Cyber Warfare

(Russia, China, Iran)

Ahmad Hemmat
Professor Rachel Ellett

Beloit College
Department of Political Science
May 5, 2011

Ahmad Hemmat

Cyber Warfare

Abstract
As technology became an integral part of our daily lives, its uses came under close
scrutiny because of some of its nefarious effects on our privacy. On a state level, nations have
become so interconnected on an intricate web of communications that select classified
information tends to leak more easily than ever before. As computers supplant human beings in
monitoring armies and weapons, governmental and defense departments grew extremely
vulnerable to organized attacks from other governments and even from amateur hackers. This
paper aims at investigating current literature about cyber warfare and its manifestations. It
endeavors to highlight the magnitude of these postmodern threats to international security. The
damages caused by these risks and the motivations of cyber aggressors are fundamental to
understanding the menace to national security policies. Ultimately, this paper seeks to broach
current approaches addressing key concerns that prompt nations to defend their cyberspace. The
analysis is intended to illustrate important case studies of cyber warfare in different countries.
Albeit, each case study is unique, they lead to similar conclusions regarding cyber hostilities. All
the sources used in this paper are open source information; therefore, the analysis presents
relative capabilities of particular nations. The conclusion of each case study is tested against the
asymmetric warfare theory. Last but not least, my project debunks the myths around cyber
attacks, conceptualizes the threats, and addresses the loopholes in the current national defense
policies.

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Cyber Warfare

Cyber Warfare
Water shapes its course according to the ground over which it flows; the soldier works out his
victory in relation to the foe whom he is fighting.
Sun Tzu, The Art of War1
Introduction
In recent decades, the world has witnessed salient social transformations as our lives
became inextricably linked to and dependent upon technology and more particularly the internet.
These transformations have influenced almost every single aspect of our business and
governmental transactions. These novel adjustments have altered security measures to a great
extent. The ever evolving aspect of technology has introduced new practices in defense
strategies. At the heart of these revolutionary developments is the transformation from an
industrial to an informational society, which is due to the aggregate of processes linked to
automated processing, search, storage and transmission of the increasing flow of data into all
spheres of social life. Although in most cases these developments have brought about positive
changes, not least in the fields of information sharing and innovation in defense systems around
the world, the question of the likelihood of this innovation to turn into vulnerability is ineluctable
in todays globalized world. According to John J. Kruzel (2008) these new technological
expansions and adaptations can be easily transform into defenselessness of nations2. The use of
cyber related attacks as a recent and more enhanced type of asymmetric warfare has already been
adopted by hostile forces. Although the motivations and means of these attacks differ from case
to case, they are usually successful due to the loopholes in the current defense system, which is

Grange, D. L. (2000). Asymmetric Warfare: Old Method, New Concern. National Strategy Forum Review, Winter
2000. Retrieved March 1, 2011.
2
Kruzel, J. J. (2008, March 3). Defense.gov News Article: Cyber Warfare a Major Challenge, The Official Home of
the Department of Defense. Retrieved March 2, 2011.

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in turn due to the lack of a universal definition of the problem. A case in point is the most
publicized Russian attack on Estonias paperless government in 2007. (Greg Bruno, 2008)3
This consequently proves that in the area of cyberspace both nation states and non-state actors
can use the rapidly growing dependency on an easily attacked cyberspace to their advantage and
pose a serious threat to national security. While cyber warfare has become increasingly
common in popular lore, culture and vocabulary, a solid definition of the phenomena is difficult
to come by. The objective of this paper is to address this concern, investigate current studies on
cyber warfare, measure the magnitude of the risks by examining the existing ambiguity around
cyber attacks to further illustrate current defense approaches propensity to fail. In addition, my
research will also review current policies on cyber security and provide an alternative policy
recommendation based on the finding of this project.
Today IT systems are increasingly connected with each other to take advantage of available
technology such as data sharing and cloud computing4. Information sharing as an aspect of
cyberspace is used to promote the better customer facilities that our information age has to offer.
Today, technology has been a major trend in problem solving in almost every aspect of our
existence. Consequently, these new social and informational adjustments in our societies have
brought about countless fundamental positive changes and strengthened nations abilities to
defend against threats and take preventive actions. However, the current cyber security
penetrability is used by hostile forces to change these advancements to weakness, which in turn
makes cyber related attacks an immense warning to international security.

Masters, J. (2011). Confronting the Cyber Threat. Council on Foreign Relations, March 17. Retrieved March 17,
2011.
4

Cloud Computing is on-demand access to virtualized IT resources that are housed outside of your own data center,
shared by others, simple to use, paid for via subscription and access over the web. (Marks, E. A., & Lozano, B. (2010).
Executive's guide to cloud computing. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley)

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What is the scale of damages due to cyber attacks and what policies and technological
approaches are there to avoid them? A realistic assessment and analysis of this question urges
the inevitable research questions of, what constitutes/ defines cyber warfare? What are some of
the major damages that can be caused through the wires of a network? And finally are our
current systems and policies adequate to defend against these threats?
The exponential growth of reliance on technology and the insecurities of the current
cyber security system potentially make cyber warfare the new threat to international security.
Currently, the policy debate regarding this issue comes from two opposite sides. The first and
traditional groups of experts are for keeping the status quo, which means continuing to build on
the digital maneuver by building more firewalls, using anti-virus programs and other protective
software, or implementing preventive procedures for example the Pentagons ban on use of
external computer flash drives. On the other hand, the second group advocates for an offensive
approach. They believe that a good defense requires a good offense. (Lolita C. Baldor, 2009)5
Although, these debates have gained much popularity among policy makers recently, all of the
current approaches and policies in the last 16 years have failed to keep the pace with the threat.
(Stuart S. Malawer, 2010)6
The hypothesis above has two variables, the dependent and the independent. The
independent variable in my hypothesis is the rapid widespread reliance on insecure
technological approaches in almost every field of our lives. The dependent variable in this
hypothesis is the threat from cyber warfare. The independent variable (reliance on insecure
infrastructure) is tested against the dependent variable (penetrability of the current cyber security
5

Baldor, L. C. (2009, April 29). Report: Cyber warfare policies lack oversight - Technology & science - Security msnbc.com. msnbc.com - Breaking news, science and tech news, world news, US news, local news- msnbc.com.
Online.
6
Malawer, S. S. (2010, February 9). Cyber Warfare. Virginia Lawyer Magazine, Vol.58. Retrieved March 2, 2011.

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system) in order to investigate the degrees of the threat from cyber attacks to international
security. Thus, as a result of increasing reliance on insecure technological practices, the world
has witnessed a rise in the threat from cyber warfare.
This paper will attempt to define cyber warfare in the form of both descriptive and
explanatory studies of the phenomenon itself. This part will be followed by three case studies
which will be evaluated along the same two variables; (1)reliance on technology, and(2)the
extent of threat from cyber related attacks. The case studies chosen for this research are the
nation-states that are already striving to acquire cyber warfare capacity, or who have tested their
capacity as warfare tactics. The countries in this category are Russia, China and Iran.
However, there will be reference to additional countries other than the three main ones
throughout the paper in order to investigate the proliferation of cyber related attacks to other
parts of the world. Each of the three countries used for the case studies has either used cyber
warfare as a military tactic or are acquiring the capacity to launch or defend against cyber related
attacks. However, each country has used this tactic on different scales and with different
methods. The paper will also address these differences in usages of cyber attacks to assess the
dimensions of the threat posed by cyber attacks to international security and to investigate the
commonality in the nature of these attacks.
Due to the nature of cyber attacks, the application of asymmetric warfare7 theory will be
used in this research to investigate the threats posed by cyber attacks to international security as a
tactic of warfare. Furthermore, the theory would be used to study the adoption of asymmetric
warfare in the form of cyber attacks as well as investigating the scale of cyber attacks that could

ibid

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be used by hostile forces, and finally, to find out what the consequential damages that could be
caused to international security by cyber-related attacks are.
The central concern of the paper is to come up with an all inclusive definition of the
problem, measure the magnitude of the threat, and examine existing policies regarding cyber
warfare. The topic requires combining various analyses of the subject. This interdisciplinary
approach of combining technological and political analyses will be used to disaggregate complex
technical definitions while avoiding oversimplification.
The key research method used in this paper is qualitative. The key goal of this research is
to find as much all-inclusive data related to these case studies as possible. This data about each
specific case study will then be used to draw a more general conclusion about the nature of the
threat. However, the research will also include various statistical analysis of the threat from
cyber warfare. The quantitative form method is mainly used to evaluate the magnitude of the
threat in the form of flow charts, and tables related to the topic. Building on previous researches
in the field, resources used for this paper will mainly come from books, academic journals,
academic papers, think thanks, and government websites as well as occasional supportive details
from newspaper articles and open source data. While one can argue against the validity of
newspaper and open source data used in the research, it is essential to be reminded of the nature
of this topic. The novel characteristics of the topic urge new methods of data collection.
Furthermore, researches in the field of security in general and cyber security in particular are
often categorized as classified information. This in turn restricts the domain of information
which one can draw from. Similarly, exclusively relying on historical literature will not lead to
any clarification of the topic. However, a combination of all the studies in the form of an

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interdisciplinary approach will lead to the clarification of the topic and attempt to facilitate the
understanding of complex technical approaches in the field.
The resources used in this research paper range from technological, political, historical, and
strategic studies regarding cyber security, cyber warfare, and asymmetric warfare. These
resources will be listed in the form of the Bibliography enclosed along with the paper for future
studies of the topic.

Background and Literature Review

The main issue regarding cyber warfare is the definition of the phenomenon itself.
According to Sarah Gordon, an independent consultant with Symantec, when there is no clear
definition of the threat caused by computer related crimes attempting to fit them into one of the
often narrowly defined categories cannot result in an all inclusive solution. (Gordon, 2002)The
first attempt at defining computer related crimes and categorizing them under well defined
classes is a desirable step toward coming up with a solution to the problem. At first the situation
looks like a Catch -22, but without defining the dilemma, one cannot know what it is one is
fighting and thus cannot come up with a solution. (Sarah Gordon, 2002) Cyber warfare can be
used for different purposes by both hostile forces and by nations to defend themselves. These
attacks can be a state sponsored an individuals attack or a group of individuals mistreatment of
others privacy, property, and personal security, national and in due course international security.
Denning (200) attempts to define an exclusive type of cyber related threat. She labels this
category of cyber security threats as cyber terrorism. The definition she gives for Cyber terrorism
is the convergence of terrorism and cyberspace. Meanwhile, these attacks are generally
understood to mean unlawful attacks and threats of attack against computers, networks, and the
information stored therein when done to intimidate or coerce a government or its people in
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furtherance of political or social objectives. Furthermore, additional characteristics of this

specific type of cyber threat are added to the main definition. In order to qualify as cyber
terrorism, an attack should result in violence against persons or property, or at least cause enough
harm to generate fear. Attacks that lead to death or bodily injury, explosions, plane crashes,
water contamination, or severe economic loss would be examples. Serious attacks against critical
infrastructure could be acts of cyber terrorism depending on their impact. Attacks that disrupt
nonessential services or that are mainly a costly nuisance would not. (Gordon, 2002) Although it
is a sturdy definition for cyber terrorism as a sub category of threats posed by cyber insecurity, it
raises its own kind of atypical issues. For example, this definition is rarely understood from the
media and public usage of the term. These issues related to the definition of the nature of the
threats attests to its intrinsic contribution to the overall understanding of the nuisance caused by
the threats posed by cyber insecurity in general. Commonplace vague definitions or lack of
understanding has halted progress in defending from such threats.
It is essential to emphasize the clear definition of the threats we are facing or will be
facing in the future that are posed by our current vulnerable IT infrastructure. In Cyber warfare
and Cyber Terrorism, Lech J. Janczewski and Andrew M. Colarik argue that as the world
becomes even more digitalized and interconnected, and as the number and capability of users
increase, it is likely that adversaries will develop the skills and abilities to implement both
offensive and defensive digital strategies, and develop capabilities that bolster such strategies.
(Janczewski and Colarik, 2008)
Understanding the nature of the electronic danger requires a definition thereof. According
to Janczewski and Colarik, (2008) cyber attacks by definition are conducted by or against
electronic data processing facilities. This statement fails to address the details and the complex

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nature of the threat. However, this is a great step toward the classification of cyber security
threats, although definitions such this limits the public understanding of the severity of these
threats.
A different approach to better understanding of the threats from cyber related crimes is to
look at how vulnerable todays world is. The way we lead our everyday lives proves how
technologically dependent) we are. Yet the fragile infrastructure and lack of capable institutions
fails to gain the consideration it deserves. The author of the book Digital Security Ananda Mitra
(2010) makes a great case by presenting the testimony that everyone in the U.S is issued a Social
Security number (SSN), which becomes a personal identity code used for many different
transactions. (Mitra, 2010) The fact that this personal information could be a momentous target
for cyber warriors is a tormenting situation in todays world.
Furthermore, cyberspace has been an attractive battle field for adversaries of the United
States due to the low cost of entry. Today, a cyber warrior only need a laptop connected with
internet, and knowledge of hacking into government websites to bring down key government
operations. Thus, it makes cyberspace a desirable place for hostile forces to challenge the U.S
superior military capabilities in a form of asymmetric warfare.8
The current major threat to international security comes from terrorists among other
politically motivate violent forces, particularly, al Qaeda. According to Mitra (2010) after the fall
of the Taliban in early 2000s, the extremist group of al Qaeda moved many of its activities to the
internet.(Mitra,2010) by conducting misinformation campaigns, reaching out to new recruits and
promoting their global image. The use of technology in threatening international security is no
8

Wilson, C. (2007). Information Operations, Electronic Warfare, and Cyber war: Capabilities and Related Policy
Issues. CRS Report for Congress, Order Code RL31787 (March 20), 10-15.

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longer a mere prediction of the future but has been used by groups such as al Qaeda in promoting
their mission of misinformation and recruitments among many other purposes. The use of IT
especially the internet for propaganda and enhanced recruitment techniques makes the hostile
forces missions cheap, effective and widespread, while in turn leads to a defenseless
international security system by increasing the risks and the cost of fighting these intimidations.
Moreover, the novelty of the threat from cyber security is a unique feature of cyber
warfare. The damage an individual can cause using a computer can be immense. For example the
story of a disgruntled employee in 2001, who was refused a full time job with Maroochy Shire
government of Queensland in Australia, is an extraordinary illustration of the nature of these
threats. The disgruntled employee used a computer program along with some other electronic
equipment to gain access to the region water control system. Upon gaining access the individual
released 264,172 gallons (1 million liters) of raw sewage into the local rivers. As a result,
marine life died, the water turned black, and the stench was unbearable to local residents, said
Janelle Bryant of the Australian Environmental Protection Agency. (Mitra, 2010) This is a lucid
case of an individuals act of cyber terrorism.
Occasionally, arguments that doubt the disastrous consequences of insecure cyberspace,
have been made to marginalize the colossal effects of terrorist attacks involving computers have
lost validity. Due to the nature of todays world, computers play a principal role in data storage,
and plenty of sensitive personal and institutional information is stored in the forms of digital
data. According to the U.S Department of Defense, it has been documented that 80% of U.S
commerce goes through internet. It is important to mention that some of this information is of
critical value to the national security of a country. According to Mitra (2010) hostile forces can
target this information in three different ways; the first one being the use of already common

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tools, such as viruses, to destroy some or all of the data; although it can be restored in most cases
but it will take some time for the institution (Mitra, 2010). Similarly, terrorists can severely
damage individuals by gaining access to sensitive information, and successfully infiltrate todays
common computer-based communications; this in turn leads to their ability to disrupt every
aspect of our lives.
Todays defense system against cyber security threats is very archaic; however, recent
research studies have convinced practitioners to adapt new measures of defense against cyber
threats. A case in point is the use of digital spying. Digital spying as a particular class of cyber
warfare is used in defense from cyber related crimes. According to the author of Digital
Security, in 1994, the United States legislature signed into law the Communications Assistance
for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA). This in turn allowed the government to work with private
telecommunication companies in America to preserve the ability of law enforcement agencies
to conduct electronic surveillance by requiring that telecommunications carriers and
manufacturers of telecommunications equipment modify and design their equipment, facilities,
and services to ensure that they have the necessary surveillance capabilities. (Mitra, 2010)
Furthermore, the use of digital policing by countries as an emerging tactic in fighting
cyber hate is distinct example of already in practice class of cyber warfare. A case in point is the
2008 report of the British newspaper The Telegraph on the countries first move toward digital
policing. According to the report in question the British government would soon establish a
nationwide police system that would be responsible for tackling digital crime.(Mitra, 2010) This
is indeed an indicator of both the threat and security aspect of cyber, and an argument for using
cyber policing as a counteract to the threat posed by cyber terrorism.

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As critical activities of everyday life become more and more dependent on computers and
cyber, it is crucial to not simply ignore the risks of cyber security threats. While the risks from
cyber security threats constantly become larger and larger, recently a more concrete genre of
digital policing, digital spying, and counteraction practices have been adopted by many
countries. However, the main issues are how to efficient these practices are in fighting the risks
from cyber threats? And what is it that we are fighting? Questions of this type have provoked
more enthusiasm and urge for more research. According to the Committee on Improving Cyber
security Research in the United States no single research project will lead to the widespread
reality of any of provision of cyber security. (Goodman, Lin, 2007). One can ask the following
question: is it due to the vague definition of the dilemma itself or is it the complexity of the issue
that we fail to address?
Dependencies on IT and cyber in particular have been growing rapidly in the recent
decades and continue to grow well into the future. The CICSR advocates that safe and secure
cyberspace has been crucial to the public interest. Yet cyberspace in general, and the Internet in
particular, are notoriously vulnerable to a frightening and expanding range of accidents and
attacks by a spectrum of hackers, criminals, terrorists, and state actors who have been
empowered by unprecedented access to more people and organizations than has ever been the
case with any infrastructure in history.(Goodman, Lin, 2007)
Goodman and Lin argue that cyber security is not a new topic to the national and international
agenda. However, these research studies have addressed this subject from different perspectives.
In most cases many of these studies have been focused on specific subcategories of cyber
warfare for example Cyber terrorism, missions of critical infrastructures protection, and how
they might better protect themselves. A comparable research approach has been the study of

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specific sectors and how to protect these sectors from cyber threats, for example the banking and
finance sector (Goodman, Lin, 2007). Although these micro level studies have been essential in
the realm of cyber security research, the push for an extensive and all inclusive study is still
pending due to several factors mentioned in this paper. A comparison approach of computer
related risks with other types of risks in our society is a brilliant method to categorize and define
risks posed by cyber insecurity. For example some of the insights from the psychology of
personal risks seem applicable to computer related risks. (Dr.Lenoard S.Zegnas, 2008). This
particular comparison of psychology of personal risks with risks posed by the insecurity of
cyberspace is confirmed by the author of The Psychology of Security Bruce Schneier. (Schneier,
2007)
Examples of cyber attacks on a much higher level have become reality in recent years.
Once a mere concern of IT specialists or computer scientists now are the concerns of anybody
using computers and/or the cyber, the extensiveness of the threat urges a more thorough
understanding of the threat and how we can and should be counteracting it. In his article EMigration Risks, Peter G. Neumann brings the attention of the readers to the vulnerability of the
current security system in the cyber world. His example of recent denial-of- service attacks in
Estonia makes a strong case of the vulnerability of cyber security. (Neumann, 2007)
An opposing argument to more investment and research in the cyber security realm is that
the existing surveillance technology can be built securely and without risk of penetration by
hostile forces. The authors of The Real National- Security Needs for VoIP Steven Bellovin, Matt
Blaze, and Susan Landau argue that the track record is not encouraging, and a number of U.S.
Government agencies, including Department of Defense and the Department of Justice have
been the victim of successful attacks. (BML, 2005)The argument of building surveillance

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technology which are totally protected against cyber security threats merely ignores the current
status of the vulnerability of the infrastructure and consequently delays the defense approach
from severe damages caused by cyber related attacks.
We have already witnessed several examples of cyber warfare; this everyday reality can
be illustrated by the attempts of cyber warfare. A case in point is Cloariks example in his book
Cyber Warfare and Cyber Terrorism Web sites in China are being used heavily to target
computer networks in the Defense Department and other U.S. agencies, successfully breaching
hundreds of unclassified networks( Janczewski, L. & Colarik, A. M. 2008) Furthermore, the
severity of the damage and the target is not limited to the Department of Defense but everyday
variety of networks get targeted, including the departments of State, Energy and Homeland
Security as well as defense contractors The official said, This is an ongoing, organized attempt
to siphon off information from our unclassified systems. (Janczewski, L., & Colarik, A. M.
2008)
In general Information Technology has proved to be a double edged sword, especially
todays popular use of online systems and the cyberspace in most of our business transactions.
Our increasing dependence on the available information online, online communication, online
commerce, and online education, to just mention a few, have lead to more progress and
development, at the same time this deeply rooted reliance on the insecurity attributes of the cyber
world make it a costly threat to the future of international security (Peter G. Neumann, 2003).
The dependency on IT urges the questions of how much is the cyber world itself exposed
to instability and can we keep the information available on the internet safe from hostile forces.
Similarly the validity of information and its usage by hostile forces to promote cyber hate is of

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interest to cyber warfare experts. Beginning Saturday 25 January 2003 around 12:30 am EST, a
distributed denial of service attacks spread rapidly throughout the internet community. Within
ten minutes, most of the vulnerable hosts on the internet were infected. By morning, Bank of
America customers could not withdraw money from 13.000 ATMs (Andrew Wright, 2003) is an
example of the vulnerability of the cyber world, and how instable it could be.
Furthermore, the reliance on computing systems controlling the management of power
plants, dams, the North American power grid, air traffic control system, food and energy
distribution, and financial system, to just name a few, makes this infrastructure critical to safe
guard international interests.(Janczewski and Colarik, 2008)
The TIA (Total Information Awareness) program sponsored by the DARPA (Defense
Advanced Research Project Agency) is a sign for the urge which fights for the new kind of
warfare. The future of cyber warfare parallels the popularity and dependency on the insecure
cyber world in its trajectory.(Barbara Simons and Eugene H. Spafford, 2003)This brings back
the issues of conceptualizing these threats posed by cyber security. Extensive research has
already been done on cyber security prediction models to serve as a frame work for researchers
to develop models of cyber threats which practitioners can use for input their decision-making
process. The author of the article Cyber Security Models Norman F. Schneidewind believes that
it is due to the realization of the severity of cyber security problems. (Norman F. Schneidewind,
2008)9 but the flaw in these models are due to the narrowly defined terms in the realm of cyber
security.

Janczewski, L., & Colarik, A. M. (2008). Cyber warfare and cyber terrorism. Hershey: Information Science
Reference.

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This literature review is a first attempt to my research on the topic of cyber warfare. This
outline is a provisional structure of my research on the topic. The included bibliography is some
of the resources that have highly sparked my research enthusiasm and has helped me shape the
current draft of my research.
Case Studies
The more recent warnings of complex cyber attack threats to the international security is
evident in the number of attacks and the multi-faceted nature of these attacks. For example in the
last two years (2010 and 2011) these attacks included the espionage hacks of Google and
Western energy companies, the Stuxnet infiltration of Iranian nuclear sites, and targeting of
government networks in South Korea. (Jonathan Masters, 2011)10 Governments policies evolve
as new threats of cyber attacks are exposed and as new adversaries adopt this type of warfare.
For example the U.S cyber security policy continues to evolve to meet these new challenges, but
still critical gaps remain, including the deficiency in the protection of private sector networks and
infrastructure critical to the U.S national security, such as power grids and financial networks.
(Jonathan Masters, 2011)
The political blame game due to threats posed by cyber attacks has already begun to exist
between nation-states. A point in case is the Chinese accusation of the U.S employment of cyber
warfare. (Kathrin Hille in Beijing, 2010)11 Although the continuum of cyber related attacks
appears to be much wider than state to state relations, certain countries have adopted cyber
warfare or happened to become victim to this type of warfare.

10

Masters, J. (2011). Confronting the Cyber Threat. Council on Foreign Relations, March 17. Retrieved March 17,
2011.
11
Hille, K. (2010, January 24). China Accuses US of using Cyber Warfare. Financial Times. Retrieved March 4,
2011.

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The following case studies attempt to exemplify and analyze a realistic assessment of
capabilities, means, and motivations of certain countries, and their potential ascendancy to focus
on narrowing the technological superiority of the U.S. Army. The countries of interest in this
category are Russia, China, and Iran.
Russia
The Russian- Georgian war in August of 2008 was not the first time Russia made use of
coordinated cyber attacks in the domain of warfighting. In fact, the use of cyber warfare in
Russia dates back to the cold war era as the Soviet Union had a propensity to attack US army
websites to get access to classified information. The KGB is documented to have used and even
trained hackers for that end.
Russias earliest examples of politically motivated explicit cyber attacks date back to as far
as 2002. A case in point is the Russian attack on the oppositions website (Ingushetia.org). The
challengers to the oppressive and corrupt government of one of the poorest, most debauched, and
belligerent state of the Russian Federations outlying state (Ingushetia) used this website as their
main medium of campaigning against the brutality of the government. Since 2007, the website
has been under frequent hackers attacks. The increase in the number of onslaughts is usually
timed to the websites more controversial pronouncements. A case in point is the websites
controversial I have not voted campaign launched during the 2007 Russian elections.12,13

12

Carr, J., & Shepherd, L. (2010). Inside cyber warfare. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media, Inc.

13

The I have not voted! Campaign was one of the many actions that the (Ingushetia.org) website launched, after
the 2007 Russian legislative elections, gathering more than 57,000 signatures of people who had not voted. The aim
of the action was to demonstrate that the official results of the regional voting (98% turnout and 99% support of
United Russia) were false (Ingushetia.org, 2007).

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Furthermore, during the Second Russian-Chechen war (1997-2001) when the Russian army
invaded the breakaway region of Chechnya to reinstall a puppet regime, both sides used
cyberspace to engage in information operations to shape public perception. Although, traditional
war was officially over in 2001, it is recorded that the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) is
held accountable for bringing down two key Chechen websites when Russian Spetsnaz troops
fought Chechen rebels who were holding Russian civilians as hostages in a Moscow theatre on
October 26, 2002.14
The wrath of Russia after Estonia, a country still in its orbit, relocated a Soviet statue The
Bronze Soldier of Tallinn, which was dedicated to soldiers of the former Soviet Union who had
died in battle. This activating incident, which the Kremlin considered a humiliating act that
necessitated retaliation, was beyond control and manifested itself in street demonstrations. Given
the fact that a military response was unrealistic, the Russian government considered another way
to wreak punishment on its neighbor. The best way to take revenge was waging an electronic war
on Estonian computers. The resulting cyber offensive acts initially started with massive
distributed denial of service (DDoS)15 attacks on the websites of Estonia's government
departments, political institutions, magazines, monetary institutions and businesses. The cyber
protesters took their grievances to the internet, launching an offensive that destroyed sites with
excessive fake access requests. The websites of the Justice and Foreign ministries were blocked
altogether. The attacks also took other forms. Internet discussions on forums were heavy with

14

Carr, J., & Shepherd, L. (2010). Inside cyber warfare. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media, Inc.

15

A distributed denial-of-service(DDoS) attack is a large-scale, coordinated attack on the availability of services on

a victims system or network resources, launched indirectly through many compromised computers on the internet.(
Ethical hacking and countermeasures: web applicaqations and data servers. (2010). Clifton Park, NY: Course
Technology/Cengage Learning.)

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instructions on how to devastate Estonian government websites with accessing a website by

many people simultaneously.16
In 2008, Russias use of cyber attacks evolved from selective targets to becoming key
component of Russian military strategies. Massive cyber attacks were launched against the
Georgian government, in response to Georgias attack against separatists in South Ossetia. In the
history of warfare, this was the first time that cyber attacks coincided with a land, sea, and air
invasion by one state against another.17 This threat to the national security of Georgia was a
combination of conventional warfare along with cyber warfare. These methods of cyber warfare
against Georgia included defacement of public websites and launch of distributed denial of
service (DDoS) attacks against several targetsmethods similar to those used in attacks against
Estonia in 2007. (Eneken Tikk, Kadri Kaska, Kristel Rnnimeri, Mari Kert, Anna-Maria
Talihrm, Liis Vihul, 2008)18
The Russia-Georgia war corroborates the highly coordinated cyber capability of Russia. In
fact, these well organized aggressions were major part of the successful cyber campaign against
Georgian government websites as well as other strategically valuable sites, including the US and
British embassies. The attack vectors included similar DDoS Russian attacks on Estonia, as well
as SQL injection, and cross-site scripting [XSS].19,20

16

Kampmark, B. K. (2007, August 1). Cyber Warfare between Estonia and Russia. Contemporary Review, Autumn
2007, Review. Online.
17
Carr, J., & Shepherd, L. (2010). Inside cyber warfare. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media, Inc.
18
Tikk, E., Kaska, K., & Rnnimeri, K. (2008). Cyber Attacks Against Georgia. CCDCOE (Cooperative Cyber
Defense Centre of Excellence, Vol 1.0(November 2008). Retrieved March 3, 2011, from
19
Carr, J., & Shepherd, L. (2010). Inside cyber warfare. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media, Inc.
20

XSS is an attack vector that can be used to steal sensitive information, hijack user sessions and compromise the
browser and the underplaying system integrity. XSS vulnerabilities have existed since the early days of the Web.
Today, they represent the biggest threat to e-commerce, a billions of dollars a day industry. (Grossman, J. (2007).
XSS attacks. Burlington, Mass.: Syngress.)

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These findings show the Russian attempt to pioneer the future warfare dominion, by its sensible
take up to emerging technological evolution in the realm of cyber warfare. Russias drastic
commitment to its national security and its willingness to offset oppositions threats via a
combination of preventive and offensive cyber attacks has amplified the countrys upper hand in
battlefield on the cyberspace.
China
The first organized community of cyber warriors of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC)
emerged in 1998. In response to the anti-Chinese riots taking place in Indonesia, a group of
Chinese hackers formed a coalition of estimated 3,000 hackers called the China Hacker
Emergency Meeting Center (CHEMC). The group launched massive attacks against the
Indonesian government websites in response to the anti-Chinese protest in this country.21 For the
first time in China, a large number of hackers coordinated cyber attacks on a foreign nation and
showed organized coordination and skillful use of the new technological war tactics.
Furthermore, one year after the formation of CHEMC, China witnessed the emergence of a
much better organized hacker community in response to the incident of May 7, 1999, when a
NATO jet accidentally bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, in former Yugoslavia. In a
very prompt responsefewer than twelve hours elapsed after the event, the recently formed
hacker group called the Chinese Red Hacker Alliance began a number of aggressive cyber
invasions of hundreds of US governmental websites. Comparable acts of cyber aggression
became popular in 2001, when a group of more than 80,000 hackers became engaged in
launching a self-defense cyber war in response to the accident of a U.S. military plane crashing

21

Carr, J., & Shepherd, L. (2010). Inside cyber warfare. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media, Inc..

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into a Chinese fighter jet over the South China Sea.22 Nonetheless, since then, most of the PRCs
emphasis has been upon online espionage activities in keeping with its defense techniques to
focus on narrowing the technological superiority of the U.S. army on a much larger level.23
In order to investigate Chinese acquisition of cyber warfare, one needs to observe the overall
patterns of Chinas pursuit of getting hold of foreign technological warfare tactics. Between the
years 1995 and 2008, China has launched several high profile cases of espionage against the
United States. These attempts ranges from aerospace programs, space shuttle design, F-16
design, submarine propulsion, C4ISR data, high-performance computers, nuclear weapon design,
and details of the U.S arms sales to Taiwan. The Chinese do not limit their espionage attacks to
high value targets but have been after any data which may be of value to them. (Jason Fritz,
2008)24
The Chinese government has followed cyber warfare as a strategic move to be able to
counter the American superiority in conventional wars given the differences in military budgets.
The Pentagon documents numerous attacks by Chinese Cyber Warriors: "In the past year,
numerous computer networks around the world, including those owned by the US government,
were subject to intrusions that appear to have originated within the People's Republic of China
[PRC]. These intrusions require many of the skills and capabilities that would also be required
for computer network attack. Although it is unclear if these intrusions were conducted by, or
with the endorsement of, the People's Liberation Army [PLA] or other elements of the PRC

22

ibid
ibid
24
Fritz, J. (2008). To leapfrog in Military Competitiveness. Culture Mandala, Vol 8(October 2008), 28-80.
Retrieved March 2, 2011.
23

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government, developing capabilities for cyber warfare is consistent with authoritative PLA
writings on this subject.25
The PLA has taken everybody aback by constructing offensive capabilities and investing
in electronic countermeasures, defenses against electronic attacks (e.g. electronic and infrared
decoys, angle reflectors and false target generators) and computer network operations.26
The People s Liberation Army has established information warfare units to develop viruses to
wage wars against enemy computer systems and networks, as well as immense adoption of
upgrade tactics and measures to defend friendly computer systems and networks. In 2005, the
Peoples Liberation Army began to include offensive Computer Network Operations[CNO] into
its exercises, primarily in first strikes against enemy networks.27
Iran
Irans officials have repeatedly acknowledged their willingness to adopt cyber warfare. It has
already integrated the new type of warfare into its army and police. Particularly, after the
Stuxnet computer worm attack on Iranian uranium enrichment program, in fact Iran created its
first cyber police unit in January of 2010. (Naseer Karimi, 2010)28
Iran is cognizant of the tremendous importance of cyber warfare and is training part of its
population for this end. The countrys IT infrastructure is deemed rudimentary compared to the
leading countries, yet the intensive attacks coming from its part is not to be ignored and the
efforts to develop its technological capabilities are tremendous. The elite in the country mostly
trained in the West are diligently working for the development of internet technologies
sometimes used to criticize Irans own government.
25

The Journal of Electronic Defense. Washington Report, April.2008

ibid
27
ibid
28
Karimi, N. (2008, March 14). Report: Iran's paramilitary launches cyber attack. PhysOrg.com - Science News,
Technology, Physics, Nanotechnology, Space Science, Earth Science, Medicine. Retrieved March 15, 2011
26

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In the aftermath of the 1979 popular revolution deposing the Shah, Iranian governmental
interest in the technology industry as a main cornerstone of the defense technological basis rose
in response to the perceived evidence of a frail home-built R & D infrastructure. A key
bottleneck, however, was the brain drain to the U.S. and Europe in the 1980s. In answer to that
dilemma, the Rafsanjani government took steps to: build scientific and research centers, both
within Irans Universities and within the army; identify foreign partners for technology
exchange, student partnership, and collaborative R & D; and provide motivations to attract
educated Iranians back to serve the country.29
The 2009 controversial election in Iran generated a massive public protest against election
fraud. The public unrest was coupled with massive information flow through social media such
as Facebook and Twitter. In response the Iranian government reacted with instituting harsh
police action as well as shutting down media channels as well as internet access inside the
country. Some members of the opposition group launched extensive DDoS attacks against
governmental websites. Social Networking Sites were used to recruit additional cyber warriors to
their cause and links to automated DDoS software made it easy for anyone to participate in this
cyber war against the government of Iran.
Furthermore, it is documented that Iranian hackers, who call themselves Ashianeh Security
Team (AST) has succeeded to deface large number of Israeli websites in the last few decades ,
including Mossads website and (Ehudbarak.org.il) Israeli Defense Minister and Deputy Prime
Minister Ehud Baraks website. The group of cyber warrior left a message in English reading
ISRAEL, You killed more than 800 innocent civil people in Gaza. Do you think that you wont

29

Billo, C., & Chang, W. (2004). Cyber Warfare (An Analysis of the Means and Motivations of State and Selected
Nations. Hanover, NH: Institute for Security Technology Studies At Dartmouth College.

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pay for this? Stop War. If you dont we will continue hacking your important sites. The group is
said to be sponsored by the government of Iran.30
Moreover, there have been occasional small scale cyber wars between Iranian Shiite Muslims
and Arab Sunni Muslims. A case in point is the 2008 cyber war between the two groups by
taking down websites associated with one anothers sects.31
In addition to making qualitative and quantitative diversification to its cyber attack
capabilities, Iranian government sponsored and autonomous cyber warrior groups could increase
the number of circumstances under which they would be willing to launch massive cyber
incursions. For instance, the historical and latest clash between Iranian government and the West
have highly revitalized Iranian willingness to use cyberspace as an asymmetric warfare tactic to
counterbalance the American military technological advancements.
Key Findings:
-

The United States Department of Defense defines cyber warfare as The employment of
Computer Network Operations (CNO) with the intent of denying adversaries the effective
use of their computers, information systems, and networks, while ensuring the effective
use of our own computers, information systems, and networks. These operations include
Computer Network Attack (CNA), Computer Network Exploitation (CNE), and
Computer Network Defense (CND).32

The following chart summarizes the dimensions of the threat; the increase in the number
of cyber attacks, motivation of aggressors, and the popularity of the different
subcategories of cyber warfare. The evolution of cyber warfare since the year 2000

30

Carr, J., & Shepherd, L. (2010). Inside cyber warfare. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media, Inc.
ibid
32
ibid
31

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indicates a sharp increase in the trend of the posed threats to the world; due to the
increasing dependency on the insecure infrastructure and the lack of adequate defense
approaches. The diagram in figure-1 suggests that most of the attacks prior to 2007 were
in small scales and mostly carried by non-state actors. However, since then these attacks
has evolved into much more complex and disastrous crisis threatening the susceptibility
of the current security systems in the world.

Figure-1(Evolution of Cyber Warfare)33

The three different case studies facilitate to classify the commonly used types of cyber warfare
into the following five sub categories:

33

ibid

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Cyber Warfare

Ahmad Hemmat

Cyber attacks against governments or civilian websites or networks without

accompanying military force.

Cyber attacks against government or critical civilian websites or networks with

accompanying military force

Cyber attacks against internal political opponents

Cyber intrusions into critical infrastructure and networks

Acts of cyber espionage34

Policy:
Cyber warfare, as an emerging area of security concerns for nations all around the world
urges better policy formulation to keep the pace with the rapid growing threat of this
phenomenon. Current policies regarding cyber security has failed to encompass, the wide range
of cyber threats that has increased both in number and magnitude in recent decades. However,
the myth around cyber threat vacuity has started to fade away at least among experts in the field
of security studies. As stated by Michael G.Vickers, assistant sectary of defense for special
operations the threats to our computers are real and growing and attempted intrusion happens on
daily basis.35
The US Department of Defense made it plain in a regular report that the internet is
important to the U.S defense system, despite this recognition of importance the policies
regarding cyberspace in general and cyber warfare still fails to substantiate guarantee safety. 36
The ultimate question then is why do we fail to address such an emerging concern through well
defined and realistic policy formulation?
34

ibid
The Journal of Electronic Defense. Washington Report, April.2008
36
Kampmark, B. K. (2007, August 1). Cyber Warfare between Estonia and Russia. Contemporary Review, Autumn
2007, Review. Online.
35

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The tough measures taken by governments seeking the punishment of cyber offenders
mirrors their fear of the arms available to hackers. The US Defense Department made it plain in
a regular report that the internet was important to a defense system. As was noted when the
report came out, the motto: fight the internet takes on aggressive intensity through the files. The
US government sought the handing over of a UK citizen, who was allocated the same category
as an al-Qaeda operative. He had been charged with hacking into tens of computers of the US
government in 2001. The terrified US government was disrupted by the behavior meant to move
and affect the US government by coercive measures and intimidation.37
Cyber space as a battleground is a very challenging concept. The temptation to classify it
as just another domain of warfare, like air, land, sea, and space is commonly the first mistake
thats made by many security experts, political leaders and policy makers.38 In fact, the U.S.
Department of State has already officially considered cyberspace to be a domain for warfare,
similar to air, space, land, and sea.39
Deeming cyberspace as merely an additional field of war acts would necessitate security
institutions to abide by the law of Armed Conflict, that is a response taken in the aftermath of
being cyber attacked, and disambiguation has to be made between fighters and innocent
civilians.40 Experience has proven that reactive defense is by no means the most effective
strategy against increasingly powerful and swift malicious cyber attacks. A more adequate
defense against these aggressive acts is to include preemptive, fierce measures that allow security

37

Kampmark, B. K. (2007, August 1). Cyber Warfare between Estonia and Russia. Contemporary Review, Autumn
2007.Online.
38
Carr, J., & Shepherd, L. (2010). Inside cyber warfare. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly Media, Inc.
39
Wilson, C. (2007). Information Operations, Electronic Warfare, and Cyberwar: Capabilities and Related Policy
Issues. CRS Report for Congress, Order Code RL31787(March 20), 10-15.
40
ibid

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institutions to preempt and lessen the bids of the attacker.41 The United States also need to invest
in considerable training for cyber warriors. This should not only be limited to military academies
students but should entail universities students who later get hired into other business transaction
companies. The U.S. Department of Defense conducts annual Cyber Defense Exercise among
teams of students from military academies, but has not yet sponsored any research or training
program for civilian academic institutions students.42
Conclusion:
By and large, international security and that of the United States, in particular, currently
face a tremendous challenge to defend themselves against emergent cyberspace threats. In
this article we have investigated that the main issues of cyber warfare policy formulation
come from identifying as well as coping with actors responsible for those politically
motivated cyber menaces. Albeit the menace posed to the national security of countries is
dramatically growing, policy makers have realized the tremendous importance of more
sophisticated cyber warfare policy formulations. Nonetheless, I argue in my paper that the
major dilemma arises from the lack of a proper definition of the problem, and classification
of cyber warfare as just another domain of warfighting; simple oversight such as these have
lead to inadequate defense policies. The fact, that there are several subcategories of cyber
warfare, difference in motivation of the aggressors, scales of the attacks, and finally the use
of cyber warfare along with conventional army as well as detached network attacks urge to
apply creative and advance defense methods.

41

Wilson, C. (2007). Information Operations, Electronic Warfare, and Cyberwar: Capabilities and Related Policy
Issues. CRS Report for Congress, Order Code RL31787(March 20), 10-15.
42
ibid

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The article contribute to the endeavor of better policy formulation by reviewing previews
studies in the field and conceptualizing important aspects of cyber warfare. Due to the
obscure nature of Information Technology, adversaries can route attacks through computer
networks and proxies and obfuscate their identities. As a result of these austere features of
the informational revolution and the surfacing of cyber warfare as a warfighting tactic,
mainly as an instrument to counterbalance advanced military powers in the world, has led to
growing concern regarding threats posed by cyber-related attacks and the realization of the
urgent need for better policies. Although the United States has increased funding for cyber
security experts training and research, it has mainly focused on military academies. This
overlooks the fact that military institutions are not the only victims of these threats. In fact,
the internet makes up the backbone of commercial and social interactions in todays world.
In contrast, several countries have already taken vital steps to adjust their policies and
improved their cyber warfare defensive and/or offensive capabilities. There are major gaps
in these policies that address these menaces in the United States. The aporia come from the
complexities of the nature of the threats, means of the attacks, and finally the motivation of
both state and non-state actors.
Furthermore, available information on the use of cyber warfare on the international level,
whether it was a state sponsored or non- state actors attacks disclose that most of these
attacks are grounded in latent political opposition between adversaries. As these political
strains between opponents heat up, cyber warriors tend to carry out cyber research queries in
an apparent effort to prepare for future attacks. The majority of these attempts can be cut
short in their early stages by adopting preventive policies. However, more sophisticated

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attacks by elite hackers tend to bypass this approach; therefore, there is a need to acquire
advance defensive tactics as well as utilizing preventive methods
The need for all inclusive and more advanced technological antidotes to the problems arising
from cyber warfare is apparent in the increase in the number of attacks and the advancement
in the means of these aggressions. Current policies regard cyber warfare as both defensive
and offensive techniques of nation -states. However, the pattern in the complexity and
number of these attacks over the last few decades urges a combination of both offense and
defense capabilities. Furthermore, cyber warfare has been used as a type of asymmetric
warfare as well as in combination with conventional wars. These two different features of
cyber warfare confirm a more comprehensive approach to the problem.
How does my findings relate to the existing research on network attacks? I have suggested
that as the world gets more and more dependent on the growing insecure technological
practices, the number of cyber attacks increase. Rather than simply continuing to debate
specific threats that comes from insecure IT infrastructure, one need to first investigate the
overall insecurity of cyberspace, identify those limitation and commonality between those
threats. The fact, that most of cyber attacks are used in forms of asymmetric warfare signifies
shared motivation factors among cyber aggressors.

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