Handouts in

Grade VI Science Health in the Environment

Earth's Internal Structure
The earth comprises a number of layers. At the center us the core
that is rich in iron, above is a dense mantle of semi-liquid rock. On top there
is a lighter solid crust.
A Rocky Crust
The earth is covered with a crumpled, rocky shell called the crust. The land
you are standing on is a part of the thick continental crust.
Rocks in the continents are not as heavy as those in the layer
immediately below the crust (called the mantle). They we're probably
formed quite early in the life of the planet from mitten material that floated
on the surface, like scum on the top of a pan of simmering jam.
The earth has cooled down since then, but the continents still foot
around, rather like ice on the polar seas. Just as an iceberg descends far
below the surface, a high mountain range has deep roots.
Under the oceans, the oceanic crust is much thinner and younger than
the continental crust. It is still being formed continuously as molten rock
cozes up from the mantle through cracks in the ocean floor along midoceanic ridges.
The Creeping Mantle
Although the rock in the mantle is very hot, it stays solid because it is
under immense pressure from the earths interior. Being solid doesn't
necessarily mean hard and rigid. A lump of clay is solid, but you can mold it
in your hands. If you shape the lump into a ball and leave it on a table, it
gradually sags as the clay particles creep past each other under the force of
gravity.Mantle rocks behave in much the same way. The intense heat does
not melt the rock, but it softens is so that it creeps like a clay. The heat also
creates currents that circulate in the mantle. The hot molten rock rises
towards the cool, hard crust, where it glides along and sinks again as it cools.

The mantle rock is moving very slowly, at only a few centimeters a year. But
it is on the move.
The Earth's Core
Enclosed by the mantle is the earth's core. This center of the Earth is
made up of two parts-the outer core and the inner core. Both are made up
of a similar mixture of iron and nickel found in meteorites. Scientist knows
that the Earth has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. At its
very center, the temperature is about 8,000 degree C. The outer core is
1,360 miles (2,267 km) thick and the inner core has a radius of 790 miles
(1,317 km).

Nature of Magma and its Movement

Magma is the hot mother liquid of the igneous rocks. It contains a
slightly different mixture of chemicals from the solid mantle rock. It is
composed mainly of silicate and typically contains up to 11 percent steam
and other gases dissolved under pressure. The temperature of magma
ranges from 500 to 1,400 degrees C. Magma is originated from molten rocks.
Being lighter and more mobile than solid rock, magma tends to rise in
the crust of the Earth, forced by exceedingly great pressure. The magma
may simply be squeezed upward from the magma chambers. Expanding as it
reaches its position of lower pressure; the magma releases some of its gases.
As it moves, it drags the crust with it. Eventually the rocks snap and release
shocks that are felt as earthquake. When it arrives at depths shallow enough
for extensive cracks to exit, magma begins to move more rapidly. It emerges
as lava reaches the surface.
The movement of the Earths Crust
The earth's crust is a rocky skin formed of huge interlocking plates.
These plates are believed to be moving in different directions. Scientist
believed that these plates have broken up and similar plates have welded
together when they crashed into each other.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics

The theory of plate tectonics sees the continents as being carried

along on the top of slowly moving crustal plates. The movement of these
plates causes the continents to be where they are. It also gives rise to other
phenomenon. Where one plate pushes against another, for example, it
causes the surface to buckle and rise, forming mountains, these mountains
may contain volcanoes, made by molten rock welling up from below through
weakness in the crust. Where two plates slides past each other, they
sometimes jam and then suddenly free themselves. This sends shock waves
rippling through the crust, which we detect as earthquake. Plate movement
has been a major force in shaping the Earth's surface.
Currently, there are seven large plates that move from 2.5 to 5 inches
(6 to 13 cm.) a year. They are North American plate, the South American
plate, the Euro-asian plate, the African plate, the Pacific plate, the Antarctic
plate and the Indian-Australian plate. Five smaller plates also exist: The
Cocos plate, the Nazca plate (both of Central America), the Philippine plate
and the Iranian plate. These plates are made up of both land and sea. When
the land part moves, the ocean floor moves in the same direction.
When the mantle of the earth flows, it carries the solid crust on top, a
process known as Continental Drift. Early maps of the Americas revealed a
strikingly close match between the coast of the New World and those of the
Old World. Might these widely separated continents have once been joined?
The Theory of Continental DriftThe Theory of Continental Drift was not
universally accepted with the 1950's and 1960's when the volume of
evidence became so massive that it can no longer be ignored. According to
the theory of plate tectonics, the continents are moved around at rates of
one to ten centimeters a year.
The earliest ideas about continental drift had been based on the
similarity between the shapes of the continents of North and South America
and of Europe and Africa.

The Continents

Scientist realized that the face of the earth is always changing. Around
420 million years ago a space traveller from a distance planet would have
seen four continents. One would have been part of what is now part of Asia.
The fourth was made up of the southern continents, all joined together. This
southern continent is called Gondwanaland.
Plate movements gradually pushed the Northern American and
European plates together. The collision of the land masses crumpled the
rocks on the edge of the continents into a range of mountains. Fragments of
this range now include the northern Appalachians in North America, the
mountains of eastern Greenland, western Ireland and Scotland, and the
mountains of Norway and Sweden. This new landmass is called Euramerica.
The Break UP of PANGEA
Euramerica collided with Angara (now Asia) around 275 million years
ago and the Ural Mountains were pushed upwards between them. The three
plates were now joined forming one huge and area called Laurasia. Laurasia
and Gondwanaland were separated at first by the Ancient Tethys sea, but
soon Laurasia and Gondwanaland moved together to form a single landmass
called Pangaea.
In the last 180 million years, Pangaea has broken up and the moving
plates have carried the continents to their present positions, creating new
ocean basins between them. North America drifted westward and South
America broke off from Africa. India and Africa split apart and India drifted
northward toward Asia.
Plate movements still continue and scientists can now speculate as to
what the earth will look like some time in the future. Today's world map is,
therefore, just a snapshot of a moment in earth time.
Evidence for Continental Drift
Why are scientists now score that the continents move overtime? They have
collected much evidence supporting two related conclusions:
Continents now separated by wide oceans were once joined
Each continents location on earth's surface hanged
Fossil Evidence

Scientist knows that new kind of organism or species appears on the

earth only in one area and then spreads outward. Animals that swim and
plants with windblown seeds can spread across an ocean. Many other living
things, however, can only spread across the land.
Fossils' other evidence also shows that the continents moved over the
earth's surface. Antarctica now lies at the South Pole covered with ice. But
fossils found there show that it once supported vast green sweeps and
forests full of plant and animal life. This evidence suggests that Antarctica
was once much closer to the equator.
Rock Evidence
Geologist studying South America and Africa found many similarities in
the rocks and landscapes of the two continents. On both continents are fitted
together, the two mountain ranges line up. In addition, the mountains in
South America are made up of rocks similar in age and type to those in
Africa. Scientists hypothesize that the two mountain ranges were ones one.
They formed when Africa and South America were connected as part of
Gondwanaland.
Evidence from Ancient Glaciers
Glaciers are huge masses of ice that move slowly over land. During the
ice ages, glaciers spread outward from the Poles. Rocks found in parts of
South America, Africa, India and Australia all show evidence of glaciers at the
end of the end of Paleozoic Era. For these places to have glaciers, they had
to be closer to the South Pole.
The monument of glaciers could be explained, however, if Africa, South
America, India, Australia and Antarctica were all part of the same landmass
when the glaciers existed.
The Oceanic Crust
The outer skin of the earth is called the Lithosphere. It includes the
oceanic crust, the continental crust and the upper part of the mantle.
Oceanic crust is very different from continental crust. It is much thinner and
has formed almost entirely during the past 200 million years.

Most of the ocean floor is flat, it is dominated by two features: ridges and
trenches. The total mountain ridge is a mountain chain about 80,000 km.
long, with peaks 4,500 meters high.
The ocean ridges break the surface in places to form islands. Iceland is the
largest of these ridge islands. Away from the ridges are isolated volcanic
peaks known as sea mounts. Example of these sea mounts is the Hawaiian
chain.
The sea floor was continually spreading outward from the ocean ridges.
New ocean floor was calculated being created at the rate of a few
centimeters every year. This idea later became known as the "theory of sea
floor spreading" which was proposed by Harry Hess.
Hess also believed that the ocean crust was being destroyed as fast as being
formed. Around the edge of the oceans is a series of deep trenches. There is
one just west of Pacific Coast of South America, for example. The deepest of
these trenches is the Mariana Trench, which extends 11,033 meters down
near the Pacific Island of Guam.

References;

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Prepared by:
Rezeile Joy Erese BEEd III-B