LAM Group Assignment

Peoples Participation in Water

Resource Management

Group 6
Aayush Nagpal (abm 13025)
Kushagra Varshney (pgp 32244)
Lavanya Tottala (pgp 32234)
Snehal Chauhan (pgp 32209)
Nav Krishna Chaudhary (pgp 32215)

IIM Lucknow (2016-2018)

Introduction
Water is an important natural resource that shapes landscapes and is
essential for ecosystem functioning and human well -being. Currently, water
is a resource under considerable pressure. Of the total water resources
on Earth mere 3% of it is fresh and the rest two-thirds of the freshwater is locked up in
glaciers and ice caps. Of the remaining 1%, a fifth is in remote and inaccessible areas.
Global

climatic,

demographic

and

economic

changes

have

grave

consequences for people and the earth. Global change has added uncertainty
and could exert substantial effects on hydro fluxes and water cycles. Nutrients such
as salts and other chemicals are vital substances for humans and other living
organisms. But agricultural, industrial, and urban development have increased or
accelerated the input of those chemicals into the environment, which are often
transported through rain or snow, surface water, groundwater and other water
bodies, causing water pollution, unwanted algae growth, or damages to the health
of public and ecosystems.

What is water resource management?

Functions of water resources management are very intricate tasks and may require
many different activities conducted by many different stakeholders. The following
elements constitute water resources management:

Distribution: It is process of allocating water to major water users and

maintaining minimum levels for environmental and social use.

Planning for River basin: Formulate and regularly update the Basin Plan
involving stakeholder views on development and management of the basin.

Peoples participation: Incorporating stakeholder participation for decision

making that takes into consideration the best interests of society and the
environment at large in the development and use of water resources

Pollution control: Managing a check on water pollution to reduce industrial

and agricultural discharge and minimize environmental and social impact.

Monitoring: Even though laws such as The Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act exists, awareness and effective implementation is needed.
Monitoring systems should be in place to provide essential management
information and identifying and responding to non-compliance with laws,
regulations and permits.

Status of the problem (Indian Context)

The major issues concerning Water Resources Management in India can be broadly
classified into issues of water quantity and quality, for use in the domestic, agriculture,
industrial and service sectors. Looking at the present scenario, with respect to these
two angles, gives an idea of the existing problems and provides a platform for
improvement in terms of action at the policy.
Statistics about water availability: The geographical area of India is about 329
million hectares (2.45 % of the earths land mass) and its population is 1,027 million
based on the 2001 census, which is about 16% of that of the world. The renewable
fresh water resources of the country are 1,869 km year, which are only about 4% of
those of the world.
The availability of per capita utilizable water based on 1991 population varies as 182
m3 in Sabarmati, 2,500 m3 in Mahanadi and 3,082 m3 in Narmada basins. The
utilizable water available in terms of per hectare of cultivable area is 1,244 m 3 in
Sabarmati, 8,320 m3 in Mahanadi and 7,669 m3 in Narmada basins (MOWR, 2002).
These disparities are very significant and have been the crux of national water
resources planning29.
Water disputes: In India these disputes add to the woes of effective water
management. A number of states are involved and distribution of water becomes
challenging.
Rivers under dispute
Krishna
Godavari
Narmada
Cauvery

States claiming over rivers

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Maharshtra
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharshtra, Odisha &
Madhya Pradesh
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharshtra & Gujarat
Kerala, Karnatka, Tamil Nadu & Union Territory of
Pondicherry

Mandovi
Vansadhara

Goa & Karnataka

Andhra Pradesh & Odisha

Flood management: Floods are the most frequent to be faced in India, among all
natural disasters. The striking examples are floods in the eastern part of India, Orissa,
West Bengal, Bihar, Chennai and Andhra Pradesh in the recent past. As reported by
the Central Water Commission (CWC) under the Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India, the annual average area affected by floods is 7.563 Mha. On an
average floods have affected about 33 million persons during 1953 to 2000.
After the calamitous floods of 1954 a national programme of flood management was
launched. The Government of India has taken several steps for flood management.
Some of the important policies on flood management introduced were: policy
statement (1954), high level committee on flood (1957), policy statement (1958),
ministerial committee on flood control (1964), ministers committee on flood and flood
relief (1972); working groups on flood control for five-year plans; Rashtriya Barh
Ayog14, National Water Policy (1987), National Commission for Integrated Water
Resource Development (1996), Regional Task Force (1996), and National Water
Policy. The flood management strategies have to be more focused and targeted
towards the pre-defined objectives within a given time frame30.
Drought management: The drought-prone area estimated in the country is of the
order of 51.12 Mha. The planning and management of the effects of drought appear
to have a low priority due to randomness and uncertainty involved in defining the start
and end of droughts. Additionally, most of the drought planning and management
schemes are usually launched after persisting drought conditions. After normal rainfall
starts government and public interest in drought-planning schemes plummet.
Wetlands Conservation: Ramsar Convention on Wetlands define wetlands as:
"areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas
of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres".
Government of India operationalized National Wetland Conservation Programme
(NWCP) in closed collaboration with concerned State Government during the year
1985/86. Under the programme 115 wetlands (Table 1) have been identified till now
by the Ministry which requires urgent conservation and management initiatives.

Wetlands conservation in India is indirectly influenced by a number of policy and

legislative measures. Some of the important legislations are the Indian Fisheries Act,
1857, the Indian Forest Act, 1927, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Water (Prevention
and Control of Pol1ution) Act, 1974, Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Exclusive
Economic Zone and other, Marine Zones Act, 1976, Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1977, Maritime Zone of India.(Regulation and fishing by foreign vessels)
Act 1980, Forest (Conservation Act), 1980, Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986,
Coastal Zone Regulation Notification, 1991, Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act,
1991, based on UN Convention on Biological diversity 1992, Biological Diversity Act,
2002 was enacted. National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Environment and Development, 1992, National Policy and Macro Level Action
Strategy on Biodiversity, 1999 are also formulated by Government.
Water resource management is of utmost importance. Industrial development in
sectors related to automobiles, chemicals, fertilizers, insecticides etc. are coming up
very fast in India and due to many reasons these are often held responsible for
polluting water. Less environmentally educated society, ineffective management, lack
of law enforcement, corporate hunger to earn more profit with less investment also
lead to chemical accidents and causing imbalance in sustainable development31.

Status of the problem (International Context)

The growing demands placed on the global water supply alarm biodiversity and the
supply of water for food production and other necessary human needs. Water
shortages already exist in many regions especially in Middle East nations, with more
than one billion people without sufficient drinking water. The root of Syria crisis goes
down to water shortage. Further, 90% of the infectious diseases in developing
countries are transmitted through polluted water. At present, about 20% of the world's
population lacks safe drinking water, and nearly 50% of the world population lacks
basic sanitation (GEF 2002, UNESCO 2002). This problem is grave in many
developing countries, which discharge about 95% of their untreated urban sewage
directly into surface waters.
Global water issues have impact on other sectors, which requires multi-sectoral
solution:

Water and agriculture: By 2050 the total population to feed will be 9 billion, 2
billion more than todays. This will force to increase in agricultural production by
50%. This will also have an impact on already strained water resources and will
require 15 percent increase in water supplies. The agricultural sector is the
largest consumer of water. Irrigated agriculture alone requires about 70 percent
of total freshwater. Hence, water is becoming increasingly scarce as a result of
continued population growth, low groundwater supplies and water quality
issues32.

Water and energy: Even after all the technological advancement, more than
1.2 billion people face shortage of electricity. Water usage for energy accounts
for about 15% of global water withdrawals. Estimates show that by 2035,
consumption of energy will increase by 35% globally, and even if water use will
become more efficient, water consumption by the energy sector may rise by
85%.

Water and sustainable cities: With more people migrating to cities in search
of jobs, their demand for integrated approaches to managing, water quality,
sanitation, drainage, water supply, drought & flood management, become
challenging. Cities in developing countries will double in next 20 years.

Water and disaster risk management: Water-related calamities account for

90% of all natural hazards, and their frequency and intensity is generally rising
due to changing global environment. Around 373 natural disasters killed over
296,800 people in 2010. It affected nearly 208 million people and it cost nearly
US $110 billion.

Water and sanitation: 2.5 billion people do not have access to better
sanitation. Providing this requires integrated planning and management, and
most importantly a quality water supply. Distribution of limited water resources
to competing economic sectors will become very challenging in near future for
many countries.

UK also faces the problem of water management with increasing population. They are
taking several measures now to avoid future water related issues:

1. Drainage and Sewers: The Flood and Water Management Act 2010 has the
powers to change the law so that sewage companies will be responsible for
new sewers. Transferring the ownership of private sewers from individual
householders to sewerage companies has helped government in maintaining
the pipelines better.
2. Non-domestic water efficiency: The Enhanced Capital Allowance (ECA)
scheme for water encourages businesses to invest in water-efficient plant and
provides tax benefits. This means savings for the business and a positive
impact on the environment. This scheme covers a variety of technologies,
including water efficient taps, bio toilets and industrial cleaning equipment.
Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) works on a number of
projects to improve water efficiency. It is helping Food & Drink industry to
reduce their use of water. Food & Drink industry uses 690 million litres of water
a day.
3. Leakage issues: Government is taking leakage issues seriously as part of
conserving the UKs water supplies. It is important for water companies to
reduce the amount of leakage from their systems. With the help of regulators,
England and Wales are successful in reducing leakage by 36% since 1994.
4. Water quality assessment: There is a dedicated regulatory authority The
Drinking Water Inspectorate which enforces water standards. It checks that the
water companies supply safe drinking water.
5. Consumer grievances forum: The Consumer Council for Water takes up any
complaint which consumers are not able to resolve on their own with water
companies.

Water Laws - Local, National and International

With the time, the population of India grew drastically to 1.2 billion, which is 17% of
world population. Water resource present in India constitute to only 4% of global
resources. Now it is more important to manage water properly and protect from
pollution. From the Colonial time, laws exist which are concerned with conservation
and management of water in India. With the course of time, amendments are made to
existing ones and new Central and State level legislations are introduced.

All local, national & international water laws and policies determine how all
stakeholders (society, industries, government) play their respective roles in the
development and management of water resources.
Local Laws: States have passed various legislations to protect water resources in
accordance to their geographical conditions. Few State level legislations in India are
mentioned below:

Northern India Canal and Drainage Act 1873: The Act applicable to Utter
Pradesh, Punjab. All the rules related to construction of canal or drainage,
officer to be appointed, penalty on destruction of canals or drainages are clearly
mentioned in the Act. A person is liable to be 1-month imprisonment or INR
50000 penalty or both if he does any of the following acts to any canal or
drainage-work without proper authority
o damages, alters, enlarges or obstructs interferes
o alters the supply of water in or out
o negligence in maintenance work by co-responding authorities
o improper distribution of water
o corruption

Madhya Pradesh Irrigation Act 1931

o Right to surface water

Andhra Pradesh-Water Resources Development corporation act 1997

o It was passed by the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly
o It discusses about irritation related projects like fisheries, drinking water
supply, industrial water supply, lakes, water related tourism

Maharashtra Management of Irrigation Systems by Farmers act,2005

o It extends to the whole of the State of Maharashtra.

Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority (MWRRA) Act, 2005

Arunachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh have adopted substantially the same
legislation

National Laws: Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), The Department of Land

Resources, The Department of Rural Development are responsible for major, medium,
and minor irrigation, watershed management, Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). Various Central level legislations in India are

The National Water Policy of India 1987: It is formulated to develop water

resources and utilize resources optimally. It has been reviewed and updated in
2002 and 2012.
Policy includes:
o Adaption to climate change
o Controlling ground water usage
o Planning and water resource management through dams, flood
embankments
o National Framework Law governing state and central bodies
o Regulating Inter-state river water basins
o Demand management for drinking, industrial and other purposes
o Effective usage of water

Water Disputes Act 1956

o It is applicable only to interstate rivers
o Water distribution among states
o Water availability and quality maintenance

Model act 1998: Following acts have business impact for the industries which
handles disposal of waste water used in manufacturing or production process.

The Water Act 1974: The act is formulated to prevent and control pollution
caused by industries, agricultural and household activities. It specifies the safe
level of effluents in water to industries. Discharging waste water into lakes,
ponds, rivers etc. above this level is not allowed. Farmers are allowed to use
pesticides and insecticides up to certain level only. Usage of soaps and
detergents by household also creates water pollution. Foam generated by
usage of soaps is not dissolvable and this is cause for pollution. Central and
state pollution boards are formed. Whoever violates the act and are responsible
for water pollution are liable for 1-year imprisonment or fine. In case of major
damage imprisonment may get extended to 6 years.

The Water Cess Act -1971: Cess or fees is collected from specified industries
and other entities which consume water. Cess depends on the amount or
quantity of water consumed. An interest at rate of 2 percent will be accrued if
specified industries and local authorities fail to pay the cess within the due time.
Whoever doesnt follow act is liable to imprisonment which may exceed to 6
months or penalty 1000 rupees or both.

The Water cess rules-1978

The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification-199111

International Laws: There are laws in most of the countries to protect water
resources, for effective management of sources of water.

US: Water resource law of US is concerned with regulation of environment, flood

control. This law is common to all jurisdictions in particular to water usage. US
groundwater law regulates usage of ground water based on hydrology and topography
of a particular area.

Canada: The law promotes effective and optimal usage of water resources for the
economic benefit of society as a whole and to protect environment. Protection

agencies for Water quality management plans programs to preserve, save, restore,
enhance quality of water.

Germany: It gives emphasis on effective usage of groundwater and surface water.

Water is not allowed to be extracted from ground beyond a certain limit. Duty is
imposed is order to prevent contamination of water which changes properties of water
to extent that water cannot be used for economic purposes. Hazardous wastes from
industries, chemical laboratories etc. should be treated before discharging into water
bodies. The law also encourages self-purification techniques for a process flow and
methods to save water by various methods as rain harvesting, construction of dams.
Netherlands: Netherlands Policy Document on Water Management has both
qualitative and quantitative management of water resources. Primary objective is to
maintain a safe country by developing healthy water systems through controlling
pollution, proper use of ground water, designs to capture rain water to maximum.
License is issued to specific industrial sectors which are allowed to discharge into
water within safe levels. Industries are supposed to make payments for damaging
environment to higher extent. Plan to fight against pollution is to be submitted. Some
pesticides are restricted and some are allowed only up to certain level of usage. Any
institution or people who violates the law are liable for penalty.

Mexico: Mexico water law promotes sustainable development of environment through

effective utilization of water.
Singapore: As per policies of Singapore every drop counts as Singapore has very
less fresh water resources and it imports water (50% of total usage) from Malaysia.
Singapore follows Integrated water management approaches to attain self-sufficiency.
Reuse of water is planned very effectively and it contributes to 50 % of total water
usage. Desalination of sea water is also being done which accounts to 30 % of water
which they use. They adopt various process to clean polluted river water, effluent
treatment, construction of new reservoirs. Water pollution is prevented by educating
people regarding laws and imposing fine on polluter.

Adequacy of Legal and regulatory measures adopted to control and

prevent the problem
India has a number of water laws but they are not implemented strictly. Initiatives to
tackle water pollution are not succeeded as compared to air pollution techniques. The
regulators are not given enough power to effectively implement the laws. People must
be educated regarding the existing water laws. There are many departments of
government which work for environmental regulation for the benefit of citizens, society,
country as a whole. These regulations impose costs on households and industries to
dispose waste in a responsible manner to promise good health to everyone.
India has number of environmental laws, water act 1974 to fight against hazardous
level of water pollution. When Industry discharges its waste into rivers, ponds without
treating then people who use this water for drinking are affected. These water
resources are harmful to animals also. India has multiple number of government
offices (at the national and state level) that are designated to implement environmental
regulations. But in large these regulations are not implemented effectively because of
various reasons as corruption, mismanagement of funds.
These reports give insight into challenges in effectively implementing various
regulations in India. Implementing all these laws effectively is highly cost involved to
promise large improvement of public health. Handling large amount in a country like
India for these purposes is not easy. There is no systematic approach to record such
work by authorities and cannot be checked as the cleaning process is to be done on
continuous basis.
Because of ineffective implementation of these laws, there are many highly water
polluted cities in India. 13 out of 20 worlds highest water polluted cities are in India.
Instead of creating more laws we have to concentrate on proper implementation of
existing laws. People are to educated regarding the laws and importance of protecting
environment. Proper evaluation policy for the work done is also to be created.12,13

Judicial Approaches to deal with problem with the help of High

Courts and Supreme Court Judgments
The judicial approach to deal with the problem of participation of people in water
management has been based on a few basic principles. The court has in the cases of
water pollution as a part of environmental justice, the courts have based judgements
on the principles of sustainable development, the precautionary principle and the
polluter pays principle (the principle of sustainable development includes the principal
of Inter-Generational Equity). The principle of sustainable development means that we
should use the finite resources of earth in such a way that the succeeding generations
have the same access to those resources as we had. It also means that the
development that takes place should be such that can be sustained by the
environment and the ecology. The sustenance can be with mitigation but the important
point is that the ability of the environment to carry the costs of future development
should not be diminished. The restriction in the sustainable development doctrine is
judged by the risk of harm to environment/ human health and is decided in public
interest on the reasonable person standard. The polluter pays principle says that in
principle those who are polluting the environment should pay for it. It is to be ensured
by imposition of cess, surcharges, fee for ruse of natural resources, and fines for those
who violate the laws. The precautionary principle implies that if there is some activity
to be done and there is suspicion to the fact that the activity may involve environmental
damage, then the burden of proof that the activity is not harmful to the environment
rests on the party doing the action. In the cases of displacement of people due to
hydro-projects etc. the courts focus has been on proper rehabilitation and
resettlement. Courts have focussed not only on monetary compensation for land but
also livelihood resettlement. As moving away from a place where your ancestors have
lived for generations is painful emotionally for persons and it destroys your way of life
and livelihood, so in these cases courts have focussed on both factors of being settled
in a new place/compensation and a means of livelihood being available. The courts
have also ruled that getting clean water is a fundamental right under the right to life
(Art. 21 of constitution). The courts have also recognized environmental hazards as
public nuisance. The rights of people to freely carry on an occupation/trade is
tempered by the right to protect environment. No one can say that he will freely pollute
the environment in natural course of their business. The courts have also liberally

allowed public interest litigation on the issues of pollution/environmental damage when

damage to the society is evident or when the sufferers are in a financially/socially
disadvantageous position. Courts have also held that financial constraint cannot be a
ground to deny fundamental rights.
To specialize environmental litigation and to provide for expeditious disposal of cases
to related to environmental protection a special tribunal was created. The tribunal was
created in 2010 by an act of the Parliament and was named The National Green
Tribunal. The reasons given in the act for creation of the tribunal include satisfying
Indias international obligations to the Stockholm declaration June 1972 and UN
conference held in Rio de Janerio, 1992 on environment and development and
incorporation of right to healthy environment under the Right to Life. The NGT after its
inception has judged on many issues related to water pollution like Yamuna river, fine
on art of living etc. 16,17,18,19,21
We now describe few of the decisions of the courts:
Indian Council for Enviro-Legal ... vs Union of India and Ors. Etc22
(WRIT PETITION (C) NO.967 OF 1989) A writ petition was filed by the above
mentioned organization on behalf of people living in vicinity of chemical industry. The
court observed that pursuit of profits has led people with means to show flagrant
disregard for law. The petition related to the Bichri village in Rajasthan. In its vicinity
plants were established for manufacture of H acid which was to be exclusively
exported. Its manufacture led to enormous quantities of ultra-toxic pollutants like Fe
and gypsum based sludge. This sludge was let out untreated in to the water and in
surrounding areas of the factory complex which led to the pollution of underground
water. The underground water became unfit for consumption of human, cattle or even
for irrigation purposes. The soil was rendered unfit for cultivation by the pollution and
this had devastating consequences for the local economy. In a previous case Oleum
gas leak case (1987 AIR 1086, 1987 SCR (1) 819) The Honble Supreme Court has
held that: when there is violation of fundamental/legal right of a person/class of
persons who are economically poor/ in a socially disadvantageous position then any
individual/social group can approach a court of law for justice via writ petitions under
Art. 226 or Art. 32 and also through a letter addressed to the court/individual justices
if the letter represents disadvantaged persons. The court also refused to be guided by

the rule in Rylands vs Fletcher wherein it was specified that a person who keeps
anything on his land which is likely to cause harm to others and it escapes and
damages other people then he is to pay compensation for the damage caused. This
rule was held to apply to only non-natural users of land or when escape is due to act
of god. The court then held importantly that any enterprise engaged in hazardous
industry has an inalienable duty to ensure that no harm is done to the community on
account of the hazardous activity undertaken by it and it has to carry the social costs
of carrying on the hazardous activity. The permission to let the industry carry on with
such activity is conditional to the fact that any accident that happens must be
accounted as an overhead cost. All those who can be potentially be harmed by such
activity must be indemnified and only on such condition can enterprise of hazardous
activity be allowed for profit. The court then held an another important point that
compensation must be related to the size and financial capability of the industrial
enterprise as the purpose of compensation is to have a deterrent effect. 23
The court decided that in this case the law in the oleum leak case was applicable and
that the rule in Rylands was not fit for Indian conditions. Once it was decided that the
law in the oleum leak case was applicable to the instant case the polluter became
absolutely liable for paying compensation for the harm it caused to the village, to the
soil and to the underwater and for the costs associated with the measures to be taken
to restore the soil and water to the condition before the commencement of activity by
the polluting industries. The Court also said that the liability to pay can also be looked
from the principal of polluter pays. 24
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum vs Union of India & Ors25
A public interest litigation was filed by the Vellore Citizens Welfare forum against the
pollution created by the discharge of vast quantities of untreated effluent by the various
industries onto waterways, agricultural fields, open fields and on the sideways. All this
discharged effluent finally makes its way to the river Palar leading to the pollution of
river at the surface and sub-surface level. This makes the water of the river unfit for
drinking and unfit for irrigation purpose as well leading to large parcels of land
becoming unfit for cultivation. Sufficient time and opportunity was given to the tanners
to install common effluent treatment plants by government but no action was taken by
them. Municipalities have not taken action available to them under Water Prevention

and Control of Pollution Act 1974 (6 of 1974). It was argued by the tanneries that
leather industry is a major foreign exchange earner for the country and provides
employment to lacs of people. Even though this was acknowledged by the court, at
the same time the court argued held that the leather industry has no right to damage
the environment, deprive the ecology of living means and pose a general health
hazard to all. The industry cannot expand or even continue its present operations
unless it tackles by itself the problem of pollution created by it. The court further
observed that the traditional view of development vs ecology as opposed to each other
is not acceptable in the present scenario. Only sustainable development can provide
the answer to the situation. The court referred to the Stockholm declaration, 1987
Brundtland Commission and its report our common future, 1991 document named
caring for the earth by World wide fund for nature, UN Environment Programme and
World Conservation Union and the Earth Summit held at Rio De Janerio in 1992.
Sustainable Development has been accepted by the international community to be a
viable concept to reduce/eliminate poverty and improve quality of life while being in
limits of the carrying capacity of the ecology. Sustainable development was meant to
include the following by the court Use and conservation of natural resources,
Environmental Protection, Inter-generational equity, the Precautionary Principle,
Polluter Pays principle, Obligation to assist and cooperate, Eradication of Poverty and
Financial Assistance to the developing countries. The court then held the polluter pays
and the precautionary principle to be essential features of sustainable development.
Accordingly, the court held the polluting industries to be absolutely liable for the loss
caused by them to the villagers. They had to not only pay compensation to the victims
of pollution but also for the restoration of to pay for removal of pollutants from the
environment.
Tirupur Dyeing Factory Owners vs Noyyal River Ayacutdars Protection
Association20
A public interest litigation was filed by the Noyyal River Ayacutdars Protection
Association regarding pollution in the Noyyal river. The cause of the pollution was
attributed to dyeing and bleaching works by the textile industries in the Tirupur area
and then discharging of industrial effluents by the same industries. It was also polluting
the ground water, nearby reservoirs and other distributaries of the river. In the instant
case (CIVIL APPEAL NO.6776 OF 2009 @ SPECIAL LEAVE PETITION (CIVIL) NO.

6963 OF 2007) The Honble Supreme court upheld the penalty on the polluters and
held that the polluters are responsible for not cleaning the environmental damage
caused by them. They were made responsible for cleaning the dam and removing
sludge. The court also held that due to the pollution a large number of farmers have
suffered as they could not cultivate any crop in their land. The court awarded
compensation to these families. The court derived its judgement by applying the
principles of polluters pay along with the principle of sustainable development.
Subhash Kumar vs State of Bihar and Ors on 9 January, 199117
In this case Mr. Subhash Kumar filed a public interest litigation (1991 SCR (1)
5) with The Honble Supreme Court that West Bokaro Collieries and Tata Iron and
Steel Co were discharging effluent from their coal washeries. This effluent contained
surplus waste in the form of slurry and this was severely polluting the river Bokaro and
making the water of the river unfit for drinking and irrigation. The case was dismissed
with costs by the court on the ground that the litigation was filed for personal interests
instead of public interest. But The Honble Supreme Court also held that the Right to
Life under article 21 includes the right of enjoyment of pollution free water and air for
full enjoyment of life.
Maili Yamuna15
In the year 1994, a news item was published in Hindustan Times about And
quiet flows the maili Yamuna, the Honble Supreme Court of India issued suo moto
notice to Delhi Jal Board, Noida authority and other authorities (writ petition no. 725 of
1994). Various orders were passed by the Honble Supreme Court in this matter to
have the effect of having clean water in Yamuna but the results of the work done by
the officials of the department had been summarily unsatisfactory. In October 2012
The Honble Supreme Court said that despite spending of thousands of crores of
rupees by the centre, state and local authorities pollution has increased on a daily
basis. As per the report of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) there has been
clear violation of the prescribed standards. The number of common effluent treatment
plants and sewage treatment plants have been inadequate. Yamuna has almost
become like a sewage carrying drain in the NCT, Delhi. In the case with the National
Green Tribunal a case was made by petitioners about the facts like indiscriminate
encroachments of the river bed, regulation of waste dumping (municipal and other

solid waste) was not done properly by the authorities, the harms of blocking of drains,
covering of urban drainage system. It was also contended that the town planners in
developed countries who had previously permitted covering of open drains are now
again reverting back to open drains. The NGT gave various orders for the restoration
of river Yamuna consisting of treatment of sewage before being released in the river,
no dumping of construction or solid municipal waste, stopping of agriculture activities
in the floodplain in NCT on the principal of principles of Inter-Generational Equity and
Comparative Hardship and preservation, restoration and beautification of the river etc.

Role of Industry
When looking to address the important water resource management issues it becomes
imperative to look at the entire manufacturing system. Water as a resource is basically
used in 3 main areas: cooling water, manufacturing process and feed-water to
generate stream for the boiler system.
Integrated water management: It entails evaluating, assessing & optimizing all the
resources used for an entire site. For example, the condensate from the process flows
back into the boiler for the recovery of heat and water. The effluent or boiler blowdown
of the whole plant could be used as a cooling tower 4.
Water Resource Management: The foundation of most water resource management
approaches is conservation, or reducing the number of water employed by up
operations of existing instrumentation and processes. this might entail understanding
and preventing corrosion, scale and microorganism formation. utilize deals with
understanding the water quality needs for the water demand and matching the waste
matter from one space as makeup for an additional space.
A key part of water method management is characterization from a chemistry point of
view. for instance, efforts per unit area being created to recycle central water from
polyvinyl resin (PVC) producing. PVC producing uses deionized water within the
suspension process. In fact, for each pound of PVC made, a pound of deionized water
is employed just one occasion and so discharged.
One of the best issues concerning use this water is that the presence of residual
chemicals left over from varied stages of the assembly method. Typically, a freeradical scavenger referred to as a shortstop is employed to extend the polymerization
reaction. If the shortstop remains within the water and finally ends up within the front

of the batch reaction, it will doubtless cause issues. Concentrations as low as fifty
elements per billion (ppb) of shortstop in water used for the suspension process will
have a prejudicial impact on product quality and productivity 4.
Another example comes from the pulp and paper trade wherever, throughout the
pulping method (especially mechanical pulping), a major quantity of organics from
wood goes into the water and may doubtless cause a haul within the trade method.
it's tough to live these contaminants and to understand whether or not they are going
to be harmful to different processes.
Water quality needs area unit vital for the cooling water system, the boiler feed-water,
and therefore the producing method. The water quality needs, however, don't seem to
be terribly clear, and even the those who manufacture don't recognize the precise
quality needs. distinguishing water quality needs vital for the producing method since
matching them utilizes conservation associated utilize approaches that find yourself
being very cost-efficient for managing water on an industrial website.
However, once the water system changes, 3 major elements ought to be addressed:
chemicals, equipment, and operation. By ever-changing the chemistry it's doable to
handle the chemical contaminants. for instance, a trash-resistant compound has been
developed in order that additional organics are often handled within the trade method
and still turn out high-quality product. the opposite vital aspects of the system area unit
the instrumentation and therefore the operation. for instance, transfer in sensing
element technology and automating water treatment can build the method additional
viable as a result of it'll improve the utilize and use of the water and reduce the number
of harmful contaminants made.
A five-step approach was developed by Ondeo Nalco for site-wide integration of the
water resources. the primary step is scope development, that involves clearly outlined
goals and a close project set up, together with a time line and also the resources
needed. Then a plant audit is conducted to spot best practices. this can be wherever
1st principles of chemical engineering are applied cherish mass and energy balance
for the water resources and contaminants. Technical and economic analysis is then
meted out to guage the different choices which may be obtainable. following step is
that the pilot study analysis wherever the foremost economically and technically best
resolution is set for a given web site. Finally, there's method implementation. this can

be not a further capital demand at the positioning, however usually rather the
implementation of excellent ideas.
Twenty-first century industrial water management and the role of membrane
separations technology
In sewer water treatment, a membrane bioreactor is combined with the clarification
membrane. This produces 0.5 the quantity of sludge and over 95 % removal of the
biological gas demand (BOD). High chassis is typical of contaminated water. terribly
top quality water is generated that may be recycled back to the cooling system or to
the Ro system.
For surface water, 50% of the new industrial water treatment in Europe is currently
supported membrane technology. the whole growth within the industrial phase this
year is concerning $2.5 billion in capital sales of membrane technology in industrial
water, excluding municipal use. The expense to the client within the producing sector
is $7 billion, and therefore the rate is concerning ten % annually. In viewing industrial
wants, it's vital to scale back the whole value of operation, improve the liability, and
improve the performance.
Industrial water management could be an extremely vital element of property
development. AN integrated approach to industrial water management will truly offer
an economical solution; chemistry, equipment, and operations, particularly
automation, play a major role. Chemical sciences ought to check out this tier as a
chance for brand new business, particularly the membrane separations instrumentality
space. there's tremendous growth to be created here, and it'll play a vital role going
forward in industrial water management.

Role of NGOs
NGOs are highly diverse organizations but all of them do share one common goal
which is that they arent focused on short-term targets, and, hence, they devote
themselves to long-term issues like climate change, human rights or malaria
prevention. In addition, public surveys state that NGOs often have public trust, which
makes them a useful proxy for societal concerns.
ENGOs are the NGOs that work directly to preserve the environment. There is a direct
linkage between protecting the environment and democracy in that democracy
enhances the protection of the environment (Holden, 2002). The ENGOs provide for
popular participation and influence in environmental politics (Holden, 2002). Their
influence is evident from the following two examples: (1) Greenpeace - 2.8 million

supporters worldwide (Greenpeace, 2003) and FoE - 1 million supporters (FoE

International, 2002). In the UK, there are about 4.5 million people that belong to some
sort of ENGO (Connelly & Smith, 2003, p. 85)
NGOs can be evaluated on the way they rate on the following parameters
Impact on the poor: One of the main objectives is the provision for benefits to the
poor. In majority of these projects significant benefits are received by the poor and
few benefits are obtained by the non-poor or by local elites. In most projects there is
no explicit objective to assist only the poorest of the poor. The intention rather is to
help the poor which generally made up the vast majority of people in the communities
which NGOs operated 1.
Usually the scale of the projects supported and the volume of benefits generated are
small enough not to create social tensions between beneficiaries and, for example,
local elites or other poor beneficiaries. There are, however, some notable exceptions
to this; for eg: 2 Oxfam projects in Orissa. Both of these projects led to the existing
social & economic structures within communities being challenged to the benefit of the
poor. The success of these two projects must be seen, however, in their wider context.
The approach adopted in India may not work in other less pluralist countries, or in
countries with repressive regimes.
External Environment: An important issue which frequently influenced the success
or failure of non-governmental organization projects is the external social and
economic context within which the project is operated in.
NGOs will offer help to poor people even in an exceedingly unfavorable scenario within
which governments are using political, social and economic policies to hinder NGOs
work. The risks, however, of project failure in such situations are highly increased.

Quality of management: A key finding was that the standard of the management had
an important bearing on the success of the project. a typical theme that has emerged
is that NGOs strategic designing practices may be reinforced and their project
management may be improved, significantly within the observation and ex post
analysis of comes.

The role of teams: A common feature is that the formation of teams as a part of the
strategy to implement comes. The cluster is meant to become the vehicle for collective
and participative action. One drawback, however, typically encountered, is that the
members are part of the group 1
Participation: There has been a shift of stress towards a versatile and innovative
method approach to project style involving project participants at every stage so as to
maximize project impact.
NGOs usually are aware that it's an error to suppose that a community continually has
common interests which participation is just a matter of building and taking account of
those interests within the project style. Participation creates risks of exacerbating
conflicts between stakeholders, or taking part in into the hands of powerful
unconditional interests. The findings of the evaluations demonstrate that there are
potential edges and prices of participation. what's not nonetheless clear from the
results of analysis work, is that the type, scale and depth of participation needed in
several contexts, and in several styles of project, to realize more practical development
equal with the prices.
Sustainability: Sustainability may be a term that is employed by NGOs in an
exceedingly variety of contexts. Only a few of them will be institutionally and financially
self-sufficient in the close future, in the sense of having the ability to square on their
own feet unaided by the sponsoring NGO. Although, some may become self-reliant
within the sense that the activity sponsored, for instance rural installation, had enabled
folks to realize a property improvement in their health and had helped native folks to
try and do things for themselves, albeit the project to create wells in an exceedingly
explicit region wasn't institution-ally or financially property while not continuing donor
support. comes might thus be property within the sense of accelerating the capability
of the poor or native establishments to try and do things for themselves, albeit the
project itself cannot continue while not in progress nongovernmental organization
support. Also, some comes that weren't financially independent, within the sense that
project prices were larger than the projects revenue, had however been ready to offer
property edges to poor folks as a results of a long-run money commitment created to
the project by the nongovernmental organization 2.

Replicability: The property of a project clearly includes a relating its replicability. The
evaluations counsel that almost all comes tend to own a slim project perspective.
express objectives to copy the project elsewhere tend to be absent from project style.
Replicability is commonly seen by NGOs as being on the far side the scope of the
project or, instead, the project could also be seen as being inappropriate to the
circumstances prevailing outside the boundary of the project.
NGOs and Developing Country Governments
NGOs typically get management} in an exceedingly means that retains their
independence from developing country government control. though some NGOs get
to influence the policies of developing country governments each at intervals and
outdoors their project work,
In several of the comes evaluated, the nongovernmental organization was providing
services that either the developing country government was unable to produce itself
or was rising the standard, coverage and delivery of existing services provided by
Government.

None of the comes evaluated by ODA consisted of associate

intervention undertaken by associate nongovernmental organization to help

Government directly within the delivery of presidency services 3.

Role of Legal Awareness

Legal awareness is very important on part of companies to business successfully.
Awareness is the first step towards responsible conduct of business, and the lack of it
may lead to legal violations on part of the business. This in turn would invite regulatory
or legal action against the company, which may lead to fines and/or ultimately closure
of business.
Legal awareness is also very important among the public. If the public is well aware of
the norms and laws protecting it and the environment, it can protest against the
companies and business flouting these laws and polluting the environment risking the
public health and wellbeing. There have been many cases of such rampant pollution,
and some where the responsible and well aware members of the society have stood
up against such polluters. A few cases are mentioned herein to illustrate that.

The public also has power over business as its sole end consumer. If the business is
consumer-based business, the public can influence its behavior and action by insisting
on buying products only from environmentally responsible firms, and boycotting the
products of polluters. If the business is a business-to-business firm, the public can still
influence its practices, by boycotting the products of its clients, which in turn would
force them to buy products from the firms more responsible competitors.

Pollution in Ganga and its tributaries, and related Cases

Agreement of 1916
The effort to clean Ganga and decrease the river pollution first started around in 1905
when Madan Mohan Malviya led the establishment of Ganga Mahasabha, which led
to an agreement in 1916 on how much water should flow through the weirs, dams and
canals and the main stem of the Ganga River. Though after independence, the sanctity
of this agreement is not honored, even though it remains valid.
This 1916 agreement was recently in news regarding the NDA governments stand on
the issue of Uttarakhands rivers, and the dams and hydroelectric projects on it.
The case arose when the Supreme Court, of its own volition, asked the central
government whether the tragedy of 2013, when thousands were killed in the flash
floods in the Kedarnath valley, was in any way related to the dams built on the
tributaries of Ganga in Uttarakhand. It asked to be provided a report by an expert body.
While asking the question, it directed the ministry of Environmental Affairs to not grant
environmental clearance to any new hydroelectric project in the state. It found that
dams on rivers had increased the severity of the disaster significantly.
After this the focus of the case changed completely. The court focused on specific
hydroelectric projects and whether to continue ahead with them or not. A new
committee was formed to see if these projects can be cleared, and with what changes.
The government directed the committee to consider the flow of water to maintain an
ecological and environmental sustainable flow as mentioned by in the Agreement of
1916. This is the bone of contention, as to whether a 100-year-old policy agreement
can be justified to correctly convey the environmental flow limits.

So, as of now, life of millions of people in and around the hills of Uttarakhand and in
the Gangatic plains are dependent on whether the government justifiably refer to a
100-year-old document as the basis of the its stand. This also affects the six select
dams and their developers and the overall electrification and development of the
region. If there is legal awareness among the people, they can organize and give voice
to their demand in the Supreme Court, and influence the decision that would affect
them and their children of years to come.

26,27

Ganga Pollution Cases- 1985

Ganga Pollution cases consist of 2 that focused on the environmental pollution in
Ganga River Basin. The case, which is still continuing in the Indian Supreme court,
began in 1985. Concerned lawyers and citizens filled this case as a Public Interest
Litigation case against the polluters in India. These cases were heavily based on the
legislations already included in the Indian Constitution dealing with water resources
and rivers.
Indian constitution declares it a duty and responsibility of state and its citizen to protect
and preserve the environment and safeguard the forest cover and the flora and fauna
it contains. It is so mentioned in the Articles of Indian Constitution, unlike in the case
of American one. Government agencies have been established, by legislations such
as the Water Act and the Environmental Act, to oversee and regulate the use of rivers,
water bodies and other natural resources and develop plans to control the pollution
affecting them. Created by the Water Act, the Central Pollution Control Board propose
and regulate the environmental standards to be followed the business, while State
Pollution Control Boards check and inspect industrial and waste water treatment
plants. Provisions in the Constitution have also helped public interest lawyers broaden
the legal standing for environmental plaintiffs and keep the issue of enforcement in
public view.
However, these laws have rarely been used to target individual, corporate or
institutional polluters. Regulatory action gained some momentum only after the
Supreme Court of India began hearing public interest petitions in the late 1980s. This
occurred when public interest petitions began charging that pollution was implicating

a public authority who had been vested with the responsibility to prevent pollution but
was not sufficiently executing its powers.
The first of the Ganga Pollution cases were filled by M.C. Mehta, a noted Supreme
court lawyer. His works are one of the most exemplary but by no means the only force
for recent change in this area. In 1985, M.C. Mehta filed a writ petition in the Supreme
Court charging that, despite the many advances made in the legal code, government
authorities had neglected the issue of environmental pollution and had not taken
effective steps to prevent it. Mehta issued a writ of mandamus to restrain leather
tanneries in and around Kanpur and the municipal corporation of Kanpur from
discharging the industrial and domestic effluent in the river Ganga. Subsequently, the
court bifurcated the petition into two parts. The first dealt with the industrial effluents
from leather tanneries of Kanpur and the second with the domestic wastewater and
sewage from Kanpur Municipal Corporation. Called Mehta I and Mehta II in legislative
digests, these two became the "Ganga Pollution Cases" and one of the most
significant water pollution litigation in the short history of Indian environmental law.
In the original writ petition of 1985 to the Supreme Court, Mehta requested the court
to order the leather tanneries of the Jajmau district of Kanpur to stop discharging their
untreated industrial effluents into the river. He also claimed that the domestic sewage
and wastewater, before being discharged into Ganga river, was not being treated as
was the responsibility of the Municipal Corporation of Kanpur. The petition named
eighty-nine respondents; among them were seventy-five tanneries of the Jajmau
district of the city, the Union of India, the Chair of the Central Pollution Control Board,
the Chair of the Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board, and the Indian Standards
Institute.
The results of this case were three landmark judgments and a number of Orders
against over fifty thousand polluting industries and leather tanneries in the Kanpur
area. Apart from industries, the municipal corporation or administrations of more
than 250 towns and cities have been ordered to put sewage treatment plants to
treat domestic sewage before its dumped into the river. A substantial success has
also been achieved by way of creating awareness among public and businesses
and controlling pollution in the river Ganges.

36,37

Public Campaigns against Polluting Businesses

1. Coca Cola in India: Of the 200 countries where Coca-Cola is sold, India is one of
its fastest-growing markets. But the parent company and its local subsidiaries have
been under a barrage of criticism and protest for the adverse environmental
impacts that the operation of its plants have had on the local populace and the local
ecosystem. There has been a growing outcry against Coca-Cola's soft drink
production and bottling practices in India. These activities are draining out huge
amounts of public groundwater and turning vast green agricultural lands into virtual
deserts. The Indian farmers, whose livelihoods are being destroyed due this
scarcity of water, are fatally distressed, and the suicide rates among them are
growing at an alarming rate. For many years there has been one or another form
of protest, from large-scale demonstrations to small gatherings and peaceful
marches, against Coca-Cola's environmental abuses in India.
a. Bottling plant in Mehndiganj, Varansi: The areas around Mehndiganj in
Uttar Pradesh, where Coca Cola has a bottling plant, have been
experiencing severe water shortages. The protests against the company
have been going on for many years, organized by angry farmer and local
residents, who are suffering from severe water scarcity, due to depleting
ground water. One protest, in 2006, which lasted for over 3 months and
concluded with the activists, farmers and local population sitting on a hunger
strike, demanding that the plant stop all operation immediately. Many other
protests were also organized to force the concerned authorities to initiate
action against the company.
As a result, the Indian officials were forced to examine and inspect the plant. They
finally issue a notice to close the Coca-Cola bottling factory in Mehndiganj, Varansi,
Uttar Pradesh for extracting groundwater above prescribed legal limits and releasing
toxic effluents into the environment. The Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board
directed the Coca Cola Company to replenish twice as much groundwater as it had
extracted and to provide a permit to use ground water from a government agency.
Also, the company, though stating that it did not break any laws or regulations, was
forced to acknowledge that water is a critical resource and it would use it more
judiciously and sustainably in the future.

b. Bottling Plant in Plachimada, Kerala: Coca Cola had a bottling plant

situated in Plachimada, Palakkad district in Kerala. It is an important
agricultural region for the state, depending heavily on the canal irrigation
and ground water for the large quantities of water required to cultivate
paddy. It is also home to several scheduled caste and scheduled tribe
populations consisting predominantly of landless, illiterate, agricultural
laborers. It was most likely that, the location of an industrial plant, which
consumes water heavily, in a socially and economically backward, in a
region that is agricultural but drought prone, was bound to result in serious
adverse implications to the life and the environment.

In Plachimada, the people started to suffer various illness and complications within six
months after the plant started its operations. The salinity and hardness of the ground
water had risen and the water from some nearby open wells and shallow bore wells
was told to have acquired a very unpleasant bitter taste. This brackish, bitter water
caused the people who used it to complain of a variety of illnesses such as an irritation
in the skin of the face; greasy, sticky hair; stomach disorders and skin deformities. It
was also claimed that a few nearby wells had become dry due to the overuse of
groundwater by the bottling plant. The water scarcity had also resulted in the decline
of agricultural production.

The local people started their agitation against the Coca Cola Company within one
year of the setting up plant and commencement of operations. A tribal woman,
Mylamma, organized the local community against the Company. Later, several nongovernmental organizations and other sections of the civil society joined the agitation.
Due to this hue and cry, the Perumatty Grama Panchayat passed a resolution on 7
April 2003 refusing to renew the license given to the Company. This and ongoing legal
battle forced the company to shut down the plant in March 2004.
Using the 'polluter pays principle', the High Power Committee constituted to submit a
report to Kerala government, had recommended that Coca-Cola be held liable for
Indian Rupees 216 crore (US$ 48 million) for damages caused as a result of the
company's bottling operations in Plachimada.

2. Alpha Natural Resources: Alpha Natural Resources is one of the largest

American coal miners, specializing in the production of metallurgical coal for the
industrial production of iron and steel and low-sulfur thermal coal to power the
steam turbines for the production of electrical power. It has many production plants
across the Appalachians states. In 2014, the company was charged with being
involved in rampant pollution and strip-mining, discharge of illegal toxic effluents
into hundreds of waterways across these states.
In 2014, Alpha Natural Resources received from the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) a fine of $27.5 millionthe largest environmental fine ever against a coal
companyfor spewing pollutants into the waterways of Kentucky, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, Tennessee, and West Virginia. The company was also ordered to spend over
$200 million on environmental cleanup in the region to reduce illegal toxic discharges
into hundreds of waterways. 34,35

Conclusions and Suggestions

Recent trends show that more and more people are taking active part in environmental
decision making and are becoming more vocal about pollution issues, a lot of work still
needs to be done if we are to protect our environment and conserve water resources
for the future. The stress on water as a resource is growing at an alarming rate, the
population is continuing to rise putting undue pressure on water as a resource. The
government needs to play a key role in water distribution & quality control of water.
However, the government alone cant usher in the changes and would need continued
support from businesses, NGOs & the public. Water conservation is only possible
when all the forces are working in tandem and cases as the Oxfam case in Orissa are
too few and far between. There is a dire need to raise awareness about water
management laws and care must be taken to educate and raise awareness among
the people. Judiciary has an important role to play, and must act as a watchdog. In
recent times we have seen the Judiciary taking strict action to uphold environmental
law and needs to remain firm on its current stand. We can implement new things like
water metering in the urban settings.

Relevance of the project as an entrepreneur/manager

The project helped us learn about the various liabilities that a business may have to
incur if does not follow water/environmental law. It also sensitized us to the fact that
pollution is a big problem and courts are taking increasing notice of it. Any business
has to be in compliance with all the environmental laws and it cannot harm the
environment even unknowingly, due to the rules of strict and absolute liability. The
courts have fixed tortious liability for pollution accidents and this has important
implications for business. We have realized that any industry or profession that we
enter into, we would be required to be well versed with the laws, especially
environmental and water conservation. At the international level too, the principle of
participation of people in decision making is universally accepted. Moreover, we have
become aware of the acute water crisis that the country is facing. There are severe
shortages of water in dry season and agriculture to this day depends a lot on the
vagaries of nature. And on top of that inefficient water management has led to the
double whammy of floods and droughts. We have also become aware that as
individual citizens it is our duty (art. 51, constitution of India) to conserve water
resources and more generally the whole environment. We should try to lessen our
individual carbon footprint and we should try to inculcate these values in the
organization we work in. To reduce the polluting impact of our business does not only
makes sense from an environmental point of view but it also makes sense from a
business point of view as consumers are increasingly more likely to reward businesses
which follow sustainable practices.48

Annexure of References
1. Smout, Water & NGOs
2. Brown, R, A study on Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in
Protecting The Environment
3. Maxwell K. Boakye and Oghenerobor B. Akpor Community Participation
in Water Resources Management in South Africa
4. Bhasker Dave, Ondeo Nalco , Water and Sustainable Development:
Opportunities for the Chemical Sciences: A Workshop Report to the
Chemical Sciences Roundtable,
5. Ahmad husain, Environment and Water Resource Management
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7. United Nations Secretary General Report to the 66th General Assembly
on the Implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster
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PA304&dq=water+laws+effectiveness+in+india&source=bl&ots=Z69YgP
OoPE&sig=ahjNQraist2BX9LWJr_8POR1Jo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNurfIt6POAhUMqo8KHXAQCtMQ6AEIS
TAH#v=onepage&q=water%20laws%20effectiveness%20in%20india&f=f
alse
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=water%20laws%20in%20india&f=false

14. The Evolution of the Law and Politics of Water edited by Joseph W.
Dellapenna, Joyeeta Gupta
15. http://www.greentribunal.gov.in/Writereaddata/Downloads/65-2016(PBI)OA9-3-2016.pdf
16. Paper: EVOLUTION OF WATER LAW AND POLICY IN INDIA Philippe
Cullet & Joyeeta Gupta (IELRC)
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18. The Politics of Environment in Southeast Asia - by Philip Hirsch
19. http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/outtoday/wc7259427022012.pdf,
http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/cd279c80473145b0bbf3fb825d7a2a2
0/6-2012%28PB-I-Judg%29OA-13-1-2015.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&lmod=287594179
20. http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/imgst.aspx?filename=35529
21. http://www.greentribunal.gov.in/Writereaddata/Downloads/NGT-fin.pdf
22. http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/imgst.aspx?filename=16012
23. http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/imgst.aspx?filename=8858
24. http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1868/1.html
25. http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/imgst.aspx?filename=15202
26. http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/nda-revives-a1916-pact-for-dams-on-the-ganga-116012101272_1.html>
27. http://gangamahasabha.org/
28. http://www.auburn.edu/~alleykd/envirolitigators/mehtatext.htm
29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274736320_Water_resources_
scenario_of_India_emerging_challenges_and_management_options
30. http://www.archive.india.gov.in/sectors/water_resources/index.php?id=1
4
31. http://envfor.nic.in/division/national-wetland-conservation-programmenwcp
32. http://pib.nic.in/newsite/efeatures.aspx?relid=103462
33. http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/nda-revives-a1916-pact-for-dams-on-the-ganga-116012101272_1.html
34. http://news.yahoo.com/coal-firm-pay-record-fine-water-pollution210635139--finance.html
35. The Politics of Environment in Southeast Asia - by Philip Hirsch

36. http://www.auburn.edu/~alleykd/envirolitigators/mehtatext.htm
37. https://indiankanoon.org/doc/59060/
38. IERLC Working Paper 2005-07: Legal Implications of Plachimada;
International Environmental Law Research Centre
39. http://www.righttowater.info/rights-in-practice/legal-approach-casestudies/case-against-coca-cola-kerala-state-india
40. Agenda 21, 1992
41. Aarhus convention 1998
42. International Human Rights Law (general Comment 15)
43. Berlin Rules on water law 2004
44. Rio declaration 1992
45. World Commission on dams
46. Global Environment Facility
47. United Nations Environmental Programme
48. ENVIRONMENTAL LAW by Professor DHARMENDRA S. SENGER