Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Section Editors
Leonard E Weisman, MD
William Phillips, MD
Marc C Patterson, MD, FRACP
Deputy Editor
Melanie S Kim, MD
All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.
Literature review current through: Jul 2016. | This topic last updated: Sep 21, 2015.
INTRODUCTION Birth injury is defined as an impairment of the neonate's body function or structure due to an
adverse event that occurred at birth. The overall incidence of birth injuries has declined with improvements in obstetrical
care and prenatal diagnosis. The reported incidence of birth injuries is about 2 and 1.1 percent in singleton vaginal
deliveries of fetuses in a cephalic position and in cesarean deliveries, respectively [1,2]. Injury may occur during labor,
delivery, or after delivery, especially in neonates who require resuscitation in the delivery room.
There is a wide spectrum of birth injuries ranging from minor and self-limited problems (eg, laceration or bruising) to
severe injuries that may result in significant neonatal morbidity or mortality (ie, spinal cord injuries).
The risk factors associated with birth trauma and specific birth injuries will be reviewed here.
RISK FACTORS The following factors that increase the risk of birth injuries may be due to the fetus (eg, fetal size
and presentation), the mother (eg, maternal size and the presence of pelvic anomalies), or the use of obstetrical
instrumentation during delivery:
Macrosomia When the fetal weight exceeds 4000 g, the incidence of birth injuries rises as the fetal size
increases. In one study, when compared with normosmic neonates, the incidence of birth injury was twofold
greater in infants weighing 4000 to 4499 g, three times greater in those with births weights between 4500 to 4999
g, and 4.5 times greater in those with a birth weight greater than 5000 g [3]. In another study, the incidence of fetal
injury was 7.7 percent in infants with birth weights greater than 4500 g [4].
The diagnosis of fetal macrosomia and its impact on shoulder dystocia are discussed in greater detail separately.
(See "Fetal macrosomia" and "Shoulder dystocia: Risk factors and planning delivery of at risk pregnancies",
section on 'Pregnancies where high birth weight is suspected'.)
Maternal obesity Maternal obesity (defined as a body mass index greater than 40 kg/m2) is associated with an
increased risk of birth injuries. This may be due to the greater use of instrumentation during delivery and/or these
mothers having an increased risk of delivering a large for gestational age infant with shoulder dystocia [5]. (See
"The impact of obesity on female fertility and pregnancy" and "Cesarean delivery of the obese woman".)
Abnormal fetal presentation Fetal presentation other than a vertex position, particularly breech presentation, is
associated with an increase in the risk of birth injury with vaginal delivery. Delivery by cesarean delivery reduces
the morbidity associated with vaginal delivery of breech infants and is discussed separately. (See "Overview of
issues related to breech presentation" and "Delivery of the fetus in breech presentation".)
Operative vaginal delivery Operative vaginal delivery refers to a delivery in which the clinician uses forceps or a
vacuum device to assist the mother in delivering the fetus to extrauterine life. The instrument is applied to the fetal
head, and then the clinician uses traction to extract the fetus, typically during a contraction while the mother is
pushing. Both forceps and vacuum delivery are associated with an increase in birth injury when compared with
nonoperative vaginal delivery (table 1). The sequential use of vacuum extraction and forceps increases the risk of
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-iismo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 1 de 22
birth injury greater than the use of either instrument alone (table 2). The neonatal complications of operative
vaginal deliveries are discussed in detail separately.
Cesarean delivery Cesarean delivery is generally found to have a lower risk of birth trauma compared with
vaginal deliveries. This finding was confirmed by an analysis of the Health Care Cost and Utilization Project
Nationwide Inpatient Sample that showed cesarean delivery was associated with a decreased likelihood of all birth
trauma compared with vaginal delivery (adjusted OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.53-0.58) [6]. However, when the analysis
used the definition of birth trauma developed by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Patient Safety
Indicator (AHRQPSI), cesarean delivery was associated with an increased risk of birth trauma (adjusted OR 1.65,
95% CI 1.51-1.81). The AHRQPSI definition did not include clavicle fractures, or injuries to the brachial plexus and
scalp, which were more frequently seen in vaginal deliveries. These findings suggest that risk varies between
cesarean and vaginal delivery depending upon the type of birth injury.
Other factors One study reported an increased incidence of birth trauma to the head and neck in male infants
and in babies born to primiparous mothers [7]. Additionally, small maternal stature and the presence of maternal
pelvic anomalies are associated with an increased risk of birth injuries.
SOFT TISSUE INJURIES The most common form of traumatic birth injuries are soft-tissue injuries including bruising,
petechiae, subcutaneous fat necrosis, and lacerations [8].
Bruising and petechiae Bruising and petechiae are usually self-limiting and are often seen on the presenting portion
of the newborn's body.
Bruising and edema of the genitals are common findings in infants delivered from the breech position.
Petechiae of the head and face are often seen in infants delivered from the vertex position, especially with a face
presentation. Most often, petechiae are present at birth, do not progress, and are not associated with other
bleeding. A platelet count should be obtained to rule out thrombocytopenia if petechiae continue to develop or if
other bleeding is present.
Significant bruising has been recognized as a major risk factor for the development of severe hyperbilirubinemia.
Follow-up within two days of the newborn hospital discharge is recommended for infants with significant bruising in
order to assess them for progressive jaundice [9].
Subcutaneous fat necrosis Subcutaneous fat necrosis (SFN) is uncommon and usually occurs in the first few
weeks of life as a result of ischemia to the adipose tissue following a traumatic delivery. SFN is characterized by firm,
indurated nodules and plaques on the back, buttocks, thighs, forearms, and cheeks. The nodules and plaques may be
erythematous, flesh colored, or blue [10].
Typically, this condition is self-limiting, with resolution usually occurring by six to eight weeks of age. These infants
require long-term follow-up for the development of hypercalcemia, which can occur up to six months after the initial
presentation of the skin lesions [10,11].
Lacerations Fetal laceration has been reported as the most common birth injury associated with cesarean delivery
[1]. In one study of 3108 cesarean deliveries, the fetal laceration rate was about 3 percent [12]. The lacerations occurred
most often on the presenting part of the fetus, typically the scalp and face; 78 percent of the lacerations took place when
the cesarean delivery was performed emergently. The majority of fetal lacerations were mild, requiring repair with sterile
strips only. However, 3 of the 97 lacerations (3 percent) were moderate or severe, located on the face or ocular area,
and required plastic surgery for repair.
EXTRACRANIAL INJURIES Extracranial injuries occur during delivery and are due to edema or bleeding into various
locations within the scalp and skull (figure 1).
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-ismo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 2 de 22
Caput succedaneum Caput succedaneum is an edematous swelling of the scalp above the periosteum, which is
occasionally hemorrhagic (figure 1). It presents at birth after prolonged engagement of the fetal head in the birth canal or
after vacuum extraction. Unlike cephalohematoma, it extends across the suture lines. Caput succedaneum is generally a
benign condition, and it usually resolves within a few days and requires no treatment.
There are reported complications in infants with caput succedaneum that include necrotic lesions resulting in long-term
scarring and alopecia [13]. Halo scalp ring is an annular alopecic ring that occurs in infants after a prolonged or difficult
labor due to compression from the bony prominence of the maternal pelvis. [14]. Rarely, systemic infection may occur as
a complication of an infected caput succedaneum [15].
Cephalohematoma Cephalohematoma is a subperiosteal collection of blood caused by rupture of vessels beneath
the periosteum (usually over the parietal or occipital bone), which presents as swelling that does not cross suture lines
(figure 1). The swelling may or may not be accompanied by discoloration, rarely expands after delivery, and does not
generally cause significant blood loss. Cephalohematoma is estimated to occur in 1 to 2 percent of all deliveries and is
much more common when forceps or vacuum delivery is performed (table 2). (See "Operative vaginal delivery", section
on 'Complications'.)
The majority of cephalohematomas will resolve spontaneously over the course of a few weeks without any intervention.
However, calcification of the hematoma can occur with a subsequent bony swelling that may persist for months.
Significant deformities of the skull may occur when calcification or ossification of the cephalohematoma occurs (image
1). Case reports have demonstrated successful surgical excision of these calcified or ossified hematomas [16,17].
Other complications of cephalohematoma include infection and sepsis, with Escherichia coli being the most commonly
reported causative agent. Infected cephalohematomas present as erythematous, fluctuant masses that may have
expanded from their baseline size. Imaging with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is
helpful in making the diagnosis. Needle aspiration and culture of the hematoma are considered to be mandatory for
suspected cases [18]. Osteomyelitis is a reported complication of an infected cephalohematoma [19]. In these affected
infants, treatment includes incision and drainage of the abscess with debridement of the necrotic skull, and a prolonged
course of parenteral antibiotics (eg, vancomycin, gentamicin, and cefotaxime).
Subgaleal hemorrhage Subgaleal hemorrhage (SGH) develops when blood accumulates in the loose areolar tissue
in the space between the periosteum of the skull and the aponeurosis (figure 1). The injury occurs when the emissary
veins between the scalp and dural sinuses are sheared or severed as a result of traction on the scalp during delivery.
The incidence of SGH has been estimated to occur in 4 of 10,000 spontaneous vaginal deliveries and 59 of 10,000
vacuum-assisted deliveries [20].
The potential for massive blood loss (20 to 40 percent of a neonate's blood volume resulting in a loss of 50 to 100 mL
[21]) into the subgaleal space contributes to the high mortality rate associated with this lesion. The subgaleal space
extends from the orbital ridges anteriorly to the nape of the neck posteriorly and to the level of the ears laterally. In
infants with SGH, the reported mortality is about 12 to 14 percent [22,23]. Infants who died had massive volume loss
resulting in shock and coagulopathy [23].
SGH presents as a diffuse, fluctuant swelling of the head that may shift with movement. Expansion of the swelling due to
continued bleeding may occur hours to days after delivery. Affected neonates may have tachycardia and pallor due to
blood loss, although blood loss may be massive before signs of hypovolemia become apparent.
Early recognition of this injury is crucial for survival [24]. Infants who have experienced a difficult operative delivery or
are suspected to have a SGH require ongoing monitoring including frequent vital signs (minimally every hour), and serial
measurements of hematocrits and their occipital frontal circumference, which increases 1 cm with each 40 mL of blood
deposited into the subgaleal space. Head imaging, using either CT or MRI, can be useful in differentiating subgaleal
hemorrhage from other cranial pathologic conditions. Coagulation studies are required to detect coagulopathy that may
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-ismo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 3 de 22
Pgina 4 de 22
Pgina 5 de 22
hemorrhages were subependymal in location (grade 1 IVH). The risk of IVH increases with operative deliveries, with
reported incidences per 10,000 deliveries of 1.1, 1.5, 2.6, and 3.7 for spontaneous, vacuum-assisted, forceps-assisted,
and combined vacuum- and forceps-assisted deliveries, respectively (table 3) [30].
In the absence of a clotting disorder or severe asphyxia, most IVH in term infants will resolve spontaneously with no
long-term sequelae. For infants with IVH due to significant birth trauma, close monitoring is required due to the risk of
extension of the hemorrhage into the surrounding parenchyma and the development of post-hemorrhagic
hydrocephalus. (See "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of intraventricular hemorrhage in the newborn".)
FRACTURES
Clavicle Clavicular fractures are the most commonly reported fractures in neonates (image 2). Based upon data from
large case series, the incidence of clavicle fractures due to birth trauma ranges from 0.5 to 1.6 percent [39-41].
Fractured clavicles are often associated with difficult vaginal delivery; however, clavicular fractures also occur in infants
who are products of a normal spontaneous vaginal or cesarean delivery.
Multiple risk factors for clavicular fractures have been reported, as illustrated by the following studies:
In a review of 9540 deliveries with an incidence of clavicular fracture of 1.6 percent, operative delivery and
shoulder dystocia were the primary risk factors for clavicle fracture [41].
In another large case series of 4297 deliveries with an incidence of clavicular fracture of 0.5 percent, increased
maternal age and a birth weight greater than 4 kg were significantly associated with clavicular fracture [39].
In a prospective study of 4789 deliveries with an incidence of clavicular fracture of 1.1 percent, higher birth weight
and a lower mean head-to-abdominal circumference ratio were predictive of a clavicular fracture [40].
The timing of the presentation and diagnosis of neonatal fractures of the clavicle is dependent on whether the fracture is
displaced or nondisplaced.
Displaced (complete) fractured clavicles are more likely to be accompanied by physical findings in the immediate
post-delivery time period. These include crepitus, edema, lack of movement of the affected extremity, asymmetrical
bone contour, and crying with passive motion.
The diagnosis of nondisplaced clavicular fracture is often delayed by days or weeks until there is a formation of a
visible or palpable callous because the neonate is usually asymptomatic.
The diagnosis is made by a radiograph of the clavicle, which differentiates clavicular fracture from brachial plexus injury,
traumatic separation of the proximal humeral epiphysis, humeral shaft fractures, and dislocations of the shoulder [42].
When evaluating a neonate for suspected clavicle fracture, obtaining a full radiograph of the chest and upper extremities
is suggested because these other diagnoses, which present with similar findings, may be detected in the fuller view. In
addition, the presence of a clavicle fracture warrants further investigation for accompanying brachial plexus injury. (See
"Brachial plexus syndromes", section on 'Neonatal brachial plexus palsy'.)
Because clavicular fractures in infants heal spontaneously with no long-term sequelae, parental reassurance and gentle
handling are all that are required for management. Analgesics may be given to decrease the pain. For comfort, the arm
on the affected side can be placed in a long-sleeved garment and pinned to the chest with the elbow at 90 degrees of
flexion. Although a repeat radiograph at two weeks of age can help determine whether or not there is proper healing of
the bone, callus formation and lack of tenderness detected on physical examination are usually predictive of appropriate
healing.
Humerus Although it is the most common long bone neonatal fracture, humeral fractures are rare with a reported
incidence of 0.2 per 1000 deliveries (image 3 and image 4) [43]. Most fractures occur at the proximal third of the
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-ismo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 6 de 22
Pgina 7 de 22
Pgina 8 de 22
Spinal cord injuries are rare with an incidence of 0.14 per 10,000 live births [56]. They occur more frequently in the
upper cervical spine because of the greater likelihood of injury due to traction or rotation of that area of the cord
during delivery. Injuries include spinal epidural hematoma, vertebral artery injuries, traumatic cervical
hematomyelia, spinal artery occlusion, and transection of the cord. Risk factors include forceps-assisted delivery
and breech vaginal delivery [56].
Presentation is dependent upon the severity and spinal level of the injury. The outcome of severe high cervical or
brainstem lesions is poor with a high mortality rate [56]. Lower lesions may result in significant morbidity with permanent
neurologic impairment. The diagnosis is often initially made by ultrasonography, although magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) provides better visualization of the spinal cord and is the preferred modality, if available.
ABDOMINAL INJURIES Intra-abdominal birth trauma is uncommon and primarily consists of rupture or subcapsular
hemorrhage into the liver, spleen, and adrenal gland [57]. The clinical presentation is dependent upon the amount of
blood loss. Infants with hepatic and splenic rupture may present with sudden pallor, signs of hemorrhagic shock, and
abdominal distension and discoloration, whereas infants with subcapsular hematoma may have a delayed or more
insidious onset of symptoms of anemia, which include poor feeding, tachycardia, and tachypnea. Unilateral adrenal
hemorrhage may present as an abdominal mass.
Ultrasonography is the best modality to diagnose intra-abdominal birth injuries and can be performed at the bedside.
Computed tomography (CT) can also provide useful diagnostic information, but transport of a critically ill infant to the
scanner is more difficult.
The management includes fluid resuscitation with blood products and normal saline as appropriate. Fresh frozen plasma
may be needed to correct any coagulopathy associated with the injury. In infants with hepatic or splenic rupture or who
are hemodynamically unstable, laparotomy may be is required to control the bleeding [57].
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The overall incidence of birth injuries is about 2 and 1.1 percent in singleton vaginal and cesarean deliveries,
respectively.
Factors that increase the risk of birth injuries include macrosomia (fetal weight greater than 4000 g), maternal
obesity, breech presentation, operative vaginal delivery (ie, the use of forceps or vacuum during delivery), small
maternal size, and the presence of maternal pelvic anomalies. (See 'Risk factors' above.)
The most common form of traumatic birth injuries are soft-tissue injuries including bruising, petechiae,
subcutaneous fat necrosis, and lacerations. Lacerations are the most common injury associated with cesarean
delivery and are generally mild, requiring repair only with sterile strips. The other three conditions are generally
self-limited and resolve without any intervention. (See 'Soft tissue injuries' above.)
The extracranial injuries of caput succedaneum (edema and bleeding above the periosteum) and
cephalohematoma (subperiosteal collection of blood) usually resolve spontaneously without any intervention. In
contrast, subgaleal hemorrhage (bleeding in the loose areolar tissue in the space between the periosteum of the
skull and the aponeurosis) may result in massive blood loss that, if not detected and managed appropriately, may
lead to shock and death. (See 'Extracranial injuries' above.)
Facial injuries include nasal septal dislocation, which requires reduction by three days of life to avoid nasal septal
deformity, and ocular injuries, which are usually mild and resolve without any intervention. In cases of suspected
severe ocular injury (eg, hyphema and vitreous hemorrhage), ophthalmologic consultation should be obtained.
(See 'Facial injuries' above.)
Intracranial hemorrhages include subdural, subarachnoid, epidural, and intraventricular hemorrhage. The decision
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-ismo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 9 de 22
for neurosurgical intervention is based upon the clinical condition of the patient including evidence of increased
intracranial pressure, and the nature and size of the injury. (See 'Intracranial hemorrhage' above.)
Fractures due to birth trauma include clavicular, humeral, femoral, and skull fractures. Since most clavicular and
skull fractures resolve spontaneously, they are managed conservatively with observation alone. Humeral and
femoral fractures require immobilization, and generally resolve within four weeks. Virtually any malalignment will
remodel as the infant grows. (See 'Fractures' above.)
Neurologic injury includes injury to peripheral nerves including the brachial plexus and facial, phrenic, and
laryngeal nerves. These typically resolve with time. Although spinal cord injuries are rare, they generally have a
poor prognosis due to high mortality rate and increased likelihood of permanent neurologic impairment in survivors.
(See 'Neurologic injuries' above.)
Intra-abdominal injuries due to birth trauma are rare and primarily are due to rupture and subcapsular hemorrhage
into the liver, spleen, and adrenal gland. Clinical presentation and management vary depending upon the degree of
bleeding. (See 'Abdominal injuries' above.)
Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement.
REFERENCES
1. Alexander JM, Leveno KJ, Hauth J, et al. Fetal injury associated with cesarean delivery. Obstet Gynecol 2006;
108:885.
2. Demissie K, Rhoads GG, Smulian JC, et al. Operative vaginal delivery and neonatal and infant adverse outcomes:
population based retrospective analysis. BMJ 2004; 329:24.
3. Boulet SL, Alexander GR, Salihu HM, Pass M. Macrosomic births in the united states: determinants, outcomes,
and proposed grades of risk. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 188:1372.
4. Nassar AH, Usta IM, Khalil AM, et al. Fetal macrosomia (> or =4500 g): perinatal outcome of 231 cases according
to the mode of delivery. J Perinatol 2003; 23:136.
5. Cedergren MI. Maternal morbid obesity and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcome. Obstet Gynecol 2004;
103:219.
6. Moczygemba CK, Paramsothy P, Meikle S, et al. Route of delivery and neonatal birth trauma. Am J Obstet
Gynecol 2010; 202:361.e1.
7. Hughes CA, Harley EH, Milmoe G, et al. Birth trauma in the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg
1999; 125:193.
8. Rosenberg A. Traumatic birth injury. NeoReviews 2003; 4:270.
9. American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the
newborn infant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics 2004; 114:297.
10. Burden AD, Krafchik BR. Subcutaneous fat necrosis of the newborn: a review of 11 cases. Pediatr Dermatol 1999;
16:384.
11. Borgia F, De Pasquale L, Cacace C, et al. Subcutaneous fat necrosis of the newborn: be aware of
hypercalcaemia. J Paediatr Child Health 2006; 42:316.
12. Dessole S, Cosmi E, Balata A, et al. Accidental fetal lacerations during cesarean delivery: experience in an Italian
level III university hospital. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191:1673.
13. Siegel DH, Holland K, Phillips RJ, et al. Erosive pustular dermatosis of the scalp after perinatal scalp injury.
Pediatr Dermatol 2006; 23:533.
14. Anshelevich A, Osterhoudt KC, Introcaso CE, Treat JR. Picture of the month--quiz case. Halo scalp ring. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med 2010; 164:673.
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 10 de 22
15. Rawal S, Modi N, Lacey S, Keane M. Escherichia coli septicaemia arising as a result of an infected caput
succedaneum. Eur J Pediatr 2006; 165:66.
16. Chung HY, Chung JY, Lee DG, et al. Surgical treatment of ossified cephalhematoma. J Craniofac Surg 2004;
15:774.
17. Wong CH, Foo CL, Seow WT. Calcified cephalohematoma: classification, indications for surgery and techniques. J
Craniofac Surg 2006; 17:970.
18. Chen MH, Yang JC, Huang JS, Chen MH. MRI features of an infected cephalhaematoma in a neonate. J Clin
Neurosci 2006; 13:849.
19. Chan MS, Wong YC, Lau SP, et al. MRI and CT findings of infected cephalhaematoma complicated by skull vault
osteomyelitis, transverse venous sinus thrombosis and cerebellar haemorrhage. Pediatr Radiol 2002; 32:376.
20. Plauch WC. Subgaleal hematoma. A complication of instrumental delivery. JAMA 1980; 244:1597.
21. Uchil D, Arulkumaran S. Neonatal subgaleal hemorrhage and its relationship to delivery by vacuum extraction.
Obstet Gynecol Surv 2003; 58:687.
22. Gebremariam A. Subgaleal haemorrhage: risk factors and neurological and developmental outcome in survivors.
Ann Trop Paediatr 1999; 19:45.
23. Kilani RA, Wetmore J. Neonatal subgaleal hematoma: presentation and outcome--radiological findings and factors
associated with mortality. Am J Perinatol 2006; 23:41.
24. Davis DJ. Neonatal subgaleal hemorrhage: diagnosis and management. CMAJ 2001; 164:1452.
25. Amar AP, Aryan HE, Meltzer HS, Levy ML. Neonatal subgaleal hematoma causing brain compression: report of
two cases and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 2003; 52:1470.
26. Podoshin L, Gertner R, Fradis M, Berger A. Incidence and treatment of deviation of nasal septum in newborns.
Ear Nose Throat J 1991; 70:485.
27. Sooknundun M, Kacker SK, Bhatia R, Deka RC. Nasal septal deviation: effective intervention and long term followup. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1986; 12:65.
28. Holden R, Morsman DG, Davidek GM, et al. External ocular trauma in instrumental and normal deliveries. Br J
Obstet Gynaecol 1992; 99:132.
29. Looney CB, Smith JK, Merck LH, et al. Intracranial hemorrhage in asymptomatic neonates: prevalence on MR
images and relationship to obstetric and neonatal risk factors. Radiology 2007; 242:535.
30. Towner D, Castro MA, Eby-Wilkens E, Gilbert WM. Effect of mode of delivery in nulliparous women on neonatal
intracranial injury. N Engl J Med 1999; 341:1709.
31. Pollina J, Dias MS, Li V, et al. Cranial birth injuries in term newborn infants. Pediatr Neurosurg 2001; 35:113.
32. Whitby EH, Griffiths PD, Rutter S, et al. Frequency and natural history of subdural haemorrhages in babies and
relation to obstetric factors. Lancet 2004; 363:846.
33. Chamnanvanakij S, Rollins N, Perlman JM. Subdural hematoma in term infants. Pediatr Neurol 2002; 26:301.
34. Huang AH, Robertson RL. Spontaneous superficial parenchymal and leptomeningeal hemorrhage in term
neonates. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004; 25:469.
35. Heyman R, Heckly A, Magagi J, et al. Intracranial epidural hematoma in newborn infants: clinical study of 15
cases. Neurosurgery 2005; 57:924.
36. Park SH, Hwang SK. Surgical treatment of subacute epidural hematoma caused by a vacuum extraction with skull
fracture and cephalohematoma in a neonate. Pediatr Neurosurg 2006; 42:270.
37. Negishi H, Lee Y, Itoh K, et al. Nonsurgical management of epidural hematoma in neonates. Pediatr Neurol 1989;
5:253.
38. Hayden CK Jr, Shattuck KE, Richardson CJ, et al. Subependymal germinal matrix hemorrhage in full-term
neonates. Pediatrics 1985; 75:714.
39. Beall MH, Ross MG. Clavicle fracture in labor: risk factors and associated morbidities. J Perinatol 2001; 21:513.
40. Hsu TY, Hung FC, Lu YJ, et al. Neonatal clavicular fracture: clinical analysis of incidence, predisposing factors,
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-smo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 11 de 22
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-smo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 12 de 22
GRAPHICS
Neonatal morbidity and mortality data by delivery type for the United
States, 1995 to 1998 (rates are per 10,000 deliveries)
Outcome
Spontaneous
Forceps delivery
Vacuum delivery
Neonatal death
3.7
5.0
4.7
Birth injury
21.4
109.1
76.1
Neonatal seizures
5.0
8.7
6.5
147
293
250
Data from: Demissie K, Rhoads GG, Smulian JC, et al. Operative vaginal delivery and neonatal and infant
adverse outcomes: population based retrospective analysis. BMJ 2004; 329:24.
Graphic 70509 Version 4.0
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 13 de 22
Unassisted
Forceps
Vacuum
Vacuum
(spontaneous) delivery
delivery
delivery
plus forceps
Cephalohematoma
167
635
1117
1361
2.4
37.0
5.2
52.9
Intracranial
hemorrhage
3.7
17.0
16.2
26.5
Mechanical
ventilation
23.5
31.3
40.3
74.1
Retinal
hemorrhage
18.2
19.3
15.7
31.8
Data from: Demissie K, Rhoads GG, Smulian JC, et al. Operative vaginal delivery and neonatal and infant
adverse outcomes: population based retrospective analysis. BMJ 2004; 329:24.
Graphic 50159 Version 4.0
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 14 de 22
Modified from: Volpe JJ. Neurology of the Newborn, 4th ed, WB Saunders, Philadelphia
2001.
Graphic 53176 Version 10.0
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-smo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 15 de 22
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 16 de 22
Spontaneous
birth
Vacuum
assisted
Forceps
assisted
Cesarean
no labor
Subdural or cerebral
hemorrhage
2.9
8.0
9.8
4.1
7.4
Intraventricular
hemorrhage
1.1
1.5
2.6
0.8
2.5
Subarachnoid
hemorrhage
1.3
2.2
3.3
0.0
1.2
3.3
4.6
45.4
4.9
3.1
7.7
17.6
25.0
4.1
1.8
Convulsions
6.4
11.7
9.8
8.6
21.3
CNS depression
3.1
9.2
5.2
6.7
9.6
Feeding difficulty
68.5
72.1
74.6
106.3
117.2
Mechanical ventilation
25.8
39.1
45.4
71.3
103.2
Trauma
labor
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-smo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 17 de 22
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 18 de 22
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 19 de 22
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 20 de 22
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birth-smo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 21 de 22
Contributor Disclosures
Tiffany M McKee-Garrett, MD Nothing to disclose. Leonard E Weisman, MD Grant/Research/Clinical Trial Support:
Vax-Immune [Ureaplasma diagnosis, vaccines, and antibodies]. Consultant/Advisory Boards: Glaxo-Smith Kline [Malaria
vaccine]; NIAID [Staphylococcus aureus (Mupirocin)]. Patent Holder: Baylor College of Medicine [Ureaplasma diagnosis,
vaccines, antibodies, process for preparing biological samples]. Equity Ownership/Stock Options: Vax-Immune
[Ureaplasma diagnosis, vaccines, and antibodies]. William Phillips, MD Nothing to disclose. Marc C Patterson, MD,
FRACP Grant/Research/Clinical Trial Support: Vtesse [Niemann-Pick C (Cyclodextrin)]. Consultant/Advisory Boards:
Actelion [Niemann-Pick C (Miglustat)]; Agios [CGD]; Amicus [Fabry, Gaucher, Pompe [(Migalastat)]; Novartis [MS]; Shire
[MLD]; Vtesse [Niemann-Pick C]. Other Financial Interest: Sage [Honorarium as Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Child
Neurology and Child Neurology Open]. Melanie S Kim, MD Nothing to disclose.
Contributor disclosures are reviewed for conflicts of interest by the editorial group. When found, these are addressed by
vetting through a multi-level review process, and through requirements for references to be provided to support the
content. Appropriately referenced content is required of all authors and must conform to UpToDate standards of
evidence.
Conflict of interest policy
http://www.uptodate.com.proxy.bib.udec.cl/contents/neonatal-birthsmo+del+parto&selectedTitle=1%7E150&view=print&displayedView=full
Pgina 22 de 22