrical
models by means of a force balance.
Part II
velocity

To show how drag on an object depends on the flow

Part III
To derive drag coefficients for different bodies and show
how they depend on the Reynolds number
Part IV
To demonstrate how altering the shape of a body can
decrease its drag coefficient.
Nomenclature
Symbol
s
P

R
T
Re
V
d

u
y
D
A

Cd

Description
Atmospheric Pressure
Density
Gas constant for air
Absolute temperature
Reynolds No.
Velocity of flow
Characteristic linear dimension
Viscosity of air
uniform velocity
height of the working section
Drag
Area
Coefficient of Drag

Units
Pa
kg/m3
J/kg K
K
none
m/s
none
Kg/m.s
m/s
m
N
m2

Theory
It is essential that the students should have a firm grasp of the following
key elements of theory of the Mechanics of Fluids in order to fully
understand the significance of the experiments. More comprehensive
treatment of this material can be found in most standard books on
Mechanics of Fluids.
Basic Properties of air
These are defined by the Gas Law,
P=RT

( Pa )
51

Where

P = atmospheric pressure, Pa
= Density, kg/m3
R = Gas constant for air, 287 J/kg K
T = Absolute temperature, K

Reynolds Number
This is a dimensionless group defining the relative magnitudes of viscous
and inertia forces in a fluid in motion. Low Reynolds numbers correspond
to viscous flow with little or no turbulence, whereas high Reynolds
numbers are associated with predominantly turbulent flows.
where

Re = V d /
is density, kg/m3
V is velocity of flow, m/s
d is characteristic linear dimension, m
is viscosity of air, kg/m.s

Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation defines the total energy of an incompressible fluid
in steady flow in the absence of losses. It may be applied without
significance error to air in the experiments, as the pressure differences are
small enough to permit compressibility to be ignored.
The equation states that the sum of the pressure energy and the kinetic
energy remains constant. There is a third term, the potential energy due
to gravity, dependent on the height above some datum level, which is
significant where liquids are concerned but negligible in the case of gases.
Consider a mass of 1 kg of air, density kg/m 3 subject to a pressure P Pa.
Its volume will be 1/ m3and its pressure energy will be P/ joules per kg,
the product of volume and pressure of air. If the air is also moving at the
velocity v m/s, its kinetic energy will be v2/2 joules per kg. Then the
Bernoulli equation states that
P/ + v2/2 = Constant

( [m/s]2 )

This is an essential tool for the analysis of flow in the contraction and
working section of a wind tunnel.
The Control Volume
Consider the working section of a wind tunnel, in which a model is
suspended. It is required to compute the force exerted by the air flow on
52

the model. The effective procedure is to draw an imaginary control surface

enclosing the working section and the model and then to consider the
various flows and forces affecting the control volume. It will be selfevident that the mass flow rates entering and leaving the control volume
will be equal under steady state conditions. However, the static pressure
distribution at the inlet and exit planes may not be identical. Integration of
the pressures may indicate a net pressure force on the control volume.
Finally, the flow of momentum, the product of mass flow rate and velocity,
may differ for the two planes, giving rise to a net force. The computation
of this force is the subject of the Force-Momentum Equation. The sum of
the forces will be balanced by the drag forces acting on the model and the
tunnel walls.
Force-Momentum Equation
Assuming the working section to be unit width and that there is a uniform
velocity ( u ) m/s across the entry plane, then the momentum flow through
the plane is the product of mass flow rate and velocity given by,
Momentum flow = u y u,

( N/m2 )

Where y is the height of the working section

The momentum flow at the exit plane, where the velocity is not constant,
is however given by,
Momentum flow =

v v dy,

( N/m2 )

The difference between the two momentum flows represents the force
exerted by the air flow on the model (plus, strictly speaking, the shear
force on the control surfaces bounding the control volume in the direction
normal to flow). Since the total flow in the two planes is equal,

uy=

v dy

( kg/m.s )

Hence t is justifiable to write,

Drag force =

v [u - v] dy

(N)

Unless a wake traverse is performed fairly remote from the model, the
static pressure in the wake will not be uniform and there is an additional
drag force represented by the difference between the integrals of the
53

static pressures at the inlet plane and at the exit plane. For a pressure
difference p between the inlet and exit planes,
Additional Drag =

dy

(N)

Adding these forces together leads to the force momentum for the drag
force,
D=

v [u v] dy +

dy

(N)

The rotational version of Newton's Second Law ( = I) is completely

analogous to the linear version (F = ma). But this similarity masks the fact
that rotational motion is actually a bit more complicated. In particular,
torque () is a more complicated variable than force (F), and moment of
inertia (I) is a more complicated quantity than mass (m). In this
experiment we will study the above parameters and will practically see
the effect of radius and mass on moment of inertia.
Important
For more advanced students, there are further corrections to be applied to
take into account the longitudinal pressure gradient in the working section
static pressure and the tunnel blockage effect arising from the fact that,
unless the model is very small relative to the tunnel cross-section, the
mean flow velocity in the plane of the model is greater than in the free
stream. These corrections both tend to reduce the observed drag.
Description of the Apparatus
The disc, hemisphere and streamlined model have an identical crosssectional area normal to flow. When suspended in airflow on a balance,
the drag flow on the models in the flow direction can be measured. In this
way the effect of changing the shape of the models can be demonstrated
and some general rules developed for devising shapes with low drag.
As different air speeds can be provided in the working section, the
variation of drag with air speed can be demonstrated for each shape. To
eliminate the main effect of flow velocity the use of drag coefficients can
be demonstrated. Calculating the drag coefficients at different flow
velocities shows the effect of Reynolds number.
Procedures
Fit the exit flange assembly with drag balance at the working section
outlet. Mount the model on the balance with the balance rod clamped in
54

its guide by knurled screw. Screw the model on to the long rod, which is
threaded at both ends, and then screw the long rod into the balance rod. It
may be simpler to do this with the working section window removed.
Hang the balance on its top support and move the support until the
balance can be hooked into the hole in the top of the balance rod. Raise
the support until the balance shows force of about three Newton and then
clamp the top support with knurled screw holding the balance rod.
Do not undo the balance rod locking screw unless the balance is
supporting the balance rod or the rod and model will fall into the tunnel
and may damage the gauze.
When the model is secure, move the balance until the model is centered
in the working section and fit the plain front and rear windows to the
working section if they are not already in place. Connect the vertical tube
manometer across the reference pressure tapping points and adjust the
zero. Record the balance reading and, measure and record the
atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Start the fan and adjust the fan inlet valve to give a suitable air speed as
indicated by the reference pressure difference. The drag of the model will
decrease force on spring balance, which should be recorded. The
difference between the two balance readings with and without flow gives
drag of the model at that air speed.
Dependence of Drag on Air Speed
Open the fan inlet valve fully and when flow, as shown by the reference
pressure difference and balance readings have become steady, record
their values. By closing the fan inlet valve, reduce reference pressure in
ever decreasing steps to give approximately equal steps of velocity. At
each valve position, record the balance reading and pressure. The final
reading will be with the fan inlet valve fully closed.
The velocity of flow can be calculated for each test from the reference
pressure and the measured values of drag plotted against the velocity.
The curve appears to be parabolic, i.e. proportional to V 2, and this can be
demonstrated by plotting drag against dynamic head, or dynamic
pressure of flow. The straight line shows that drag-velocity relationship is
parabolic. The demonstration can be performed with all three shapes, the
disc, the hemisphere or the streamlined shape.
Dependence of Drag on Shape and Area
As the drag is a force, which has been shown to depend on the dynamic
pressure, it is simple to deduce that drag force also depends on area of
the body. This being the case, it is possible to define a drag coefficient
55

Cdfor a body. Cdis dimensionless and takes the area and dynamic pressure
into account.
Drag = V2A Cd/ 2

(N)

= Density of Air, kg/m3

V = velocity of Air, m/s
A = Frontal Area, m2
Cd= Drag Coefficient
The drag coefficient depends mainly on the shape of the body and is a
convenient way of comparing different shapes. Changes of drag
coefficient for a car, for example, will affect the fuel consumption and
considerable effort is put into designing shapes which have a low drag.
Comparing the drag coefficients of disc, the hemisphere and the
streamlined model shows how streamlining the shape can reduce the
drag to well under one half that of the disc, typical values being,
Disc Cd

= 1.8

Hemisphere Cd

=1

Streamline body Cd = 0.5

If the drag coefficients ire plotted against velocity, it can be seen that they
are not constant for each shape. There is a trend for the drag coefficients
to increase as the velocity decreases. This is most likely to be due to the
effect of Reynolds number changing with the velocity of flow.
Reynolds Number
While the drag coefficient takes account of area, shape of the body and
dynamic pressure of the pressure of the flow, it does not consider viscosity
of the fluid. While the effect of viscosity is small in general, it controls flow
in the boundary layer and this may have a measurable effect on the drag
if the range of velocities is wide enough to affect the shear stresses and
any separation points. The effects of viscosity on flow can be correlated by
Reynolds number.
The Reynolds number of a flow depends on fluid density and viscosity, the
velocity of flow and a physical dimension which can be length in the flow
direction of the body, or in case of a disc its diameter. For disc under
conditions in the working section,
Density,

= 1.19 kg/m3

Disc diameter, d

= 0.0443 m
56

Temperature

= 24oC

Viscosity,

= 18.3 * 10-6 kg/ms

With velocities ranging from 10-30 m/s, the Reynolds number of tests lies
between 20,000 and 100,000.

Guidelines for Instructor:

Show students a visual aid of how important drag force consideration and its measurement is
in aerospace and marine applications
Exercise
Q1: Differentiate between pressure drag and skin (shear) drag. Also highlight on the
importance of the two in aerospace application.
Q2: Modern research on drag reduction is being funded by many giant airplanes and ship
manufacturers. The reason being the fact that almost 50-60% of the power generated by
burning the fuel is consumed in overcoming drag force only. Conduct an independent
literature survey and present a short report on modern methods which are being investigated
for drag reduction.
Q3: From your experimental observations elucidate the impact of shape on drag force.
Q4: Justify the trends of Drag coefficient variation with Reynolds number that you got for
various shapes.
Q5: List practical applications where drag force consideration holds paramount importance.
Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Visual Aid
Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

Time Consumed
20 minutes
20 minutes
45 minutes
30 minutes
55 minutes
10 minutes
3 Hours

57

Work Sheet: Experiment 5

Observations
Air Density
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Temperature =

=
=

Table 5.1 (Flat Disc)

Ob
s.
No

Ref.
Pressure
Diff.

Balance
Reading N

Dra
g
N

Veloci
ty
m/s

Cd

Re.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Table 5.2 (Hemisphere)

Ob
s.
No

Ref.
Pressure
Diff.

Balance
Reading
N

Dra
g
N

Velocit
y m/s

Cd

Re.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

58

Table 5.3 (Streamlined Body)

Ob
s.
No

Ref.
Pressure
Diff.

Balance
Reading
N

Dra
g
N

Velocit
y m/s

Cd

Re.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Data Analysis
Plot Cd versus Reynolds number and Drag versus Reynolds number

59

Demonstration: Watch a visual aid explaining how important drag force

consideration and its measurement is in aerospace and marine applications

Q1: Differentiate between pressure drag and skin (shear) drag. Also highlight on the
importance of the two in aerospace application.

Q2: Modern research on drag reduction is being funded by many giant airplanes and
ship manufacturers. The reason being that almost 50-60% of the power generated by
burning the fuel is consumed in overcoming drag force only. Conduct an independent

60

literature survey and present a short report on modern methods which are being
investigated for drag reduction.

Q3: From your experimental observations elucidate the impact of shape on drag force.

Q4: Justify the trends of Drag coefficient variation with Reynolds number that you got
for various shapes.

Q5: List practical applications where drag force consideration holds paramount
importance.

Q6: For each of the flat plate, hemisphere, and streamlined body, explains is it the
pressure drag or the friction drag which contributes more in the overall drag force?

Experiment #6 Gas Turbine

Objective
"To determine the overall gas- turbine characteristics"
61

Nomenclature
Paramet
er
N1
P

Vf
P2
T1
T2
T3A
T3B
T3C
P3
T4
P4
T5
P4/5
T
N2
P5

Description

Unit

Compressor rpm
Pressure difference between atmosphere and
P2

rpm
mm of wg
(watergra
m)
l/h
bar
o
C
o
C
o
C
o
C
o
C
bar
o
C
bar
o
C
mm of Hg
Nm
rpm
bar

Volumetric flow rate of fuel

Pressure after the compressor
Compressor inlet Temperature
Compressor outlet Temperature
Combustion Chamber Temperature
Combustion Chamber Temperature
First turbine outlet temperature
First turbine Inlet Pressure
Power Turbine Inlet Temperature
Power Turbine Inlet Pressure
Power Turbine Outlet Temperature
Pressure difference between P4 and P5
Power Turbine Torque
Power Turbine rpm
Power Turbine Outlet Pressure

Theory
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a rotary engine that
extracts energy from a flow of combustion gas. It has an upstream
compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber
in-between. (Gas turbine may also refer to just the turbine element.)
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where air is mixed
with fuel and ignited. Combustion increases the temperature, velocity and
volume of the gas flow. This is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's
blades, spinning the turbine and powering, the compressor. Energy is
extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air and thrust and is
used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators, and even tanks. Gas
turbines are described thermodynamically by the Brayton cycle, in which
air is compressed isentropically, combustion occurs at constant pressure,
62

and expansion over the turbine occurs isentropically back to the starting
pressure.
Fig 11.1: Air Standard Brayton Cycle
Ignoring irreversibilities as the air circulates through the various
components of the Brayton cycle, there are no frictional pressure drops,
and the air flows at constant pressure through the heat exchangers. If
stray heat transfers to the surroundings are also ignored, the processes
through the turbine and compressor are isentropic. The ideal cycle shown
on the p - v and T - s diagrams in Fig. 9.1 adheres to these idealizations.
Areas on the T- s and p - v diagrams of Fig. 1 1 1 can be interpreted as
heat and work, respectively, per unit of mass flowing. On the T - s

diagram, area 2-3-a-b-2 represents the heat added per unit of mass and
area 1-4-a-b-1 is the heat rejected per unit of mass. On the pv diagram,
area 1-2-a-b-1 represents the compressor work input per unit of mass and
area 3-4-b-a-3 is the turbine work output per unit of mass. The enclosed
area on each figure can be interpreted as the net work output or,
equivalently, the net heat added.
System Description

63

The turbine available in FME lab is a two shafi gas turbine. Fig. 9.2 (given
below) shows schematically the component layout and the measurements
that are available on the GT85-2. The gas turbine follows the general trend
of the heat engines in that three basic processes are involved in the cycle,
namely compression, combustion and expansion. The compression part of
the cycle is carried out on the GT85-2 by a single stage centrifugal
compressor operating at speeds up to 90,000 rpm with a pressure ratio of
2.2. The compressor is driven by the first stage turbine whose only
function is to provide power for the compressor. The discharge from the
compressor is fed to the combustion chamber where it is used to burn the
kerosene fuel wit operating air/fuel ratios of approximately 70:1. The
combustion products, at temperatures up to 700C, are fed to the first
turbine and then to the power turbine where the residual gas power is
absorbed by the load dynamometer. Output powers up to approximately
7kw are available. The discharge from the power turbine is then
exhausted to atmosphere.

64

Formula Sheet

65

Procedure
1. Switch on the electrical supply.
2. Turn on the cooling water system.
3. Press and release the Start Oil button.
4. Press and release the Low Oil Pressure button when the oil
pressure is normal (2.5 bar); use the stop button to switch on the
fans to warm up the system to T3 = 45C.
5. Check that the main fuel valve is closed (fully clockwise) and that
the dynamometer loading is set to minimum. l
6. When a temperature rise of 40/50C above the original ' T 3, value
after warm-up has been achieved, then press and release the Fuel
Start button.
7. With the gas turbine running with N1, approximately 50,000
rev/min, use the main fuel valve to increase the fuel flow to give N 1
V 55,000 to 60,000 rev/min. Press and release Fan Off.
8. The value of N, will fall quickly when the tans are switched off.
Gently adjust the main fuel valve to keep N1 = 55,000 rev/min. The
turbine is now self-sustaining.
9. Start the data acquisition program by pressing the Shift and Break
keys and follow the display.
10.
Allow the gas turbine to run this speed for 3 to 5 minutes to
warm and use this time to check the instrumentation.
11.
Note the values in the table and complete the table for four
different values of N1.

Guidelines for Instructor:

Show students a short video on practical applications and importance of compressible flows
and nozzles. Make sure to highlight the importance of such flows in gas dynamics.
Exercise
Q1: Comment on the plots obtained through experimentation.
Q2: Justify the differences in the results of the plots for the cases of convergent nozzle and
convergent-divergent nozzle.
Q3: Compare your results of the experimentation to that of theoretical result and account for
the differences.
Q4: List practical applications of compressible flows.

66

Q5: Conduct a brief survey of state of the art modern experimental setups used to study
compressible flows and write a brief report on your findings.

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Visual aid
Analysis
Attendance

Time Consumed
20 minutes
20 minutes
45 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
10 minutes

67

Work Sheet: Experiment 6

Test Sheet
Ambient Temperature:

Ambient Pressure:

Pa

N1 rpm
P mm
Vf(l/h)
P2bar
T1 C
T2 C
T3A C
T3B C
T3C C
P3 bar
T4 C
P4 bar
T5 C
P45mm
Hg
T Nm
N2rpm

68

Demonstration: Students will be shown a visual aid underscoring the importance and
practical applications of gas turbines. The evolution in the design of gas turbines along
with an account on associated challenges and constraints would also be extremely useful.
Exercise
Q1: From your observations recorded on the test sheet determine the following:
a) Thermal Efficiency of the cycle
b) Specific fuel consumption
c) Work ratio
d) Combustion efficiency
e) Air-standard cycle efficiency
Q2: Draw a plot between thermal efficiency and rotational speed of the power turbine.
Provide suitable reasoning for the trend you observe.

Q3: Draw a plot specific fuel consumption and rotational speed of the power turbine.
Provide suitable reasoning for the trend you observe.

Q4: Draw a plot between power output and rotational speed of the power turbine. Provide
suitable reasoning for the trend you observe. Also compare this plot with that of the plot
obtained in Q2.

Q5: Give an account on practical applications of gas turbines.

Q6: Draw a comparison between gas turbines and internal combustion engine
highlighting both the similarities and differences.

69

Experiment #7 Introduction to Subsonic Wind

Tunnel and measurement of Co-efficient Drag
of Test Specimen
Experiment
Measurement of Coefficient of Drag of different samples in Subsonic Wind
Tunnel.
Nomenclature
Symbols

Description

Density

Units
Kg/m3

V
I

Fluid Velocity
Characteristic Length
Absolute Viscosity

m/s
m
Kg/m.s

a
g

Velocity Of Sound
Acceleration Due To Gravity

m/s
m/s2

Introduction to Apparatus
Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft or
automobile. In the tunnel, the engineers can carefully control the flow
conditions which affect aircraft performance. The model is placed in the test
section of the tunnel and is instrumented to provide the engineer with test
data. To obtain meaningful data, the engineer must ensure that the flow
similarity parameters of Mach number and Reynolds number match flight
conditions. A model often contains small ports to measure pressures on the
aircraft, or the model may be mounted on a balance to directly measure the
aircraft lift or drag. Wind tunnels are usually designed for a specific purpose
and speed range. There are special tunnels for propulsion, supersonic and
hypersonic flight, and even full scale testing.
Wind Tunnels are of two basic types:
1. Open Circuit Wind Tunnels
The air flowing through an open circuit tunnel follows an essentially straight
path from the entrance through a contraction to the test section, followed by
a diffuser, a fan section, and an exhaust of the air. There are again two
further types of Open Circuit Wind Tunnels, based on the placement of fan.
If the Fan or blower is placed upstream of the test section it would be
Blower type Open circuit Wind tunnel, and if fan or blower is placed
70

downstream, the test section it would be Suck down type Open Circuit Wind
Tunnel.
Advantages:
1. Construction cost is typically much less.
2. If one intends to run internal combustion engines or do extensive flow
via smoke, there will be no purging problem provided both inlet and
exhaust are open to the atmosphere.
Disadvantages:
1. If located in a room, depending on the size of the tunnel to the room
size, it may require extensive screening at the inlet to get high quality
flow The same may be true if the inlet and/or exhaust is open to
atmosphere, when wind and cold weather can affect operation.
2. For a given size and speed the tunnel will require more energy to rim.
This is usually factor only if used for developmental experiments
where the tunnel has high utilization rate.
3. In general, open circuit tunnels tend to be noisy. For larger tunnels
(test sections of 70 ft. square and more) noise may cause
environmental problems, limit hours of operations, and/or require
extensive noise treatment of the tunnel and surrounding room.
2. Closed Circuit Wind Tunnels
The air flowing in the closed return wind tunnel, Prandtl or Gottingen type,
re-circulates continuously with little or no exchange of air with the exterior.
The great majority of the closed tunnels have a return, although tunnels with
both double and annular returns have been built.
Advantages
1. Through the use of corner turning vanes and screens, the quality of
the flow can be well controlled and most important will be
independent of other activities in the building and weather conditions.
2. Less energy is required for a given test section, size and velocity. This
can be important for a tunnel used for developmental experiments
with high utilization.
3. There is a less environmental noise when operating.
71

Disadvantages:
1. The initial cost is higher due to return ducts and corner vanes.
2. If used extensively for smoke flow visualization experiments or running
of internal combustion engines, there must be away to purge tunnel.
3. If tunnel has high utilization, it may have to have an air exchanger or
some other method of cooling.
Classification of Wind Tunnel With Respect to Test Section
Wind tunnel is also classified on the basis of test section. There are two types
of test section, test sections can be open and closed Open test section may
be opened from one side or all side, or it can have porous wall so that air can
be mixed from outside. Open test section in conjunction with open circuit
wind tunnel will require an enclosure round the test
section to prevent air being drawn into the tunnel from the test section
rather than the inlet.
Important Parameters for Similarity
In wind tunnel experimentation, designing the sealed model is of great
importance. Design of these models depends on three non-dimensional
coefficients which appear in fluid dynamics equations. These are Reynolds
Number, Mach Number and Froude Number.
Reynolds Number = Inertia Force/ Viscous Force = V l/.
Where
= (density), V = (fluid velocity),
= (absolute viscosity)

I = (characteristic length),

Mach Number = Inertia Force/ Elasticity Force = V/a.

Where a = (velocity of sound)
Froude Number = (Inertia Force/ Gravity Force)1/2 = (V2)1/2/ l g
Where g = (acceleration due to gravity)

72

For wind tunnel experiments, the Fraud number is an important parameter

only for dynamic tests in which model motion as well as the aerodynamic
forces are involved.
For experiments in which the model is held stationary during data gathering,
the Reynoldss number and Mach Number are the significant similarity
parameters. If a model experiment has the same Reynolds and Mach
Numbers as the full scale application, then the model and the full scale flows
will be dynamically similar. The non-dimensional functions for fluid velocity
components, pressure coefficient, density, viscosity and temperature will
then be the same for the model and the full scale flows will be dynamically
similar the non-dimensional functions for fluid velocity components, pressure
coefficients, density, viscosity, and temperature will then be the same for the
model and full scale flows. In turn the force and moment coefficients will be
the same for the model and scale flows.
In practice it is seldom possible to match both Reynolds number and Mach
Number to full scale in model experiment. In fact, it is frequently the case
that neither Reynolds number nor Mach number can be mat Choices must
then be made on the basis of which parameter is known to be most
important for the type of flow situation under consideration.
Specifications of Our Subsonic Wind Tunnel Apparatus:

The Wind Tunnel here in FME is of Open-Circuit Closed Test Section type
Subsonic Wind Tunnel. It has 61cm by 61cm cross-section with possible air
speed of 50m/sec, or 180km/h. It is meant basically to perform study
experiments.
Main facilities provided on this tunnel are, air velocity control by setting j
speed (variable from 0 to 60 Motorized. Pipit tube placement mechanism is
also provided so that velocity can be calculated at any section position by
73

measuring static and stagnation pressure Other Facilities include Pressure

Data Acquisition System with 16 input channels. The specification of
maximum and pressure that can be sensed are mentioned in the respective
manual. For drag and lift measurement force transducer (strain gauges) are
available. This is present in the apparatus with name of NK-Mini sensors. This
assembly basically consists of stand through which angle of attack can be
changed, and vertical position of the test piece can also be adjusted. In front
of this stand there is a cylindrical attachment through which two wires are
coming out, which actually contains transducers to convert force signals to
electrical signals. We can measure forces and moments along all three axes,
one of which must be parallel to the cylindrical sensor attachment.

Procedure
One has to perform some checks before this equipment. First check that
pressure and force sensor and data acquisition system are provided with 110
Volt supply. If pressure sensors are used for the experiment the serial port of
computer must be attached to the respective p. t of the pressure acquisition
system.
Calibrate the force sensing equipment (NK_Mii Sensor) using the standard
weights provided, by first leveling sensor with horizontal using the spirit level
provided in the calibration equipment Pressure calibration can be done using
manometer of the desired range and fluid, according the maximum pressure
to be sensed in tunnel
Now before starting the wind tunnel make sure that the test section is closed
and there is nobody standing in front or behind the opening of the Wind.
1. Now after Calibration mount the first test specimen (test - Mini Sensor,
and level it.
2. Switch on the computer and attach the cord of NK Mini Force COMI of
the PC. Start PC in DOS prompt. Come in C drive (by giving Command
C: and enter). Go in Directory 1 and write gwbasic menu and press
enter, a menu will be displayed. Choose the Option for prompting
sensor readings. Press the button to zero the readings.
3. Close the test section, make sure that pipit tube is straight, aligned
along the tunnel axis and make sure that there is nothing mounted in
the other test section( as NK Mini is mounted downstream, and if
74

there is other test specimen mounted in the other test section the air
currents coming would already be disturbed).
4. Switch on the main power supply of Wind Tunnel.
5. Switch on the Wind Tunnel by the lever near its Toshiba Torque
Controller.
6. Now press Ctrl button on the Control Panel which is placed on the
right side of the test section (on the wall of diffuser section of the
Tunnel). This button gives user control of specifying the Fan speed
(Fan here is fitted on downstream of tunnel and that is why it is suck
down type Tunnel). Press the numeric keys on the panel to specify
Fan speed in Hz ( Max is 60).
7. Press Run button on the Panel to start the tunnel fan. .
8. Change the Fan Speed by giving desired increments and note downthe desired forces from the computer.
9. Leave the Calibration step and repeat from point 1, with other fest
specimen.
10.
Stop the tunnel.
11.
Change the port from the behind and attach the pressure sensor
port to COM1 of the PC. Switch the system froth DOS to Windows.
There is a directory on desktop open it and run start.exe. Press any
key and you will find the pressure sensor reading interface. Set the
units in which you want to acquire the inputs. Go in the menu and
data acquisition will be started.
12.
Again attain the same fan speeds on which the sphere is tested
for Drag force and note the pressure of channels which are attached
with Pipit tube (so that experimental value of velocities on those fan
speeds can be checked).
13.
Guidelines for the instructor
Before the experimentation, show students a video highlighting the importance of using wind
tunnels. The video should motivate students and enlighten them to the importance of
experimental technique in solving practical problems.
Exercise
Q1: What is dependence of fan speed and coefficient of drag for the following bodies?
a) Sphere with plane surface
b) Sphere with rough surface

75

Q2: What are we interested in measuring such dependence?

Q3: Give an account of the practical problems that can be solved using wind tunnel.
Activities
Lecture about general theory
Visual Aid
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

Time Consumed
25 minutes
20 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
45 minutes
5 minutes
3 Hours

Work Sheet: Experiment 7

Observations
Tables and Calculations
Table 7.1
Sphere with Rough Surface:
Diameter of sphere (Ds) =
Density of air= 1.23 k / m3.
Absolute Viscosity of air () = 1.79*10-5 N.s/m2
Sr.
#

Fan
Speed

Dra
g
Forc
e

Static
Pressu
re

Stagnati
on
Pressure

Velocit
y of
Air

Reynold
ss
Number

CoEfficient
of Drag

1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 7.2
76

Sphere with Plane Surface:

Diameter of sphere (Ds) =
Density of air= 1.23 k / m3.
Absolute Viscosity of air () = 1.79*10-5 N.s/m2
Sr.
Fan
Dra Static Stagnati Velocit
#
Speed
g
Pressu
on
y of
Forc
re
Pressure
Air
e
1
2
3
4
5
6

Reynold
ss
Number

CoEfficient
of Drag

Calculations
1. Reynolds Number: Re = Ro * V * Ds/
2. Coefficient of Drag:
Cd= Fd/ (0.5*Ro*(V2)*Frontal Area)
Where, Frontal Area (sphere) = Cross-section area of
sphere
= Pi* (Ds2) * 0.25

77

Graphs
1. Plot graph between Drag Force (dependant variable) and Air speed
(independent variable).

2. Plot graph between Coefficient of Drag (dependent variable) and

Reynolds Number (Independent Variable).
78

Demonstration: Before the experimentation students will be shown a video highlighting

the importance of using wind tunnels. The video should motivate students and enlighten
them to the importance of experimental technique in solving practical problems.
Exercise
Q1: What is dependence of fan speed and coefficient of drag for the following bodies?
c) Sphere with plane surface
d) Sphere with rough surface

79

Q2: What are we interested in measuring such dependence?

Q3: Give an account of the practical problems that can be solved using wind tunnel.

Q4: What is meant by Shape de of Drag Coefficient? (Chapter 9, Fluid Mechanics Course
book, 3T edition, topic 9.3.3.)

Q5: Try to correlate your graph with figure 9.21 (Edition), and comment on Reynolds
number, dependence of Coefficient of Drag?

Observations
Table 6.1 (For Convergent Nozzle)
Quantity
Measured

to

be
1

Po, gauge pressure,

(kN/m2)
P1, gauge pressure,
(kN/m2)
To, Temperature, (K)
T1, Temperature, (K)
H, head, (mm of H2O)
Po,absolute pressure,
(kN/m2)
P1,absolute pressure,
(kN/m2)
P1/P0
102*m, (kg/S)
102*mc, (kg/S)
Table 6.2 (For Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
80

Quantity
to
be
Measured
Po, gauge pressure,
(kN/m2)
P1, gauge pressure,
(kN/m2)

To, Temperature, (K)

T1, Temperature, (K)
H, head, (mm of H2O)
Po,absolute pressure,
(kN/m2)
P1,absolute pressure,
(kN/m2)
P1/P0
102*m, (kg/S)
102*mc, (kg/S)
Data Analysis
Plot P1/P0 versus mc both for convergent and convergent-divergent
nozzles.

81

Experiment #8 Compressible
Flow Through Nozzles
Objective:s
Determination of mass flow rate through a convergent nozzle and a
convergent- divergent nozzle at different pressure ratios.
82

Nomenclature
Symbol
s

Description

Units

Po

Pressure At The Exit Of A Convergent Nozzle Or At The

Throat Of Convergent-Divergent Nozzle

Pa

P1

Inlet Pressure To The Nozzle

Pa

Mass Flow Rate For The Standard Orifice

Kg/s

Head Difference Of Water In The Inclined Manometer

mm

To

Temperature Of Air At Inlet To The Nozzle

T1

Temperature Of Air At the Outlet of The Orifice Plate

Ratio Of Specific Heats i.e. ratio of Specific Heat At

Constant Pressure And Specific Heat At Constant
Volume.

Theory
A nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross-section in which a steady flowing
fluid can be made to accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct. There are
many applications in practice, which require a high velocity stream of fluid,
and the nozzle is the best mean of obtaining this. The important types of
nozzles are convergent nozzle, divergent nozzles, and convergent-divergent
nozzles.
Critical Pressure Ratio
The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic velocity is attained to the
inlet pressure of a nozzle is called the critical pressure ratio.
Mathematically the critical pressure ratio is defined by

83

P0
=
P1

2
( +1)

Where,
( Pc ) is pressure at the exit of a convergent nozzle or at the throat of

convergent-divergent nozzle. ( P1 ) is inlet pressure to the nozzle. ( ) is ratio

of specific heat (i.e. specific heat at constant pressure and specific heat at
constant volume).
It can be seen from above that for a perfect gas the pressure required to
attain sonic velocity in a nozzle depends only on the value of
For example, for air with

for the gas.

= l.4,

Po

P1

2
1.4

(1.4 1) (1.41)

= 0.528

Maximum Mass Flow or Choked Flow

84

Consider a convergent nozzle expanding in a space, the pressure of which

can be varied, while the inlet pressure remains fixed. When the backpressure
Pb is equal to P0, no fluid can flow through the nozzle. As Pb is reduced, the
mass flow through the nozzle increases, and because the enthalpy drops, the
velocity also increases. However, when the backpressure reaches the critical
value, it is found that no further reduction in backpressure can affect the
mass flow. When the backpressure is exactly equal to the critical pressure P c
then the velocity at the exit is sonic and the mass flow through the nozzle is
at maximum. If the backpressure is reduced below the critical value, the
mass flow will remain at maximum value and the nozzle is said to be choked.
It can be seen that the maximum mass flow through a convergent nozzle is
obtained when the pressure ratio across the nozzle is the critical pressure
ratio. Also for a convergent-divergent nozzle, with sonic velocity at the
throat, the cross-section of the throat fixes the mass flow through the nozzle
for fixed inlet conditions.

Introduction to the Equipment

This equipment permits a comprehensive study to the made of the laws
which govern the expansion of a compressible fluid through a nozzle, as in a
steam or gas turbine.
The inlet chest may be supplied with either air or steam at a pressure of up
to 700 k-N/m2. The inlet connections are arranged at right angle to each
other and each equipped with a throttling valve to regulate the flow in the
chest.
A nozzle is screwed into a seating in the center of the inlet chest. Three
nozzles are supplied. A convergent, a convergent- divergent or Laval nozzle,
and a convergent nozzle with parallel extension. The first two nozzles have a
nominal diameter of 6.4 mm (the exact diameter is stamped on the nozzle
and shown in the data sheet), while the parallel nozzle has nominal diameter
of 4.8 mm.
To enable the pressure variation along the nozzle to be observed, a stainless
steel search tube or probe of nominal diameter 3.31 mm may be traversed
along the nozzle axis. A cross drill of diameter 1.0mm in the wall of the probe
transmits the local pressure to a high-grade pressure gauge mounted on the
probe carrier. The probe is traversed in increments of 2mm by rotating a
calibrated dial. A pointer attached to the probe carrier moves over a replica

85

of the nozzle profile in order to indicate the position of the measuring point in
the nozzle.
At the upper limit of its travel, the pressure sensing hole is well clear of the
nozzle and registers the inlet chest pressure while at its lower limit it
registers the pressure downstream of the nozzle. The length of the probe is
such that it projects well beyond the downstream end of the nozzle
irrespective of the position of the setting dial.
The nozzle discharges into a vertical tube of large bore fitted with a throttling
valve by which the downstream or backpressure may be regulated. The
chest also carries a mercury-in-glass thermometer in an oil pocket, a
pressure gauge for indicating the chest pressure.
Downstream of the backpressure throttling valve, in the case of the air only
unit, the nozzle discharge is taken by way of a long straight pipe and a flow
straightener to an orifice plate. The pressure difference across the orifice
plate is indicated by an inclined manometer, permitting calculation of the air
flow through the test nozzle. A manometer is provided downstream of the
orifice to measure the air temperature.
Procedure
The upstream pressure Po (pressure of air at inlet to nozzle) must be constant
during a series of observation by adjusting the upstream flow control valve.
The backpressure is regulated by downstream control valve. The upstream
temperature To (temperature of air at inlet to nozzle) and the standard
temperature T1 at the standard orifice are observed using mercury
thermometers. The pressure drop across the standard orifice is measured by
an inclined water manometer. The mass flow rate for the standard orifice can
be determined from the following relation.

m 0.2288

h
1000

( kg/s )

Where
( ho ) is barometric pressure, mm of Hg
( h ) is the head of water in the inclined manometer
Where
m is corrected mass flow rate, kg/s
P0 pressure of air at inlet to nozzle, Pa
T0 is temperature of air at inlet to the nozzle, oK
86

87

Guideline for the instructor:

Show them a visual aid in the CD underscoring the importance and practical applications of gas
turbines. The evolution in the design of gas turbines along with an account on associated
challenges and constraints would also be extremely useful.
Exercise
Q1: From your observations recorded on the test sheet determine the following:
a)Thermal Efficiency of the cycle
b) Specific fuel consumption
c) Work ratio
d) Combustion efficiency
e) Air-standard cycle efficiency
Q2: Draw a plot between thermal efficiency and rotational speed of the power turbine. Provide
suitable reasoning for the trend you observe.
Q3: Draw a plot specific fuel consumption and rotational speed of the power turbine. Provide
suitable reasoning for the trend you observe.
Q4: Draw a plot between power output and rotational speed of the power turbine. Provide
suitable reasoning for the trend you observe. Also compare this plot with that of the plot obtained
in Q2.
Q5: Give an account on practical applications of gas turbines.
Q6: Draw a comparison between gas turbines and internal combustion engine highlighting both
the similarities and differences.

88

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Visual Aid
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

Time Consumed
25 minutes
20 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
45 minutes
5 minutes
3 Hours

Work Sheet: Experiment 8

89

Demonstration: Watch a short video on practical applications and importance of

compressible flows and nozzles.
Exercises:
Q1: Comment on the plots obtained through experimentation.

Q2: Justify the differences in the results of the plots for the cases of convergent nozzle
and convergent-divergent nozzle.

Q3: Compare your results of the experimentation to that of theoretical result and account
for the differences.

Q4: List practical applications of compressible flows.

Q5: Conduct a brief survey of state of the art modern experimental setups used to study
compressible flows and write a brief report on your findings.

Q6: If a nozzle is discharged into an evacuated space, explain its effects on mass flow.

Q7: Why, in a convergent-divergent nozzle, the convergent portion is much shorter than
the divergent portion?

90

Experiment #9 Boiler Technology

(Note: British/imperial system of units is followed throughout this
experiment)
Objective
To study the operations of boiler and overall function of a steam power plant.
Apparatus
Boiler technology training simulator. This simulator consists of two parts, a
student panel
and a software on pc. On the simulator following initial conditions can be set
using counter and push.
Selection no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Initial Condition
No water. Cold boiler
Hot well established
Deaerator level established
Drum level established
Turbine ready to roll
5% load
25% load
50% load
75% load
100% load

In the software, following displays are available by pressing related function

key.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Plant overview
Steam subsystem
Feed water sub subsystem
Condensate subsystem
Simulation freeze

91

Major Components of the System

Deaerator
It is larger horizontal tank water where feed water and steam are mixed
thereby releasing entrapped gases from the feed water. It also acts as a
heater transferring heat from IP turbine extraction steam to the feed water.
The water from the deaerator flows into a deaerator storage tank.
Drum
The drum is a large horizontal tank that serves the purpose of separating
high pressure steam and water and provides a large water inventory
between the feed water and steam system. The drum has two inputs and two
out puts. Feed water is feed into the drum from the economizer. Water from
the water valves is collected in header pipes and enters the drum through
numerous pipes along the length of drum.
Water circulating through the boiler leaves the drum through several large
pipes called down comers. The down comers feed header pipes that connect
into the bottom of the water valves. As the water and steam bubbles enter
the drum from the water valves, the steam separates and flows to the top of
the drum into the primary super heater. The drum operates and the
pressures above 2000 psi and therefore requires thick steel valves and rather
made supporting structure. It is essential that the drum is heated and cold
slowly and uniformly to avoid destructive thermal stresses.
Pumps
There are three types of pumps simulated in the boiler technology. These are
1.
2.
3.

make up pumps
condensate pumps
feed water pumps

Make up Pumps
It is small tow pressure centrifugal pump. The pressure and flow capability of
this pump depend upon the existence of positive water pressure at the inlet
of pump at the maximum flow rate of 350 klb/Hr. the discharge pressure id
about 150 psi.
92

Condensate Pumps
These are high flow, low pressure centrifugal pumps. Each pump can deliver
1380 klb/Hr. condensate flow at a pressure greater than 350 psi. As with the
make-up pump a positive suction pressure should be maintained.
Feed water Pumps
There are two feed water pumps. Pump A is coupled to an electric motor
through a variable speed hydraulic coupling. Pump B is driven by turbine.
Turbine controls the feed water pump B speed. Both the pumps are high
pressure, high flow pumps. Pump B is of greater capacity.
Valves
These are the devices to restrict the flow of liquid or gases. Their status is
depicted by the light on the simulator. Red light shows full opening, green
light shows the full closed stage, while both are on the valve is somewhere
between zero and one.
Economizer
It is a gas to liquid heat exchanger in the same way as for water walls.
Super heater and Reheater
Super heater and reheater are gas to gas heat exchangers. Heat is
transferred from hot combustion gases to the super heater through radiation
and conduction. In both reheater and super heater heat is transferred
through the pipes and to the steel by conduction and convection.
Condensate and feed water heater
Extraction steam taken from the turbine is used to heat the condensate
water and feed water. The rate of heat transfer to the feed water depends on
the steam flow and temperature, the drain temperature, and the heat given
off in the condensation process.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Enter the initial condition No. 1

Filling the hot well
Select the condensate system and make up valve A/M station.
Select manual mode and adjust the manual position to zero.
Select the make-up pump control and start the pump.
Open the make-up valve to fully open position from make-up valve A/M
station.

93

7. 50 in the desired level of hot well. It would take about 2 hrs to reach
this level. So enter initial condition No. 2 (hot well level established)
and observe the well level will be set to 48 in.
8. Adjust the hot well level set point to 50 in.
9. As both auto and manual controls are at 100% a bumpless transfer can
be made to the auto mode. Shift the controls from manual to the auto
mode.
10.
Starting condensate pump and establishing flow through the
demineralizers.
11.
Check the hot well level above 10 in.
12.
Put deaerator input valve in manual and fully closed position.
13.
Make the condrecire valve to 20 %.
14.
Start condensate pump A.
15.
Put the recirculation valve 100% manual control.
16.
If the conductibility is below 1.0 mmhos, set pipit to 20 and
switch it to the auto mode.
17.
Filling the deaerator storage tank
Open the deaerator input valve to 1%
Gradually increase the flow.
Maximum make up flow is 205 klb/Hr, so deaerattor fill flow cannot
exceed 165 Klb/Hr.so it would get 2 hrs to get to the required level
of 50 in.
Enter initial condition No. 3 (deaerator level established)
Adjust the deaerator storage tank level set point to 50 in as both
the manual and auto valves are at 100% switch over to the auto
mode.
18.
Filling the boiler
Open the drum ventilation valve in steam system.
Open the boiler fill valve in the condensate system.
Just like hot well and deaerator use the next initial condition feature
to save time in the boiler filling. Enter the initial condition No. 4
(drum level established)
Close the boiler fill valve and bring the drum level to -7 in using feed
water pump A.
19.
starting the feed water pump
Close the FW pump A blocking valve.
FW pump A speed manual control to zero.
Clear high drum level and low deaerator level trips.
Start pumps A
94

20.
21.

22.

23.

Open feed water pump A blocking valve.

Open the feed water valve to get a flow of 50 klb/Hr.
When drum level reaches -7 in, close the feed water valve.
Open the economizer recirculation valve in feed water system.
Light off
Make the burner tilts set to 50 % in the manual mode.
Call up the trip and reset the trip system with this a two minute
purging. Period will start.
Activate the ignition the flame status light will come on.
temperature limits
The furnace temperature should not go above the limiting value of
1050 oF
The differential temperature should remain below 30 oF.
firing
Set the boiler master to the manual control.
Increase the flow in the increment of 0.5% and wait the furnace
temperature to stabilize before the increments.
When the furnace temperature reaches 950% stop increasing the
fuel flow. As the surrounding and the walls get heated.
Reduce the fuel flow in 0.3% increments in the same manner as it
was increased.
When the furnace temperature stabilizes at 951 oF stop decreasing
the fuel flow until the furnace temperature reaches 980 oF.
Fuel flow should be decreased to control the exceeding differential
temperature limit of 30 oF.
There is about 1.62 times increase in the volume of water due to
increase in the temperature. Now the water level is to be
maintained at 0.0 in. excessive water is to be drained through drum
drain valve.

24.
turbine rolling
When the drum temperature reaches 640 oF and the main steam
pressure 22000 psi increases the turbine valve set point to 1%
At this stage MST, MSP and the drum level must be carefully
controlled. Increase in fuel flow is required.
Increase the turbine valve set to 3% open. Note that main circuit
breaker turns red. The output power is indicated. Furnace
temperature probe retracts from the furnace. All turbine extraction
valves are opened.
95

 Here three actions are needed in emergency from the operator.

Increase the fuel flow. Increase and increase the feed water flow.
Set the burner tilts to +30 degrees.
Set the feed water pump A hydraulic coupling control to manual
mode and set it to 100 %.
With the feed water valve make the feed water flow equal to the
main steam flow.
Maintain the drum level at 0.0 in.
When the main steam pressure reaches 2350 psi set the main
steam pressure set point to 2400 psi.
It is now necessary to decrease the boiler master manual control to
stop the continuously increasing MSP.
When the auto and manual control become close switch the boiler
control to auto.
Open the turbine control valve to 05%.
Feed water flow is considerably less than the main steam flow.
Open the feed water valve to full position.
For feed water pump A set the drum level set point 0.0 inches the
auto signal will begin to rise.
Adjust the manual position in small increments until the auto and
manual positions come close, shift the feed water pump A control to
the auto mode.
Transfer the condensate recirculation valve to auto mode and adjust
the circulation flow set to 20 klb/Hr.
25.
Increasing load to 25%
Check to ensure the burner tilts position to +30.
Adjust the turbine valve set control to 25%.
As steam flow reaches to 540 klb/Hr (20%) close the economizer
recalculation valve.
26.
Feed water flow requirements.
After the 40 % load the feed water pump A cannot maintain the
feed water pressure. So feed water pump B should replace the
pump A.
Reset pump B turbine and open pump B blocking valve.
Slowly increase pump B speed manual mode.
When the manual and auto values come close switch over to the
auto mode.
96

 Transfer the pump A speed control to the manual mode and slowly
decrease the speed to zero.
Fully close the feed water valve stop feed water pump A motor, and
close pump A blocking valve.
Note that this pump transfer operation is made at static steam flows
and feed water flows.
27.
Increasing load to 50%
Increasing the turbine speed control set point to 50%.
As the main steam temperature approaches 1005 oF, slowly
increase the super heated spray flow to control the temperature.
Spray is increased and decreased in the increments of 5% main
steam temperature is maintained between 995 oF and 1005 oF.
Carefully bring the manual signal flow the spray valve close to the
auto one maintaining the temperature at 1005 oF. switch the spray
valve control to auto mode.
28.
Increasing load to 75%
Both condensate pumps are required to ensure the adequate
condensate flow.
Start condensate pump B
Reduce the burner tilts angle in manual control in order to avoid
reheat temperature exceed 1005 oF.
Increase the turbine valve set point 75%.
As the load increases burner tilt position is managed to maintain
1005 oF reheat temperature.
Adjust the reheat temperature set point to 1005 oF.
Carefully bring the manual position close to the auto [position. Shift
the burner tilts control from manual to the auto mode.
29.
Increasing load to 100%
All active controls are now in the auto mode except the turbine
control valve.
Increasing the turbine control valve set point to 100%.
Guidelines for the instructor:
The trainer of boiler technology is very informative. A 3 hour lab is too short to cover all aspects
in detail. Keeping in mind the time constraint, the exercise should focus on the following things:
i)

Identifying basic components of the trainer

ii)

Getting accustomed to the software of boiler technology

97

iii)

Elucidating the purpose of every component modeled on the trainer with special focus
on over all power plant application.

iv)

Giving students some exercises involving control of parameters of feed water sub
system, condensate sub system and steam sub system from software.

v)

The exercises would focus on observing the working of different components of a

power plant on different workloads.

vi)
vii)
viii)

Exercise 1
Title: Condensate pump characteristic
Objective: To measure the pressure/flow characteristics of a single condensate pump
on different values of turbine load.

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on how to use simulator
Simulation practice by students
Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

Time Consumed
25 minutes
40 minutes
60 minutes
50 minutes
5 minutes
3 Hours

98

Work Sheet: Experiment # 9

Load Percent
Pressure (PSIG)
Flow (klb/hr)
10
20
30
40
50
ix)
x)
Q1: Plot the graph between pressure and flow rate.
xi)
Q2: Comment on the results.
xii)
Q3: Repeat the same simulation for multiple pumps characteristic. Start by setting the
initial condition to 100 % load and proceed by decreasing the load up to 20% with
xiii)

each decrement of 20%.

Q4: Based on the values of pressure and flow rate from the simulator, what type of

xiv)
xv)

pump should be used as a condensate pump?

Exercise 2
Title: Steam temperature characteristic
99

xvi)

Objective: To plot graphs of drum steam temperature, main stream temperature and

xvii)

reheat steam temperature at different load levels.

Table:

Load (percent)
5
Drum Temp
Main Steam Temp
Reheat
Steam

25

50

75

100

Temp
xviii)
xix) Q1: Plot the temperatures across load percentage and comment on the results.
xx)
Q2: What is the importance of such plots?
xxi) Q3: Why is fuel flow not used as primary control element for controlling main steam
xxii)

temperature?
Q4: As the burner tilts are lowered what happens to the fuel requirements to maintain
2400 PSIG main steam temperature?

100

Experiment #10 Francis Turbine

Objective
To test a Francis Reaction Turbine and plot the turbine Characteristic curves
for the distributors various opening
Introduction
The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B.
Francis. Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today.
They operate in a water head from 40 to 600 m and are primarily used for
electrical power production. Their power output generally range from just a
few kilowatts up to 800 MW. Penstock (input pipes) diameters are between 3
and 33 feet (0.91 and 10.06 metres). The speed range of the turbine is from
83 to 1000 rpm.
Operating Principle
The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine. The working fluid enters the
turbine under immense pressure and the energy is extracted by the turbine
blades from the working fluid because of pressure changes occurring in the
blades of the turbine.

101

Fig 10.1 Section view of Francis Turbine

Nomenclature
Symbo Description
ls
Phyd

Hydraulic Power Of Water

Specific Weight

Units
W
N/m3

H tot

Total Head

H man

The Height Difference Between The Position Of The

Pressure Gauge And The Turbine Shaft On Our Bench

H kin

Kinetic Term Due To The Velocity Vm Of The Water At The

Pressure Gauge Location

Head Due To Static Pressure Of Water

H press
Q

Volumetric Flow Rate

m3/s

Velocity Of Water

m/s
102

Flow Rate Of Water

kg/s

Gravity Acceleration

m/s2

Vm

Mean Velocity Of Water

m/s

Sm

Pipe Cross Sectional Area

m2

Pm

Static Pressure Of Water

Pa

Mechanical Power Of Turbine Shaft

Angular Velocity Of Turbine Shaft

Rad/s

Angular Velocity Of Turbine Shaft

rpm

Torque Of The Turbine Shaft

N.m

Equipment Set-Up

103

Figure: 10.1 Schematic of Francis Turbine Unit

A - Francis turbine

G - Electric main switch

B - Centrifugal pump

H - Mechanical rpm meter

C - Flow meter

LI - Water level gauge

D - Distributor lever

L - Dynamometric brake

E - Pressure gauge

M - Check valve

F - Feeding tank

N - Drain Valve

104

Fig: 10.2 Braking System (denoted by L in fig 10.1)

Procedure for Setting at work:
Fill with softened water the feeding tank F up to 3/4 of its capacity
(black upper notch
of the water level gauge 1);
Close valve M;
Close the distributor by means of the lever D;
Connect the unit to the three-phase electric supply;
Check that the braking system L is balanced; if not, proceed as follows
(see fig 10.2):
Remove the weights 7 from the shaft 8;
Loosen nuts located near the counterweight 4 so that the latter is
free to move;
Move the counterweight (to the right or to the left) until the rod 3 is
exactly balanced;
Lock again the counterweight by means of the nuts;
Pull the knob 2 outwards, by turning it by 9O 0 (in such a way, a pin
fixed to a shaft inside the fulcrum 1 allows to lift the rod 3 making
the braking system idle).
Switch on G to start the electric pump B;
Gradually open the valve M;
Open the distributor by means of the lever D;
105

 Check that there are no water losses in the circuit and the instruments
C, E, H, are indicating the respective readings;
Pull again the knob 2 outwards, by turning it by 90 O, so making the
braking system L operational.
Manual Tests
Procedure for Experiment values reading
To carry out the experiments, proceed as follows:
a. Set the value of the distributor opening z at 100% (fully open) by
means of the lever D;
b. Gradually increase the breaking torque C by means of the weights 7 (in
fig 10.2);
c. For each value of the weight, read the values of Pm, n, Q on the
corresponding instruments and determine the value of the braking
torque C by means of the diagram below, where C (Nm) is plotted as a
function of p (N);
d. Note down the values so obtained in table 1;
e. Repeat steps (a) to (d) for the values of the distributor opening z of
75%, 50%, 25%.
Inlet and outlet power and turbine efficiency calculation
The hydraulic power available at the turbine inlet port (usually expressed in
watt) can be calculated as follows:
Phyd =
where:

Htot Q
Q is the volume flow rate (read by the instrument), m3/s
is the water weight per unit volume, 9820 N/m3
Htot is the total head, m

Htot which can be calculated (by means of Bernoullis theorem) in the circuit
section just upstream the turbine, where the pressure gauge is located as
the sum of three terms:
Htot = Hman + Hkin + Hpress

(m)

Where Hman is the height difference between the position of the pressure
gauge and the turbine shaft on our bench
Hman = 0.35 m

(m)

106

Hkin is the kinetic term due to the velocity V m (in m/s) of the water at the
pressure gauge location, where the pipe cross section is Sm
Hkin = Vm2/2g

(m)

g = gravity acceleration = 9.82 m/s2

Vm= Q/Sm

( m/s )

Sm = 555 mm2
Hpres is the term arising from the pressure Pm (N/m2) of the Water; as
measured by the mentioned pressure gauge:
Pm(N/m2) = 105Pm(bar)
Hpress(m)=Pm/

(m)

In table 1, for each line note down the values so calculated: V m, Hman, Hkin,
Hpress ,Htot , Phyd.
Then calculate the output mechanical power P (watt) by the following
relationship:
P = C = 2 n C/60

( watt )

Finally, the turbine global efficiency can be calculated, as the ratio between
the output power and the power available at the inlet port
= P/Phyd
Guidelines for Instructor:
Show an animation of the working Francis Wheel turbine. Also demonstrate on its practical
utility through lucid and practical examples
Exercise
Q1: Highlight different design parameters of a Pelton turbine.
Q2: Conduct a literature survey on design modifications that have already been incorporated in
the design of Francis Turbine. Also throw light on future areas of study in this regard.
Q3: Briefly comment on the operating characteristics of Francis turbine for different speeds.
Q4: Why do you think such characteristics are important?
Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Audio Visual Aid

Time Consumed
20 minutes
20 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
107

Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

45 minutes
10 minutes
3 Hours

108

Work Sheet: Experiment 10

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Distributor opening, Z =

Sm =

mm 2

Hmin =_________m
Reading
Pressure

Pm

10

(N/m^2)
)

Torque C

(Nm)

Speed

(rpm)

ii

Flow rate Q

(m3/h)

Velocity

(m/s)

Vrn

Head

(Hman)

Kin, Head

(m)

Press. head

(m)

Tot. head

(m)

Power input

(watt)

Power output

(watt)

Efficiency

(%)

109

Graphs
1. Torque C versus turbine speed n.

110

2. Flow rate Q versus turbine speed n.

111

3. Efficiency versus turbine speed n.

112

4. Output power P versus turbine speed n.

113

Exercise: Youll be shown animation of the working Francis Wheel turbine. Observe its
practical utility through lucid and practical examples
Q1: Highlight different design parameters of a Pelton turbine.

Q2: Conduct a literature survey on design modifications that have already been
incorporated in the design of Francis Turbine. Also throw light on future areas of study in
this regard. Present your findings in the form of report.

Q3: Briefly comment on the operating characteristics of Francis turbine for different
speeds.

Q4: Why do you think such characteristics are important?

Q5: Highlight the main advantages of Francis Turbine?

114

Experiment #11 Universal Pump Test Rig

Objective
To investigate the characteristics of Axial-Flow, centrifugal, and Gear Pumps,
and hence draw performance curves for each pump.
Theory
There are two types of turbomachines
Pumps
Turbines
Mechanical devices that add energy to a liquid and therefore cause the fluid
to flow (through pipes etc) are called pumps. While those that extract energy
from the fluids are called turbines. The fluid used can be either a gas or a
liquid.
Many turbo machines contain some type of housing or casing that surrounds
the rotating blades or rotor, thus forming an internal passageway through
which the fluid flows. Others such as windmill or a window fan are undusted.
Some turbo machines include stationary blades or vanes in addition to rotor
blades. These stationary blades can be arranged to accelerate the flow and
thus serve as nozzles. Or these can be set to diffuse the flow and act as
diffusers.
Turbo machines are classified as axial-flow, radial-flow, or mixed-flow
machines depending on the predominant direction of the fluid motion
relative to the rotors axis as the fluid passes the blades. For an axial-flow
machine the fluid maintains a significant axial-flow direction component from
the inlet to outlet of the rotor. For a radial-flow machine the flow across the
blades involves a substantial radial flow at the rotor inlet, exit. or both. In
other machines designed as mixed-flow machines, there may be significant
radial and axial-flow velocity components for the flow through the rotor row.
Each type of machine has advantages and disadvantages for different
applications and in terms of fluid mechanical performance.
Gear Pump
In gear pumps (see Figure 11. 1), two or more gears mesh to provide the
pumping action. In these types of pumps, one of the gears should be capable
of driving the others. The mechanical contacts between the gears form a
part of the moving fluid seal between the inlet and the outlet port. and the
outer radial tips and the sides of the gears form a part of the moving fluid
115

seal between inlet and outlet ports. The gear contact locus moves along the
tooth surfaces and then jumps discontinuously from tooth to tooth as the
gears rotate.
The positive displacement gear pump installed on the universal pump test rig
has a casing. The two gear-shaped impellers rotate with close clearance,
enmeshing such that water entering the suction port is trapped in the spaces
between adjacent teeth and carried round to be squeezed and discharged
through the outlet port. High pressures are achieved with gear pumps and a
pressure relief valve is in-corporate which is set to a certain head, to protect
the pump and system. The suction port is connected directly to the sump
tank and its delivery port is followed by a valve after which the water is
discharged through a weir back to the tank.
An important advantage of this type of pump is that no valves are required in
the suction or delivery: it is capable of pumping air, gas or liquid without any
detrimental effect and does not require priming. High pressures are possible
although the flow rates are limited. The main disadvantage of this type of
pump is that very close clearances are required between the ends of the
rotors and the casing. Any wear or corrosion in this region by the materials
being pumped will reduce the efficiency of the pump.

Figure: 11.1 Gear Pump

Axial-Flow Pump
Axial-flow pumps (see Figure below) are used for applications where high
flow rates at low heads are required, such as those associated with drainage,
sewage and irrigation. Axial-flow pump or a propeller pump consists of a
116

propeller confined within a cylindrical casing. The flow is in axial direction

and the head developed is due to the tangential force exerted by the rotor
blades on the fluid. The rotor is connected to a motor through a shaft and as
it rotates, the fluid is sucked in through the inlet. The fluid is discharged
through a row of fixed stator (guide) vanes used to straighten the flow
leaving the rotor. Axial-flow pumps may also have inlet guide vanes
upstream of the rotor row, and some are multistage in which stages of rotor
blades and stator blades are arranged in series.
Water enters the propeller axially through a ring of fixed inlet guide vanes. In
passing through the propeller, the blades impart a whirl component into the
fluid which the outlet guide vanes remove prior to the fluid entering the
discharge pipe. The propeller is mounted on an extended shaft running on a
bearing. The volumetric tank is utilized to provide an increased suction head
to the axial-flow primp. Delivery is controlled at a gate valve mounted on the
working surface top and feeding the channel direct.

Figure: 11.2 Axial Flow Pump

Centrifugal Pump
The Pedestal type, Centrifugal Pump has a shrouded impeller running on an
extension of the main spindle, supported on double ball bearings. This type
of pump is not self-priming but operates with a flooded suction. Its single
impeller rotates in the snail-shaped volute casing. Water enters the impeller
axially through the eye, spirals outwards and discharges around the impeller
circumference into the casing.
117

As the fluid passes through the impeller, energy is imparted to it by the

curved blade of the impeller resulting in fluid leaving the impeller with an
increase of both pressure and velocity.
The pump has a suction connected to the sump tank. Its delivery is
connected to the selection manifold and measuring system via a global valve

Figure: 11.3 Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps are capable of transferring large volumes without any
dependence on valves or fine clearance and can be run against a closed
valve without developing a very high pressure. They can handle a wide range
of slurries, or solids in suspension, in addition to liquids with high viscosities.
The main disadvantages of centrifugal pumps are:
(A)The limitation of delivery pressure
(B)Their inability to prime themselves
The former can be overcome by using twin or multi-stages usually on the
same spindle axis. The fitting of a self-primer will eliminate the latter
disadvantage.
Characteristic curves
When a pump is put under the test the usual objective is determination of its
characteristics curves. These curves show the relationship between rate of
discharge and head, rate of discharge and power, and rate of discharge and
efficiency.

118

Head (m)
Eff (%)
Power Output (W)

Figure: 11.4 Characteristic curves

Operating Procedure
Fill the tank with clean water. Check that all the drainage valves are
closed.
Press all the pump selector switches to connect them.
Connect the equipment by means of the luminous red switch placed
in the right lower part of the main panel.
Every pump has its suction connected to the tank while the outlet has
a valve. Open the valve corresponding to the pump we need to study;
Make sure all the other valves are closed;
Start the PBOC software from the computer and turn on the respective
pump;
Set the rpm to a value in the range of the pump as shown in table
11.1;
Keeping the rpm value fixed, change the flow rate by gradually closing
the valve each time;
For each value of flow rate take the readings given in the worksheet
table 11.1;
Now repeat the above 3 steps for another value of rpm as shown in the
worksheet;
In any case, do not exceed a maximum pressure of 3 bars in any of the
pumps;
Plot the characteristic curves (Power output, efficiency and head
versus flow rate)
for each pump following the above procedure;
Quit the software and turn off the computer;
119

Flow Rate
Flow rate is displayed by the software interface in real time. This value is
calculated by the software by sensing the height of water level over the
weir and gives us the flow rate accordingly. The discharge of each pump
flows through a weir. The higher the flow rate the higher would be the
water level.
Guidelines for Instructor:
Students will be taken for a trip to HVAC plant at GIKI where a demonstration about different
types of pumps will be carried out. Also distribute the APIs of different pumps.
Exercise
Q1: Write a short report on different types of industrial pumps.
Q2: What is meant by BEP of a pump?
Q3: You have been provided with APIs for different types of pumps. Write a short report on
critical functioning parameters of different types of pumps.
Q4 Elucidate the importance of bearing selection, cooling mechanisms and vibration
consideration on working of pumps.

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Demonstration
Analysis
Attendance
Total Time

Time Consumed
20 minutes
20 minutes
45 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
10 minutes
3 Hours

Work Sheet: Experiment 11

Observation Tables
Table 11.1(For Gear Pump)
120

Observation No.
Deliver Head, h2
(m.H2O)

Inlet Pressure, h2(m.H2O)

Pump Head, ha (m.H2O)
Volume
collected,
(Liters)
Time,
(Seconds)
Flow Rate, Q
(m3/S)

V,
t

Torque, T
(Nm)
Motor
Speed
(rpm)
Pump
Speed,
N
(rpm)
Input Power, WShaft(Watts)
Output Power, PF(Watts)
Efficiency
(%)
Table 11.2 (For Axial-Flow Pump)
Observation No.
Deliver Head, h2
(m.H2O)

Inlet Pressure, h2(m.H2O)

Pump Head, ha (m.H2O)
Water Column Height(m.H2O)
Flow Rate, Q
(m3/S)
Torque, T
(Nm)
Motor
Speed
(rpm)
Pump
Speed,
N
(rpm)
Input Power, WShaft (Watts)
Output Power, PF
(Watts)
Efficiency
(%)

121

Table 11.3 (For Centrifugal Pump)

Observation No.
Deliver Head, h2
(m.H2O)

Inlet Pressure, h2(m.H2O)

Pump Head, ha (m.H2O)
Volume
collected,
(Liters)
Time,
(Seconds)
Flow Rate, Q
(m3/S)
Torque,

V,
t

(N-m)
Motor
Speed
(rpm)
Pump
Speed,
N
(rpm)
Input Power, WShaft (Watts)
Output Power, PF
(Watts)
Efficiency
(%)
Data Analysis
Flow rate for Gear and Centrifugal pumps is calculated by
Q V/t

Flow rate for Axial-Flow pump is calculated by

3

Q Cd .

2
2g H 2
3

where:
Q = Flow Rate in liters/sec
Cd= Coefficient of Discharge
g = 9.81m/sec2
H = Increase in depth of Water mm.
Input power for the pumps is determined by

122

Power ( Watts )

Input

2NT
60

Where:
N = Pump rev. /min
T = Torque N.m
RPM for different pumps is determined by the gear ratio formula. The
gear ratio for the pumps used in the lab. Is given as under
Pump
Axial Flow
Gear Pump
Centrifugal Pump

Pump/Motor Teeth Ratio

27:14
23:32
23:17

Output power for pumps is determined by

Efficiency Output (P1 ) gQH 1 10 3
Where:
P1 = Hydraulic Power
= Density of Water
g = Gravity 9.81m/sec2
Q = Rate of Flow1/sec.
H1 = Pump Head at m.H2O

123

Exercise
Plot characteristic curves for each pump individually, i.e. Head, Efficiency
and BHP Vs flow rate.

124

125

126

Exercise: Youll be taken for a trip to HVAC plant at GIKI where a demonstration about
different types of pumps will be carried out. Also youll study the APIs of different
pumps which will be available in Service Centre
Q1: Write a short report on different types of industrial pumps.

Q2: What is meant by BEP of a pump?

Q3: You have been provided with APIs for different types of pumps. Write a short report
on critical functioning parameters of different types of pumps.

Q4 Elucidate the importance of bearing selection, cooling mechanisms and vibration

consideration on working of pumps.

Q5: At what flow rate was the maximum efficiency obtained for each pump? Does this
result appear with the typical operating range for each pump?

127

Experiment #12 Pelton Wheel Turbine

Objective
To determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton wheel Turbine at
various speeds.
Theory
Devices that extract energy from flowing fluid are called turbines. The fluid
that flows through the turbine exerts a torque on the rotor in the direction of
its rotation. The shaft power generated is available to drive generators or
other devices. Turbines can be classified into two basic types~ Impulse
Turbines and Reaction Turbines. Impulse turbines are used where high heads
and relatively smaller flow rates are available whereas reaction turbines are
used where low heads and relatively high low rates are available.
The Pelton Wheel shown in Figure 12.1, is an example of impulse turbine. A
high jet of water coming out of a nozzle strikes the Pelton wheel buckets and
is deflected. It is most efficient when operated with large head. The head loss
that occurs in the pipe transporting the water to the turbine is the major
design consideration along with design of the nozzle and the design of the
buckets. In these turbines, the total head of the incoming fluid which, is the
sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head, is converted
into a large velocity head at the exit of the supply nozzle

128

Figure 12.1 Schematic of Pelton Wheel Turbine

Introduction to Apparatus
Figure 12.2 shows the apparatus. It is positioned on the side channels of the
bench top and the inlet pipe connected to the bench supply. A fully
retractable spear valve controls the flow. Water discharges into the
volumetric tank through an orifice in the base of the Pelton Turbine base
plate. The Pelton wheel buckets are clearly visible due to the
Transparent turbine cover. A pressure gauge mounted on the support
assembly allows the inlet pressure of the turbine to be monitored. A simple
band brake connected to spring a balance allows the load applied to the
turbine to be varied by adjustment of the tensioning device. A description of
the parts is shown in figure 12.2. The speed of the turbine is determined by a
remote type tachometer.

Figure 12.2 Transverse View of the unit

Procedures
Cheek the water and electric supply connections.
Lift the band brake assembly until it is clear of the brake drum.
Switch on the bench pump.
Open bench control valve fully. Adjust spear control valve until
maximum rpm are indicated on the tachometer.
Note the values of rpm, head, time to collect 15 liters of water in the
volumetric tank, and inlet pressure in Table
Lower band brake assembles over brake drum and adjusts brake drum
until reading of 1.0 N is indicated on the right hand spring balance.

129

 Tabulate readings on spring balance loads, Flow rate, and inlet

pressure in Table 1
Repeat at different applied loads as indicated in Table 1
Guidelines for Instructor:
Show an animation of the working Pelton Wheel turbine. Also demonstrate on its
practical utility through lucid and practical examples
Exercise
Q1: Highlight different design parameters of a Pelton turbine.
Q2: Conduct a literature survey on design modifications that have already been
incorporated in the design of Pelton Turbine. Also throw light on future areas of study in
this regard.
Q3: Briefly comment on the operating characteristics of Pelton turbine for different
speeds.
Q4: Why do you think such characteristics are important?
Q5: List important differences in construction, working and application of Pelton and
Francis Turbine.

Activities
Lecture about general theory
Explanation on the apparatus
Experimentation
Visual and Audio aid
Analysis
Attendance

Time Consumed
20 minutes
20 minutes
45 minutes
40 minutes
45 minutes
10 minutes

Work Sheet: Experiment 12

Observation Tables
Table 12.1
130

Observation Number
Speed,
N,
(rpm)
Head,
H,
(mH2O)
Volume,
V,
(Liters)
Time,
t,
(Seconds)
Force,
F1,
(N)
Force,
F2,
(N)
Total

Force,

1.
0

1.
5

2.
0

2. 3.
5 0

3.
5

4.
0

4.
5

Ft,

(N)
Torque,
T,
(N-m)
Flow
Rate,
Q,
3
(m /S)
Input
Power,
PF
(W)
Output
put
Power,
Shaft (W)
Efficiency,
(%)

Data Analysis
Total force is given by
Ft F2 F1
Torque is calculated by.
T ( F2 F1 )r

Where r is Brake Drum Radius and is equal to

Flow rate in m3/S is determined by
Qv V

3 10 2 m

Input Power
PF gHQv
131

 Output Power
Ps 2nT
% Efficiency
Ps P 100
F

132

Graphs:
Draw Graphs of Flow rate, Torque. Power and Efficiency against speed (rpm).

133

134

135

136

Demonstration: You will be shown an animation of the working Pelton Wheel turbine.
Please make special notes on its practical utility and benefits
Q1: Highlight different design parameters of a Pelton turbine.

Q2: Conduct a literature survey on design modifications that have already been
incorporated in the design of Pelton Turbine. Also throw light on future areas of study in
this regard.

Q3: Briefly comment on the operating characteristics of Pelton turbine for different
speeds. Why do you think such characteristics are important?

Q4: List important differences in construction, working and application of Pelton and
Francis Turbine.

Q5: At what flow rate is maximum power output obtained? Is it same for maximum
efficiency?
Q6:
a) Why is torque decreasing linearly with respect to speed?
b) Why does the power curve rise and then fall?
Q7: Refer to your textbook by Munson, Young and Okiishi and compare your plots with
theoretical curves.

Q8: How would you conduct your experiment if a constant power output is desired at all
time? Write the procedure for conducting this experiment?
137