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STEAM-BOILERS
THEIR THEORY AND DESIGN
STEAM-BOILERS
THEIR THEORY AND DESIGN
PARSONS, B.S.,
CONSULTING ENGINEER
H. DE B.
Member American
M.E.
Member American
;
Naval Arch, and Marine
and Professor of Steam Engineering,
Member
Soc.
Engineers ;
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
SECOND EDITION"
AND
93
FIFTH AVENUE,
00.
NEW YORK
1124379
Copyright, 1903,
BY
Copyright,
1905,
BY
First Edition.
December.
1903.
1005.
THIS
IS
WORK
DEDICATED TO
MY
WIFE.
PREFACE
this
be considered original.
These pages comprise, in book form, a
New York,
practical office
work
is
The only
original-
to be perplexing.
No
and
whom special
H. DE B. Parsons.
vu
this
book
Author has
of the cut
by the combustion
shows a
of a fuel
on a grate.
connected by piping.
The
The
H. DE B. Parsons.
vni
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
Physical Properties
Fluid Bodies.
CHAPTER
II
-OSXfBXJSTION
'
13
Definition.
Smoke.
Conditions.
General
Coal-gas.
Marsh
Air.
Temperatures of Ignition.
defiant Gas.
Gas.
Laws of
Avogadro. Requirements for Perfect Combustion. Products of
CHAPTER
III
Fuels
31
Coal.
Anthracite.
Classification.
bituminous.
Dry Bituminous.
ing Bituminous.
Lignite.
Semi-anthracite.
SemiLong-flam-
Bituminous Caking.
Culm. Weight
Size of Coal.
of Coal.
CHAPTER
IV
Reix
56
CONTENTS
PAGE
suits.
of
Practi-
cal Efficiencies.
CHAPTER V
Boilers and Steam Generators
General Conditions.
62
Horse-power.
Classification.
Centennial
Priming.
Space.
Water
Surface.
CHAPTER
^^
Chimney Draft
125
of
Gravitation,
CHAPTER
VII
Materials
138
Cast Iron.
Boiler-tubes.
Boiler Steel.
Wrought
Wrought
Steel
Iron.
Rivet Iron.
Steel.
U.
Rivets.
Affected by Temperature.
Muntz's Metal.
S.
Naval
Requirements for
Mild Steel
Cast Steel.
CHAPTER
Copper.
Brass.
Bronze.
VIII
Boiler Details
164
The
of
Shell.
Heads.
Flat
Surfaces.
Rules
for
Flat
Surfaces.
Flues.
Setting.
Bridge-wall.
Split Bridge.
CHAPTER IX
Boiler Fittings
Mountings and Gaskets.
Steam-dome.
Steam-drum.
Steamsuperheater.
Steam-chimney.
Steam-pipe.
Stop-valve.
Dry
Injectors and Pumps.
Pipe.
Boiler- feed.
Feed-water Heaters,
Purifiers, and Economizers.
Filters.
Mud-drums. Blow-off, Bot-
231
CONTENTS
XI
PAGB
SteamWater-gauge.
Trj-cocks.
Water-alarm.
Manhole and
gauge.
Down-draft Grate.
Handhole. Grates, Stationary and Shaking.
Fire-doors.
Ash-pit.
Breeching.
Uptake.
Smoke-connection.
torn
Safety-valve.
Steam-traps.
Draft-regulators.
Fusible Plug.
Evaporators.
Separators.
CHAPTER X
Mechanical Stokers
295
Classes, Overfeed
and Underfeed.
Advantages.
Disadvantages.
CHAPTER XI
Artificial Draft
300
Classification.
Advantages.
Disadvantages.
Selection DeBoiler Must be Suited to Draft.
pends on Local Conditions.
Closed Ash-pit.
Economy. Intensity.
Power Required.
Fans.
Induced Draft.
Closed Fire-room.
CHAPTER
XII
Incrustation
310
Fur.
Scurf.
Sludge.
Solid Matter in
Conductivity.
Scale.
Analysis of Scales.
Scale Prevention.
Blowing-ofif.
CHAPTER
General Wear and Tear.
Corrosion.
XIII
Explosions
319
Grooving.
Pitting and Honey-combing.
Wasting.
Galvanic Action.
Zinc Plates.
Influence of Air and Acidity.
ExCorrosion.
ternal Corrosion.
Dampness.
Idle Boilers.
Ex-
Stored Energy.
plosions.
CHAPTER XIV
C^iAixEY Design
Object.
chanical Draft.
Self-supporting
Stack.
pressure.
ning.
327
Batter.
Ladder.
Compare Cost
Selection of Height.
of
Brick Stacks.
Leakage.
Section.
Steel Stacks.
Lining.
Top.
WindLight-
CONTENTS
xii
CHAPTER XV
PAGB
Smoke Prevention
Losses Due to Smoke.
336
Smoke Ordinances.
Ringelmann's Smoke Scales.
Public Nuisance.
CHAPTER XVI
Testing.
Boiler Coverings.
Care of Boilers
345
APPENDIX A
Superheated Steam
361
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Frontispiece
Thermal-efficiexcy Diagram
5
The Absolute Zero
18
Combustion on Grate
38
Bagasse Furnace Stillman Type
39
Bagasse Furnace
Rockwell Fuel-oil Burner, operated by steam reduced to between
44
40 and 80 pounds
Lassoe-Lovekin Fuel-oil Burner (Patented), operated by air at 1^
44
pounds pressure
46
Steam Spray Atomiser for Fuel-oil Holden System
47
Oil-burning Locomotive. Heintzelman and Camp arrangement
71
End of a Plain Cylindrical Boiler
Horizontal Return-tubular Boiler, with extended or half-arch front 72
73
Horizontal Return-tubular Boiler. Front and section
74
Horizontal Return-tubular Boiler, with flush or full front
75
Horizontal Return-tubular Boiler. Front and section
76
Horizontal Return-tubular Boiler, with a link suspension
77
Horizontal Return-tubular Boiler. Section
81
Upright or Vertical Boiler
82
Upright or Vertical Boiler, with submerged tube-sheet
84
Manning Vertical Boiler
85
Manning Vertical Boiler. Sections
86
Flue and Return-tubular Boiler
87
Flue and Return-tubular Boiler. Front view and section
88
Flue and Return-tubular Boiler. Back view
89
Cornish Boiler
90
Cornish Boiler. Front view and section
91
Lancashire Boiler
92
Lancashire Boiler. Front view and section
rocker support
93
94
95
96
97
XIV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
100
101
102
103
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
112
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
128
155
172
173
173
173
174
174
174
175
175
176
190
190
190
191
192
w^ith
Fuel Oils
98
99
193
194
195
195
195
195
196
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
XV
?AOB
196
197
197
(Two
views.)
197, 198
201
of
Steam-dome
Steam-drum, Single Nozzle
Steam-drum, Double Nozzle
Steam-drum, Pipe Connection
Standard Nozzles of Cast-iron or Cast-steel
Angle Braces to Support Stop- valve
Reinforcing Steam-pipes
Slip-joint with Stuffing-box for Steam-pipe
Plain Flange for Copper Pipe
Collar Flange for Copper Pipe
Plain Flange with Sleeve for Copper Pipe
Collar Flange with Edge of Copper Pipe Turned Over
Flange for Iron of Steel Pipe
Flanges with Tongue and Groove
Flanges Cut aavay to Facilitate Calking Edges of Pipe
Flanges with Recess and Projection
Flanges with Faces Ground to Fit
Feed-pipe Entrance with Distributing End.
.
198
199
199
200
200
201
202
208
209
210
211
212
213
215
215
215
216
217
224
225
226
232
233
234
234
235
236
240
243
244
244
245
245
245
246
246
247
247
253
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
XVI
PAGE
Hot-well Filter-box
Hot-well Filter-box Details
Edmiston Type of Feed-water Filter
Rankine's Patent Feed-water Filter
Mud-drum
Surface Blow-off
Dead-weight Safety-valve, Coburn Type.
Various Forms of Fusible Plugs
Water-gauge and Try-cock Column
Glass Protector Guards for Glass Tube of Water-column
Combined High- and Low-water Alarm and Water-column
Manhole and Cover for a Flat Sheet
Manhole and Cover for a Cylindrical Shell
Split Bridge with Passage to Admit Air. (Two views.)
Cast-iron Grate-bar
Grate Bearer for Corrugated Furnace
Plan of Herring-bone Grate-bar
Shaking-grate
Section of Ashcroft Grate-bars
Grate for Burning Sawdust or Tan-bark
Down-draft Grate
Fire-door for Furnace Flue
MoRisoN Furnace-door and Furnace-front
Kieley Discharge Trap
BuNDY Return Trap
"Potter" Mesh Separator Longitudinal Section
"Potter " Mesh Separator Cross-section
Stratton Steam-separator
Salt-water Evaporator.
The Roney Mechanical Stoker
The American Mechanical Stoker
The Murphy Mechanical Stoker
The Murphy Mechanical Stoker. Section
Bloomsburg Jet in Stack
Ring Jet in Stack
Beggs' Argand Steam-blower
Beggs' Argand Steam-blower. Section
Beggs' Argand Blower, arranged for a furnace-flue
Induced Draft Ellis and Eaves' System
Brick Stack
254
255
259
261
262
263
264
265
266
266
267
268
269
272
274
275
276
278
278
279
280
282
282
283
283
284
284
287
288
289
290
291
291
292
293
295
296
297
298
302
303
304
305
306
308
331
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
xvii
PAGE
332
333
334
339
STEAM-BOILERS
CHAPTER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Laws
Fluid Bodies.
Solid Bodies.
Gas.
Heat.
of Gases.
Weight of Water.
Total Heat of Evaporation.
Specific Volumes of Steam. Factor of Evaporation.
There
are
two
principal states in
may
which
Fluids
all
may
again be divided
how
Relative and
Boiling.
will resist
may
a longi-
be, with-
a longitudinal pressure.
Liquid Bodies may be defined as those which
fill
may
only partly
be either empty
will
or contain
completely
fill
be introduced.
how
expand and
small a portion
may
indefinite expansion.
A Perfect
STEAM-BOILERS
Laws
of Gases.
First
Law
(Mariotte or Boyle):
"At constant
That
pressure."
Law
Second
pressure, the
is,
pv = constant.
volume
That
lute temperature."
is,
= constant X^-
many words,
"At constant
it is
nature
it
The temperature
substance
is.
relations
figure
elasticity of
as a
"mode
elas-
volume.
of motion,"
motion of the
and is genercomposing
particles
any body.
Heat is transferable from one body to another, that is, one body
can heat another by becoming less hot itself. This transfer of heat
between two bodies tends to bring them to a state called "uniform"
At uniform temperature this transfer
or "equal" temperature.
of heat ceases.
Heat
one
is
transferred from a
of three processes,
"Radiation."
Conduction
is
Convection
is
the
As the condition
of heat
of effecting changes, it
is
may
is
capable
be indirectly measured, so as to be
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
expressed as a quantity
measurable
When
is
effects
which
by means
subject, like
all
tions
to
is
it
of
produces.
it
all
of
These two variations were selected because they were abrupt and
well defined, and are
First. The temperature at which ice melts under one atmosphere of pressure, equivalent to 14.7 pounds per square inch or a
barometric height of 29.95 inches. As this temperature varies but
slightly with changes of pressure, it can be easily reproduced under
ordinary conditions.
Second.
The temperature
of
Occasional use
is
made
place at temperatures
points of certain
which take
Ordinary temperatures are recorded from the reading of a merthermometer.* For higher temperatures use is made of the
curial
The
relationship exist-
Count Rumford (1753-1814), Sir Humphry Davy (1778Carnot (1796-1832) and Henry A. Rowland (1848In 1842, Dr. Mayer, of Heilbronn, is said to have first intro1901).
duced the expression "Mechanical Equivalent of Heat," and in
the year following Dr. Joule, of Manchester, measured this equivaThe value placed by Joule was 772 foot-pounds of work as
lent.
known
as
1829), Sadi
This result
is still
in use,
is
the top of the mercurj-, the eye will be at right angles to the mercury
also to the scale.
and
STEAM-BOILERS
The
raise
a scale
may
When
is
water (32 F.) to the boihng-point (212 F.), that is, its temperature has been raised through 180 F., it will expand to 1.365 of its
Therefore, when the gas has been heated through
original volume.
493.2,
will
it
expand to twice
its original
volume.
If, therefore,
the same law holds true for cooling, and the temperature be lowered
493.2 from the freezing-point (32), the volume of the gas will be
reduced to zero.
so-called
The assumed
zero-point
is
is
Fahrenheit.
This
is
The
Specific
1.
is its
As
it is
its
temperature one
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Specific heats are not constant for solids
become greater
greater
will
liquids.
They
The
and
specific heat.
as temperature or density
is
493.2
461. ?'
VOLUMES OF
GAS
THERMOMETERS
Fig.
of
1.
The
Absolute Zero.
we may
of specific
constant volume.
When
a gas
is
STEAM-BOILERS
6
is
difference
is
the
amount
P(V2V^) = c(r^Tj).
is
The
(K^-c)(r,-rJ.
When
done.
less
in
is
The
ratio of
= (Kp-c)(T^-T^),
is
usually denoted
Table
K^ = Kp-c.
or
by
r.
in
Pounds
of
Atmosphere
at 32 F.
zt 00
62.425
64.090
57 500
0.0482
0.0807
0.0892
0.0056
0.0782
0.0502
0.0782
0.1227
62.367
Anhydrous ammonia
Air
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Gaseous steam
Note.
From
density
is
Authorities
Specific Heat.
Substance.
0.0764
0.0844
0.0053
0.0740
0.0740
0.1161
Constant
Volume.
Pressure.
1.000
0.504
0.393
0.508
0.1697
0.2375
0.1542
0.2175
2.4177
3.4090
0.1729
0.2438
0.370
0.480
0.1733
0.2426
0.1692
0.2169
the difference
is
Kp.
Kv.
Constant
its
maximum
it
may
be taken as constant.
Latent Heat. When a body changes its state a certain amount
This exchange of heat is
of heat is either taken in or given out.
necessary in order to effect such change of state, and under like
circumstances is always the same in amount. Thus, suppose a
given amount of water is at 60 F. with a normal barometric pressure.
its
temperature
has
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
become 212
At
F.
temperature
will continue to
will cease,
erate steam, which process will continue until all the water has
During the change of state each pound of water
been vaporized.
This disappearance of heat represents
will absorb 965.7 B. T. U.
work done on the particles composing the water as they are moved
farther away from each other against the molecular attraction.
Had the pressure been greater than one atmosphere, then the
water would not have boiled until the temperature had been raised
more than 212 F., and also less than 965.7 B. T. U. would have
been required per pound to effect the change of state. The boilingtemperatures and the heat absorbed to change the state are con-
Latent Heat
may
it
its
temperature.
of solids into
liquids.
The following
atmosphere of pressure.
variations of pressure.
Table
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
II
little
with
STEAM-BOILERS
Table
III
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Total Heat of Evaporation.
is
of evaporation
is
"
taken in
by a substance when
evaporated at
it is
raised from
and
is
then the
sum
of the sensible
latent heats.
in-
He
/i=1091.7+0.305{r-32}.
In this expression h denotes the total heat of one pound of water,
raised from the freezing-point to any temperature T F.
As in most cases the lower fixed temperature is above that of
melting ice, the total heat of evaporation will then be less than that
given by the formula, by the amount of heat contained between
32 F. and such initial temperature.
Without causing an error of any practical moment, small fracmay be neglected, and also the specific heat of water may be
tions
may
be simplified as follows
h^^
= 1092+ 0.3 T- 32 - T- 32
1
The weight
of one
any temperature,
2X62.425
500"^
r denoting
500'
STEAM-BOILERS
10
Boiling.
On
increases until
it
The water
will con-
remain constant.
When sufficient latent heat has been absorbed in order to effect a
change of state, the water will begin to boil. The temperature of
the boiling-point increases with the pressure, but is always continue to absorb heat, although
stant for
its
its
temperature
will
corresponding pressure.
boil
and bubbles
violent in steam-boilers,
of
steam
rise so rapidly as
This action
steam.
and
called "priming,"
is
it
beyond
their capacity.
It is also
greasy water.
The
vessels
action of boiling
is
resisted
when made
of materials
not continuous.
In
Ebullition, therefore,
many have
some
for salt
water
is
illustrate
pressure.
The
is
226 F.
For each
^^^
what
is
it
It is usual to
varies
some-
speak of the
often expressed as so
When
many
is
salt,
or nearly
The strength
-^f
little
should be tested at
water into a pail, and
of
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
water and scratch a mark for the zero-point. Then place in saturated brine and mark again. Divide the space between the marks
into ten equal divisions, and each wall represent approximately
-^j of salt.
The volume
of
any
and volumes.
any fuel as a heat-gen-
Factor of Evaporation.
erating agent
it will
is
The value
of
of the feed-
it
is
fuel.
In order to
make
all results
com-
To
12
STEAM-BOILEllS
multiplier
is
called the
"factor of evaporation."
Factor of Evaporation
in
which
7^1
convenient
is:
-^H
9dd
^,
of the feed-water.
Table IV
ABSOLUTE PRESSURES, BOILING-POINTS AND FACIORS OF EVAPORATION
Pressures,
Absolute,
per
Square Inch.
CHAPTER
II
COMBUSTION
Definition.
Smoke. Coal-Gas. Marsh-Gas. deTemperatures of Ignition. Laws of Avogadro. Requirements for Perfect Combustion. Products of Combustion. Composition of
Gases from Combustion. Refuse. Loss of Unbumed Coal in Ash-pit. Quan-
General Conditions.
fiant Gas.
Air.
Methods
of Firing.
Thickness of Fire.
Heat
of
Com-
bustion.
As
By combustion
union
is
It is
is
in general this
productive of heat.
combustion.
The
The
commonly
Carbon dioxide
is
known
as carbon anhydride,
and frequently,
STEAM-BOILERS
14
is
to burn.
If
absent,
as in
available.
that case
It is
due to
all
this
becomes a
total loss
latent heat
will explain
why
is
when
less-
is
the furnace.
If all
If all
must be an excess
the carbon
is
the carbon
burned
through
is
of air passing
COMBUSTION
What
of draft.
mixed
is
desired
is
15
much
is
all
the bituminous
fire
it is
it
practically
flies
to the
Of
all
poses, the
reason
is
is
The
Many smoke-consuming
as
follows:
first,
verj' careful
be misleading.
and the
like,
second,
much
is
the
value on
STEAM-BOILERS
16
combustion
and
third,
its
anthracites.
Coal-gas, taken
by
itself, is
sume
In order to con-
the supply of
air.
Therefore
it
is
amount
essential,
of air
when
be admitted in addition
On
of air,
Much depends upon the design, especially with soft coals, for
the requisite quantity may be supplied in a manner as not to be
available; that is, the particles of oxygen may not come into contact with particles of carbon.
fuel
may
In short, the
air
and
particles of
Coal-gas
is
composed
of
COMBUSTION
17
23 parts by weight
Nitrogen
77
"
"
Oxygen
21
Nitrogen
79
"
a
" volume
u
or
As the gases are driven off from the coal, due to the absorption
become mixed with the entering air. The
result is that the hydrogen separates from the carbon and unites
with the oxygen, forming water, or, more correctly speaking, vapor
The now free carbon also unites with oxygen in the
of water.
formation of carbon dioxide (COj). Both of these combinations
are productive of heat, thus making the process continuous.
After the hydrocarbon element has been separated in the form
of gas, the coal remaining on the grate is composed chiefly of soHd
carbon. This is consumed by uniting with the oxygen in the air
which passes up between the grate-bars. The union of the carbon
with the oxygen may be in two proportions, forming bodies having;
of latent heat, they
two atoms
result is
of
carbon dioxide.
atom
of oxygen,
If,
half burned.
STEAM-BOILERS
18
of
Should there
still
be lacking
where the
air
is
continually happening
The
its
air entering
Fig.
2.
^^
#s.
Combustion
is
"
on Grate.
is
also lost
an
oxygen to complete
This illustrates
its
why
combustion.
there always should be an excess of air
above the grate or back of the bridge wall. Furfire should be only sufficient to cover the
Thin
grate properly and prevent too much air from passing.
fires have the disadvantage of burning through in spots, and are
not liked by the firemen, who are thus compelled to maintain a
some
air supplied
close watch.
fire,
and
intervals.
COMBUSTION
There
that
it
is
19
will inflame at
its
is
neys,
is still
is
The temperatures
at
which some
and chemical
thrown on a fire
of the physical
is
bed of coals
the room).
As soon
as
it
it
begins to heat
by conof
com-
(c) The heating of the coal causes the volatile matter to distil off.
The amount distilled at any given temperature is unkno^vn, but it is
certain that traces of volatile combustible matters are given off as low
ignition
9.
R.
S.
Hale's Report
20
STEAM-BOILERS
(h) At about 1000 C. or 1832 F. any carbon dioxide not previouslyburned to carbonic oxide begins to dissociate to carbonic oxide and
oxygen.
(i) The various hydrocarbons which begin to be distilled at 110 C,
and possibly lower, undergo many changes, dissociations and breakings
it is
passes through.
Its actual
The temperatures
gas at 650 C.
The
results
of
amount
With the
and
of
CO mixed
with
CO and O elevated
with the CII4 there was a lag in the ignition, time being required
to ignite the gas after
it
brief
of ignition.
COMBUSTION
21
all gases contain under similar conand pressure the same number of mole-
cules."
"The molecules of compound bodies in the gaseous state,
with but few exceptions, occupy twice the volume of an atom of
hydrogen."
From
it.
volume of CO is equal to
That is, when a particle of
carbon burns into COj and then meets another particle of carbon,
the volume of the monoxide formed will be t^vice the volume of
This fact accounts for the loss in available
if
while equally
filling
The requirements
air,
in almost
any
some idea
ratio.
ity of George H. Barrus, the last one being the products from Poca-
STEAM-BOILERS
22
by means of a pressure-bottle, such as is used in a chemical laboand a graduated burette. The sample is then forced in
ratory,
and caustic potash, and cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid, which will absorb respectively the carbon dioxide, the
The loss of volume at each
oxygen and the carbon monoxide.
operation is measured in the burette.
From a gas analysis, the air-supply to the furnace can be
closely calculated, as will be shown later.
The Refuse from a fuel is that portion which falls into the ashpit and that carried off by the draft, consisting of ashes, unburnt
or partially burnt fuel and cinders.
The following is from a report of R. S. Hale, Steam Users' Assoacid
gallic
The amount
many
of loss
factors that
it is
No. 9:
by unburned
impracticable to express
it
depends on so
by any formula.
The
"(a)
loss
by unburned
The
"(b)
size of
loss
"(c)
The
loss is
The
loss
coal.
"(d)
"(e)*
"(/)*
cially
"When
taking the difference between the amount of refuse shown by the boiler
the coal
is
not
of earthy
sufficient, for
* Report of Coal
Waste Conimission,
COMBUSTION
23
Table V
LOSS BY
UNHURNED COAL
IN ASH-PIT
Per Cent
Remarks
Authority.
Per Cent
Combus-
Refuse.
tible in
Per Cent in
Total Coal.
Refuse.
Other
tests
((
((
It
"
"
II
(I
II
II
ti
10.05
23.70
18.68
11.92
13.35
14.31
16.10
10.30
9.20
18.50
13.61
18.70
31.0
25.0
25.0
37.2
31.3
29.3
67.8
67.2
4.3
3.6
4.0
3.8
2.9
5.4
9.2
12.6
8.10
10.30
40.00
14.00
26.0
30.0
83.0
51.4
2.1
3.1
33.2
7.2
4.8
50.0
2.4
2.2
2.7
U
a
Pittsburg coal..
II
<i
The quantity
Coal-dust
may
be determined as follows
Carburetted Hydrogen
Before Combustion.
Marsh-gas CH,.
STEAM-BOILERS
24
Bl-CARBXJRETTED
HyDROGEN
OlEFIANT GaS
Before Combustion.
Atoms.
Weight.
Air
After Combustion.
Weight.
Carbon
Carbon
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
CjH, 28
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen
417+
445+
445+
diagram
this
44
Carbonic Acid
44
Carbonic Acid
18
Water
18
Water
23 Nitrogen
From
CjH^.
445+
it will
weight of olefiant gas, 417+ parts of air are required for complete
combustion; or for one pound of olefiant gas 14.9 pounds of air
are required.
pound
If
the combus-
of carbon will
have to be
sufficient to
0.23
2.67
x=
~=
fi7
parts oxygen.
pound
of carbon will
require
0.23
1.33
a;
1.33
= p-^
= 5.78 lbs.
of air.
Bum One Pound of Hydrogen. When hydroforms a union with oxygen, the product of which
Air Required to
gen
is
is
burned
water.
it
The
COMBUSTION
25
0.23
x=
= 34.78 lbs.
of air.
The Volume
1 1. 61
By
combustion of hydrogen
is
The
any
is
is
feet per
pound.
fuel
Let C,
Tr=11.61C+34.78fH-^Vor
{--!)
TF = 12C + 35 (
H - 5 Y nearly
7=152.56C+457.04(H-^\
F = 153C-H 457 (h - ^)
The value
of
W per pound
is
and
or
nearly.
26
STEAM-BOILERS
Experience dictates that
theoretically required.
for
ordinary-
be
admitted,
or
mechanical drafts
effects
ably reduced.
The volume
of air-supply per
pound
is
by an example.
Take the gas analysis, marked average, in a previous paragraph, and consider the percentages of volume as cubic feet in one
hundred of gas. The weights can be determined from the den-
is
best illustrated
sities
given in Table
I.
Vols.
"
"
Weights.
Density.
12.0X0.1227 = 1.47240
7.5X0.0892 = 0.66900
0.1X0.0782 = 0.00782
ForCO^
CO
f X 0.00782 = 0.00446
f X 0.00782 = 0.00335
0.66900
Pounds
of oxygen,
1.74430
Pounds
of carbon,
'
74430
is
0.40491
=4.30
lbs.
Again, since air contains 0.23 parts of oxygen, the air per pound
4.30
of
carbon
is
-r^ = 18.7
lbs.
all
is
amount necessary
charged
by the
87%, hydro-
27
COMBUSTION
gen 2%, oxygen
3%
Then the
air in
pounds sup-
For carbon
35(o.02-^\ =
^ydrogen
= 16.84 lbs.
The
theoretical
amount
of air for
TF=12X0.87+35(0.02-^j
0.57
=11.01
lbs.,
sur-
alternate method.
It
may
method
is
This latter
(c)
on
and pushing back the coked
the new charge. This method is only advanconsists of charging the fresh coal
make room
when the
tageous
fire.
for
fire,
It is of little or
It is also a difficult
make it effective.
Much depends on
eral the spreading
method
is
In
STEAM-BOILERS
28
vals.
The Thickness
Fine
sixteen inches.
calls for
steam.
fire
thin
advantage.
When
is
thus
all
it
is
very
to best
difficult,
unless complicated
coal.
all
of the
common
Steam
9.
COMBUSTION
That
it is
29
get better results from these devices than can ordinary firemen on
ordinary grates.
of
in British heat-units:
Table VI
TOTAL HEATS OP COMBUSTION
Hydrogen gas
Carbon to carbon dioxide
Carbon to carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
62,032
14,500
4,400
4,330
21,344
Olefiant gas
weight
from
19,000
Liquid hydrocarbons vary in proportion to
to 22,600
13,500
Charcoal, wood
11,600
peat
average
7,S00
Wood, dry
"
20% moisture
6,500
average
9,950
Peat, dry
"
25% moisture
7,000
about 15,0{X)
Coal, anthracite, best qualities
"
ordinarj'
13,000
"
"
bituminous, dry
14,000
"
"
cannel
15,000
"
"
ordinary poor grades
10,000
fuel, less
stituents.
and Silbermann,
MM. Favre
as follows:
(-1).
which C, H and O represent the proportions by weight of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen contained in the fuel. One-eighth of
in
STEAM BOILERS
30
when
of heat.
is
-^ j + 4000S,
in
gen, oxygen
is
CHAPTER
III
FUELS
Anthracite.
Semi-anthracite.
Semi-bituminous.
Classification.
Coal.
Dry Bituminous. Bituminous Caking. Long-flaming BituBituminous.
Ciilm.
Weight of Coal. Peat or Turf.
Size of Coal.
Lignite.
minous.
Miscellaneous Fuels.
Sawdust.
Straw.
Wood. Coke and Charcoal.
Chemical Composition of Coals.
Protection from Weather.
Bagasse.
Liquid Fuels.
Gaseous Fuels.
Every form
and
of fuel
is
conditions, whether
it
be in a
solid, a liquid or a
gaseous state.
In making his selection, the engineer must choose the one best
adapted to the work in hand, taking into consideration all the circumstances that may affect its use. The selection is often dependent on the ease or difficulty with which it can be procured, as
The cost frequently prevents the best fuel from
well as its cost.
being used; for, although less may be required, still the price may
forests.
Although coal has undergone a comfrom its original state, its chemical composition often
altered.
However, coal is sometimes found so mixed with
product of ancient
plete change
is little
When
its
value as a fuel
is
is
entirely lost.
resolved into
its
various
sili-
STEAM-BOILERS
32
It is difficult,
name and
if
by
under proper headings or subdivisions, since they are found in all forms intermediate between
that of recent vegetable growth to that of the perfectly mineralized
to classify
all
varieties
state.
The
classification of
M. L. Gruner
is
as follows *
:
Proportion of
Coke or Char-
Name
of Fuel.
Anthracite coals
Bituminous coals
Lignite or
Peat and
Wood
brown
coals
fossil fuel
(cellulose
Pure cellulose
coal Yielded
by the DryPure Fuel.
.90 to .92
.50 to .90
40 to .50
.35 to .40
30 to 35
.28 to .30
.
Kind
of Fuel.
FUELS
pies split
able loss
by
when
33
amount
According to
to nearly double.
over sixteen per cent, the coarser sizes giving the least amount.
Semi-anthracite.
This
is
anthracite,
is less
Semi-bitumiiious.
It burns
coal.
is
This
still freer,
is
It is less
amorphous and
its
tendency to
soil
freely.
the hands,
contains
more
volatile hydrocarbon,
and
Bituminous.
very valuable
care to prevent
ver}^
high
The
This grade
varieties.
is
calorific
class
is
Dry Bituminous.
1.25
(c)
Long-flaming Bituminous.
This coal
is
similar in
many
and more
hydrogen. It is free-burning with a long yellowish flame, and has
a strong tendency to cake or form clinkers.
STEAM-BOILERS
34
This variety
Lignite.
account of
its color.
logical formations,
vari3S
from 1.10 to
est percentage of
freely,
and
is
and
It is
is
is
earthy matters.
therefore
It kindles
consumed
amount
rapidly.
it is
woody;
and even when
Its structure is
of water,
but
is
Size
of Coal.
The trade
its
owing to
evaporating power,
its
cheap
cost.
by
certain
names, which refer to the dimensions of the lumps or pieces and not
to the grade.
As the bituminous
known only
as ''run of
List
oi'
Trade Name.
Run
of
mine
Lump
Furnace lump
Steamboat lump
Broken or grate
EgS
Large stove or stove No. I
Small stove, stove No. 2, or range
Cliestnut
Pea or nut
Culm
1.
35
FUELS
Culm.
This
is
the
name given
It is
is
'used
on which there
is
the usual
fire,
for the
For best
results the
culm should be
first
Table VII
WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT OF VARIOUS COALS *
Weight per
Cubic Foot,
Pounds.
Lehigh lump
"
cupola.
55.26
55.52
56.85
57.74
58.15
58.26
53.18
54.04
57.25
56.07
56.33
56.88
46.48
47.22
26.30
49.30
43.85
48.07
49.18
'^
broken.
"
egg.. .. ...
"
stove
"
nut
"
pea
"
buckwheat.
"
dust
Free-burning egg.
"
stove
"
nut.
.
Pittsburg
Illinois
Comellsville coke.
Hocking
Indiana block
Erie
Ohio canal
When Buying
gestions
(a)
Coals
it is
well to
Cubic Feet
per Ton,
2000 Pounds.
36.19
36.02
35.18
34.63
34.39
34.32
37.60
37.01
34.93
35.67
35.50
35.16
43.03
42.35
76.04
40.56
45.61
41.61
40.66
* Extract
November,
from bulletin
1897.
of .Anthracite
of combustible of the
com-
STEAM-BOILERS
36
bustible portion
is
calorific
(6)
to increase
by
about 1^ per cent for each size of coal, as it becomes smaller, but
the price often diminishes in a greater ratio.
(c)
The amount
of refuse
is
always
much
With
(d)
cracks,
it will split
by the
(e)
with whitish films or rusty stains as being indications of the presence of sulphur and pyrites.
Peat or Turf.
and
places,
This fuel
consists of the
It contains large
matters.
is
woody
In some
com-
is
it
3 to 12 per cent,
nary
Its
size.
mercial use
air-dried
when
localities it
and has a
state.
Wood.
freshly cut
This fuel
it
on the kind.
is
When
When
dried
it
it
will still
age 50 per cent of carbon and 50 per cent of oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
specific gravity varies from about 0.3 to 1.2, and the amount
The
of ash
readily,
while
cent.
The
lighter varieties
longest.
37
FUELS
equal to 0.4 that of average soft coal of same weight; that
is, 2^
pounds of wood are equivalent to one pound of coal.
Coke and Charcoal. These fuels are made by evaporating the
They both
volatile constituents from coal and wood respectively.
give a very hot fire, but on account of expense are not used commercially for steam-making.
Miscellaneous Fuels. Sawdust, Straw, Bagasse. Sawdust is
a favorite fuel in sawnnills and in their vicinit}', as when allowed
It absorbs
to collect it becomes a source of danger from fire.
moisture very quickly, more so than the wood from which it was
produced, on account of its increased surface. It has the same
heating power as the original wood. It requires a large supply
of air to properly consume it, and therefore the furnace and combustion-chamber should be given liberal proportions.
Straw as a fuel is only used when it becomes the cheapest
method to get rid of it. It has a heating power varying from about
5000 to 6000 heat-units per pound. Its combustion is not unUke
that of
wood
shavings.
Bagasse or megass
the sugar-plantations.
is
refuse sugar-cane
Owing
As
to the
it
and
woody
is
used as a fuel on
fibre,
amount
of heat.
Woody
fibre
Single-
Double-
crushed,
crushed.
37%
45%
Sugar
10
-9
Water
53
46
is
pounds
two
sets of boilers.
is
shown
in Fig.
4.
STEAM-BOILERS
38
FfG.
3.
FUELS
39
40
STEAM-BOILERS
Protection from Weather. All the solid fuels should be properlyhoused from the weather. When exposed they absorb moisture
in greater or less amounts, the evaporation of which causes a loss.
All the coals, but especially the bituminous grades, undergo a
waste when exposed, due to a slow absorption of oxygen from
the atmosphere, which reduces their heating power. The saving
by proper housing may be more than offset by the interest on the
cost of a building.
when
compounds
of sulphur
Such
This applies
Owing
to house
it
for fuel
is,
purposes.
The wood
is
and
assist in drying.
rain,
and
all
nature of a roofing.
large, so as to
by
work
It is
its
sufficiently
for
imme-
turn.
made to
"Handbook for Mechanical Enanalyses of many different kinds of
Kent's
The
For
details
of
is:
FUELS
For the purpose of
follows
Kind
of Fuel.
illustration,
41
STEAM-BOILERS
42
=
=
377.8
carbon, 14,600X0.9105
13,293.3
14,205.8
1X14,600X0.0345
iX 62,000X0. 0345
The heat-units due
534.7
combustion of
the
to
always be stated by
ash.
The percentage
but not
When
moisture
is
is
= Percentage
of moisture divided
by
100, multipUed
by
{(212-7'a)+966+0.48(7V-212)|.
In which ? denotes temperature of
air in boiler-room;
"
"
of furnace-gases;
Tf
966 equals latent heat of evaporation of water;
0.48
equals
specific
heat
of
steam
under
constant
pressure.
The
potash, alumina, lime, magnesia, soda, barium, phosphorus in phosphates, sulphur in sulphates, etc.
Liquid Fuels.
oils,
The
and
their use
No doubt
less difficulty in
they
obtaining
Other
oil fuels
are blast-furnace
shale
oil,
creosote, green
"
FUELS
'
43
oil is
tion-chamber
of air
is
which
b}^
means
assists in the
of a nozzle.
fire-box or
combus-
No
grate
is
fit
any time
in case
The flames from the nozzles may be introduced into the furnace
in horizontal, diagonal or vertical directions, as
The
all
injector-nozzles are
made
may
be required.
The
steam.
blast
The
may
latter
method
is
air or
The
first boiler
using coal, or
object sought
the
oil.
is
to blow the
its
resembles the burning of a gas. Fig. 5 shows a fuel-oil burner operated by a steam-jot, and Fig. 6 one operated by an air-blast.
The direction of the blast should be such as to prevent the flame
from impinging directly on the furnace-plates, and for this reason
it is
The
is
easily controlled
Nearly
all
by
regulating
oil.
oil
The
oil
blast
may
may
ac-
enter
enter at the
>.o
45
FUELS
and the
blast
is little if
centre.
The
boilers at the
crude Ohio
oil
oil,
Fig. 7.
Ihe
oil
46
STEAM-BOILERS
<
FUELS
s^
47
48
STEAM-BOILERS
The
pound
results
of oil
"
"
"
"
"
"
were
fire is
coal
kept on
the grate, and to assist in keeping the grate properly covered with
a very thin
work
fire
lumps
whole of the
supporting combus-
first
door, which
is
kept open and fitted with an internal deflector just as when coal alone
being burnt.
It is
The arrangement was next applied to three boilers of the locomotive type at Stratford, and on these its performances have
been very satisfactory. The boilers are worked at 80 pounds
pressure, and the comparative results of a week's working with
coal only, and with coal and liquid fuel in combination, have been
as follows: With coal (Staveley) only, the consumption for 63^
hours' work, including lighting up, was 156 cwt., or 275.1 pounds
per hour. With the coal and oil in combination there were used
in 60^ hours' work (including lighting up) 55 cwt. Staveley coal
and 546 gallons of green oil, or an average of 101.8 pounds of coal
and 9 gallons of oil per hour. With coal only, the evaporation
was at the rate of 7.16 pounds of water per pound of coal, while
with the coal and oil it was 8.91 pounds per pound of the combined
fuel.
"With
more
easily
it
is
is
kept up
able qualities."
Pacific
Camp
FUELS
49
flow
by gravity
warm
the
in a heater before
oil
connection also
is
it
oil in
steam
coal fire
is
furnace.
was used as a
oil
Fair, 1894-95.
fuel at the
(Engineering,
surrounded this
all
the
jets.
of
than steam
is
has
l)ceii
is
very
STEAM-BOILERS
60
tem
is
That the
greatest danger of
short time.
way
into the
an explosion
may
result,
is
no
risk,
Heat -balance.
oil fuels
51
FUELS
1.
coal
is
The combustion
smoke or
is
whereas that of
no
lost heat in
soot.
pressure.
3.
The
clean,
and
Table VIII
COMPOSITION OF FUEL-OILS
STEAM-BOILERS
52
The
not appear to
As a
difference in efficiency.
any time
an easy matter.
is
its
the
The
flue.
by
The
loss
oil.
coil
friction
it.
flow to the nozzles, but should be lower than the burners to prevent
by the suction
The
oil
is
generally
pumped
to positively
The
where
it is
if
cheap
oil
much
In locahties
its
it
a marked value.
When compared
which
oil
its
oil;
so that at
Good fuel-
cleanhness.
illustration
of fuel-oil,
assume
pounds
6.8
$0. 94
Then,
The
cost of 2000
pounds
of fuel-oil
would be
$6. 58
FUELS
53
when the
is
$3.29 per
This should include the cost of removal of ashes from the coal.
ton.
The advantages
Reduction in number
1.
of firemen in proportion of 5 or 6 to
1.
stated as:
fire
storage-tanks.
2.
3.
The unpleasant
odor.
Gaseous Fuels.
These fuels have practically the same advantages and disadvantages as the liquid fuels, and like them afford a
clean fire-room.
In some special cases gas is purposely made for
use as a fuel, but the general introduction of artificial gas for steamgenerating is prohibited by its cost.
The waste gases from some metallurgical operations are used for
heating steam-boilers. The gases are simply conveyed in a large
pipe or flue, while at high temperature, beneath the battery of boilers, and there supplied with the requisite air to complete the com_
bustion.
The natural
fuels,
and
gases are
in the localities
From whatever
and
ignited.
usually
is
is
Some
to insure
may
is
with
oil,
the grate
greatly assist in
If
may
as
it
fire-bricks,
cases of emergency.
which
will
made
fire is
to coal in
maintained on
STEAM-BOILERS
54
it
become extinguished
accidentally.
The gas
in the
supply-main
is
high pressure
plosions,
is
it is
When
the gas-
is
generally required
by
the. fire
insurance companies.
It
has been found that one fireman can attend to boilers furnish-
ing 200 H.P. with coal as a fuel; while with gas-firing one
is
man
can
about 7^ to
in large plants.
The heating powers of the gaseous fuels vary through wide limits.
About 26,000 feet of natural gas or 100,000 feet of lean producergas are equivalent to one ton of good average coal.
The
Table IX
COMPOSITION OF FUEL-GASES
FUELS
Table
55
Kind of Gas.
Cost of
1,000,000
Heat-units
Obtained
in Fur-
25% Loss.
Natural gas
750,000
1,000,000
Coal-gas, 20 candle-power
675,000 506,250 $1.25
Carburetted water-gas
1.00
646,000 484,500
Gasoline-gas, 20 candle-power
0.90
690,000 517,500
Water-gas from coke
0.40
313,000 234,750
Water-gas from bituminous coal .... 377,000 282,750
0.45
Water-gas and producer-gas mixed
0.20
185,000
138,750
Producer-gas
0.15
150,000
112,500
Naphtha-gas, fuel 2^ gals, per 1000 ft
0.15
306,365 229,774
C!oal $4 per ton, per 1,000,000 heat-units utilized
Crude petroleum, 3 cents per gallon, per 1,000,000 heat-units
.
$2.46
2.06
1.73
1.70
1.59
1.44
1.33
0.65
0.73
0.73
CHAPTER
IV
in a boiler-furnace depends
and rate
amount
on many-
of air sup-
of combustion.
color.
must always be approximate, as so much depends on the eye of the observer and the darkness in which the
bright object is viewed. The temperatures, as indicated by color,
The
color test
960 F.
Faint red
Bright red
1300
Faint cherry
1500
Bright cherry
1600
2000
Dull orange
White heat
2200
2400
DazzUng white
Bright orange
Professor
WxKpXTf=h;
therefore
r/=
11^^^p
56
W denotes
57
Kp denotes
of fuel;
of one
The values
of
Carbonic acid
0.
Steam
0.
217
480
0. 244
Nitrogen
Air
0.
237
200
Average value .... 0. 237
Ashes, probably.
0.
With no
excess of air
13,000
One pound
Note.
13X0.237
of fuel plu^ 12
pounds
of air eqvxiis 13
pounds
of products of combustion.
With
of air in excess
which
may not
and
if it
in-
be correspondingly reduced.
Such high temperatures as indicated above are not reached in
practice, since the combustion is not instantaneous, is not all completed in the furnace as the flame and gases carry for
and
is
some
distance,
STEAM-BOILERS
58
in three
up the stack with the waste gases, thus supporting the draft;
and that lost by radiation. From a well-designed boiler, properly
ing
set,
The heat
cent.
is
an
artificial
but
is
is
less
than 5 per
necessarily lost
be provided.
draft
up the stack
carried
away
in
The percentage
furnace,
may
is,
be determined thus:
rj.^
^jj,^
For one-half
= 87.1%
air in excess,
/i
These
results
of furnace heat.
= 81.2%
?",
^.
of furnace heat.
= 75.3%
2194 + 60 = 2254:
of furnace I.eat.
(1)
to have
some excess
of air in order to
burn perfectly
it is
all
necessary
the carbon
and hydrogen;
of the
59
order to burn the fuel; and (3) the heat utilized increases as the
temperature of the air admitted increases, so that it will be beneficial
to heat the air before admission if it can be done without robbing
Economies
of
by heating the
air-supph^ before
this heating
is
often done
by passing
which is not required in such cases for the maintenance of the draft.
For the same reason, boilers show a slightly better rate of evaporation in summer than in winter.
Some engineers have taken the
air-supply from the engine-room, which utilizes part of the heat
lost by radiation as well as assisting the ventilation.
If no losses occurred and all the heat were available for evaporation,
coal,
complete combustion.
is
coal burned
= 1091.7+ 0.305
The evaporation,
ditions
then, of one
pound
of coal
= 1113.8.
would be:
is
manner are greater than would occur in pracsome moisture present. Furthermore, it is
tures as
may
60
STEAM-BOILERS
Multiply this result by the factor of evaporation to find the
The
1.153.
The following
actions
Am.
Soc.
are the result of three tests, the first from TransM. E. 1891, page 990, and the others from the
author's note-book:
1.
2.
3.
Type of boiler
Return tubular
Average steam-pressure
90 pounds
147 to 150 F.
Feed-water temperature
Evaporation from and at 212, with
pea coal
9.9 pounds
Evaporation from and at 212, with
anthracite lumps
10.2 pounds
Type of boiler
Return tubular
Average steam-pressure
34.7 pounds
52.5 F.
Feed-water temperature
Coal
Cross Creek anthracite
Evaporation from and at 212
7.8 pounds
Type of boiler
Return tubular with superheater
Evaporation from and at 212
8.5, 9.4, 8.9 pounds under varying conditions
"
is
By combustible "
sumed on the
The
grate.
is
fuel, or
It is the difference
is
is,
of less
61
but such low results are rather exceptional, being traceable to small-
from 50 per cent to 70 per cent may be confrom 70 per cent to 75 per cent as good; and
The
operation,
n/
nn
Heat
of
combustion of
pound
of
dry fuel
The above result is really the efficiency of the boiler and grate.
The efficiency of the boiler, without the effect of the grate, in
per cent
is:
Heat
of
combustion
no
of the combustible
Heat
of
combustion
of
pound
of combustible
XIOO.
This latter result omits from consideration the fuel lost through
the grate in an unburned condition, and should be the one used
as the standard of comparison for boiler trials.
bustible"
is
here used to
mean
it
many
differ-
CHAPTER V
BOILERS AND STEAM-GENERATORS
General Conditions. Classification. Horse-power. Centennial Standard.
Heating Surface. Ratio of Heating to Grate
Soc. M. E. Standard.
Evaporation per Square Foot of Heating Surface. Design. DeSurface.
Am.
Duty.
Steam-space.
The
vessels in which water is heated and converted into steam.
term " boiler " is generic, but when used in its restricted sense it
which are more properly " metallic vessels "
considerable mass of water in relation to the
other hand, "steam-generator" is the term
that class in which the mass of water is relacapacity, and confined principally by tubes
in
which there
capacity.
made
On
is
the
applicable to
and parts
of small dimensions.
every plant,
efficient.
it is
The
62
63
water in the
and
boiler,
at the
for the gases to reach every portion of the heating surface, care
The history of the steam-boiler shows that the gradual development has been in the direction of increase of heating surface, reducFuture improvement no
tion in weight and higher pressures.
doubt
It
some
is
of boiler,
conditions.
Externally fired or
Internally fired.
is
is
external
to the boiler proper, as, for example, the plain cylindrical boiler or
less difficult to
fire is internal,
Water Tubular.
The
distinctive feature
tubes or
on the
flues.
If
is
is
If
the water be in the tube with the hot gases on the outside, then
the boiler
As
is
water-tubular.
before, these
known
as
classes.
64
STEAM-BOILERS
Strictly speaking a horse-power
son.
and
its
is
a boiler does not perform work in the sense of " overcoming of resistance through space."
The term has become so general, however,
that
it
must be
other.
''boiler
It is to
misinterpreted.
steam.
The
boiler, as so
may
and one-half or
surface
one
like.
While ten to
little
idea of the
of surface, rate of
fifteen
com-
fifteen
is
it
must
on
often developed
boiler horse-power.
of Mechanical Engineers'
pounds
standard
is
boiler
fires,
is
located, fired
by an
economy and, further, that the boiler should develop at least onemore than its rated power when using the same fuel and
operated by the same fireman, the full draft being employed and the
;
third
being crowded; the available draft at the damper, unless otherwise understood, being not less than ^ inch water column.
Heating Surface. Boiler-makers generally measure up the heatfires
all
tubes and
flues, as
the result
is
when the
question which
is
fire
It is a
Many
65
it is
mooted
argue that
technically
result in outside
not effectively equal to the inside area when the surface of the
It may be asked what is its heat-transmitting
ribs is included.
is
not effective.
If
For corrugated
off from the shell, then the full area may be taken.
furnaces,
use
the
area
due
suspension
to the mean
Morison
and
diameter and add 14^ and 9y\ per cent for additional surface
For the Purves ribbed furnace use the outside
respectively.
diameter of
flat
many
engineers
66
STEAM-BOILERS
them altogether and
on the extreme
between this method and that of
computing the area of tube-sheets between tubes plus the area of
tubes figured on their length between tube-sheets is nearly the same,
the author favors the latter method as being the more uniform and
neglect
While the
length of tube.
accurate for
all
cases.
result
When
the feed-water
is
heated by the
When the
all of
Lengthof tubes,
in diameters.
60
00
.
50
0.91
30
75
.
20
.
67
If
40
83
not to
make
It is advisable, there-
Lancashire
Cylindrical tubular
forced draft
Water-tubular
Locomotive, with blast
from 10
STEAM-BOILERS
68
cite coal,
is
former.
45 and 50
to
1,
when
rate of combustion
is
about 10 to 12 pounds
He
and
From
economy
it
sees
no
class.
is
no
loss of
in forcing boilers
The amount
how
certain plant.
No
test or
by Barrus.
In the author's
It
it
existed.
differ
in
many
it
is
methods of his own practice to which usage has made him accustomed.
The engineer should have clearly in mind just what results he
wishes to obtain before he commences his plans. The points to be
determined
may
be stated thus
69
and maintenance.
The quantity of steam demanded. Upon this will depend
the amount of power to be put into one boiler, and therefore the
actual number required.
Fourth. The kind of fuel and the quantity, as well as the
erection, operation
Third.
may
efficiency that
Fifth.
The
be expected.
The nature
of the setting
Seventh.
details
may
be
convenient.
The principles
made to obtain
take."
and
settle
First.
each question as
Have
exposed to the
as
fire
it
occurs.
of
metal
as possible.
ment
of cold air.
STEAM-BOILERS
70
upon hot
plates or tubes.
away
ample steam-room, so
and to prevent foaming.
Eighth. Provide
water-level
as to maintain a constant
parts of the
all
still
at high temperature
containing steam only, unless such surfaces are arranged for superheating.
Tenth.
To
may
be constructed
Twelfth.
Thirteenth.
Such parts
strength.
should be
made
as are
most
and
repair.
as nearly as possible,
liable to loss
equal
from corrosion,
when
etc.,
To endeavor
to secure
careful, intelligent
management.
The different types and arrangement
numerous as to be impossible to describe
and
effi-
cient
of steam-boilers are so
all.
few
of the
more
built
The
above.
is
self-sustaining
shell is set in
The eye
in the rod
may have
and requires no
brickwork, and
is
stays.
a hook formed on
71
or with
is
usually
made common
objection
is
of
means
use
two or three
off
9. End
boilers, a
fuel.
The
Fig.
to
cheap grades of
on the
boilers is closed
by
shells
length.
is
difficulty
in
economical except in
first cost, this type is httle used unless in connection with the waste gases obtained from certain metallurgical
works. They require large floor-space, which is often an objection-
able feature.
pressure.
The heads
are usually
72
STEAM-BOILERS
rf ^
73
the shell to the back end, and return through tubes to the front,
made
ment
Occasionally the
is rare,
shell.
These boilers are made with either an extended (Fig. 10) or flush
^ -j^^
Fig. lOo.
The former
is
is
made by
extending the shell plating about 15 inches beyond the front head,
so as to form a smoke-box, to the top of which the smoke-flue is
With the
head end
The
all
front
is
closed
by a
of the boiler
can be the
74
STEAM-BOILERS
as the
75
setting.
The
panel-work more or
less elaborate.
The
made
with
around the
of cast iron,
half -front
fits
extension smoke-box, while the flush front extends to the top of the
Fig.
brick setting.
Ho.
The
The
made
The
settings are
of brick.
made
in halves
fit
the
on
shell.
There are two lugs on each side, although some very large boilers
have three.* The lugs are generally one inch thick, with a stiffening
*
on a
them
in diameter
and
76
STEAM-BOILERS
web I
77
The
lug rests
on a cast-iron
or
plate
steel
built
the
in
brickwork.
Cast
iron
is
The
the better
plate should
have a surface
of at least one
foot.
square
When
of steel
should be f
inch thick, and
it
when
of
cast
iron f or 1 inch
The
thick.
Fig. 12a.
Horizontal Return-tubular
but the
back
lugs
should
Boiler.
on the
plates,
rollers
have
not
less
up the brick
several lugs.
strain
on the
rollers to
walls under the boiler to just the proper height for the
If
one
shell.
is
Furthermore,
it is
One
is
it will
cause a twisting
suspension links.
78
STEAM-BOILERS
The
by channels placed
The
move
as the boiler
The distance between the back head and the rear wall should be
about 16 inches for boilers less than 58 inches diameter, and from 18
to 24 inches for larger ones.
The distance from top of grate to under side of shell should be
It is often made too
as great as possible so as not to chill the gases.
Soft coals require a greater height than hard coals.
The
small.
distance
is
filled
shell,
may be
radiated back as
enough
for a
of the
man
much
as possible.
A clean-out door,
large
combustion-chamber.
made
of the
may
back connection
be
79
flat
or arched.
is
If
end.
By
in Fig. 12.
ing
a connection adds extra joints and parts that may give trouble.
When properly made, this circulating connection can be com-
mended.
The tubes are often too close to the shell. They should be
spaced from the sides of shell far enough to allow a generous down-
current water-space.
side
vertical line
side
of
tubes
nearest
of
less
shell
should
side
of
shell
to
out-
The
staggered.
points
of
10,
one
11
and
may
12
show
different
The good
designs.
be embodied in another
to suit
require-
ments.
When
made
of
one sheet,
STEAM-BOILERS
80
Table XI
UORIZONTAL RETURN-TUBULAR BOILERS
A
Horse-power
List of
Commercial Sizes *
81
is
The
stayed
the
to
shell
by
sheets
by
are protected
made
the
just
length
boiler-shell
The
shoiild
and
between
fire-box.
fire-box
sheet
be made as thin as
the spacing
will
sockets,
of the
bolts
permit, so as to pre-
that of the
shell.
Fig. 13.
Upright or Vertical
Boiler.
as wide as
much
as possible,
STEAM-BOILERS
82
upper ends
and subjected to
extreme heat, which may
In consecause injury.
quence the tubes are
sometimes made totally
submerged by having the
upper tube-sheet below
the water-line, and connecting it with a smokeflue to the upper head, as
in Fig. 14.
cleaning
sediment.
It is convenient to place
possible,
J'iG. 14.
in boilers
The
but not
20 inches
60 inches diameter.
on a cast-iron base, which forms the
ash-pit.
is
and 15a).
on a brick foundation, forming the
set
ash-pit,
. .
..
Table XII
TUBULAR BOILERS
VERTICAIi
List,
of
Commercial Sizes
Horse-power
Heating-surface, in sq.
ft.
39
35
37
31
11
9
13
10
13
11
79
80
83
91
92
27
inches
11
inches
120
32
6
27
24
46
36
20
36
84
30
5
25
24
i
i
72
27
5
22
24
i
i
39
36
24
i
i
Thickness of shell
Thickness of furnace
Thickness of heads
58
24
5
10
100
30
6
25
24
i
i
I
46
48
21
5
16
19
24
i
i
f
31
36
12
144
34
6i
28i
24
i
i
15
180
36
7
30i
24
i
i
51
I
56
64
48
54
60
37
39
11
13
12
41
13
13
43
13
84
96
97
104
110
95
96
108
109
116
122
10
10
11
12
14
900
400
1100
425
1300
500
1450
500
1540
600
18
20
25
30
35
40
50
212
40
238
40
358
48
412
48
8
480
48
9
578
13
la
Diameter of smoke-stack
re-
quired, inches
Weight
of boiler
fixtures
Weight of fixtures
Avithout
750
300
Horse-power
Heating surface, in square feet.
Diameter of boiler, inches
Height of boiler, feet
Diameter of furnace, inches
Height of furnace, inches
7i
7i
34|
30
34i
30
Thickness of shell
Thickness of furnace
Thickness of heads
Number of 2-inch tubes
292
44
8
38i
30
5
8
42J^
30
a
42*
30'
1750 2100
650
700
m
30
54
9
48i
36'
tV
No. 2 No. 2 No. 2 No. 2 No. 2 No. 2 No. 2
a
I
I
8
f
f
f
8
74
84
118
95
138
138
178
60
66
66
60
66
78
72
47
47
50
54
54
54
60
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
16
16
16
16
18
116
116
125
125
125
137
139
128
128
137
137
137
149
151
16
16
17
18
18
18
22
Height
"83
STEAM-BOILERS
84
which consists
of a
wall
circular
12^
In
fire-box.
creased
grate
as well
as to allow
the
expansion,
for
shell
enlarged
is
by a double-flanged
throat-piece
just
of the
combustion-c h a
m-
ber
The
are
tubes
generally 2^ inches
15 feet long.
They
are
arranged
in four sections, so
as
to
two
Hke
leave
cleaning-spaces,
Opposite
these
all
the crown-sheet.
The feed-water is
introduced
a
through
perforated
pipe,
near
the
located
Return-tubular
Boiler makes a very
convenient form of
Fig.
15.Manning
Vertical Boiler.
85
no
setting
Fig. 15a.
shell.
The length
flue.
is
and are
entirely self-contained.
it
and the nearest part of the shell. On the continent of Europe this
flue is often placed on one side with the object of increasing the circulation, but no material advantage is noticed.
This flue is built
up of short lengths so as to keep its thickness as thin as is consistent
with strength. It is frequently strengthened by Galloway tubes,
as shown in Figs. 17 and 45.
These tubes are usually about 10 or
11 inches in diameter at the top, and one-half of that at the
bottom end, and provide additional effective heating surface.
The boiler is fired internally the gases pass through the flue to
the back end, then under the boiler and back again on each side,
;
86
STEAM-BOILERS
87
spring
of
the
in
As
all
parts are
cleaned, this
easily
boiler can be
with
although the
flue
used
hard waters,
and
large
lack
of
decided drawbacks.
I
consequence
much as
not used as
and
formerly,
not
as
received
are
favorably
as
the
Lancashire.
The Lancashire
Boiler
is
similar to
two
flues instead of
Fig. 16a.
have a diameter of
about one-third that of the shell, and are placed so as to leave
about 4 or 4^ inches between them and between the flues and shell.
The strengthening rings on the flues can be spaced so as to stagger
Common
by 33
feet
for cleaning.
flues
6 inches diameter by
The usual
STEAM-BOILERS
88
pressure
is
is
When
sometimes used.
When
These boilers
and are then known
strengthened
with
Galloway tubes,
they are called Galloway boilers (Figs.
19 and 20).
The
setting
The
brick.
may
on
is
of
shell
be supported
sad-
cast-iron
as in Fig. 18;
dles,
or on fire-clay seat-
ing
blocks,
Figs.
17
as
and
in
20.
bearing
surface
full
The
Fig. 166.
Back view
front end
is
may
be
of Fig. 16.
iron
The
Fig. 19.
shell
is
saddle,
as in
a foot-block,
made
a saddle to
intermediate rocker.
top.
Any
flues are
facilitate
and Lancashire
boilers,
may be adopted.
sometimes reduced in diameter at the rear end to
removal and give sufficient clearance from shell to allow
The
and 20 apply,
and any form of
89
90
STEAM-BOILERS
the back head to spring, which head must be fastened to the shell
by an internal flange or angle. The former method is much the
better
being
as
and
stronger
An
stiff.
less
outside
on
head, cannot
front
be used, as
interfere
it
would
with
the
and
draft-current
The Lancashire
boiler
cal
is
an economi-
type and
liked
in
is
well
Europe.
when used
with an economizer
or feed-water heater
placed in
leading
the
flue
to
the
chimney, especially
Fig. 17o.
Cornish
if
Boiler.
Fig. 17.
floor-space,
little
a large
account.
brick setting, as accidents have occurred from undiscovered corrosion of this part.
safety-valves
of
shown in the
but are com-
a cylindrical
shell,
may
Fig. 23.
92
STEAM-BOILERS
used in marine work, where it is much liked on
but can be adopted for stationary practice.
It is principally
account of
its reliability,
is necessarily heavy,
due to the thickness of
metal and large amount
It
and
of water contained;
forms.
steam-pres-
of
adopt
to
sures,
other
It is entirely self-
contained
supported
is
on saddles
is
economical;
Fig. 18a.
Laiu-ashire
two,
is
not
re-
It is a
Two
diameter.
pair.
frequent fault
in
number
to use furnaces
if
be one,
double-
too small a
of
inches
may
There
three or
ended.
Boiler.
section of Fig. IS.
or
properly designed,
difficult to clean
(;
when
and,
area
Furnaces
less
than 33
height of ash-pit, thus restricting the draft and chilling the gases
may
be
common
four furnaces
common
to
it
to
is
all
two furnaces.
When
double-ended there
space between the banks of tubes and between the tubes and
shell.
These spaces should be about twice the pitch of tubes. The distance
from the side of shell to the outside of nearest tube should not be
less than 8 inches, and a vertical line from the point where the
water-line strikes the inside of the shell should pass outside of the
two top rows of tubes, otherwise the boiler is liable to prime. The
uppermost row of tubes should be at least 0.3 of the boiler diameter
shell, in
93
STEAM-BOILERS
94
Fig. 19c.
Section
staggered.
of Galloway
Boiler, Fig. 19.
The
horizontal spacing
Fig. 196.
Section of Galloway
Boiler, Fig. 19.
Pig. 19a.
Fig. 19d.
Section of Galloway
Boiler, Fig. 19.
is
generally
95
96
STEAM-BOILERS
bubbles.
When
boilers
and
aft
on shipboard, some
designers arrange the tubes so that the rows slope from the centre
Fig. 20a.
Lancashire Boiler.
Front
Elevation.
Lancashire Boiler.
Fig. 20d.
Section at CC.
toward each
when the
side, that
they
may
not be
lifted
97
to
OOOOOOOQOO
(5-!
9.QS'Jl9JLQ.os>JlQ.9 0_g_g_oo_o_p_c qj
o b o o o o.o vi.o odoooooooooc q(
O O 5tJp O O G O O O <^Al
Fig. 21.
The
sides
98
STEAM-BOILERS
girder-stays,
Fig. 2ln.
Scotch Boiler.
although crowfoot stays to the shell are cheaper and used in many
The objection to the combination girder
cases with low pressures.
and stay to the shell is the uncertainty that each will carry its calculated stress.
is
much
99
and seams located in the bottom of the shell are almost sure to
occasion annoyance from leaks.
In this particular hydrokineters
or other devices for creating an artificial circulation are very useful.
These attachments consist of an internal nozzle through which
steam can be blown from a donkey boiler or other source of supply,
top,
T BARS
Fig. 22.
Scotch
II
combustion-chambers.
steam.
STEAM-BOILERS
100
the nuts on the ends of the large stays in the steam-space and pro-
tect
heating surface.
This
is
head-room and
still
of Scotch
maintain
Fig. 11a.
Scotch
Boiler.
It has
many good
all
are carried over the bridge wall, these tubes are sometimes
size larger
made one
The same
general
comments
The Marine Boiler is the name of a type used on many river and
sound steamers in America. It is a very good steaming boiler, but
101
flat
makes
it
surfaces are
difficult
to
As these
Fig. 23.
Double-ended Scotch
Boiler.
mon
the
to
all
drum
is
the boilers.
boiler to
one-third
STEAM-BOILERS
102
engine should connect to the opposite side and near the top.
There
should be a small copper drain-pipe to carry the priming and condensed steam from the bottom of the drum back to the boiler.
This drain varies usually from 2 to 4 inches in diameter.
It should
enter the shell of the boiler at or just below the water-line, and
l.i'^M)S
Fig. 24.
may
li'li
'ly-ft'lNStoe
Admiralty or Gunboat
ENO PLATES
inside.
Boiler.
up on the
The
is
to
be preferred.
The
should be
ners, or
made out
bottom
side sheets.
The
up
solid
top of the shell over the furnace in a longitudinal joint placed not
less
is
cylindrical
most care
The width
in fitting
of furnace
end
HALF FRONT
ELEVATION
103
(Fig. 25),
J^
manhole
T^f.
15
end
but
is
and
may
HALF SECTION
THROUGH FLUE
X 11
flanging.
Fig. 25a.
built of
moulded
fire-
The
"wet bridge."
supported on iron saddles cast to
boiler
is
104
STEAM-BOILERS
is
true for
many
n
Fig. 25.
are permissible
on
The staggering
appear to interfere
with the free steaming of the boiler, probably due to the rocking of
the machine as
it
^inch. American
and tube-sheets, but some
of the tube-sheet is
105
firm hold.
The water-legs
Fig. 26.
This type
is
as
is self-
These portable boilers are often made with a water-bottom under the ash-pit.
The tubes are usually 2h or 3 inches in diameter.
The Compound Boiler is an attempt to combine the advantages
of the fire- and water-tubular types.
It has many promising
STEAM-BOILERS
106
other.
In this class
water
types.
boiler the
of
is
contained in
ments
tively
small
which
reduces
thickness
2}.
O DIAM COPPER
DRAIN PIPE J'tHICK
ele-
compara-
of
of
size,
the
metal,
contained and
sequently
con-
the total
BENT PLATE
and
increases
the
The
early
tempts were
and
Fig. 26a.
Scotch
factured solely
engineer
mine the
many
of
by
the
Boiler.
section of Fig. 26.
not be commended.
all
at-
failures,
manu-
and the
is
selection
Literature
most suitable
is full
of discussion
on water-tubular
boilers,
and
made
articles will
societies,
Many
as
is
of such
%.
iThI
Iff
\Y//////\
jl.2-^-
-^
>U
108
STEAM-BOILERS
should be read with
always
underesti-
and
mated,
the
actual
weight
boiler,
brickwork
and setting or
make
ing
of
cas-
the com-
pleted boiler
nmch
than
heavier
is
usually stated.
Ijcen
condemnation
should
not
be
based
alone
on
these experiences.
All things considered, there
w a t e r-t u bu
the
the
the
1
ar
should not
boiler
be
no
is
why
reason
of
boiler
and
future,
both
use
for
stationary
They are
more
complicated, as
some
o
of the forms
boilei-s,
fire-tubular
and under
economy.
shown any
109
particular increase in
The general
It does
;t
Fig. 28a.
make
many
Locomotive Boiler.
and
straight
new set
of tubes has to
be furnished.
The
sheet-metal casings are apt to get very hot, even though the casing
more heat
is lost
by
In consequence con-
110
STEAM-BOILERS
to one-tenth)
when the
boilers
have to be frequently
started.
water-tubular boiler,
staying,
is
of parts
and
joints is
It has been
shown, however, that water-tube boilers require more constant
watching and care than fire-tubular ones, owing to the smaller
quantity of water contained and to their sensitiveness to respond
"The
it is
boiler
may
it
111
of the surface
no absolute necessity
there
is
inasmuch as the
by the
mechanical scour of the water; the dead ends permit of the deposit
at a safe place, and if there is any deposit on the downcast pipes,
they being of considerable size and easy of access can be cleaned
rapidity of flow will prevent deposition on the upcast pipes
when opportunity
and
serves,
if
George W. Melville, U.S.N., has placed the advantages and disadvantages as follows (Trans. Soc. Naval Arch, and Marine Engs.,
Nov. 1899)
ADVANTAGES.
Less weight of water.
Quicker steamers.
Quicker response to change in amount of steam required.
Greater freedom of expansion.
More
perfect circulation.
DISADVANTAGES.
Greater danger from failure of tubes.
Better feed arrangements necessary.
Greater
skill
required in management.
Tubes
difficult of access.
boiler.
112
STEAM-BOILERS
113
types.
surfaces.
The
is
The tubes
and has
marine work.
having
many
It
parts, necessitating a
although
it
number
of
is
complicated by
joints.
It lacks
is somewhat complex.
The Thomycroft Boiler (Fig. 34) is capable of withstanding a
The bent tubes, however, make it difficult
high degree of forcing.
practically
impossible
to inspect internally.
clean
and
to
The Yarrow Boiler (Fig. 35) is very simple and easy to clean and
inspect.
The tubes are difficult to replace, and their rigidity has
been criticised. The tubes are generally small, about 1^ inches to
If inches diameter.
114
STEAM-BOILERS
To Proportion a
115
own
ideas
how
to proceed to
Usually
proportion
Fig.
If
it is
30.Stirling
Boiler.
by one
of the
others.
1. Determine the weight of water to be evaporated per hour.
This should be the maximum and not the average weight, when
is
116
Sl-EAM-BOILERS
all
auxiliary engines
of
steam are
included.
Fig.
Knowing the
31.Almy
Boiler.
first result
by this
rate of evaporation,
Having deter-
117
Fig. 32.
Niclausse Boiler.
some
by comparison with
iary engines.
The grate
by the
prin-
Assume a
coal
118
STEAM-BOILERS
then determine the total coal to be used by multiplying by maximum horse-power. Assume or calculate the rate of combustion
pq
will
amount
119
The
first
method
is
it is
well to check
the results.
Fig. 34.
Remember
that
is
is
of
always
as not to
have
especially
when
number
it
for cleaning
and
STEAM-BOILERS
120
While
it is
by
using the heat-units contained in the steam and in the coal, making
methods given,
as so
it is
to
Fig. 34a.
Steam-Space.
of Fig. 34.
The contents of a boiler are divided into waterThe former needs to be of only such
is
very small
121
may
be
little
of long stroke
Fig. 35.
Yarrow Boiler.
beam
Thus
sufficient.
pressure,
but on the volume of steam required. For uses other than for
steam-engines the space can only be determined by experience.
With economical triple-expansion engines and quadrupleexpansion engines the steam-space may be reduced 15 to 20 per cent.
When mechanical draft is used the space may be reduced 25
to 50 per cent, according to circumstances.
Priming.
When
ebullition
is
Table XIII
steam-space; natural draft
Per I. H. P. in
Cubic Feet
1.00 to 2.50
1.00
1.00 to 0.80
0.80
0.80 to 1.00
0.50 to 0.80
0.65
0.55 to 0.65
etc.
Faster-running engines
particles
carried
is
This action
suspension.
pipe and
it is
damage
to the engine
by knocking
Unless super-
all boilers
"commercially dry."
Priming or foaming
in the boiler, etc., but
forcing a boiler
When
beyond
may
it is
often produced
its
the steam-space
by the
design, or
oil
by
proper capacity.*
is
is
fall
in pressure at
each efflux of steam, which will cause sudden and rapid ebullition.
Priming from this cause can only be prevented by enlarging the
steam-space, or by contracting the area of steam-pipe.
alternative
may
This latter
Priming
is
of the boiler
be high,
by tending to contract
the effective water-separating surface, and by preventing a proper
downward current without interfering with the upward current.
the flatness of the sides will cause priming,
There are no special rules for area of water surface, as the value
bad waters, sometimes foam
when a change of water is introduced, probably due to the new water dissolving some of the deposit. Carbonate of sodium may cause foaming for
* Boilers which often steam quietly witli
a like reason.
122
123
of
to prevent priming:
First.
condenser, the
rated or extracted.
Second. Sufficient steam-room to prevent fluctuation in pressure.
Third.
ration of steam
Fourth.
may
be least violent.
less
than one-half
currents.
This
is
most important.
Fifth.
The steam-pipe should connect as high above the waterand not directly over the hottest part. In boilers
level as possible,
having comparatively small steam-space a collecting-pipe or drypipe, so placed on the inside and connected to the steam-pipe as
all parts, will be found a good device.
Such
a pipe, frequently called an "anti-priming" pipe, should be stopped
at the ends and have holes or slots on its upper side only. There
should be a drain on under side. Baffle-plates may also be used
make
it difficult
for moisture
to pass.
Sixth.
The area
Some
it
shall not
is
Then
S-^
In water-tubular boilers the water surface can be very matereduced below the area required in fire-tubular boilers and still
furnish dry steam.
rially
STEAM-BOILERS
124
Just
is
how
an all-important factor
boilers.
The
least
made
all
it will
experience.
all
water-tubular
may
in this
the sug-
In such
more important
careful study
after
CHAPTER VI
CHIMNEY-DRAFT
Problem
of Gravitation.
Rate of Combustion.
Natural Draft.
Height of Chimney.
by Rankine.
Author's Experience.
calculations can be
made
Area and
be burned
air.
American Society
The
of
The
it will
may
In order to
facilitate
all
the discussion
it
may be assumed
volume
without
of the gases
125
STEAM-BOILERS
126
of
air
supplied
When
Volume at 32 F. per
Pound of Fuel.
150 cubic feet
"
"
225
"
"
'^00
of Fuel.
"18
u
<2A
li
((
The volume
(I
It
at 12,5 cubic
(t
at
may
7",
be
Volume
at
r= F = Vol.
The following
results
intermediate results
at
32X
.^^"t>
were obtained by
interpolated with
may be
="^o--
this
formula, and
sufficient
accuracy
Supply
Temp,
"
"
Fuel.
24
18
1112 F.
752
Let
of Air in
12
of Gases.
Cubic Feet.
in
957
369
314
553
738
572
471
392
259
389
628
519
"
u
Then
1.
= ^^'^
Ax.
known
Ft
just
or assumed.
given,
when
list
is
127
CHIMNEY-DRAFT
Again, by transposition, the weight of fuel that
may
be com-
of the current
pounds
in
which 0.0807
is
per
foot
cubic
i)
deter-
= (0.0807+ ^f^-j,
at 32 F.
Let
"
"
*'
w
/
its
"a
"a
mean
hydraulic
it,
in feet.
by the
flue leading to
perimeter.
coefficient of friction,
surfaces
factor of
bed
which
is
stated
when
coal
per
-|(
The head,
h, is
m/
2g\
is
the current, u.
This head
1.
2.
3.
By
By
By
may
air;
a fan or blowing-machine.
128
STEAM-BOILERS
It is
air in feet of
of cold
is,
column of hot
gas having the same weight as
the column of cold air. This
is
done by computing the
weight of a column of cold
in the height of a
air
and
high
as
the chimney
the
as
is
top
vertically
of
above
by the weight
foot of hot
gas.
of
If
a cubic
from this
the chim-
Let
of
the
denote
chimney
Thus
the
height
above
the
grate.
Chininev-draft.
H
air.
Then
f5(o.0807)
h=
(0.0807+
i)
or
H=
(OM ^
From
CHIMNEY-DRAFT
"best"
draft, that
is,
129
The
maximum
owing to the
rarification
of the
t^,
but,
maximum
dis-
Tj.
VA,
it
must
is
proportional to
is
Tj).
proportional to
The density of
\A).963-^,
This expression becomes a
maximum when
'^^'
0.96
maximum
discharge of gases as
velocity.
3.
effect is that
an
artificial
current
is
The head,
as in the
STEAM-BOILERS
130
previous cases,
is
The conditions
Natural Draft.
Experience with
many chimneys
of various
Rankine and
Peclet.
is
The
of con-
is
of water.
amount
is
The value
of
is
generally
made
The
for bituminous coal or for short stacks, while the smaller are for
When w and A
can be
If
calculated.
Without
The value
plant.
The
tity,
frictional resistance,
the head.
It is
is
/,
must
differ
The
much
in ordinary cases
from the
by the
a loss that
is
an
While
24 pounds
of coal
may
be somewhat
CHIMNEY-DRAFT
131
application
really
will also
supplied and
The
boilers
its initial
amount
of air
temperature.
Table XIV
RATES OF combustion; NATURAL DRAFT
Kind
of Boiler.
Such
results
Pounds of Coal
per Square Foot
of Grate Surface
per Hour.
4
10
12 to 1ft
16 to 24
20 to 25
24 to 27
The
STEAM-BOILERS
132
The
coals, therefore
may be
still
XV
Kind
of Coal.
It
more
must
freely
less rapidly.
CHIMNEY-DRAFT
133
does not state the exact conditions. Table X.Y1 gives his results,
as printed in "Mechanical Draft," Sturtevant and Co.
The same
all,
Table XVI
RATES OF COMBUSTION FOR DIFFERENT CHIMNEY HEIGHTS
Height of
Chimney
above Grate,
134
STEAM-BOILERS
Best Welsh and Maryland semi-anthracite or good bituminous
Rate = 2.3\/F-1.
The
less
Rate=3\/^-l.
Under ordinary conditions
additional height to the chimney will increase the draft about one-
George
hour.
W.
Marine
about one-eighth inch, and that a 100-foot funnel would give a rate
of about 25 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour.
Author's Experience. From observations made by the author,
the figures given by Hutton represent rates for free-burning bitumi-
nous
coals,
and those
of
when everything
is
favorable for
boiler.
For
and height
In a
new
design
it is
when
fires,
the ash-pit.
CHIMNEY-DRAFT
Area and Height
of
Chimney.
135
are closely allied, since the product of area times velocity measures
the height.
is
dependent upon
E denote effective
area of chimney.
"
"
"
"
height of chimney.
" H.P.'*
If
the expected
maximum
expected rate
Then
E = A-0WA;
H.P.==S.33EVH=3.33{A-oWA)VH;
E
This formula
is
0.3H.P.
VH
based on the assumptions that the draft varies
as the square root of the height, that the retarding of the ascending
gases
by
friction
may be
* Of Pittsburg, Pa.
Kindness of Mr.
Wm.
C. Ck)ffin, Vice-President.
STEAM-BOILERS
136
in
which H.P.
diameter in
is
John W.
the internal
A=
.
where
and
feet,
A denotes
This formula
surface
1.8 grate
^
^=
is
H the height
above the
grate.
draft,
and burning at
from 15
rates varying
F denotes
the coal
0.0825F
^=\-^-)/0.0825F\2
grate
Bituminous.
if
Vs
Vg
V?
*/?
Vs
Vs
Anthracite.
all cases,
is
and to
then a reserve
resistance
is
offered
or breechings, as to
CHIMNEV-DRAFT
require the single chimney to be extra high.
137
Furthermore, the
In marine practice
it is
The area
of stack
is
often
in similar ones
greater.
CHAPTER
VII
MATERIALS
Wrought
Cast Iron.
Wrought
U.
Steel.
Iron.
Rivet-iron.
Naval Requirements
S.
for Boiler-steel.
Steel Rivets.
Copper.
Brass.
The
wrought
materials
Cast Steel.
Cast Iron
is
used for
many
and
It
its brittle
If carefully
tensile stress.
etc.
not to be recommended.
made
When
of cast iron,
Many
cast iron;
of the
and
some parts
more important
this material
is
made
of malleable
from four
MATERIALS
When
mounted on
by permitting water
139
Many
boilers,
boilers
irons.
Many
other cheap work, since the poorest grades of the latter are likely to
be used, and such steel will not stand the same amount of rough
usage in handling and bending as the iron.
STEAM-BOILERS
140
Wrought
iron
is
but
is
less slag,
Carbon
From
0.020
To
0.20
Sulphur
Phosphorus
0.000
0.050
0.25
Silicon
0.050
Manganese
0.005
0.01
0.30
0.05
Good
show a
tensile strength of
from
When
the pressure
and
is
applied slowly,
irregular fracture,
while a poorer quality will show a more regular fracture, the fibres
The
other hand,
when
fine-
On
the
show a
fine
much
coarser structure.
The
fibrous
in
steel
work.
As iron
is less
when
MATERIALS
141
The
it
has to
be not
less
than 50,000 pounds per square inch, and its resistance to shearing is
usually from 38,000 to 40,000 pounds per square inch. A rivet
should bend double when cold, ^vithout fracture; and when hot, the
head should be capable of being flattened to about ^ inch in thickness without fraying at the edge.
minimum
the bar
is
side,
When
the fracture
should be fibrous.
Tests should not be
marks, nor of
made on bars
less sectional
Stays and
all
less
iron
It is
and
very
steel
readily identified
Wrought
difficult to
less
Navy Department,
1897,
for
charcoal-iron
boiler-tubes
are
as
follows
Specifications for Charcoal-iron Boiler-ttjbes.
1.
mered
The tubes must be made of the best quality of knobbled, hamcharcoal-iron, and tests will be made both of the skelp and of the
must be
of uniform
The tubes
rust,
quenched a
flaw.
Strips
hammered.
after being so
strip
STEAM-BOILERS
142
3.
The end
stretch to one
split or crack.
whole
lot of tubes.
Steel.
is
mild
may
is
has
more homogeneous
midway between
steels,
The
and higher
ductility.
made
of
Bessemer
plates.
is liable
when worked
cold.
The
Steel
is
liable to
become
brittle
plates, especially
drilled, or if
injured material.
used for rivets and tubes, and good results are obtained
taken in the selection of the material.
The tensile strength is usually limited between 60,000 and 73,000
Steel
if
care
is
is
inch.
If
rapidly increases.
The
minimum
to give uniformity to
limit
is
object of having a
maximum
all
as well as a
MATERIALS
143
steel
increases.
a poorer grade of
etc.,
may
be made of
steel.
The requirements
of the U. S.
Navy Department,
1899, are as
below
Specifications for Boiler-plate and Shapes,
boiler-plate.
Steel
(class a.)
be made by the openhearth process, and not show more than thirty-five one-thousandths of
Kind
of Material.
per
one bending-test
One
tensile-test
piece,
limit of
(8) inches.
limit of at least
Cold-bending Test.
inch,
and an elongation of at
(8) inches.
Class
No.
and
till
on the outside
STEAM-BOILERS
144
Cold-bending Test.
shall
bend
flat
on
itself
bent portion.
Inspection for Surface and Other Defects.
Plates Hiust
be free from
hard spots, injurious
Shearing.
Boiler-plates thirteen-sixteenths (i|) of an inch thick and
over shall not be sheared closer to finished dimensions than once the
thickness of the plate along each end, and one half the thickness of the
on
his order,
inches wide.
No plate must, at any point, fall below the specified thickmore than the following amounts: Six one-hundredths (al^) of an
inch for plates more than one hundred and ten (110) inches wide; five
one-hundredths ii^^) of an inch for plates between one hundred (100)
and one hundred and ten (110) inches wide; four one-hundredths (j%s)
of an inch for plates between eighty (80) and one hundred (100) inches
wide; three one-hundredths (t^tt) of an inch for plates between sixty (60)
and eighty (80) inches wide; and two one-hundredths {^%-s) of an inch
Gauge.
ness
than sixty
It
is
left
A No.
than one (1) inch, in order to get the requirements of these specifications;
but the oil-tempering and annealing must be done before the plate is
submitted to the Naval Inspector for tests.
Specifications for Rods, Shapes, and Forgings for
Boiler Bracing.
boiler bracing.
(class a.)
for stay-bolts
shall
and braces
shall
be made
MATERIALS
145
thousandths of 1 per cent of phosphorus, nor more than three onehundredths of 1 per cent of sulphur, and shall be of the best composition in other respects.
The drillings for chemical analysis shall be
One ton
mens
shall
two
tensile
Treatment.
AU
be annealed as a
final process.
two
(2)
No. 2 Bracing.
Test
inch,
No. 3 Bracing.
Test
two
(2),
Cold-bending Test.
lot of Class
diameter of one
One
from each
(1)
No.
No. 2 bracing
diameter of one-half
allel,
shall
(J) inch,
(^)
lot of Class
Tests.
flat
cracks or flaws; a piece cut from another bar in the same lot shall be
closed
down on
itself until
or flaws.
Inspection for Surface and other Defects.
STEAM-BOILERS
146
be true to form, free from seams, hard spots, brittleness. injurious sand
or scale marks, and injurious defects generally.
Boiler-plate used as boiler bracing shall be inspected as plate under
Kind
of Material.
High-grade
and Class
material shall be
made
show more than thirty-five one1 per cent of phosphorus nor more than three oneper cent of sulphur, and shall be of the best composi-
by the open-hearth
thousandths of
hundredths of 1
Class
may
material
The material
process, as ordered.
hundredths of
dredths of
as Class B,
and
in other
work,
if
may
tions.
The
bending
drillings for
test specimens.
TENSILE, COLD-BENDING,
Test Specimens.
If
the total
AND QUENCHING
TESTS.
If
shall select,
]>ieces,
and
a heat amounts to less than six tons, then the Naval Inspector shall
select, at random, one tensile, one cold-bending, and one quenching
test piece for each ton or part of ton.
MATERIALS
147
per square inch tensile strength, with an elastic limit of at least 40,000
pounds per square inch, and an elongation of at least 23 per cent in
eight (8) inches.
Class
least 54,000
limit of
least
29 per cent
Cold-hetiding Test.
High-grade
rods
stand
shall
cold-bending 180
specimen.
Cla^s
an inner diam-
Class
be satisfactory
if
Quenching
Test.
The specimen
shall, after
and
Hammer
Tests.
For each
RIVETS.
made from
the same heat, four rivets shall be selected, at random, by the Naval
Inspector and submitted to the following tests:
(a)
Two
of these
Two
in daylight.
SURFACE INSPECTION.
Rivets shall be true to form, concentric, and free from injurious
scale, fins,
seams, and
all
148
STEAM-BOILERS
for rivets.*
The results showed that such steel could be subjected
to the working heats without serious injury, and that a f-inch
nickel-steel rivet was about equal to a lyVi^^ch common steel rivet,
thus saving a considerable portion of plate section. This material
may
many
manganese,
3.50%
nickel,
uses.
strength
is
common
steel rivets
strength.
tensile
is
of
inch.
"The
degrees Fahr.
the
maximum
strength
is
600 degrees, and beyond 600 degrees the tensile strength decreases
Although the ultimate tensile strength increases from
rapidly.
200 to 600 degrees, the elastic limit steadily decreases from zero
upwards, and steel, having an elastic limit of 35,000 pounds per
square inch at zero, has
its elastic
pounds
"Another point
ture of
maximum
is
percentage of carbon."
thick,
proaches a temperature of
the use of hard, brittle steel
maximum
is
tensile strength;
therefore
Cast Steel.
so advanced
has been
* See Journal
Am.
Soc.
MATERIALS
149
popular for use in odd shapes, which were formerly made of wroughtThe danger of flaws is fast disappearing, and so
iron forgings.
great a confidence
is
many
uses.
As the demand
it is
increases,
super-
no doubt
etc.
using large
ing
is
fillets.
and
all
The
in elasticity.
It
is
most
difficult to
When
the strength
between
than
important
is
may
For
all
less
elongation.
abstract as below-
Sound
be taken
in sufficient
number
to exhibit the
A lot
in the
same
STEAM-BOILERS
150
furnace charge.
shall
From each
lot
two
tensile
be taken.
If there
are
any unsound
test
itself.
process,
and no casting
of
other respects.
The
shall
all
moving parts
of machinery,
and at
other castings.
may
require
test to destruction
may
test, in
the
One bar
or
cold through 150 degrees without showing cracks or flaws, for castings
All castings
is
likely to
extend into
the castings.
Copper.
The use
It
is still
to
for brazing.
MATERIALS
It does not corrode
151
as
it is
upon
It is
it.
much improved by
alloys,-
It is
is
Its strength
becomes within
it
its quality.
Cast
pounds.
strength,
becomes
plastic at
may
Copper
diameter.
From
a paper by
J.
T. Milton
of
In whatever
lessened,
that
is,
and
by
way copper
is
hardened,
hardening
raising
water or allowing
to a bright-red heat,
it
it
its
ductility
is
correspondingly
may be removed by
and
'annealing,'
either quenching
it
in
to cool gradually.
The
effects of
some
of the
is
common
workshop
is
is
copper
is
and
The usual
objectionable,
exceedingly prejudicial.
it,
STEAM-BOILERS
152
" Brazing.
Brazing-solder is composed of copper and zinc in
about equal proportions; occasionally, however, one-half per cent of
The mixed metal is first cast in iron ingottin is added to the mixture.
moulds, then it is reheated to a certain temperature, considerably below
red heat, at which it becomes brittle and is pounded up with an iron
The addition of the small quantity of tin is said to
pestle and mortar.
It thus appears that at a temperature interfacilitate the pounding.
mediate between that of the steam and a red heat the solder becomes
brittle
and
unfit to sustain
" It usually
is
any
stress.
is
not
the
official
After
by Pro-
Vol.
Arnold of
LXV,
Sheffield,
p. 468,
the corrosive action of sea-water shows that a somewhat similar deIt is said that this is prevented if a
is
brazing-solder investigated
called "brass."
and boiler-mountings.
is
MATERIALS
Brass boiler-tubes are used but
boilers
and
in feed-water heaters.
153
little,
It
com-
zinc.
is
may be made
to
it
in ductility,
and
and two
of
of zinc,
The strengths
of
CHAPTER
VIII
BOILER DETAILS
FacStrength of Shell, Longitudinally and Transversely.
ArrangeRules for Thickness of Shell. Limits of Thickness.
ments of Plates. The Ends. Rules for Thickness of Heads. Flat Surfaces.
Rules for Flat Surfaces. Flues. Strengthening Rings. Corrugated and
Ribbed Flues. Rules for Flues and Liners. Tubes. Rules for Thickness.
The
Shell.
tor of Safety.
Stays.
Welding.
The
Rules
for
Stays.
Shell.
cylindrical shell
Girders.
Bridge Wall.
Setting.
The pressure
is
Combustion-chamber.
of steam, or of
exerted equally in
any
a
and is at right
lines.
The pressure
gas, enclosed in
all directions,
form.
Riveting.
Split Bridge.
by the strength
it
tendency
line
BOILER DETAILS
p
AB.
ponents
sum
155
com-
is
-^
and B.
The
/i'
compo-
parallel
on
tributed
each
side,
therefore
no
and have
on the stresses
inert
effect
and B.
The cylinder resists
rupture by an amount
at
metal at
and
Fig. 37.
times
Strength of shell to
resist
bursting pressure.
material.
ness
is
very small
following analysis
in
is only true for cylinders whose thickcomparison with the diameter, and the
cases
is
small and
due to the
which
This
in thick shells
Is
would
amount
At the moment
and the
by
resisting
~ D'
t
= PD
2c'
in
which
It is to
will
be seen
when
resist
later,
bursting
is
the length
contraction and
STEAM-BOILERS
156
is
external to
The ends of the cylinder, especially when flat, act like stays, and
must give it increased strength. How much increase in strength
or how far from the ends does this end influence extend is unknown,
but in boilers having a short longitudinal dimension compared to
diameter the influence
to a paper
by
J.
may
be considerable.
(Reference
is
made
is
im-
boilers
In practice no allowance
the ends, due to
is
made
uncertain character.
its
imparted by
Since undeterminable
and
corrosion, all of
increase in strength
is
offset, in
sources of weakness.
The
is
is
The
metal.
p'^=7z(D+t)tc.
4
Neglecting
yr,
since
it is
P^-fT
and
= r-.
4c
BOILER DETAILS
On comparing
157
this result
On
it will
be amply heavy
ling
demand
as
much
Due
stress.
it is
quite
common
to rivet the
longitudinal seams
tive,
March, 1892:
The
than
it
would be
The
stress
is
never
a compression, but always a tension; (4) This tension on the inner sheet
will differ (usually by a small amount) from the tension on a similar flat
sta}'--bolted sheet,
to the designs
Factor of Safety.
The proper
is
Shell.
There can be
little
question as
on the
elastic
158
STEAM-BOILERS
may
While a boiler
exceeded,
elastic limit
has been
still
which has taken place and which will reduce the actual
There is, however, a commercial disadvantage in the
use of elastic limit, since so many boilers are made of sheets of which
this property is not known, although the plates could be as easily
distortion
strength.
Rule of U. S. Board of Supervising Inspectors of SteamMultiply one-sixth (D of the lowest tensile strength
found stamped on any plate in the cylindrical shell by the thick1.
vessels.
ness
expressed
plate in the
diameter
of an inch
of the thinnest
and divide by the radius or half
inches and the sum will be the pres-
in inches or parts
same
cylindrical shell,
also expressed in
sure
which add 20 per cent for double-riveting, when all the rivet holes
have been ''fairly drilled" and no part
This rule
but
is
is
been punched.
very defective.
commonly employed
is
in this country,
It does
shell.
The same
Rule
Lloyd's Registry
of
cylindrical
boiler-shells,
Working pressure
in
pounds
in
which
_constantX(^ 2)X-S
'
"
of an inch
number;
whole
expressed as a
20 when the longitudinal seams are fitted
with double butt-straps of equal width;
Constant
is
Constant
is
19.25
when they
BOILER DETAILS
Note.
at least three-fourths of
For
159
super
shell plates of
given above.
not
less
The value
of
taken
in which
joint,
rivets"
"
B=
J)
X 100,
B = ''^^XF,
pxt
p
d
"
"
"
"
"
holes punched;
"
/''
"
drilled;
steel,
steel,
steel
holes drilled;
"
holes drilled.
Note.
If rivets are in
rules,
a.
German
inspection, as
by the
author, Trans.
p. 127, 1901.
Am.
XXII,
STEAM-BOILERS
160
Many
minimum
corrode as
strength will be
thickness
boilers.
limited
by the appliances
fire
of the boiler-shop.
is only
There are few boiler-
the thickness
inches in
thickness.
rivet is limited,
and small
much
When
of the boiler
may
is
life
Such an arch
assists the
combustion by prevent-
ing the products from becoming chilled, and also shields the crownsheet from impingement of cold air through the fire-doors.
used, however, care
When
boiler in masonry,
which
may
be prohibitive.
In such boilers
without complication.
When
fire
passage of the hot gases, arrange so that the gases do not strike
against the edge of the lapping plate.
The lack of
downward.
lodge.
Place the plates so that the direction in which they were rolled
shall
be in
stress.
BOILER DETAILS
161
is
form of a
is
freight-car.
or width, as the edges of the sheets are usually the weakest part.s
by
side
and
it is
Plates should be
trimmed
off
on each
circumferential
obtained.
but when prevented by other reasons the centre lines of the seams
may be as near as the pitch of three rivets. At such places three
plates must overlap, and the corner of the middle plate is forged
thin, tapering like a
may come
The
made
parallel;
is,
one course
following.
is
This method
is
is,
method
is
the
boilers,
The objection
will
ing
They are also more liable to disarrangement from expanand contraction than when the sheets are parallel.
fair.
sion
In vertical boilers it is best to arrange the lap of horizontal ringseams to face downward on the inside, so as to prevent sediment
from catching.
Whatever arrangement
when
is
required.
STEAM-BOILERS
102
is
sufficient.
The Heads.
It Is
ternal pressure
is
in-
any
])lane passing
through
its
centre
is
may
be
expressed thus:
The
resistance to rupture
is
may
be expressed thus
7z{D+t)tc.
At the
P^=TZ{D+t)tC.
Dividing by nD, and neglecting ^, which
is
thickness
and
become
1
= ^
D
and
= ~.
4c
These are the same results as were obtained for the transverse
strength of the cylinder; so that the sphere
Advantage
when
is
twice as strong as
is
is
On
less
the diameter
BOILER DETAILS
163
Scotch or
drum
boilers the
if it
or
the top row of tubes, thus avoiding heavy stays in the steam-space,
see Fig. 22.
With an
The head
may
may
be flanged out.
much better,
being less
liable to suffer
makes
is
may
so short.
flat
The
is
stiff,
flue.
It is
in order that
by
to
make
is
made
is
of
two
usually
or
made
more
when
possible.
must be
The seam
lapped, and
its
by
rivets.
STEAM-BOILERS
164
No
eral design.
of staying.
is
by the area
of the
fiat surfaces.
Flat
made
Surfaces.
of flat plates.
Many
parts of a boiler
must necessarily be
make them
self-supporting, they
In order to
commonly by
stays.
the portion
is based upon that for beams
between the rows of stays being taken as equivalent to a beam, rectangular in section, fixed at the ends and uniformly loaded, any extra strength due to end connections being
neglected.
se,
much
as possible,
as
difficult
not
the
cleaning and inspection from the numerous stays that are required.
The end
to
them a "doubling-plate."
Where the
by
riveting
BOILER DETAILS
165
farther apart than the distance allowed for bolts on a flat surface,
the plate
is
may
be
by gusset-plates
and diagonal stays, which do not interfere with entrance through
"
the manhole above the tubes, as would the " through and through
stays from head to head.
The flat tube-sheets are sufficiently supported by the tubes
when they are expanded and have ends "beaded over" or *' flared."
When very high pressures are used it is well to make some of the
tubes as stay-tubes and thus provide additional support. This is
the practice in many marine boilers. The space between the nests
of tubes, and between outer tubes and side of shell, as also between
furnace-flues, must be stayed, or thickness made sufficient for the
pressure required. These latter spaces often are strengthened by
(See rules below and also
angles or tees riveted to the flat surfaces.
stationary boilers the heads are stayed to the shell
^'
Stays.")
may
the same as
flat
stay-bolts riveted over, screw stay-bolts and nuts, or plain bolt with
STEAM-BOILERS
16G
single nut
by the
be determined
will
following rule:
When
in the construction
marine
would be 112, the constant, multiplied by the square of 7, the thickis 49, would give 5488, which,
divided by the square of 6, which is 36, being the distance from centre
to centre of stays or the pitch, would be 152, the working pressure allowed, provided the strain on stay or bolt does not exceed 6000 pounds
tre,
i"
= 112x16
=112
r^
pounds W. P.
Plates T? inch thick, stay-bolts spaced 5-inch centre
= 112X25 =112
pounds W. P.
Plates T5
T% inch thick, stay-bolts spaced 6-inch centre
112x25
_
oD
= 77
pounds W. P.
Plates I inch thick, stay-bolts spaced 6-inch centre
=112
112x36
^r^
pounds W. P.
Plates above j\ inch thick the pressure will be determined by the
same rule, excepting the constant will be 120; then a plate J inch thick,
stays spaced 7 inches from centre, would be as follows: 120, the constant,
multiplied
by
by the square
is
49,
of 7 inches (distance
an inch, equals
from centre to
120X144
On other flat surfaces there may be used stay-bolts with ends threaded,
having nuts on same, both on the outside and inside of plates. The
working pressure allowed would be as follows:
in sixteenths of
an
by the
pitch or distance of
BOILER DETAILS
Example.
167
by
bolts 14 inches,
would
be
X=
140 144
jog
Same
102 pounds
W.
P.
P.
nuts and a washer at least one-half the thickness of head, where washers are riveted to the outside of the head,
and
of a size equal to f of
on
inside or outside, covering the area braced, will equal the thick-
ness of head and washers; the head and stiffening-plate being riveted
an inch.
Then, by
= .9
inch
= 14.4
sixteenths
rule,
200X14.4' = 200X207.36
,
, ^
='^11 pounds
W. P.
fp
19^
Example.
centres,
press-.u-e
as determined
by formula
STEAM-BOILERS
168
Then, by
rule,
200X16^ = 200X256
=261
j^i
^^^
YgQ
^
, ^
pounds
W. P.
of the thread.
2.
Working
in
which
pressure,
^7-,
S
C
"
"
"
less,
fitted
with screw-
screw-stays with
riveted heads
"
^'^
and
less,
fitted
with screw-stays
and nuts;
"
and under
^^, fitted
/j,
"
C
C
"
140 for iron plates fitted with stays with double nuts;
"
150 for iron plates fitted with stays with double nuts,
"
"
are at least ^ of
the pitch in
fitted
and
of stays,
BOILER DETAILS
169
C may be
C may
be increased as follows:
140 increased to 175
" 185
C=
"
160
" 200
" 220
Working pressure
in
which
t'
in
number.
fr(Mn
.
Working pressure
in
140 X^
^^
Working pressure
in
in
C
C
"
130
if
"
140
if
"
150
they are
fitted
with nuts;
if
they are
fitted
170
STEAM-BOILERS
which
in
denotes 160
if
is
a stay-tube and
"
170
the plates.
The thickness
of tube plates of
be
less
pXwXs
1600X(.s-d)'
in
which
"
"
"
"
Flues.
In
internally
by
in inches;
On all such
collapsing.
the pressure
is
Should the section not be perfectly cylindrical, the external pressure will tend to increase the flatness and finally cause collapse.
acts in an opposite
way from
internal pres-
P_
~ 806,300X/'-"
Ld
BOILER DETAILS
in
which
"
thickness in inches;
"
"
"
diameter
"
"
length in feet;
171
"
''
but
this rule is
As
in all boiler
work
it is
is
customary to use
is
is
furnace-flue,
rather than
w411 give
The heat
t^,
flues.
and the
effect of
expansion
is
tively the
Owing
by making d equal
in
of the ellipse.
flues
cannot
cases.
made
The simplest
flues are
When
Riveted
flues are
they are very difficult to rivet to the flange on the end plate, unless
the rivets can be driven from the outside of flue, which is seldom
the case on account of the proximity of the shell or other flues.
When
The
suffice.
STEAM-BOILERS
172
In
flues of large
diameter and great length it would be necesIn order to keep the metal thin, the
must be strengthened
flue
may
be
amount
Except with
This method
is
of additional strength
flue
Fig. 38.
Flue
enough except
Reference
is
made
to failure
When
may
be placed at
BOILER DETAILS
173
Care must also be taken not to allow them to interfere with convection currents, or to permit them to collect sediment or scale.
3.
By
The butts
each leaf the butting ends of the flue sheets (Fig. 40).
Fig. 39.
Flue
Strengthening by
Fig. 40.
Flue
Strengthening
by Tee Ring
Tee Ring.
Joint.
should be spaced apart far enough to calk the edge. This space
must vary with the thickness, but for ordinary plates about one inch
will suffice.
The
size of tee
The objection
4.
is
By Flanging
web be
its
thickness equals
the Edges.
Fig. 41.
Flue
Strengthening
Fig. 42.
Flue
Strengthening by
Flanging.
by Flanging.
but
43).
is
It
allows a certain
amount
of longitudinal
fire,
together
less
STEAM-BOILERS
174
6.
By
Adamson
the
This
Ring.
or tee rings,
is
is
The ends
make.
Fig. 43.
Flue
it is
not a
Flue Strengthening
Fig. 44.
the Adamson Ring.
not so
is
the sheets.
The
Strengthening by the
Bowling Hoop.
The object
difficult joint to
much
them
by
(Fig. 44).
Its thickness
may
be equal to that of
The advantages
joint; the
making
By
Galloway Tubes.
FiG. 45.
Flue
made
and
Some-
flues
They
should be shaped like a truncated cone with the large end up, to
facilitate circulation
BOILER DETAILS
175
They
end, increasing to twice that at the large end (Figs. 19 and 20).
Large
flues
not rely on the additional strength lent by these tubes, but are also
strengthened by rings of some convenient design. The disadvantage
of these Galloway tubes
8.
Flues are
made
is
of other forms
patented shapes,
btlt
Fig. 46.
(Fig.
46),
Fox's
Morison's
The
Fig. 47.
Morison's
STEAM-BOILERS
176
flue, so
as to facilitate removal.
made it has the advantage of placing the rivet-heads out of the direct
play of the flames, and in consequence will be more durable.
Fig. 48.
flange
Purves'
This
of the flue
The
corrugations.
the
is
flatter,
therefore,
the
off
depressions, the
greater will be the ease of cleaning, and the less the resistance offered
by D. B. Morison,
article
form
This article
of
elasticity
of furnace-flues.
This
is
easy that
many
Tapping
is
so
designed so
as
to
BOILER DETAILS
177
The following
all
riveted
and lap-welded
flues
For any flue requiring more pressure than is given in table, the same
be determined by proportion of thickness to any given pressure in
And
all
such
flues shall
re-
one into the other and suband the thickness of material required for any such
flue of any given diameter shall in no case be less than the least thickness prescribed in the table for any such given diameter; and all such
flues may be allowed the prescribed working steam pressure if in the
opinion of the inspectors it is deemed safe to make such allowance.
And inspectors are therefore required, from actual measurement of
each flue, to make such reduction from the prescribed working steam
pressure for any material deviation in the uniformity of the thickness
of material, or for any material deviation in the form of the flue from
that of a true circle, as in their judgment the safety of navigation may
stantially riveted,
require.
Rule.
178
STEAM-BOILERS
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CCCCCCC-CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCfiCC
BOILER DETAILS
179
STEAM-BOILERS
180
and diameter
such
of flue
flue,
by the
greatest length,
the desired length of sections, in feet, from centre line to centre line of
rivets in the circular
seams
of such sections,
will give
Tubes and
flues
made
of
any
Lap-welded
ing to
their
table.
Outside
respective
diameters,
as
prescribed
in
the
following
BOILER DETAILS
circles, shall
181
ing formula:
m
.
Pressure
where
T = thickness
in inches
D =mean diameter
The strength
15,000 ^
pounds =
X1
j-
in inches.
than described
in the
when used
for furnaces or
steam-
chimneys (corrugation not less than 1^ inches deep and not exceeding
8 inches from centres of corrugation), and provided that the plain parts
at the ends do not exceed 9 inches in length and the plates are not less
than five-sixteenths inch thick, when new, corrugated and practically
true circles, to be calculated from the following formula:
14,000
j;--
where
7'
= thickness
D = mean
^=
pressure,
XT
in inches;
diameter in inches.
RIBBED FURNACE-FLUES.
The strength
of ribbed flues
when used
for furnaces or
steam-chim-
neys
(rib projections
ends do not exceed 9 inches, and constructed of plates not lass than
seven-sixteenths inch thick, with practically true circles; and
The strength of corrugated flues when used for furnaces or steamchimneys, corrugated by sections with flanged ends overlapping each
other and riveted with |-inch rivets, 2-inch pitch, corrugated projection
not less than 2^ inches from inside of flue to outside of lap, and not more
than 18 inches between centres of corrugation, provided plain parts at
ends do not exceed 12 inches in length, constructed of plates not less
than seven-sixteenths inch thick, with practically true circles; and
The strength of ribbed flue?, when used for furnaces or steam-chimneys, when made in sections of not less than 12 inches in length, measuring from centre to centre of said projections, and flanged to a depth
not exceeding 2^ inches, and substantially riveted together with
Avrought-iron rings between such flanges, and such rings have a thickness of not less than double the thickness of the material in the flue and
a depth of not less than 2^ inches, when straight ends do not exceed
12 inches in length, shall, in each of the above cases, be calculated from
the following formula:
CxT
STEAM-BOILERS
182
C = 14,000,
where
a constant;
r= thickness
of flue in decimals of
)= diameter
of flue in inches;
"p
When
= pressure
an inch;
steam aUowable.
of
made
than 8 feet
than 2^ inches, and substantially riveted together with wrought-iron rings between such flanges,
and such rings have a thickness of not less than half an inch and a
wddth of not less than 2^ inches, or, in lieu thereof, angle-iron rings
are employed, and such rings have a thickness of material of not less than
double the thickness of the material in the flue and a depth of not less
than 2^ inches, and substantially riveted in position with WTOught-
in length
in sections of less
of not less
surface of the flue, at a distance from the flue not to exceed 2 inches,
less
flue,
not to exceed 6 inches from centre to centre at the outer surface of the
flue, the distance between the flanges, or the distance betAveen such
angle-iron rings, shall be taken as the length of the flue in determining
thickness of material
re-
having a diameter of not more than 42 inches and a length of not more
than 40 inches, except as hereafter otherwise provided, shall be deter
viz.,
89,600 XT'
'P~
where
2>
= pressure
L= length
vertical
in
pounds;
an inch;
steam allowable
of flue in feet;
Z)= diameter
All
'
of flue in decimals of
of
T = thickness
LxD
of flue in inches.
boiler
BOILER DETAILS
And
braced.
183
centres of
the stay-bolts in the furnace and not in the shell of the boiler and the
steam pressure allowable shall be determined by the distance from
;
shell, shall
be built as follows:
The outer
shell
The
shells of boilers,
flue.
as follows:
FOR LININGS.
Fifty-five inches
plates shall be at
Sixty-five inches
shall
be at
On
or for
all
steam pressure
of
60 pounds and under per square inch, the lining shall be braced with
socket-bolts, with heads, and with ends of bolts threaded for nuts, with
plate washers not over 12 inches between centres (or equivalent) on
the inside of the lining; bolts to be at least 1 inch diameter.
On or for all boilers using salt water, carrying a steam pressure
over 60 pounds per square inch, the lining shall be braced with socketbolts,
with heads, and with ends of said bolts threaded for nuts, with
184
STEAM-BOILERS
by the diameter
bottom
at the
of the thread
of said bolts.
On
or for
all
may
be braced
viz.,
with iron or
to outer shell
thick,
and
thick,
may
by
Constant, 89,600;
D = diameter
t
in inches
= thickness
L= length
in decimals of
an inch;
in feet;
p = pressure
of
steam allowable
in
pounds.
89,600 X'
Formula:
^n
^P-
And
the length of the lining or flue shall be the distance between centre
and
row
than 2i
feet,
but in no case
be greater
2.
Board
in
of
Trade (British)
is
.,,,,,,,
,
,
J
does not exceed
provided
that the pressure
^
^
'
-.
BOILER DETAILS
185
Value of Constants
'90,000 where the longitudinal seams are welded.
Furnaces
and
with buttjoints
and
fitted
and
drilled
fitted
rivet-holes.
and
fitted
Furnaces
and
with butt-
fitted
and
punched
joints
and
fitted
rivet-holes.
and
fitted
and bevelled.
Furnaces
with lapped
joints
and
drilled
and bevelled.
rivet-holes.
and bevelled.
Furnaces
with lapped
and
punched
joints
rivet-holes.
The above
when of steel,
'
and bevelled.
60,000 where the longitudinal seams are single-riveted
and not bevelled.
constants are for use
when
flues are
X thickness
in inches
The diameter
is
ribs.
STEAM-BOILERS
186
When
and
and the
is
9900Xt/
SXd
in
1 + V2
60X/
"
in inches;
The radii of the flanges on the fire side should bo about 1^ inches.
The depth of the flanges from fire side should be three times the diameter of the rivet plus 1^ inches, and the thickness of the flanges should
be as near the thickness of body of plates as practicable. The distance
from edge of rivet holes to edge of flange should not be less than diameter
of rivet, and the diameter of rivet at least | inch greater than the thickness of plate. The depth of ring between flanges should be not less
than three times the diameter of rivet, the fire edge of ring should be
at about the termination of the curve of flange, and the thickness not
It is very desirable
less than half the thickness of the furnace plate.
After all welding, flanging and heating
that these rings should be turned.
is completed each ring should be efficiently annealed in one operation.
Tubes.
In
size required
draft
number
the
of tubes
and the
for purposes of
previous chapter.
surface, it
The
used.
With hard
used;
scot.
187
BOILER DETAILS
It
is
not advisable to
or 60 diameters
it is
better to use
more
it is
assists
power
of the boiler.
shell, so
also should
tal return-tubular
and similar
between outer
than 3 inches, and when the boilers
less
should be more.
it
in horizontal
and
vertical rows,
so that the steam bubbles can have a direct passage through the
vertical spaces to the surface,
locomotives.
be
is
less
The
in
When
by
at least
of tubes should
downward
between the tubes and the shell. As a general thing it is difficult to get the tubes low enough.
In large shell boilers, like the Scotch, the top row should not be
STEAM-BOILERS
188
higher than one-third the diameter of shell from the top, but ma}' be
when
is
very regular, as
for
is
to
trial
to scale, of the
Provided that the total area of tube opening be neither too large
nor too small, the economy appears to be little affected by the size
of the tube employed.
Still,
as small tubes
choked with soot than large ones, the latter had better be used with
soft coals and wood, unless the conditions are such as to permit
frequent cleaning. Tube diameters are always given on outside
measurement, so that the area of opening corresponds to a diameter
equal to that of tube less twice the thickness.
The tubes
In large
When used,
made
is
generally
made
drawn
brass,
of solid
iron or steel.
a stay tube.
and of lap-welded
Brass
nished.
little
wear and
25 per cent of
causes, (a)
The
nickel.
A. F.
steel for
Yarrow
made some
and
BOILER DETAILS
189
The corrosion tests showed that mild steel lost sixteen and a half
times more weight than nickel-steel, and the oxidization tests two
and nine-tenths times. The superheated steam tests showed a loss
in nickel-steel of 12.7
grammes against
85.2
grammes
in mild steel,
would have to be replaced two and onethird times as often as nickel-steel ones.
The expansion test showed
that nickel-steel expands more than mild steel in the ratio of four to
three.
Small amounts of nickel, about five per cent, produced onlyor that mild steel tubes
slight gains.
Table XVII
THE GREATEST NUMBER OF TUBES USUALLY PLACED IN HORIZONTAL RETURN
TUBULAR BOILERS
Diameter of
Boiler-Shell
in Inches.
STEAM-BOILERS
190
Fig. 49.
Prosser's
Tube Expander.
O!
Ei
Fig. 50.
Dudgeon expander
Dudgeon's
Tube Expander.
""^^l
II""
rr II II
.,
'
" " " " " " " " "'" " " " " " 1
I, >i ii-ii
irn HI
.,
II II II II II li
II II II II II II II
"
'< 'I
mandrel carry-
by turning the
"""
II II It'll II II II II II II II II II II II 11 II II II
1
Fig. 51.
Effect
expander and
mandrel while
into a tight
of
flared,
it is
fit.
gently forced
The
effect of
in,
in Fig. 51.
latter
is less
BOILER DETAILS
191
that
is,
rolled
practice as
any
is,
will
bead smoothly,
after expanding,
a slightly
so
make
to
be
should
it
slightly flared
(Fig. 51a).
all
milled
off
evenly
antl
ject
Some
engineers prefer to
make
power of
made, the inner
the tube.
sharp
If so
must be slightly
The holding power of
edge
rounded.
Fig. 52.
made
tube-plates,
They
all
pres-
are fastened
192
STEAM-BOILERS
In order to increase the holding power, to pre-
many
leaking,
They
nozzle.
end, although
many
end
cool.
all
less
resemble a
spiral or corkscrew
the tube.
replaced
tube, or
when worn
They work
out.
vaporized
in
the
This
furnace.
especially apparent in
boilers
difficulty
is
when made
an accumulation of soot
without obstructing the draft, have too great a
sufficiently large to allow
sectional
area
when
oil
is
used.
With
oil fuel
r^
''
BOILER DETAILS
by the pressure
of the burner
193
the stack.
the
Acme
patent retarder
Fig. 54.
these
Acme
Acme
them
Oils.
cence for some time after the fuel has been shut off and will tend'
to reignite the gases should the flame
tinguished
by water getting
into the
oil.
tried
They produced no smoke and were found to reduce the temperatures, when used with the Lassoe-Lovekin air-blast and Rockwell
steam-blast pulverizers, as follows:
Trial without
* *
'
'
"
Temperature at
Base of Stack.
850 F.
any retarders
750
Acme
Acme
'
retarder
680
"
550
'
450
'
194
STEAM-BOILERS
(Fig. 55)
is
These
and
is
effect
much
some economy. It
and much more
stiffer
is
more
probably,
costly at
in
first,
many
but
cases,
The ribs
some
extent.
As some area
is
occu-
or
list
Serve
calorimeter.
Tube.
BOILER DETAILS
195
They may be passed through the stayed sheet with the ends
over, or screwed into the sheet with riveted ends, or
screwed into the sheet with a nut or with a nut and a washer.
Flat or square stays are usually flanged and forged on the end to
riveted
Fig. 56.
Screw
and
riveted.
Fig. 57.
Screw
and
fitted
with nuts.
rods.
by simply
supported
is
smaU,
riveting a tee or
it
two
When
56, 57,
and
Fig. .58.
Screw Stay, ends not
upset, fitted with nuts and washers.
threads.
Fig. 59.
Stay
bottom
fitted
ferrule.
of the
with
STEAM-BOILERS
196
between the sheets. This will leave the twist of the thread continuous and facilitate its insertion. A smooth surface is better able
to withstand corrosion, which is very liable to attack the metal at
the base of the thread.
In such cases
diameter of stay.
it is
and
(Figs. 57
58.)
make
joint
end
is
may
is
many
all
the ferrules of
Fig. 60.
Large
Stay
End
with
Fig.
61.Large Stav
Nuts.
These small stays often are drilled with a hole about ^ inch in
tell-tale (Fig. 56). Should
corrosion cat through the stay, steam will blow out of this hole.
is
common
practice in locomotive
work
to drill a tell-tale
These
in
tell-tale
due
Am.
Soc. M. E.,
June 1898.
See paper by F.
J. Cole,
Trans.
BOILER DETAILS
197
with a nut, and when necessary with a washer. For very large
stays, or for stays sustaining heavy pressures, an additional nut or
lock-nut on the inside should be used (Fig. 61).
may
but
plate,
may
or
When
double
much
thread.
should
cases
have
on the
a packing
(Fig.
made
usually
of
62),
as-
Fig. 62.
and
red lead, or
is
made
Stays, showing
of
cement.
Nut for
Packing Groove.
stay to be withdrawn.
The
by about ^
larger
have to be
manhole
in
pieces.
Such
Bolt in
flat
Double Shear.
attachments in tension,
when ample
rivet section
sheets.
This
method
is
which
is
provided.
objectionable, but
Such
allowable
STEAM-BOILERS
198
The
bolts,
double eyes on the stay end to straddle the leg of the tee (Fig.
them
(Fig. 64).
When
(Figs. 63
out.
If bolts
are used,
then double or lock nuts are to be preferred to single nuts, and the
bolt so placed as not to fall out
FiG. 64.
Fig.
in
Double Shear.
65. a Method
acci-
of Fail-
When
If
is
bolts.
pressures.
Gusset-plates are often used, with the advantage that they act
stiffness.
joined
BOILER DETAILS
between the head and the
shell
o o o o
^.
199
may
head
have
sufficient
are
and
70.
Crown-sheets of fire-boxes
are stayed either directly to
by stay-bolts to a
In the former plan
the shell or
girder.
each stay
is
made
as nearly
possible.
In
con-
which
is
In
objectionable.
66.Gusset
can be made
Plate Stay
ried
sheet, as in the "Belpaire
sheet (the
fire-box
sheet
fire-box.
to
the fire-box
and be
the
car-
crown-
the
part) which
many
joining
parallel
flat,
is
objected to by
shell.
for strength,
renders
inspection,
cleaning
reach
across the
sheet by resting
plates of the
crown-
on the end
fire-box,
FiG.
to Stirrup
to Distribute the Support.
From
these
STEAM-BOILERS
200
stay-bolts
girders
support the
crown-sheet.
The bottom
of
Fig. 68.
Stay
End
Split to
Form
i
Fia. 69.
Diagonal Stay
parallel at
b.
The form at
a,
and
in
scale
have
ferrules.
not
less
BOILER DETAILS
201
Great care must be taken to rest the girder ends firmly on the
end plating and to see that the pressure is not sufficient to crush
3
Fig. 70.
those
plates.
Huston
Girders
Form
may be
of
strengthened
by having stays
shown.
The
steel,
side,
all boilers;
Fig. 71.
Girder
Cro\sTi-i-heet.
is,
be about 14 inches
STEAM-BOILERS
202
made
Fig. 72.
outer
shell,
and
is
As the amount
due to a
bending is constant,
be greater than that of long
of
and the former will therefore fail much the sooner. When the
sheet becomes overheated it will bulge under the pressure, and this
bulging tends to open the hole through which the stay passes and
permit the stay end to be drawn through the sheet under a pressure
much below its proper holding value. The nuts are made one
diameter of stay in length, and the locking-nuts about f as long.
The screw-threads should be a fine standard V-shaped gauge with
rounded corners. As stays are apt to corrode rapidly and are
difficult to inspect, they should be proportioned amply heavy.
The load that is carried by a stay depends on the area supported and the pressure. It is difficult to estimate the amount of
ones,
stiffness
of sheets,
but
it is
they
will
BOILER DETAILS
their outor surface,
The
203
thick.
net area, then, between the Umits defined wall be the area that
U.S. Board
1.
of
Where Hat surfaces exist, the inspector must satisfy himself that
the spacing and distance apart of the bracing and all other parts of the
boiler are so arranged that all will be of not less strength than the shell,
and he must
also, after
test,
thoroughly exam-
No
shall
is protected by a socket.
But such screw stay-bolts without socket may be used in staying the
fire-boxes and furnaces of such boilers and elsewhere when such screw
stay-bolts are drilled at each end with a hole not less than |-inch diameter to a depth of at least i^-inch
beyond
when
fresh water
is
Steel stay-
The ends
of such stays
may
be upset to a
sufficient thickness to
And
Any
all
steel
pared at one heat from a solid piece of plate without welds, intended
204
STEAM-BOILERS
for use in
marine
boilers, to
an area
may be allowed
a strain not exceeding 8000 pounds to the square inch.
All steel bars intended for use as stay-bolts to be allowed a strain
exceeding 6000 pounds per square inch of cross-section shall be tested
per square inch of cross-section; exceeding this area,
by the
man-
ner: Inspectors shall promiscuously select one bar from each lot
the
and
which is
test-bar;
and
should any such test-bar break in the bending process the lot from
which the test-bar was taken shall not be allowed to be worked into
stay-bolts for marine boilers.
"Flues".)
2.
Lloyd's Rule.
square inch.
Steel Stays.
8000 pounds per square inch; for stays above 1^ inch effective diamNo steel stays are to be welded.
eter, 9000 pounds per square inch.
The stress is not to exceed 7500 pounds per square inch.
Stay-tuhes.
A^o^cThe
is
made
for
flat surface.
the stays are diagonal to the fiat surface supported, the stress in
by the
is
BOILER DETAILS
The
Girders.
rule of the
.
U.
S.
205
Inspectors
is
the same
The
fitted,
make
by the
as
three
fitted.
It is usual to
ones.
The
Board
rule of the
of
Trade
(British) is as follows:
{W-P)DXL
"
"
"
"
depth of girder
"
"
"
^
C
,,
'
inches
number
of supporting bolts;
A'^
TT
+l
(iV
in inches;
when number
of bolts is
l)XlOOO
+~
when number
,
N+2
odd
oif u
bolts is
1*
even.
The working pressure for the supporting bolts and for the plate
between them should be determined by the rules for ordinary stays
and plates.
Combustion-chamber
is
the
name given
The term
design.
and many
so as to keep the
combustion may be
completed before the products are cooled by the water surfaces.
possible,
furnace proper
boilers are
STEAM-BOILERS
206
It
flues.
boilers of the
is,
therefore, called a
is
"back connection."
In
or steam-chimney.
The capacity
of the
be not
less
BOILER DETAILS
207
the boiler, as ordinary stays cannot be used. The back plate of the
chamber is made parallel to the back head in many boilers, but it
better to make it slant slightly that the water-space may be
The space
wider at the top to facilitate the separation of steam.
at the bottom is made about 4 to 6 inches and widens to 8
is
The back
dependent
on the distance between stay centres, and the stays should be so
arranged as to give a thickness as above. If very high pressures
usually about j\- or f-inch, but varies from
plate
generally
is
to |-inch.
is
are used the thicknesses are slightly increased over the figures just
given.
common
steam and
In single-ended boilers
many
is
not necessary
if
the
if
made.
Riveting.
The
and as they often leak and give trouble, the greatest care
should be bestowed upon them.
The average riveter requires a space of 24 inches to drive a rivet
by hand, but some few experts can close a rivet in 16 inches.
Allowance for riveting often determines the spaces that must be
boiler,
made
in the design.
In order to be tight, rivets should be driven from the water,
steam or pressure
The
joints
ing to the
to
make
may
number
side.
be
of
may
In order
be lapped, or lapped
STEAM-BOILERS
208
76 and 77).
rows the rivets may be arranged as "chain"
riveting, that is, one directly behind the other, or as "zigzag," that
is, staggered.
The latter is much the better for boiler work. The
strips or cover-plates (Figs. 73, 74, 75,
When
in multiple
Fig. 73.
"pitch"
is
Single
the "spacing"
is
is
will
BOILER DETAILS
209
Fig. 74.
It
also a
liable to
is
Double
STEAM-BOILERS
210
FiG. 75.
eter of shank.
plate, that
is,
Single
BOILER DETAILS
211
permits the edge to be calked more easily, and allows for any surplus
The
die.
pan-shaped
called
(Fig. 76).
The allowance
of
is
and spherical
heads
when
hand-
more when
to ^-inch
machine-driven.
In
should be an
allowance of ^^-inch
for each plate when
more than two are
connected.
_
Counter-sunk
ets should
as
much
riv-
be avoided
as possible.
Counter-sunk
heads are
liable
to
Such
to calk.
rivets
when they
under
fittings
Fig. 76.
are placed
flanges
Single
Double Straps.
or
STEAM-BOILERS
212
Fig. 77.
Treble
BOILER DETAILS
213
of the outside
row
Fig. 78.
and
outside.
fire.
a slight
working
calking
of the plates
That the
when
less liable to
be
cold-driven.
may
* If the joint
the
maximum
is
pitch
at least double-riveted,
may
and the
STEAM-BOILERS
214
under the heavy pressure and force the plates apart. While this objection does not seem to be sustained by practice, many of the riveting-machines have a device for holding the plates together during
the operation. Machines will satisfactorily close rivets that are so
large as to be dangerous to work by hand for fear of creating hidden
defects.
Power riveting-machines
steam or compressed
air.
work is
The slower and
shock or blow.
its
under a violent blow the head may be formed first, thus leaving the
shank loose. Dr. Coleman Sellers introduced an improvement in
the steam-riveter, which is also applicable to compressed air, by
adopting a small supply-pipe. This prevents the piston from advancing rapidly and causes
ram.
it
is
1500 to 1600
On
For hot
rivets, a pres-
sure of 50 tons or 100,000 pounds per square inch of area has been
found ample when the rivets are short, and a slightly greater pressure with a slower movement of the ram when the rivets are long.
For -|-inch rivets driven cold, a pressure of 15 tons or 30,000 pounds
has been found sufficient, while at 20 tons the metal in the plates
has stretched. A pressure of 40 tons on an inch rivet driven
hot has given good results, although many use a lower pressure. A
machine capable of exerting 60 tons on the rivet is generally considered amply heavy for the largest-sized rivet likely to be used in
ordinary boiler construction.
The strength
is
sometimes erroneously
and
may
The shearing
BOILER DETAILS
are
This friction
No
allowance
Fig. 81.
is
Effect
Effect of
strength of joint, as
increased
may amount
made
Fig. 79.
Fig. 80.
is
by the
215
single shear.
friction
Resist-
between the
Good
of Indirect Pull
on a Lapped
Joint.
it is very unreliable.
In all lap-joints the
due to the indirect pull, is to open the joint and
neutralize the friction.
Imperfect calking is apt, especially with
thin plates, to open the seam (Fig. 79). The effect of this indirect
pull on lapped joints is shown in Figs. 80 and 81.
With thick
plates the tendency to distort the joint will be greater. In double-
tendency,
216
STEAM-BOILERS
shown
as
in Fig. 82.
Q
Q
O
O
When
used,
single
straps
are
the
open at the
If
placed in-
tendency to
butt
is
in-
creased.
Long rivets
work should be
as the heads
^^^
Fig. 82.- -Cracks in
in
boiler
avoided,
are liable to
to Bending.
The
that
it
rivet-hole
may
is
made y^
i'^ch larger
It is of great
not
*
fill
rivet, so
Many sample
Boiler Inspection
is
If
and
will
apt to occur.
and Insurance
fair
in
The
holes should
BOILER DETAILS
217
The end
of the
punch should be
slightly concave,
make
The hole in
somewhat larger
a clean cut.
the die
is
^
.
x^x^
,.
.\,
the centre.
The
the rivet
may wedge
If
218
STEAM-BOILERS
The strength
plate,
of a riveted joint
on account
by the
holes.
always
is
less
The strength
of
sure.
is
used for testing purposes, and also the plate between the holes
is considered stronger than its actual tensile strength.
These elements of strength are not considered in the calculation, as they
are too variable
and
A riveted seam
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
difficult to credit
fails in
In general a
edge;
place
of the
it
above
often does
new
stresses
it
first
occurred.
resist
of plate should
Plates usually
it is
well to design
new boilers
of rivets.
failure.
is
called the
effi-
The method
when
* The crushing strength can be taken at 90,000 lbs. to 95,000 lbs. per
square inch on an area equal to the diameter of rivet-hole times the thick-
ness of plate.
BOILER DETAILS
219
the rivets are properly spaced back from the edge and between rows,
is
as follows:
Single-riveted Joint
Steel plate, tensile strength per square inch of section, 60,000 lbs.;
in.
Shearing resistance of
= 1.875;
steel rivets
X 0.375X60,000 = 23,906
lbs.
of solid plate;
lbs.=strength of net
section of plate;
The
rivet strength
is
Double-riveted Joint
In double-riveted lap-joints an accession of strength
is
found
are
there
is
more
The
rivet area to
be
sq. in.;
in.;
Shearing resistance of
steel rivets
lbs.;
lbs.
net
section of plate;
of
two
rivets in single
shear.
Net section
of plate
is
220
STEAM-BOILERS
Triple-riveted Joint
In a
Thickness of plate, |
in.
= 0.375;
in.
= 3.5;
= strength
lbs.
X 0.375X60,000 = 60,469
lbs.
of solid plate;
= strength
lbs.
net
of
section of plate.
0.5185X3X45,000 = 69,997
lbs.
= strength
of three rivets in
single shear.
is
is
76.7%.
is
calculated the
same
is
When
same width.
Steel plate, tensile strength per square inch of section, 60,000 lbs.
Area
= 0.5185 sq.
inches = 3.5;
of rivet-holes
Pitch of rivets, 3^
in.;
lbs.
of solid plate;
lbs.
= strength
of
net
section of plate;
0.5185X3X78,750 = 122,495
lbs.
= strength
of three rivets ia
double shear.
Net section
This
is
is
of plate
is
is
76.7%.
too great.
although there
The
is
rivets should
no advantage
BOILER DETAILS
221
The
selection was made simply to show the method employed and to afford comparison with the next case.
|-inch.
When
is
The rivets in the outside row now are in single shear. This arrangement increases the net section of plate and reduces the area of rivets
to be sheared, thereby increasing the efficiency of the joint.
Steel plate, tensile strength per square inch of section, 60,000 lbs.;
Area
of rivet-hole
= 0.5185
sq. in.;
lbs.
section
of plate;
of
four
rivets
rivet
in
in
double shear;
one
single
shear;
strength
of
all
five
rivets.
Net section
of plate
Many
made
of
is
is
much used on
heavy
is
plates.
an allowance
88.4%.
by making
between perfora-
an allowance
Many
of 10 per cent.
lowing formula:
by
trial,
using the
fol-
222
STEAM-BOILERS
Q{a)...:iv-<^xm
-^
'.
'
"
.'
,-
^
= percentage
compared to
\,..'
= percentage
(&).
^,
'
^
of strength of plate
at joint, as
.
solid plate;
of strength of rivet, as
compared
to solid plate;
in
which
"
"
"
"
number
"
inches
of rivets sheared;
and 1.75
the tensile strength of plate, and also since the holes are not always
drilled fair
and
true, it is
as 12 to 8;
as 28 to 23.
(6) to
The size of rivet should depend upon the thickness of plate, although practice has become more or less uniform in the use of certain sizes for different plates.
No doubt higher efficiencies would
be obtained by using larger rivets in the thicker plates than are
commonly adopted. Boiler-rivets are seldom used of larger size
than 1| inches in diameter, owing to the difficulty of driving them.
American practice rarely uses rivets between the even ^ inch in
diameter, although foreign builders adopt the intermediate sizes
varying by yV inch, a practice which has much to commend it.
It is always most convenient for manufacturing reasons to design,
whenever possible, all joints in the boiler with the same-sized rivets.
Table XVIII represents about the average practice of boilershops, showing the size of rivet and pitch. When iron rivets are
used, the pitch can be reduced. The figures have been adopted for
simplicity and uniformity, rather than for producing the strongest
The low efficiency in some cases is probably
possible combination.
BOILER DETAIl
more than offset by the decrease in risk of ruining^^j5late D^'lncQf re(jK
which might occur in a shop if no standara>^pe adp^^^fc^
drilling,
Table XVIII
DETAILS OF RIVETED JOINTS
STEAM-BOILERS
224
A double butt-strap must not be less than five-eighths the thickness of plate.
When
is
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ]
)QQ,QQQ>QQQQQQQQ\
Fig. 84.
Insurance
Company, described
in the issue of
The Locomotive
Welding. Boiler-sheets have been joined by welding. Although only used to a limited extent, this method has many promising advantages.
The strength
The
of the weld,
when
225
BOILER DETAILS
For making
domes, cylinders for storing gases under heavy pressures, and for
special shapes, welding has been very successful.
to that of the sheet, but always cannot be relied upon.
rollers.
FiG. 85.
tion,
first
portion
being welded
afterward.
Cor-
rugated and similar forms of flues and boiler-tubes are always lapwelded.
Electric welding
is
226
STEAM-BOILERS
piece
is
has been prevented by the irregular strengths of the welds, the efficiency varying from about 50 per cent to 100 per cent. Steel can-
1' /"
STEAM PRES5URE
150 LBS.
20 SPCS. OF 2Vl
^-3
Fig. 86.-
Butt-strap.
Boilers of
all
Most
steel,
no setting beyond
the foundation.
is
is
the newly
is
made
badly
cracked.
BOILER DETAILS
227
the
with
filling
of all spaces
better plan
fire-clay.
at stake.
filter
All doors
effi-
cast-iron
frame and bricks. The doors should fit snug. Since the draft is
always inward, the leakage is not readily visible or determinable.
It is a good practice to paint the brick setting with some heavy
tar paint.
walls to
air space
and
This arrange-
The
joints should be
The mortar
is fre-
When
lime.
an
they should
The outer
When
need be
by
tie-rods abovit
be quickly noticed.
should be
STEAMBOILERS
228
it
may
The tops
of
may
a
not a good plan, as
better plan is to cover
This
is
so that
if
When
may be made
in halves
may be
insured.
down
It should
to a proper bearing.
must be tied down both vertically and fore and aft, to prevent
dislodgement due to rolling, pitching or collision. The size of
these steel tie-pieces cannot be calculated, but are made to suit
the conditions and judgment of the designer.
It is often convenient to estimate the
approximate number of
BOILER DETAILS
Table
NUMBER OF BRICKS
.5
'c
XIX
IN BOILER SETTINGS
229
230
STEAM-BOILERS
and 125.)
The split bridge often materially
intelhgently handled.
must be
CHAPTER IX
BOILER FITTINGS
Steam-dome.
Steam-drum.
Mountings and Gaskets.
Steam-superSteam-pipe.
Steam-chimney.
Stop-valve.
Dry Pipe.
BoilerInjector and Pump.
Feed-water Heater, Purifier, and Economizer.
feed.
heater.
Blow-off.
Bottom and Surface Blows. Safety-valve.
Water-gauge.
Steam-gauge.
Try-cocks.
Water-alarm.
Man-hole and Hand-hole. Grates, Stationary and Shaking.
Down-draft
Fire-doors.
Breeching.
Ash-pit.
Uptake.
Smoke Connection.
Grates.
Draft Regulator. Steam-traps. Separators. Evaporators.
Filters.
Fusible
Mud-drum.
Plug.
It is
well to place
On
dome
the moimting
may
STEAM-BOILERS
232
thickening plate
may
Corrugated-copper gaskets
making
will
when
all bolt-
holes.
Fig. 87.
Steam-dome.
BOILER FITTINGS
imaginary than
233
As usually constructed, they are not suffisteam room, and a few strokes
exhaust them. Also, judging by the mud and
real.
scale that often accumulates within, they are of little aid in furnish-
may be
used
to better advantage.
Domes weaken
shell,
shell
is
WhMi
large
is
same
as
if
the formation of a
it is
man
only
to pass
The edge
The
caused by the
the edge.
for a manhole.
shelf,
mud
will collect.
steam be too
The top of the dome can be made out of one sheet, and be
flanged to meet the shell of the dome, having the lap on the inside.
This top can be bumped so as to be self-supporting, being made as
dome.
hole
is
is tw^ice
that of the
Often a man-
STEAM-BOILERS
234
Steam-drum
space, as
it
better than a
is
dome
n,M,,iii;i)ii,,ii,ui,:iuiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiii:ii-rw*
:i}} .1,1111,
II
',
iiwiiniiiiui},>}},t,ii,)JiiiJiiii}J,i>t,}}}ii
I, I,
dome and
requires less
mm,
,11,
i,uii3,,ii,i,
III,
}n,,,i
UI>MIIIIU..VI,IIIIIIM,l,l,lyU,l,lll,llll,
Fig. 89.
The drum
is
The heads
P'lG. 90.
two
nozzles.
is
objectionable
235
BOILER FITTINGS
INCHES
STEAM-BOILERS
236
superheater, although
the
may
it
the bottom.
enter
In the
This drain
generally
is
made
pipe,
is
expected.
is
be
securely supported
The
flange-bolts do not
the valve
braced.
and
have
vibration caused
the steam-pipe.
supported by long
flat
or angle braces,
higher up on the
Steam-chimney
is a steam-dome
which the smoke-
weakens the
large a piece,
shell
It necessarily
by cutting out so
and has
all
the disadvan-
Braces
An^;le
Support Stop-valve.
Fig. 92.
tional
to
advantages
over
the
any addiordinary
size.
Steam-chimneys are seldom used except on "marine" type of boilers designed for steam pressures of
BOILER FITTINGS
237
X heating
100
V,(Pressure
in
inch.
room
is
cut-off, long-stroke,
slow-speed type.
much
is
to see
boiler
It
it
by Seaton's
rule,
and, according
it \nll
wet steam
is
A separator is a safeguard in
prevent a possible accident to the engine from
water, whether the water comes from priming, condensation,
is
recommended.
it will
carelessness or otherwise,
and
it also will
act as a steam-reservoir.
Wrought-iron and
for
6000
-|-
:r^,
16
may be
16,000 feet.
STEAM-BOILERS
238
oOOO
in
+ 32
?r^
which
straight
parts and short bends two gauges thicker, as the material at the
back
is
thinned by bending.
The
bend
is
of un-
system,
Seamless-
bent over into a recess turned in the face of the flange, to pre-
vent
its
BOILER FITTINGS
239
At times the
Copper
Avas originally
and
its ductility
flexibility.
The diameter
is
of the ^dre
is
section.
It
may
be wound
in spirals with closely laid coils, usually three wires being used for
safety; or it
twisted.
may
August, 1899).
The figure is self-explanatory, and shows
method of driving the cotters, as well as of passing bends and
making a hub for a branch.
The coefficient of expansion of copper is 0.00000887 for each
ing,
the
of
degree Fahrenheit.
Wrought-iron and
of copper.
When
steel
is
now being
selected.
joint.
is
STEAM-BOILERS
240
With
a riveted butt-strap
steel pipes,
if
is
METHOD OF
is
is
sometimes
fitted
over
unnecessary.
It
DRIVING KEY8
Fig. 93.
Reinforcing Steam-pipes.
may
be
made
made
straight,
but bends
than 6 inches in diameter, and four times the bore for pipes as
large as 12 inches.
The
The
coefficient
and
steel pipes is
not
serious, as
experience.
of expansion
is
pipe-making
* Reference
Trans.
Am.
is
is
is
is
its
treacherous
charcoal iron
made
to paper
fittings.
XV,
1894.
BOILER FITTINGS
241
joints
at the engine.
They
1.
Two
Both
down
but of an aggregate
was operated
in times of emer-
gency.
2.
Two
sets of mains,
one of
time.
Two
and one
full size
made
is
of smaller, the
in reserve.
Some
and plants
of similar character
still
electric-lighting
stations
is
valves and
surface, joints,
fittings.
Ample allowance
pipe designs, as
for expansion
most
of the
must be provided
failures
in all
steam-
been circumferential fractures near the flanges, instead of longitudinal fractures near the middle of length as when the pipe
is
burst
when
testing.
Such
failures
are caused
by expansion
longitudinally
is
Still
stiffer
another method
that
is,
is
in
STEAM-BOILERS
242
slip-joints.
so as to receive the
and
slip-joints,
as the
ma-
terial,
steel are,
required
bends.
Cast-iron, wrought-iron
slip-joints
must be made.
Some
slip-joints.
Fig. 94.
These joints are liable to give trouble, but with care in the
design of the whole arrangement they need not be more troublesome than flanged joints subjected to cross-stresses or copper
pipes hardened by repeated alteration of form.
In the design of the slip-joint it is essential that the lengthening of the pipe shall actually work into the joint, and neither enter
so far as to bind nor pull out by contraction or blow out by pressure.
This
is
so that
all
When
both the joint and the far end of the entering pipe be fixed,
no danger of the joint blowing out, unless there be a bend
in the pipe.
When these bends occur, safety-stays should be
used to tie the bend to the fixed part. These ssfety-stays are
frequently fitted on slip-joints with straight pipes, but are not
there
is
necessary.
Safety-stays,
two or
the
On
tail pipe.
When
the pipe
is
fixed
less tightening, or it
may
over the stay and cut the proper length to reach between the
safety-flange
joint.
I
o
5"
STEAM-BOILERS
244
offsets
is
suitable size.
sizes, so as to
and
made
fitting.
of brass or of composition,
same or
of cast-iron, cast-steel,
and welded
on.
The commonest
is
is
Fig. 95.
solder.
flange
slightly bevelled so as to
It is the simplest
Fig. 96.
side,
BOILER FITTINGS
a
The
245
and
On
iron
and
steel pipes,
when
less
fW|/\|\A/VA/\AAllVa
s
Fig. 97.
The objection
riveted on.
Fig. 98.
for
Copper Pipe.
is
the flange up hard on the pipe (Fig. 99) and then cutting off the
projection by facing up both the flange and pipe end; or by leav-
i
Fig. 99.
ing a recess in the collar and calking in lead, as shown on one side
of Fig. 99.
than screwed
flanges.
is
may
be bolted
STEAM-BOILERS
246
/
13^
^^waaaaaa/vwww
Fig. 100.
on the faces and are bolted together over a copper ring as a gasket.
The objection is sometimes the difficulty of removing and inserting a pipe section. Fig. 101, in which the pipe ends are flanged
Fig. 101.
and
calked.
This
omitted.
It
is
the
charcoal
is
Walmanco
or
iron or mild
Van Stone
steel
pipes
as
it
joint,
and
the
rivets
is
simple
tight
247
BOILER FITTINGS
what the pressure. Fig. 103, in which the flanges are faced and
ground true and bolted directly together, an arrangement that has
proved satisfactory^ with pressures as high as 200 pounds.
The general design of the steam - piping is all - important.
Short and direct connections between boiler and engine, with
fMV\N\Nm^
i^
/.
'/.
^31
Fig. 102.
*vv\/l/\/\^^
F>i
v\
Fig. 103.
Fit.
be formed, make them as few as possible and of, ample size with
drains.
It is an easy matter for steam flowing at 8000 feet per
minute to pick up water and carr}'^ it along.
248
STEAM-BOILERS
equal diameter
may
to facilitate drainage.
The area
duty.
large steam-pipe is
amply
when
it
acts as a reservoir.
regular
it
may
attendants
If
is
diminished.
pipes from the boilers should each rise out of its boiler with a long
All supply branches also
bend and enter the top of the main.
The main should
should take off from the top of the main.
be drained from the bottom by special drain-pipes and the feeders
should never be used for this purpose, as water will not flow back
When
them
it is
best to anchor
by gravity.
on the steam-piping should be so located as
When
the pipe
BOILER FITTINGS
rises
from the
249
be at
the top of the bend and at some distance from the boiler connecIt
tion.
is
distributing main,
local ordinances.
necessarily
globe valve
may sometimes be
used, but in
"v^ith
all
cases
it is
a screw movement.
generally
If the pipe
with the
gate-valve.
may
be,
is liable
to be
to collect.
If
As stop-valves on tops
of boilers
some
accessible point.
both directions.
room
is
All
This
arrangement
them
is
low.
as near together
as
On this account it
may be convenient.
is
well to group
Usually in large
from a
light
down
250
STEAM-BOILERS
that
it
may
It
made
and spindle
made
in
all of
of
gun-metal or bronze.
of
a refinement
is
adopted except
naval vessels.
made
whenever
to close automatically,
gineering
is:
Dia. 01
It
is
falls
spmdle=
dia. of valve,
The
when
it
will carry
a spindle
necessary.
should
X V pressure + J mch.
lead
to a receiving-
pumped back
to the boiler.
the drips lead from mains under different pressures, then the
called
is
an
BOILER FITTINGS
251
arrangement for drawing steam from all parts of the steam space,
and is a very good device for obtaining dry steam and for preIt consists of a pipe fitted inside of the boiler
venting priming.
is
and 20).
upper side only,
its
of the holes for steam entrance into the dry-pipe should be about
The dry-pipe
is
The edges
frequently
shell
made
12,
26 and 27).
from the
shell, so as to
form a passage
material
the
shell.
Boiler-feed.
means
Every
boiler
Many
stationary boilers,
Each
pressure or check-valve, so
its
own back-
it
fall
by
the boiler as possible, with a good screw-closing stop-valve between it and the boiler. This latter valve is used for shutting off
the connections to affect repairs to the check-valve or piping.
The
on the
may
All valves
be of the globe pattern, but good gatevalves are better, except for the stop-valve, as they offer less
feed-pipes
STEAM-BOILERS
252
frictional
water.
any
taining
is
oil
muddy
There
the feed.
of the feed-water
or grease,
it
should be
some
When
the feed
in actual evaporation,
is
much
colder
than the water in the boiler, and then it would appear best to so
admit it that it will assist the natural circulation and at a place
where it will never strike directly against hot heating surfaces,
even when the feed intended for a battery of boilers be concentrated into one by accident or otherwise.
The best place can only be determined after careful study of
the type of boiler and of the scale-making qualities of the water.
Many prefer to have it enter near the bottom, some at the coldest
part, while others favor its admission near the water-line and at
some place where there is a natural downward current.
The consensus of opinion is to admit the feed near the waterline, and to distribute the discharge through a number of small
openings, so as to prevent a solid jet of more or less force from,
If the pipe enters near the water-line and turns down
entering.
on the inside, care must be taken that the open end should be
always in the steam space or below the lowest water-line, and
never be covered and exposed alternately by possible variations
in the water-level.
If the feed-pipe
fills
These explosions,
A very good plan is to carry the pipe into the steam space,
and to terminate it in a horizontal branch, just above the waterwith holes so that the feed will enter as spray. When the
steam space is contracted, it would be better to place the disIf the water carries
tributing pipe just below the water-line.
line,
BOILER FITTINGS
much
lime or magnesia,
253
it
arrangement, leave the ends of the pipe open and omit the holes.
is
enter an open trough carried inside the boiler just above the waterline.
As the trough
fills,
In
spill
may
be used.
This
The disadvantage
rangement due to
of
scale
is
The advantage
is
m
O GO O O O
O G O
Fig. 104.
ooo o
o
to
fail
to
No matter where
cause.
it
amount before
that
refilling
is,
is
common
fall
a certain
in
STEAM-BOILERS
254
of
Fig. 105.
Feed-pipe Entrance.
pumps.
Many
Fig. 106.
boilers
have two
injectors, others
by
two
Feed-pipe Entrance.
BOILER FITTINGS
Injectors are seldom arranged to feed
They
255
boiler.
25 feet, the height depending upon the steam pressiire; but with
a high lift their action is not always reliable. For ordinary conditions, the lift should not exceed five or six feet.
The supply may be under pressure, but it will be found much
better to use a tank with a supply pipe fitted with a "ball cock,"
and arrange the injector to lift the water from it.
Steam Jet
V Suction Jet
C-D-R Combining and
Delivery Tube,
P Overflow Valve
O
M
Steam Plug
Steam Valve and Stem
A
B
N Packing Nut
Coupling Nut
Tail Pipe
Overflow Cap
E Nut
Fig. 107.
for
Stem M
pipe should have a valve near the injector to control the steam-
supply
all
The
principle lipon
STEAM-BOILERS
25G
its velocity.
The momentum
of this
water
is
sufficient to raise
the check-valve and enter the boiler against the steam pressure, as
soon as the overflow has been closed. Sometimes the steam will
When
may
correspondingly larger.
The
injector
is
really
a heat-engine without
moving parts,
work by plac-
In
order
to
accommodate
to
itself
variations
in
apparatus
The
is
so
made
it will
if
and water.
the water-
not operate
As a pumping apparatus, an
a boiler-feeder,
injector
is
very
inefficient;
but as
than horizontal ones, although for ordinary boiler-feeding purFor marine work the vertical pump
poses, there is little choice.
is
much
thus be kept
off
the
bulkhead and
floor.
in excess of the
and when so
main extending along the fronts of the boilers, from which branches
The supply to each is controlled by a
are led to each boiler.
of boilers,
boiler, so as to
BOILER FITTINGS
is
closed.
When
is
257
pump
hot the
should
by
fill
gravity and not by suction, as in the latter case the hot water
liable to vaporize
pump may
fail
to
is
lift
the water.
level.
less
is
to
common
in
it,
The saving
effected
by a hot feed
is
considerable,
and when
ing,
in
I),
The
tables that are usually published showing the saving effected, give
the gross saving and do not consider the items of ccst mentioned
above.
may
in various ways.
the boiler.
can be
258
STEAM-BOILERS
Air
is
culates.
259
BOILER FITTINGS
This
of
consists
heater
SURF/kCE
BLOW
containing
shell
cylindrical
other.
The feed
its
tray,
in
scale
the
cleaned
off.
Open
and
as spray,
falls
warmed by exhaust
is
(or live)
The heater is in
by a back-pres-
steam.
reality closed
surplus
the
relieve
When
steam.
made
of
improperly
open heaters
and choke the exhaust, and therefore should
be fitted with an automatic
may
or
set,
STEAM EXIT
flood
cold-water
Open
supply.
to
clean
and
oil
A
in
extractor.
heater
the
may
be placed
smoke-flue,
and be
gases
Such an
ar-
Fig.
Closed Type.
Heater
STEAM-BOILERS
260
rangement
is
of economizer
is
the most
common,
by scrapers
tageously
when the
draft
is
sufficiently strong.
Their economy
lies
in
the fact that they recover some of the heat passing up the stack.
There
is
it
would
by
itself
having a high ratio of heating surface to grate surface and thus reducing the temperature of the escaping gases to a minimum.*
The first cost of an economizer is about equal to that for the
same amount
of
Economizers have an
advantage in the reserve of a large body of hot water for use in a
minimum must
boiler, in order to
be,
in the
BOILER FITTINGS
J
I?
o
a
261
STEAM-BOILERS
262
WATER SUPPLY
Fig. 110.
BOILER FITTINGS
263
STEAM-BOILERS
264
according to the
is
to be
removed
to be preferred, but
must be arranged
filters
or purifiers.
/TT
r^^
lo
OJ
^J-
Fig.
112. Hot-well
Filter-box.
to be removed, as in the filtration of condensed steam from a surface condenser, the simplest form is to
a'.low the discharge from the air-pump to pass into a hot well or
When
oil
or grease
box divided by
filtering
partitions.
In these compartments
is
placed some
grass, excelsior
(wood
fibre), etc.
pump
is
filtering
is
filtered
BOILER FITTINGS
flannel or
265
be renewed.
is
valve.
use
when the
and
(Figs. 113
Mud-drums
filter
is
being cleaned
114).
of a boiler
is
drum
They
are
is
Owing
to the deposit
the
in
mud-
made
of cast-iron or steel,
and
inci-
STRAINER PLATES
oooooooooooooo o o
oooooooooooooo
OOOOOO ooooooo
D
mud-drums
fitted
with
worked
which
are
Fig.
112a.Details
of
Fig. 112.
With bad waters it would be preferab e to use some suitable form of filter rather than any form of
mud-drum.
Blow-offs. Every boiler must have a blow-off to discharge
the water.
266
STEAM-BOILERS
blow."
and
The function
of the latter
is
to
Fig. 113.
Fig. 114.
Edmiston Type
of
Feed -water
Filter.
Filter,
bottom.
BOILER FITTINGS
267
of the boiler.
Fig. 115.
although copper
^Mud-dnim.
used to discharge
become choked.
On
i,
may
think
it closed.
268
STEAM-BOILERS
Furthermore, the blow-off discharges should be independent from each boiler and not be connected together.
too late.
may
fill
to the action of
cir-
They should be
or
noticed.
By
may be maintained,
with good result as regards overheating and durability.
the valve, a constant circulation of water
in diameter,
according to circumstances.
Fig.
116. Surface
Blow-off.
are recommended.
When
a cooling-tank before
it
sump
it
jection.
made
to
fit
269
BOILER FITTINGS
Every
Safety-valve.
when
boiler
is
two
Safety-
valves are liable to stick fast on their seats, and should be raised
or be bent
boiler.
by a
careless
workman when
become corroded
cannot be readily
in plain sight,
inspected.
by a
spring.
Fig. 117.
(Fig. 117)
have the
advantage of great simplicity and can be least affected by tampering, since they require so much weight that any additional
amount to seriously overload them can be quickly detected. The
high pressure
now
cumbersome.
America.
very
in vogue,
They
are
more used
in
Europe than
in
STEAM-BOILERS
270
support on the valve and the fulcrum around which the arm turns,
same horizontal
in exactly the
may
be no side
The problem
valve
any
The load on the
desired pressure,
is
is
is
to the weight
now
for
independent of gravity.
all
kinds of
with
They
is
are the
lugs, to use
to the
this area.
loaded valves,
and
for spring-
The actual area of opening is always much less than that of the
and the greater the pressure the less will be the valve lift.
valve,
When
lift
the seat
is
is
is less
than the
oblique to the
lift.
W
g
"
"
BOILER FITTINGS
271
gXcXlO gXc
3600 "360
^^^
then
^~
The quantity
under pressures
of
steam that
usually obtained in
modern
atmosphere
may be
practice
estimated thus:
Let
P
then
"-^
(w
Valves seldom
made
in the
the seat
To
is
bevelled.
in
equation
(a)
by that
of
in equation (b),
A safety-valve
it
opened or "popped."
This difference
made
of cast-iron, although
gun-metal base.
In locating a safety-valve, always place
as possible
and avoid
all
it
and carry away the escaping steam through an open pipe rather
than have the pipe between the boiler and the valve. Any pipe
between the boiler and the valve should be as large as the area
272
STEAM-BOILERS
It should
be straight and
self-
They
is
a reliable metal.
which
is
especially
when
some
alloys appears to
steam or pressure
be
made
side,
alloy should
The plug
it is
TYPES
Fig. 118.
Steam-gauge.
Every
boiler should
having an
pressure
is
The
have connected to
it
a clear-
much more
of the boiler-room
may
the
require.
elliptical section,
applied.
OUTSIDE TYPES
The extent
of the straightening
is
magnified
by a system
and portable
boilers.
273
BOILER FITTINGS
gauge according to
its
connection.
The connecting pipe should lead direct into the steam space
and not close to any steam-pipe carrying a flow of steam, lest the
If there is a superheater or steam26 and 27, the steam connection should be made
to the boiler and not to the superheater, as the pressure in the latter
may fluctuate with the strokes of the engine. The connecting 23ipe
to the gauge should be bent to form a trap for water, so that the hot
steam may not enter the instrument. If there is danger of freezing when the boiler is not in use, a straight pipe self-draining back
drum, as
in Figs.
made
made which
show the
may
exist, as
As a
glass
column
is
apt to break,
each connection should be fitted with a valve, and the best valves
are those which have an automatic closing device.
The column
distinctly
facets
may
so set in a metal fitting that the part filled with water appears
be recommended for general use, as the moving parts are all concealed inside the boiler. Fig. 119 shows the usual water-gauge and
try-cock column; and Fig. 120 shows glass-protector guards.
STEAM-BOILERS
274
midway oetween the others. When only two cocks are used, place
them about 5^ inches apart, and when three cocks about 4 inches.
These cocks are best placed directly on the boiler head or
but are often arranged on the glass water-column fixture.
This latter plan is open to the objection that any accident to or
shell,
Fig, 119.
cup and pipe can be arranged to carry off the drip from the cocks,
which should not be allowed to fall on the boiler shell or head.
Some engineers place more reliance on the try-cocks than on
the glass column, while others prefer two separate columns to each
boiler and no cocks.
Water-alarms. These devices are used to automatically give
warning when the water-level is dangerously low or high, and there
are a number of makes on the market.
BOILER FITTINGS
275
of sight
in foreign practice.
good form
TOUGHENED GLASSi
Such an apparatus
is
of water-alarm is that of a
i INCH
'^
Fig. 120
THICK
TOUGHENED GLASS,
INCH THICK
water-column (Fig. 121). The floats are placed inside of a cylindrical casting, which is connected at the top with the steam space and
at the bottom uith the water space of the boiler.
These floats
act on a small whistle, one opening it for lew water and one for high
water. The objection is the complication and liability to get out
of order, due to scale and dirt, as well as the general neglect of the
attendant who is prone to rely on the instrument. If such a device
be adopted, the try-cocks should be on the boiler, and not on the
fixture, as then the boiler could be operated by the cocks while the
column fixture is shut off for repair or cleaning.
Every engineer must rely on his own experience whether such
automatic "safety" appliances are a benefit, and whether their
adoption more than offsets their objections.
Manholes and Handholes. Every boiler should be equipped
with both manholes and handholes so located as to facilitate
In boilers that are compliall parts.
276
STEAM-BOILERS
They may be any shape, however,
seat.
so as to
fit
in
between
and braces.
The standard
flues
for handholes
Fig. 121.
which
is
amount
to
make up
amount
The strengthening
is
of reinforcement
The amount
by experience.
is
by
com-
usually accomplished
of
best determined
by
by
riveting
itself.
The
277
BOILER FITTINGS
unless the shell be subsequently annealed.
is
it
is
stronger
first
or the
curved sheet.
the cover
and Lancashire
boilers, to fit
mounting, riveted to the shell, and to place the manhole upon the
top, but this method is not suitable for heavy pressures.
The covers
made
are
When
bolted to the flange of the mounting with bolts spaced not over
by yokes
or dogs
and
bolts.
should be two yokes, and for small ones and for handholes one yoke
cover
is
The joint between the cover and the boiler should be smooth
and a true fit. It is kept tight by a gasket of hard rubber, thin
asbestos, or corrugated copper, or by a copper wire or fine lead pipe
laid in a groove and squeezed tight by the pressure of the bolts.
Gaskets cut frpm sheets of packing or rubber are the simplest.
Corrugated-copper gaskets make an excellent joint and can be
STEAM-BOILERS
278
Grates.
The
grate
mechanical-stoking
may
class.
cussed in Chapter X.
The
Fig. 122.
it, and the openings should not be too large or the coal will
through unburned.
Provision for allowing air to enter above the grate should always
through
fall
Fig. 123.
surface.
Such
Shell.
liberal
proportions
are
Some
and some
and
125,
but
all
and be increased
in proportion.
For bituminous,
BOILER FITTINGS
279
Fig. 124.
The height
of grate
floor
Air.
should be from 18
Fig. 125.
In internally fired
realized,
furnace-flues
these
Admit
Air.
distances
cannot
be
with soft
280
STEAM-BOILERS
and with small flues use a short grate. Grates should not
be longer than twice the flue diameter in order to accomplish the
coals,
best results.
made
of cast-iron.
Cast-steel
makes an excellent and durable grate, but the castings are somewhat difficult to make, as they are liable to warp when cast.
Grate-bars are usually cast in lengths of 24 inches, 30 inches
and 36
inches, consisting of
XL
Fig. 126.
The
Cast-iron Grate-bar.
clear.
entering air
A^enting
may
twisting.
The bars
are usually f-
inch wide at the top, tapering to |-inch at the bottom, and are from
As depth is advantageous,
amount could be increased when there is plenty of height
in the ash-pit.
The bars are cast with distance-pieces or lugs to
keep the proper spacing and prevent warping. The tops of the
These
and tend to prevent
all
parts of the
fire,
collect in
them.
BOILER FITl'INGS
281
In general, the narrower the bars and spaces the better, but on
account of excessive warping very thin
bars
cannot
Table
XX
and Kind
Screenings
Anthracite, average..
buckwheat,
pea or nut.
'
'
"
"
stove
"
"
egg
broken.
"
UuTip
Bituminous, average.
Wood,
slabs
'
sawdust
"
shavings
of Coal.
Width c
XX.
be used.
282
STEAM-BOILERS
all
Fig. 127.
will
be sufficient.
In corrugated furnaces^
fit
is
no danger of
is
fit
plate
If
an
made
can be
Fig. 128.
BOILER FITTINGS
283
them
are
made
Fig. 129.
Shaking-grate.
Fig. 130.
by
18 inches apart,
made
of a steel strip
circles cut
out to
;
fit
STEAM-BOII.EKS
284
the draft
f:^+
I-
+-1- + +
-t
is
4--I-
-4--4-4-+++4-+4-4- +
+ ,+,+. + ,+,+, +,+.-!-,
>>>i%^
FiG. 131.
Fig. 132.
^Down-draft Grate.
285
BOILER FITTINGS
bustion-chamber the balance of
be readily admitted.
strong draft
is
combustion can
and the rate of combusworked by the fireman, in order to keep the draft clear, which involves extra labor.
Therefore the grate always will be more or less clean, which will
grate generally
is
The
coal should be
will
fire.
admit the
The
ash-pit
combustion.
damper
in the uptake,
them
to check the
grates.
The height
venient, but,
if
of the ash-pit
room
may
be as
much
as desired
and con-
may
Some
vention of clinkering.
In furnace-flues an ash-pan
j-Viiich iron
flues,
plate curved to
fit.
is
often used,
They
made
of ^-inch or
filled flush
is
to
Instead of
with cement.
286
STEAM-BOILERS
When
drawn, the
soon become
corroded. For furnace-flue boilers, as the Cornish, Lancashire
and Scotch, there should be an iron apron to protect the head.
lie
fire
it will
or wrought-steel.
streams the air entering through the door damper. These liners
are made of cast-iron and should be removable (Figs. 133 and 134).
When
or round in section.
overhead,
it is
made
is
are connected, otherwise the boiler nearest the stack will have the
strongest draft.
made
free
from
all
sharp
another.
so that a constant
BOILER FITTINGS
^
M
CO
3)
O
O
If
1
287
288
STEAM-BOILERS
289
BOILER FITTINGS
ing the plunger and opening the damper.
water
is
off
to a trap.
When
Trap
and when it discharges back
Return Trap.
There is a great variety of traps on the market, but the best
forms are those which are least complicated and the quickest and
most readily examined.
A Kieley discharge trap is shown in Fig. 135. This is of the
sewer,
it is
called a Discharge
Fig. 135.
bucket variety. The water floats the bucket and closes the outlet.
When the water rises and overflows into the bucket, it sinks and
the pressure discharges the contents until the bucket again floats
and closes the outlet. The casing is so made that it can be re-
all
290
STEAM-BOILERS
BOILER FITTINGS
Return traps are located above the
291
boiler,
about 18 inches or
by gravity.
The various
A Bundy
return trap
is
is
con-
Fig. 137.
may empty
the balance-weight
and
falls^
SECTION THROUGH A
Fig. 137a.
SECTION THPOUGH
Cross-section
of Fig. 137.,
thus opening the equalizing valve which admits steam from the
boiler through the other trunnion.
The equalizing of the pressure
in the trap
292
STEAM-BOILERS
Separators are devices placed on a steam-pipe to remove the
priming or entrained moisture
carried along with the steam.
be avoided, therefore, as it
augments serious losses in the
and at the engine
piping
through losses of heat by radiation and through changes of
temperature in the cyhnder
Moisture
walls.
in quantity
may
two
by
in-
by
centrifugal action.
In Fig.
137
Potter
mesh
sisting
of
and
in
is
shown
separator, con-
a series of plates;
Stratton
Fig. 138, a
trifugal principle
as close to the
engme
as the
293
BOILER FITTINGS
The water may be automatically removed and discharged by a trap, which is the more
the hot-well, condenser or sewer drain.
satisfactory plan.
Fig. 139.
Salt-water Evaporator.
for boiler-feeding
therefore
ing
large
most used on shipboard and avoid the necessity of carrystorage-tanks, thus reducing weight and increasing
cargo capacity.
STEAM-BOILERS
294
Salt water
is
be avoided
is
used at pres-
salt water,
pass through a
filter
It also
may
be made to
If desired
the steam from the salt water can be passed to the main condenser
of the engine, or to the low-pressure valve-chest of a triple-expansion
engine and be
There are
repaired.
but, like
CHAPTER X
MECHANICAL STOKERS
Classes, Over-feed
suits
and Under-feed,
Advantages.
Disadvantages.
Re-
Obtained by Use.
principles,
those which
"over-feed," or spread the fresh coal on top of the fuel bed, and
those which "under-feed," or push the coal forward beneath the
grate until
it
Fig. 140.
is
coked as
it
nears the
fire
in
forward and upward course. Stokers operating with a revolving endless grate, such as the Coxe Mechanical Stoking Furnace,
are a special form of the over-feed class.
its
trolled
rate of feeding
is
con-
can be used.
295
STEAM-BOILERS
296
fire,
in favor of
of fuel;
steady
is
required;
best advantage.
Fig. 141.
cited
are:
Complications;
lack of
and lack
demands.
grate;
fire
sudden
if
is
a poor investment.
there
is
stoker
assist,
297
MECHANICAL STOKERS
get out of order and have the details properly worked out in accord-
The Steam
valuable
some
statistics,
Fig.
"Stokers
may
Stoker.
In calculating
coal-handling
Steam
and
9.
Report by R.
S.
Hale.
STEAM-BOILERS
298
" Stokers save
smoke
in all plants.
"Stokers cut down the capacity, but not to any great extent,
and
this
may
be made up by extra
draft.
quickly as hand-firing.
"The
force has
repairs
become experienced
ROCKER ARM
TO MOVE
FEED BLOCK
Fig.
"In a
142a.Section
of Fig. 142.
if
they
many
fuel
make
But
possible
it
should
MECHANICAL STOKERS
" If no gain can be
may be
made by
299
still
stokers
for
''
In small plants stokers will be seldom advisable unless the
saving in cost of fuel will be quite large, or unless the smoke
nuisance is serious. In small plants the labor saving is small
or even less than nothing, while the expenses are no less in proportion than in large plants.
"Mechanical stoking
is
from hand-firing
differs
ual motion.
grates.
"The
The
of the grate-bars
intermittent,
as in hand-firing,
is,
the greater
and a
is
loss results.
is
first
too
is
the
loss.
of
coal shows a much greater tendency to vary with soft coals than it
does with hard. Therefore the softer the coal, the more saving by a
stoker.
The
stokers are very apt to drop good coal into the ash-
is
easy
this is
CHAPTER XI
ARTIFICIAL DRAFT
Classification.
Disadvantages.
Selection Depends on
Advantages.
Boiler Must be Suited to Draft.
Vacuum and Plenum
Local Conditions.
Systems Compared.
Fans.
the Grate.
Economy.
Intensity.
Jet in the Stack.
Jet under
Power Required. Closed Ash-pit.
Closed Fire-room.
Induced Draft.
Through
its
increased;
tall
with;
in operation or weather.
The
due
cost of operation,
maintenance and repair; extra complications, and risk of derangement.
The costs for interest and maintenance of a stack necessary
to careless manipulation;
draft system.
An
is
artificial-draft
fuel either at a
commonly known
as forced draft,
and
it
was
originally intended.
Artificial drafts are best classified into "jet drafts" and
Mechanical drafts are again subdivided
"mechanical drafts."
With forced draft the
into "forced draft" and "induced draft."
air is forced through the furnace by mechanical means, and with
300
ARTIFICIAL DRAFT
induced draft the
air
is
301
means.
ical draft
Mechanical
Draft,
issued
by the B.
F. Sturtevant
Company^
Boston, Mass.
In general,
it is
artificial
So many
considerations have to be taken into account, that each case
must be worked out and settled on its merits. While a system
of artificial draft has attractions, there are always surrounding
conditions which have their influence on the selection of the draft
problem, that can neither be overlooked nor undervalued.
Artificial drafts produce either a partial vacuum or a plenum
It is a mooted question which system is the better,
in the furnace.
However,
so much depending on installation considerations.
the induced or partial vacuum systems do not appear to have sa
marked a tendency to burn holes in the fire and produce blowdraft
the
is
better,
or which
should be
adopted.
pipe effects.
The
jet drafts
ical drafts,
comparison.
difference
it is
certainly
not great.
When
The strength
is
expressed in "inches
302
STEAM-BOILERS
to the draft
to the atmosphere.
"Ounces" ex-
presses the weight of this height of water reduced to that unit per
square inch.
as the
designs no other
Fig.
jet also
is
it is
so commercially good.*
The
in Stack.
The apparatus
to derangement
is
and very
effective in
engine
may be
used to advantage
ARTIFICIAL DRAFT
303
and not to any steam-pipe. The size of pipe required depends on local conditions, but ordinarily a 1-inch or a l^inch
boiler
pipe
jet
that
is all
and be
room
is
fitted
necessary.
fire-
floor.
jet,
cross, of
Fig. 144.
Ring Jet
in Stack.
not offer any material resistance to the ordinary draft (Fig. 144).
The jet may be produced by the exhaust steam from the engine,
as in locomotives.
the
to
STEAM-BOILERS
304
jet
fuel
Fig. 145.
The steam
fuel.
and thus
combustion.
assists
boilers
especially useful
only.
and
Fis:.
Fans.
air,
The
fans
charge type.
The
may
be varied at the
will of
is
practically the
ARTIFICIAL DRAFT
same
FiG. 145a.
pressed
which
Let
will
305
by the product
Section
of Fig. 145.
Thus:
it acts.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
pounds at 60
head in feet,
F.,
then
v=V2gh=^^2g^,
W=pav=
adv^
and
P=2^;
STEAM-BOILERS
306
Since the fan has a working efficiency of about fifty per cent,
W.
A
From
the formula
Fig. 146.
it
will
is
for a Furnace-flue.
therefore
is
work
as the cube.
as low a pressure as
may be
suitable.
Also, the
which
it
is
to operate.
power
possible.
to operate
on a plenum system by
system by
*
Much
vacuum
B. F. Sturtevant Co.
ARTIFICIAL DRAFT
and discharging them
307
"induced
draft."
The fan
air
all
This
Install.
its
is
Economy
is
increased
if
the air
is
heated previous to
the blast
is
fire-
common
in
many
plants.
is
The system,
therefore,
is
hardly practi-
somewhat lesser degree than is found with the closed ashdue to the better and more even distribution of the air. The
system is, however, free from the annoyance of dirt, since all leakage is inward. When the fire-door is opened the cold air rushes
This can
in and has an injurious effect on the hot boiler plates.
remedied
by
automatic
devices
attached
the
fire-door,
to
so
be
but
pit,
in a
308
STEAM-BOILERS
effect is attained
FiG. 147.
Induced Draft
Ellis
ing ferrules.
are caused
traction
is
As a
rule
Induced Draft.
is
so located as to suck
ARTIFICIAL DRAFT
309
when mechanical
draft
is
not required.
Fig.
The operation
of
produced by chimney
this
draft, only it
The
is
much more
objection
is
effects
intense
and
the deterioration of
the fan and fan journals, caused by having to handle the hot gases,
but
lately
been made.
fire,
and
will therefore
itself
by the heat
in the gases
to the
warmed
minimum by
careful
designing.
Such heaters
also
reduce the
CHAPTER
XII
INCRUSTATION
Sludge.
Scale.
Conductivity.
Solid Matter in Water.
Behavior of Lime and Magnesia Salts.
Scale PreBlowing-off.
vention.
Chemical Agents.
Mechanical Agents. Galvanic
Agents. Surface-condensing.
Heating and Filtering. Internal Collecting
Apparatus. Manual Labor.
Fur.
Scurf.
Analysis
of
Even
collect
Scales.
on the
inside of steam-boilers.
This incrustation
is
will
called
When
this scale
is
inch,
it
frequently acts
When
it
become
satis-
by scale.
than when porous.
When
transfer of heat.
barrier to the
when the
The Devonport experiments,
is
especially great
The tendency
lar deposits of
varying thickness.
by the presence
of oil
irregular deposits.
will cause
and
is
This overheating
grease,
which
assist in
is
aggravated
making these
left in
a boiler
Am.
Soc.
to be adopted
available.
is
often dependent
With hard
or bad782.
310
INCRUSTATION
311
When bad
Nearly
available, then
is
evaporating power.
all
when
the boiler
water only
is
the water
of temperature
evaporated.
is
and are
left in
removed from time to time, will collect on the hot surfaces and,
becoming baked, will form incrustation.
The quantity of matter thus held in solution is generally between 20 and 40 grains per gallon, but often exceeds 200 grains.
To appreciate the effect, imagine a boiler evaporating 3000 pounds
of water per hour.
This means an evaporation at the end of four
weeks, of six days of ten hours each, of 720,000 pounds, or 86,746
gallons.
this
scale 0.02112-inch
thick, or
In addition
and other
The quantity
an indication of
matter.
boiler use
chloride of
It
is
salts,
while
carbonate of lime;
third, salts
of iron
fifth,
When
chemical analyses.
STEAM-BOILERS
312
water.
BOILER SCALE
River.
Brackish.
75.85
3.68
2.56
0.45
7.66
2.96
3.64
3.20
43.65
34.78
4.34
0.56
7.52
3.44
1.55
4.16
0.97
85.53
3.39
2.79
1.10
0.32
Trace
5.90
100.00
100.00
100.00
Calcium carbonate
Calcium sulphate
Magnesium hydrate
Sodium chloride
Silica
Bicarbonate of lime
is
held in solution
excess of carbonic
acid.
off,
by an
Sea.
precipitate, so that
it is
under a
and is
scarcely soluble,
comes less soluble as the temperature rises above 100 degrees F.,
and is said to be insoluble at 290 degrees F.
These two salts, therefore, are always precipitated in the
boiler when the pressure reaches abput 43 pounds above the
atmosphere.
it is
some
is often the case when boilers are blown off while hot.
The sulphate of lime, however, precipitates so as to form an
amorphous crust, which becomes hard under the action of the heat.
of the heat, as
On becoming
in suspension,
ebullition
course settle on
all
it
The mouth
forms a quiet
313
INCRUSTATION
place for the precipitate to lodge.
for the
same reason
The
feed-pipes
may
becomes
When
paste
is
where
it
The
is
is
Be-
The
is
often black,
is
soft
present.
scale.
STEAM-BOILERS
314
greater difficulty
is
it
out,
The quantity
down
of
purifi-
cation.
Blowing
off is
most
effective
when the
On the other
distributed, as the chloride of sodium in sea water.
hand, heavy precipitates are less affected by blowing off a portion
of the water, and in consequence it is better with them to blow
Thus, for
off more frequently and less in quantity at each time.
extracting magnesium and lime salts, the blows are opened in many
instances once an hour, while only ten to twenty gallons are blown
out at a time.
Introduction
Second
of
results.
The one most commonly used, being both the cheapest and the
most effective for general results, is the common soda of commerce,
bicarbonate of soda. It acts well in preventing and removing
The
scale resulting from both the carbonate and sulphate of lime.
reactions are as follows: The soda and lime exchange their acids,
forming sulphate of soda and carbonate of lime. The sulphate of
soda is very soluble, while the carbonate of lime, freed from all excess
of carbonic acid, precipitates as a light, flocculent precipitate and
The bicarbonate
will not form a hard crust unless allowed to bake.
of lime in the feed-water is in like manner precipitated, since any
free soda unites readily
The
lime,
is
free to act
is
This car-
again liberated
by
once more.
which
is
in the
time, according to the quantity formed; or in case of large quantity, the carbonate of lime can be washed out after the boiler has
been allowed to cool slowly and gradually. Since the precipitate
of carbonate of lime is light and flocculent, large quantities float as
31
INCRUSTATION
scum when the boiler is quiet, and much
moved through the surface blow.
of
it
may
then be re-
If the
to,
or
if
less of
hard, since
it is
always accom-
that
is
is
Soda
new
effective
is all
it
impure and
is
dissolve
in
required.
contains acids.
and
The
Soda
will also
may
is
present
of arsenic.
Third
Introduction
variety of
of
can be
substances
great
the
into
a hard mass.
The substances
act
glutinous covering or
position.
Among
juice,
the
first class
molasses, moss,
are kerosene
seaweeds,
oil,
potatoes,
petroleum, sugar-cane
tallow
and
starch.
STEAM-BOILERS
316
Kerosene
when
is
acetic acid
cannot be
relied
upon.
They
are,
therefore,
as
a class better
avoided.
Some
of
the
anti-incrustation
less
Their use
favorable.
is
Surface-condensing.
in a surface condenser,
Since
all
the
oil
the condenser,
to the boiler.
straw,
it is
necessary to
This
is
filter
done by some
salt-meadow hay,
excelsior,
it is
returned
flannel,
etc..
arranged in a
variety of ways.
If insufficient cooling
INCRUSTATION
317
the condenser leaks, the salt water would enter the feed and deposit
in the boiler.
Sixth
Purification
by
and
Heating
It
is
Filtering
now becoming
previous
common
quite
to
to
magnesia,
vessel,
etc.,
are nearly
all
easily
and quickly
cleaned.
Feed-heating
but
if
the water
coils are
is
bad
sometimes arranged
this
in the smoke-flue,
such pipes are not easy to get at unless the boiler be shut
as
down
When
it is
it
cleaned, which
it
well to filter
is
it
Such
in a reverse direction
Internal
and allowing
it
to waste.
Sometimes curved
and troughs of various shapes are arranged inside of the
It is intended that the major part of
boiler with some success.
the deposit will form on these surfaces, which should be made to
be easily removed, cleaned and replaced.
Thus the feed can be arranged to discharge into a trough placed
just above the water-line, and in which the water will be comparaThe surplus feed will overtively quiet and free from ebullition.
Most of the lime and magnesia salts will deposit
flow the edges.
in the trough on account of the increase of temperature.
Such
an arrangement works best with the sulphates and heavy deposits.
Seventh
Collecting
Apparatus.
plates
Internal-collecting
apparatus
when
complicated
interferes
STEAM-BOILERS
318
itself,
and
Eighth
Removal
by
Manual
Labor.
is
blown
off
made
in the water-legs, so as
wear
On
off
the scale
if
off after
standing
full of
and some
The objection to this
may
treatment
be softened or redissolved.
is
is
first
of the
latter
this objection
all
has
appear.
however, time
is
some
time.
CHAPTER
CORROSION. GENERAL
Wasting.
Corrosion.
Wear
Dampness.
sion.
WEAR AND
TEAR. EXPLOSIONS
and Honey-combing.
Pitting
XIII
Grooving.
Galvanic Action.
Zinc Plates.
and
Boilers.
Tear.
Idle
Influ-
External Corro-
Explosions.
Stored
Energy.
From
the
moment
the boiler
finished, it gradually
is
becomes
upon
it.
nature,
rapidity.
is
subjected.
Internal corrosion
of pitting
and
is
of grooving.
This Wasting
effects as rusting,
Away
of the plates
but
it
is
seldom so uniform in
its
is
It
is
with red.
When
wasting
is
very extended,
and
This
it is
precaution
of drilling should
There are no rules to guide
the inspector in searching for wasting, and it does not appear to
take place in two boilers alike. However, the water-line appears
the
plate
calipering.
boilers.
time.
For
when only
partly
filled
with water.
Sometimes
idle
this corrosion
319
is
STEAM-BOILERS
320
when
its
presence can
is
more
like wasting.
It is
not Umited to any parts of the boiler, and it often appears in the
steam space. The depressions are sometimes filled with a fine
iron, silica
oil.
When
if
"Pitting
is
way
there.
particularly likely
Steam
to pitting.
and condensing upon the top surface,
Pure water containing no air does
is
is
liable
it
contains
which causes
The water from
pitting in clean boilers, contains much gas.
many of the lakes in America also produces the same effect. With
Feeddistilled water the boilers usually remain quite bright.
water heaters often suffer badly from pitting, particularly near the
cold-water inlet, and in boilers the parts most likely to be attacked
are those where the circulation is bad, especially if such portions
a supply of
air.
of Glasgow,
is
ring
free
rest.
The volume
of
powder
is
CORROSION
so that a blister
oxidized,
321
is
pit
which has a
it is
so friable that
In
many
it
itself
from the
plate as a whole.
"An
analysis of the
powder
in the pits
shows
it
to consist of
peroxide of iron, 86.26 per cent; grease and other organic matter,.
6.29 per cent; lime salts, 4.25 per cent; water,
etc.,
silica,
aluminum,,
pits
and iron oxide, FeO, 32.2 per cent, and about 8.5 per cent each
of magnesium carbonate and insoluble matter."
Grooving occurs
and doubling-plates.
ness, resisting the
is
stiff-
pels the play or breathing of the boiler to take place locally, simi-
When
cylindrical boiler-shells
foundations,
the expansion
may promote
grooving by causing
the plate to buckle near the lap and butt-straps, especially those of
the transverse or ring seams.
drical, it
If
when
this ring
is
not
made
of
sufficient
by the expansion
depth to
resist
the
To prevent grooving
of the
air in
STEAM-BOILERS
322
vanic action.
The
hydrogen,
which passes to the steel and then escapes into the steam space,
The proportions found requisite
while the oxygen goes to the zinc.
to insure protection are about 1 square foot of zinc to 50 square
feet of heating surface in new boilers, and the same quantity of
The zinc
by 6 inches by ^-inch thick. The
and steel must be a good metallic con-
is
bolted to con-
The contact
chamber.
zinc
break
off
is
and
clean,
by the
and
tween them.
The
down
lack
location of corrosion
either physical or
of
may
be caused
should be kept slightly alkaline by the use of soda and be free from
air.
When
will often
it
is
of Portland cement.
rosion,
vals.
This
is
External Corrosion
in
many ways
is
is
more dangerous,
since
it is
and
difficult to
properly inspect.
The forms
generally produced
by
It
is
leaks or dampness,
Ashes
will
seam.
will
323^
may
The brick
and
be detected at once.
fibre.
Many
be better,
when
boilers
would
and back walls high
clean dry sand. This sand can
are so set that their tops are covered with a brick arch.
It
show a tendency
Length
under the
element
bursting has
to groove
of shell, therefore,
may be an
Idle
Boilers
should
receive
must be taken
attention.
When
boilers
are
chapter.
metallic^
If
the
STEAM-BOILERS
324
boiler
to absorb moisture
fires of
tarred
wood
will
coating.
On
if
the boiler be
left
partly
full.
may
for a short
time only,
a good plan to
it is
to
If for
fill
If
a long period,
the inside
by a small
seems best
fire
built in
The
manhole and handhole covers can be put back and the boiler
made tight so that the oxygen will be consumed by the fire, or the
covers can be left off and lime in trays used to absorb any moisture.
Explosions occur when the steam pressure exceeds the resisting
strength of the metal structure.
It
is
that those parts shall have an excess of strength w'hich are ex-
Then
become more
The water
While the rent primarily occurs at some weak spot, the fracture
not and seldom does follow a line of structural weakness.
The new forces set up at the instant of explosion no doubt account
for this phenomenon.
Imagine a boiler to contain 60 cubic feet of w^ater and 10 cubic
feet of steam under a pressure of 120 pounds per square inch above
may
the atmosphere.
325
EXPLOSIONS
and each cubic foot of steam 0.301 pound, the
above 212 F. in B. T. U. would be:
96
483,822 B.T. U.
and
by the change
of
volume
3.323X144X14.7X60X57.3=
24,183,201
PiVi hyp-log r
= 144X135X3.323
hyp-log
26 64
Work
in foot-pounds
= 486,467,228
Neither of these assumptions correctly measures the power expended, but as exact data are always missing at time of explosion,
The figures illustrate two
no accurate calculation can be made.
facts
first,
that there
is
sufficient
hot water.
damaging
effect
by explosion
and
is
small.
by expansion and
and to
by
scale or grease.
or
carelessness.
and
tear,
produced
Overheating
Important
may
fixtures,
burst
STEAM-BOILERS
326
not explode, as the time required to release the pressure is an allimportant element. This property is one of the chief claims
favorable to that
When
class.
CHAPTER XIV
CHIMNEY DESIGN
Object.
ical Draft.
Selection of Height.
Section.
Top.
Wind
Lightning.
chimney or stack
is
Pressure.
Ladder.
Brick Stacks,
Batter.
Leakage.
Steel Stacks.
a necessary adjunct to
all
furnaces.
a draft
is
is
usually settled
by
experience.
made
proportionately larger,
With a mechanical
so as not to create a
its
is
available,
but
ditions.
327
STEAM-BOILERS
328
is
But
by the use
draft capable
of the
of
damper.
drawing the
sum
stack.
If the stack is
natural draft
is
costly.
is
on
may pay
this
amount added
to the
Owing to the great cost of tall stacks, many plants are providing
number of short stacks the aggregate cost of which would be
Furthermore, when a number of boilers are connected to
less.
one stack, some are liable to rob others of draft, a state of affairs
a
difficult to
and
is
may
cause cor-
supporting.
sures due
The
to wind.
The wind
is
resisted
by
gravity.
329
CHIMNEY DESIGN
Stability calculations should be
made
at frequent sections.
For
a masonry stack, the resultant of the wind and weight forces should
pass through the section considered not further from the axis
than the
sum
inner radius.
the inscribed
total
circles.
of foundation plus
than one-third
and foundation.
To increase the length of base, the foundation may be made
on a vertical batter of one horizontal to three vertical.
It is customar}^ to assume the wind pressure at 50 pounds per
square foot of surface and as acting on the full vertical area of one
half the height of stack should
by the weight
of octagonal stacks,
round stacks.
less
of stack
The point
of vertical section
vertical section of
It
is
is
taken at
friction
Ample allowance
should, therefore, be
Excepting short
boiler, the bases
the stability.
of not less
stacks
should be
made
add to
may have
are usually
made
parallel.
depends on appearance.
Stacks are made of brick or
steel,
of concrete strengthened
in the
mass.
In preparing a design
it will
STEAM-BOILERS
330
Any ornamentation
lines is
the one
study of the designs of chimneys as published in the engineering periodicals will well repay the trouble
most appreciated.
new design.
The round section is the most effective, but
Next to it is the octagonal section, and
the most costly.
before completing a
Brick Stacks.
it is
also
is
The
made
be
shaft which
is
Round
often i)leasing.
offering less
frictional
surface,
tical difference in
section
to be preferred,
is
Under ordinary
all cases.
and
is
For
tall
favored by
but in
any, prac-
many
conditions, structural
if
engineers for
and
esthetic con-
built with good, sound bricks of unicement mortar,* having a minimum thick85 inches for common brick and 7 inches for radial
ness at top of
brick.
up from
It should
be lined with
quarter to one-third in
tall ones.
The
lining should
being carried
renew.
it
The header
may expand
freely
touch the outer wall, but not be bonded to it. The lining may be
continued up with hard-burnt brick after the fire-brick stops, if
Offsets in the lining to increase its thickness should
be made on the outside, and sections of the same thickness are
The top section is usually
generally from 40 feet to 50 feet high.
about 4 inches thick, but a 4-inch section should not be over 25
desirable.
* The cement
may
work smoother.
CHIMNEY DESIGNS
feet
I-
-9-^
The
high.
flue
331
area
generally
is
made
slightly
tapering.
The top
be
fin-
It
is
may
The
shape.
is
that
upward
flagging or
bond the
iron
caps,
best
made
through
especially
when
These
large,
are
together
in sections bolted
flanges.
Tall chimneys
are
often
protected
ground,
in order.
of large
If
number
of
SECTION. B-B
leading
down on
the
convenient
distances
apart,
generally
it is
when on the
outside.
SECTION A-A
The connecting
enter
the
stack
STEAM-BOILERS
332
flue.
air, even when well conwhich naturally tends to interfere with the draft. For
reason the modern tendency favors stacks of steel wherever
possible.
The
by the cubic
much depends on
location,
man
to climb
up
inside of rungs.
is
made
marine work.
have guys
These guys should attach about onethird of the height from the top, and are best secured to a band
placed around the ch'mney, or to special fastenings so shaped and
riveted as to distribute the pull of the guy over as great an area
as possible.* When of the self-supporting class the stack can be
held down by anchor-bolts pass'ng through the base-ring into the
Steel stacks that are not self-supporting should
Guys on
in (louble sets,
CHIMNEY DESIGN
foundation, which
height of stack.
is
Many
Fig.
333
designs are so
150.Cast-iron Cap
stiff;
however, as not to
The base
it is
always well
having a
STEAM-BOILERS
334
i--to'-9^
tho^
In
the
lining
frequently
is
omitted.
In large stacks
is
it
ad-
self-supporting
and
renewals,
facilitate
to
to
made from
12 to 20 feet in height.
The
shape of the
trances
out,
on
remarks
the
top, the
for flues
en-
and clean-
applicable
as
steel
to
to
brick stacks.
weakening by corro-
The
sion.
varying
of
size
thickness
rivet for
of
plate
than ^-inch
but never
in diameter.
less
The
may be as given
Table XVIII, although it
pitch of rivets
in
in
inches in diameter.
Fig. 151.
CHIMNEY DESIGN
is
usually
somewhat
greater.
For the
335
50 feet from the top the
first
riveted;
treble- riveted.
cal
first
The
verti-
four.
thus four,
The thickness
the total
number
usually
is
ing formulae, the safe fibre stress being taken at 10,000 pounds per
square inch
Stress per lineal inch
at
_,,
any section
m
.
Thickness
mches
in
inch-pounds
in inches)^
S=
'
similar formula,
brick stack
is
in Fig. 151.
'
Kindness of Mr.
Wm.
C.
Coffin, Vice-
CHAPTER XV
SMOKE PREVENTION
Losses Due to Smoke. Public Nuisance. Smoke Ordinances. RequireSmokeless
ments to Prevent Smoke. Prof. Ringelmann's Smoke-scales.
Composition of Smoke. Mixing Coals. Air Admissions. Hollow
Fuels.
Extracts from Report by Prof. Landreth.
Bridge.
The study
of
smoke prevention
is
When
combustion
is
Smoke
mixed
warrant the officials of many cities to pass prohibitory ordinances. Admitting that smoke is a public nuisance, the
making and enforcing of preventive regulations appear to be most
satisfactory when they originate through the local boards of health
rather than by ordinance, although the smoke may not be in sufdistricts as to
not in
itself injurious,
ing objects.
but
it is
The compounds
a nuisance
of
when
in quantity,
886
SMOKE PREVENTION
made
in
337
steam engineering.
heavy a
done by compulsion.
Smokeless
fuels,
such as
oil,
found
in sufficient quantity to
Anthracite, unfortunately,
is
artificial
too expen-
It has been
compete with the soft or smoking coals.
trial that a combination of oil and bituminous coal can
be used so as to produce a practically smokeless fire, but this combination, however, has not proved very successful commercially.
Bituminous coal in selected sizes about 3-inch cubes can be
Smoke from bituminous coal can
burned practically smokeless.
be reduced by mixing 50 per cent of anthracite pea or coke with
the bituminous coal. The object of the mixing is to separate the
bituminous coal, so that air can reach every particle.
sive to
shown on
STEAM-BOILERS
338
amount
suitable
of
The
fire,
especially
air is usually
The
its
supply of
air
from
Some
on the combustion-chamber side and near the top can be set about
^-inch apart without cement between them. The heated air can
thus pass out of these openings in fine streams and mix with the
products as they pass over the wall.
When
tities
fired in
small quan-
In
is
The degree
of
smoke produced
at
easily
SMOKE PREVENTION
339
340
STEAM-BOILERS
Card No.
4.
Black
5.
All black.
lines, 5.5
mm. thick,
mm.
square.
Card No.
The observer glances from the smoke issuing from the stack
to the cards, and determines which card most nearly corresponds
with the color of the smoke, and makes a record accordingly, noting
the time when the observation was made. Observations should
be made continuously during, say, one minute and the estimated
average density during that minute recorded, and so on, records
being made once every minute. The average of all the records
taken is the average for the smoke density. When these minute
records are taken over a sufficiently long period, the whole can be
plotted on section paper to show by a curve or broken line how the
smoke density varied during that period.
The following is an extract from a report * to the State Board
of Health of Tennessee on " Smoke Prevention," by Prof. Olin A.
When
fresh coal
is
thrown on a bed
of incandescent coal, or
is
SMOKE PREVENTION
341
burning, as the particles are not detached from the soUd mass
till
"The
causes of
description, be
stated to be either
An
"(1)
insufficient
amount
An
"(2)
of
oxygen
combus-
or
now be
distillation of the
matter
calls for
supply.
" If an additional supply
is
and cannot be thoroughly mixed with the comSo with the temperature; if high enough before
bustible gases.
charging, it is now much lower owing to the cooling effects of the
cold air rushing in when the doors are opened, of the mass of cold
coal, of the evaporation of the moisture in the coal and to the disit will
be
cold,
ture is needed to bum the free carbon the furnace is at its coldest.
" In fulfilling the requirements of sufficiency of supply, and
itself,
difficulty of effecting
STEAM-BOILERS
342
its
an
be kept at a
evil to
proper amount of
air,
but
this
minimum by
air, it is
neces-
should be considered
possible.
smoke production,
means
it is
of accomplishing
combustion without
it
pertains to
of the
following agencies
"
By
1.
This
implies proper grate area, sufficient draft, the necessary air admis-
This
coal.
may
be either
(a)
'
Coke
firing,'
or charging
back or
ing
'
spreading;
or
by which the
Spreading,'
(6)
coal
'Alternate
is
all
coal
side-firing';
or
(c)
The admission
of air
or side walls.
" 4. Steam jets and other artificial
means
of
thoroughly mix-
"6. Establishing a gradation of the several steps of combustion, so that the coal
may
accomplished.
" 8. Varying the supply of air to suit the periodic variation in
demand.
"
9.
The
343
SMOKE PREVENTION
products
down
down through
bottom
of the
fire.
The number
'
'
more than a
The scope
brief classifi-
These are
uniform
rate,
also
keep the
fire
clean
service.
in
working the
fire.
doors reserved for warming and coking the coal before it is spread
over the grate (agency 6). These give good results when the fur-
nace
is
method
'
'
(e)
to the coal above the grate, and the products of combustion are carried
down
descent coal at the bottom of the layer of coal on the grate (agency
10).
cir-
STEAM-BOILERS
344
Steam
jets to
draw
also to
mix the
furnace
A very efficient
4).
be wasteful of fuel by inducing too rapid a draft.
"{g) Baffle plates placed in the furnace above the fire, to aid in
mixing the combustible gases with the air (agency 4)
^\h) Double furnaces, of which there are two entirely different
styles, the first of which places the second grate below the first
together (agency
liable to
is
coked on the
made
first
not.
number
CHAPTER XVI
TESTING.
Boiler Trials.
Heat
Losses.
Savings.
Some
Results.
Boiler
Care of Boilers.
Testing.
Boilers should always be tested before being accepted
from the maker, but it should be remembered that the test is for
the purpose of exposing faults, defects or leaks rather than of
proving the strength of the structure. Many a good boiler has
pump.
If
the pressure
falls
rapidly there
is
indication of a leak,
for
is
liable
to
become aggravated.
845
Too
STEAM-BOILERS
346
if
The
first
is
demn
Many
con-
measure
of test pressure
all
is
finally
joint.
it
has
Most new boilers leak under steam, even after having proved
an hydrostatic test. Generally small leaks will close
for.
tight under
of their
own
working out
and
details
is
If
Care
be repaid
many
in construction will
when completed
Such
by
collected
assistants
which the
trial is
being
tests
trained
The object
for
clearly defined in
all
plan.
For
is
made
full
Method of Conducting
American Society of
347
TESTING
(Ordinarily the refuse
is
unbumed
from
the ash-pit.)
feet.
amount
of
because the sample of steam collected and passed into the calorimeter may not be an average of the total amount flowing through
Small throttling calorimeters are reliable, howshowing whether the steam contains a considerable amount
of moisture or is practically dry, and this is especially so if they
are used in combination with an adjustable nozzle, which can be
made to draw out a sample from any desired point in the crossthe steam-main.
ever, in
the entire
TJ
where 965.7
is
This equation
QO'\
ft
= TF
If
the steam
is
super-
348
STEAM-BOILERS
The horse-power
American Society
m which
is
the superheating
m degrees
tahr.
standard of the
found by dividing
of Mechanical Engineers, is
The following
is
is
used
H-h-k{T-t)
F^
ii;
/i
A;
/b
correction should be
This
the instrument.
loss,
made
for radiation
The
following
when a
the steam
Let
is
barrel calorimeter
is
used
= total
initial
tem-
= total
final
temperature
in calorimeter,
steam pressure,
(This
less
is
32 degrees.)
TESTING
/?
= total
349
= percentage of priming,
= degrees of superheating;
then
^^W(t,-t)-wiT,-t,)
(H-t,)-{T,-t,)
'
y=ioo.^,
A:=
An
w
0.48
is,
a statement of the
may
be reported in
The weight
of air per
pound
of carbon burned
is
given by the
formula
7N
3(00.+ CO)
-^0.77;
is
less
For example,
if
STEAM-BOILERS
350
1.
2.
3.
1 lb.
of
Combustible
B. T. U.
at
Loss due to moisture in coal = per cent of moisture referred to combustible -H 100 X[ (212 -0+966+ 0.48
(T" 212)] (i = temperature of air in the boiler-room,
7"= that of the flue gases).
Loss due to moisture formed by the burning of hydrogen = per cent of hydrogen to combustible h- 100 X9X
(T-t).
5.f Loss due
incomplete combustion
per cent C in combustible
to
CO
c6,Tco^
6.
carbon =
of
X 10,150.
100
may be
llC02 + 80+7(CO + N)
3(C02 + CO)
in
O and N
are
the percentages by volume of the several gases. As the sampling and analyses of the
gases in the present state of the art are liable to considerable errors, the result of this
calculation is usually only an approximate one. The heat balance itself is also only approximate for this reason, as well as for the fact that it is not possible to determine accurately
the percentage of unburned hydrogen or hydrocarbons in the flue gases.
The weight of dry gas per pound of combustible is found by multiplying the dry gas
per pound of carbon by the percentage of carbon in the combustible, and dividing by 100.
t CO2 and CO are respectively the percentage by volume of carbonic acid and carbonic
oxide in the flue gases. The quantity 10,150 = Number heat-units generated by burning to carbonic acid one pound of carbon contained in carbonic oxide.
made to pass up
To determine the
804 = 76
per cent.
pounds of air per pound of coal, multiply the pounds of air per
pound of carbon by the amount of carbon burned per pound of
coal, which, in the case just cited, would be 0.76.
Boiler and Pipe Coverings. All external surfaces of boilers,
pipes, fittings, etc., from which loss of heat may occur should
The saving of the heat often
be well covered or insulated.
pays for the covering within one year.
Good coverings
cost, in
BOILER COVERINGS
place,
351
lagged.
The
depend upon absolute incomand freedom from all substances which might cause
corrosion.
Coverings which carbonize after being in contact with
a hot surface or which char when held in a flame are not fire-proof
and, as a class, cannot be recommended. The best of the cork
coverings, however, have proved satisfactory.
Also, coverings
which lose their shape and form after being some time in use, such
selection of a covering should
bustibility
The conclusions reached by the Mutual Boiler Insurance Company, from tests made, were that " there were a sufficient number
of safe, suitable
boilers
for
without giving
of
composite
which
the metal against which
sulphate
of
of
lime,
which contain
may
it is
cause
placed."
the
substances
like
the
dangerous corrosion
1898.)
size of pipe.
by a
Irregplastic
STEAM-BOILERS
352
tions
(" Protection of
Table
Specimen.
XXI
BOILER COVERINGS
Specimen
fluted
is
a cover
air-cell
Specimen
is
of asbestos
paper
silicate
of soda.
made by
or corrugated
Asbestos
Sd'S
Specimen
ville
I is similar to
Man-
Co.
Table
XXIII shows
poorest.
is
The
exceed-
ingly small.
The
made
in
computing the
tables
That
all
In case the saving due to a cover which costs $20 instead of $25
is
354
STEAM-BOILERS
assumption that the pipes are hot twenty-four hours a day three
hundred and sixty-five days a year, the saving is nearly three times
that shown in Table XXII.
Table XXII
Specimen.
BOILER COVERINGS
355
may
length of
made 2
life
it
of a cover,
inches thick.
Table XXIII
NET SAVING PER 100
Speci-
men.
B.
C.
D
E.
F
G.
H,
I.
J.
K.
L.
O.
P.
Name.
SQ. FT.
Year.
2 Years.
5 Years.
10 Years,
Table
XXIV
STEAM-BOILERS
356
Table
XXV
Condition of Specimen.
perSq. Ft.
per Minute.
New pipe
Fair condition
Rusty and black
Table
XXVI
11.96
13.84
14.20
13.85
14.30
12.02
13.84
13.90
14.40
12.10
CARE OF BOILERS
The box
is
357
leave a 1-inch
minimum
space at
four sides.
Table XXVIII
AVERAGE RESULTS OBTAINED FOR 2-INCH PIPES AS MEASURED BY THE PERCENTAGE OF THE HEAT RADIATED BY THE BARE PIPES THAT WAS SAVED
BY APPLYING THE COVERINGS
Tests by
Barrus.
Coverine.
Remanit
Tests by
Jacobus.
86.9
86
85.1
84.4
84.2
S3.
81.1
76.3
75.9
74.9
74.8
74.4
Johns' Asbestocel
New "^'ork Air Cell
Carey's ^loulded
Johns' Moulded
Cast's Ambler Air Cell
Johns' Asbestos Fire Felt
84.9
84.4
83.2
82.3
77.2
74.4
73.1
It may be well to explain that the Johns' Asbestos-SpongeHair Felt covering is made up of layers of fabric composed of fiberized asbestos and carded hair, felted and laminated.
inspected at
all parts,
tion.
and the
like
and are
in
In
many
fold
economy.
its
life,
its
safety and
its
STEAM-BOILERS
358
Corrosion
may
The following are the rules for management and care, as issued
by the Hartford Steam-boiler. Inspection and Insurance Company:
1. Condition of Water.
The first duty of an engineer, when he
in.
the morning,
is
to ascertain
how many
boilers.
precaution.
Low
In
fires
Water.
with ashes,
or, if
CARE OF BOILERS
Qomes
359
from leaky
Also,
In
when
collections
removed, and
and blown off through the same pipe, the collection of mud or
sediment in the rear end should be often removed.
Raise the safety-valves cautiously and fre9. Safety-valves.
quently, as they are liable to become fast in their seats and useless
for the purpose intended.
10. Safety-valve and pressure-gauge. ^Should the gauge at
any time indicate the limit of pressure allowed by this company,
12. Blisters.
having
case
may
it
and
in
When a
carefully
require.
Clean Sheets.
13.
In case of difference,
constant use.
in
Gauge.
off.
Particular
neat condition.
boilers
done, fuel
this
is
and
fires started.
properly,
Start
fires
unduly.
bum
may
If
After
STEAM-BOILERS
360
carefully to
its
seat
of steam-
gauge.
If there are other boilers in operation and stop-valves are to be
opened to place boilers in connection with others on a steam pipe
line, watch those recently fired up until pressure is up to that of the
other boilers to which they are to be connected; and, when that
pressure is attained, open the stop- valves very slowly and carefully.
APPENDIX A
Superheated Steam.*
When
its
condition as the
Fig. 153.
Boiler.
steam means the apparent evaporation, since the wetness contained is not steam, but finely divided particles of water which lack
the required latent heat.
When
corresponding to
its
pressure,
it is
XXII.
361
362
STEAM-BOILERS
and
it
radiation before
it
wet steam
working
SUPERHEATER
ELFWENTS
Fig. 154.
economy
produced because
It
it
it
Boiler.
same
APPENDIX A
est
363
economies are reached with superheated steam in simple expanand in engines of poor design, since one of the objects
sion engines
of multiple expansion
initial
and
of complicated designs
is
to reduce the
condensation.
Experience has shown that the comparative economy of superheated over saturated steam diminishes rapidly beyond the point
In short, there is little advantage in using
of double expansion.
superheated steam in
that which
may
densation.
OUTLET FOR
SUPERHEATED STEAM
Fig.
154a.End View
of
Kg.
154.
STEAM-BOILERS
364
greater care
specific
heat
is
must be exercised
The
heat of steam can be taken at 0.48, that is, its capacity for
Superheated steam, therefore, will lose heat as
small.
readily as
it will
receive
it,
it
and
Such difficulties which, however, are largely in detail and the
expenses must be weighed against the expected economy in laying
surfaces be well covered.
pipes
Fig. 155.
out the design of a plant and the decision reached on the merits
of each case.
square inch.
difficult
to
The amount
of
determine in advance.
Practically
it
varies
years,
Wrought-iron and
steel
for
tubes
last
from
is
from
steel or
five to
ten
APPENDIX A
sion.
Screw-joints
365
if
they have to be
CLEANING DOOR
^
Fig. 155a.
of Fig. 155.
The
an equal amount
is
design.
Figs.
Figs. 155
and 155a
illustrate
may be desired.
SATUEATED-STE iM TABLES.
g a
It
if
Ig
367
INDEX
Absolute Zero,
4.
Adamson Ring,
174.
Boil-
Blowing
ers, 111.
26, 349.
Quantity of
349
of,
Bodies
Combustion,
Solid,
eous,
for
16.
Liquid,
Fluid,
Gas-
1.
Almy
Duty, 115.
Boiler, 113.
Boiler
Trials,
Calculation
Anthracite, 32.
Boilers,
Area
Area
Area
Boiling, 10.
Chimney,
Horse-power
Boyles'
Law,
2.
Brass, 152.
A.sh-pit, 285.
Avogadro, Laws
of, 20.
of, 63.
135.
of Steam-pipe, 122.
Atmospheric Air,
of
sults, 346.
113.
Thermal Unit,
4.
Bronze, 152.
Bagasse, 37.
Belleville Boiler, 113.
Brown
"Best" Draft,
Buying
129.
Coal, 34.
Coals, 35.
369
Re-
INDEX
370
Calking, 213, 215. 321.
Convection of Heat,
Copper, 150, 239.
Copper Fire-boxes,
ure, 347.
Carbon, Anhydride,
105.
13.
2.
Culm,
35.
Dalton's I^aw,
Charcoal, 37=
Densities of Gases,
Law, 2.
Chimney Design, 327.
Chimney Draft, 125.
Charles'
Chimneys, Separate,
Dead
2.
Boilers, 111.
Dissipation of
Heat
Furnace,
in the
58.
304, 307.
Domes, 232.
Down-draft Grate, 284, 338, 343.
Coal, 31.
Draft, Split
Coals,
When
Buying, 35.
Coburn Safety-valve,
269.
and Wheel,
87.
Drips, 250.
Drum, Steam,
234.
Drum-boiler, 90.
Coke, 37.
Color Test for Temperature, 56.
Collapsing Pressure, 157, 170.
for, 25.
Compound
Boiler, 105.
Conduction of Heat,
2.
122.
Economizer, 260.
Efficiency of Boiler
and Grate.
60.
371
INDFA'
Excess of Air, 16, IS
Expanders for Tubes, 190.
Expansion, 241, 323.
Explosions, 324.
Girders, 205.
Fans
Feed-pumps, 256.
Feed-water Heaters, 257.
Ferrules for Tube Ends, 192, 308.
Gunboat
Guys
Boiler, 100.
Fire-doors, 2? 6.
54.
Flame,
16.
Flanges, 244.
Flues,
Power
of, 29.
Fur, 310.
Furnace Temperature,
56.
Galloway Boiler,
Galloway Tubes,
40, 51,
54.
Incrustation, 310.
1.
Gaseous Fuels,
Laws
88.
Gases,
15.
Fuel, Heating
Gas, Perfect,
Handholes, 275.
Heads, Boiler, 162.
Heat, 2.
Heat Applied to Coal,
53.
of, 2,
24.
INDEX
372
302.
Nuts
342.
361.
Laws
Oil
Fuel,
vantages
Oil Fuel
Oils,
Compared
to Coal, 52.
Composition of Fuel,
51.
of Gases, 2.
Peat, 36.
Lignite, 34.
of, 21,
337.
Perfect Gas,
Locomotive
Boiler, 103.
Low
Due
to
Smoke,
15, 336.
Water, 358.
Petroleum
1.
Oils, 42.
Lugs, 65.
Manholes, 275.
Manning
347.
Boiler, 82.
Marsh Gas,
2.
17, 23.
Methods
Pumps, Feed,
256.
Mud Drums,
Muntz Metal,
265.
152, 153.
Naval Brass,
rate, 42.
153.
Radiation of Heat, 2.
Rankine's Classification of Coals, 32.
Rate of Combustion, 131, 132, 347.
Rate of Evaporation, 60.
Ratio of Heating to Grate Surface,
66, 67.
INDEX
373
Shell, Strength
Sludge, 310.
Relative
tion, 21.
Retarders, 192.
Smoke,
14, 336.
Rivet-iron, 141.
Soda, 314.
Specifications
Boiler-plate
for
and
Shapes, 143.
Riveting, 207.
Riveting, Power, 214.
Specifications
Charcoal
for
iron
Boiler-tubes, 141.
Specifications
Rivet-rods
for
and
and
Forgings, 144.
Specific Heat, 4.
156.
Smoke-connection, 286.
Smoke-consumers, 15.
Smoke, Losses Due to, 15, 336.
Rules
Rules
Rules
Rules
Rules
Rules
Rules
Rules
Rules
Due Ends,
Ribbed Flues,
181.
Specific
Split
Stacks, 327.
Stacks, Stability
of,
328.
Stay-tubes, 191.
Stays, 194.
Stays,
Nuts
Stays, Telltale
Steam
in, 196.
Jets, 2S,
342.
Separators, 292.
Steam-pipes, Area
Steam-pipes, Failures
Setting,
Boiler,
to
Prevent Corro-
sion, 322.
of, 122.
Steam-pipes, Flanges
of,
of,
238.
244.
Shell,
Maximum
and
Minimum
Thickness, 160.
Shell,
Steel, 142.
INDEX
374
Table
Stop-valves, 249.
Straw, 37.
Table
I,
Specific
II,
Temperature,
2.
Temperature, Effect of
Temperature
of
Fuel-oils,
19,
in Furnace, 56.
Testing, 345.
Rivets, 146.
of
Combustion for
Details
of
4.
3.
9.
Tube Expanders,
190.
Riveted
of
Valves, 248.
Joints, 223.
Table XIX,
Thermometers,
Traps, 2S9.
Boilers, 80.
Number
of
Bricks
in
Air-spaces
ings, 352.
Due
to
Pipe
Combustion, 25.
Water-bottom, 105.
Water Evaporated per Foot of Heating Surface, 66.
Coverings, 354.
of Air for
and Thickness
of Grate-bars, 281.
XXI, Heat
Volume
Felt. 355.
Chemical Union,
20.
Thermal Unit,
Table
Steel,
35.
51.
XX,
on Mild
tion, 29.
Table
Temperature
Ash-pit, 23.
Table
Variation of Loss of
148.
tion, 8.
Table
XXVI,
sults, 357.
ties, 6.
Table
Table
Table
XXV,
Pipe, 356.
Due
to Hair
Water-gauge, 273.
Water-space, 120.
Water Surface,
123.
375
INDEX
Boilers, Advantages
and Disadvantages of, 111.
Wear and Tear, 323.
Weight of Air per Pound of Carbon,
Water-tubular
349.
Weight
of
Boiler-plate,
of
Water,
Welding, 224.
Bridge, 103.
Wet
Wheel Draft,
87.
Wood, 36.
Wrought Iron,
139.
Variation
Yarrow
Allowed, 144.
Weight
Wet Steam,
Boiler, 113.
9.
4054