SC-GCM-51 CM Issue 2 Copyright 2005 Spirax-Sarco Limited

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

Module 5.4
Choice and Selection of Controls

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.4.1

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

Choice and Selection of Controls

This Module will concentrate on available automatic control choices and the decisions which
must be made before selection. Guidance is offered here rather than a set of rules, because
actual decisions will depend upon varying factors; some of which, such as cost, personal
preferences and current fashions, cannot be included here.

Application

It is important to reflect on the three basic parameters discussed at the beginning of Module 5.1:
Safety, Stability and Accuracy.
In order to select the correct control valve, details of the application and the process itself are
required. For example:
o

Are any safety features involved? For instance, should the valve fail-open or fail-closed in the
event of power failure? Is separate control required for high and low limit?

What property is to be controlled? For instance, temperature, pressure, level, flow?

What is the medium and its physical properties. What is the flowrate?

What is the differential pressure across a control valve across the load range?

What are the valve materials and end connections?

o
o

What type of process is being controlled? For instance, a heat exchanger used for heating
or process purposes?
For temperature control, is the set point temperature fixed or variable?
Is the load steady or variable and, if it is variable, what is the time scale for change, fast or
slow?

How critical is the temperature to be maintained?

Is a single loop or multi-loop control required?

o
o

What other functions (if any) are to be carried out by the control? For instance, normal
temperature control of a heating system, but with added frost protection during off periods?
Is the plant or process in a hazardous area?
Is the atmosphere or environment corrosive by nature or is the valve to be fitted externally or
in a dirty area?
What motive power is available, such as electricity or compressed air, and at what voltage
and pressure?

Motive power

This is the power source to operate the control and drive the valve or other controlled device.
This will usually be electricity, or compressed air for a pneumatic system, or a mixture of both for
an electropneumatic system. Self-acting control systems require no external form of power to
operate; they generate their own power from an enclosed hydraulic or vapour pressure system.
To some extent, the details of the application itself may determine the choice of control power.
For example, if the control is in a hazardous area, pneumatic or self-acting controls may be
preferable to expensive intrinsically safe or explosion-proof electric / electronic controls.

5.4.2

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

The following features are listed as a general comment on the various power source options:

Self-acting controls

Advantages:
o Robust, simple, tolerant of unfriendly environments.
o

Easy to install and commission.

Provide proportional control with very high rangeability.

Controls can be obtained which fail-open or fail-closed in the event of an unacceptable overrun
in temperature.

They are safe in hazardous areas.

Relatively maintenance free.

Disadvantages:
o Self-acting temperature controls can be relatively slow to react, and Integral and Derivative
control functions cannot be provided.
o

Data cannot be re-transmitted.

Pneumatic controls
Advantages:
o Robust.
o

They operate very quickly, making them suitable for processes where the process variables
change rapidly.
The actuators can provide a high closing or opening force to operate valves against high
differential pressures.

The use of valve positioners will ensure accurate, repeatable control.

Pure pneumatic controls are inherently safe and actuators provide smooth operation.

Can be arranged to provide fail-open or fail-closed operation without additional cost or difficulty.

Disadvantages:
o The necessary compressed air system can be expensive to install, if no supply already exists.
o
o

Regular maintenance of the compressed air system may be required.

Basic control mode is on / off or proportional although combinations of P+I and P+ I +D are
available, but usually at greater cost than an equivalent electronic control system.
Installation and commissioning is straightforward and of a mechanical nature.

Electric controls

Advantages:
o Highly accurate positioning.
o

Controllers are available to provide high versatility with on-off or P+I+D combinations of
control mode, and multi-function outputs.

Disadvantages:
o Electric valves operate relatively slowly, meaning they are not always suitable for rapidly changing
process parameters such as pressure control on loads that change quickly.
o

Installation and commissioning involves both electrical and mechanical trades and the cost of
wiring and installation of a separate power supply must be taken into account.
Electric actuators tend to be less smooth than their pneumatic counterparts. Spring return
actuators are required for fail open or fail closed functions: This can substantially reduce the
closing force available and they usually cost more.
Intrinsically safe or explosion-proof electric controls are needed for use in hazardous areas;
they are an expensive proposition and, as such, a pneumatic or electropneumatic solution
may be required, as described below. Special installation techniques are required for these
types of hazardous areas.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.4.3

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

Electropneumatic controls

Advantages:
o Electropneumatic controls can combine the best features of electronic and pneumatic controls.
Such systems can consist of pneumatically actuated valves, electric /electronic controllers,
sensors and control systems, plus electropneumatic positioners or converters.
The combination provides the force and smooth operation of a pneumatic actuator/valve with
the speed and accuracy of an electronic control system. Fail-open or fail-closed operation can
be provided without cost penalty and, by using suitable barriers and /or confining the
electric /electronic part of the control system to safe (non-hazardous) areas, they can be used
where intrinsic safety is required.
Disadvantages:
o Electrical and compressed air supplies are required, although this is not normally a problem in
industrial processing environments.
There are three important factors to take into account when considering the application and the
required power source:
o

Changes in load.

Whether the set value is critical or non-critical.

Whether the set value has to be varied.

The diagrams in Figure 5.4.1 and 5.4.2 help to explain.

Load
Zone control of unit heaters in large volume buildings such
as warehouses, where day temperatures rise due to solar
gain or seasonal temperature changes.
Typically an on / off electric or electropneumatic application.
Start

Stop

Start

Stop

Time

Non critical temperature rise and fall

Load
Hot water washing or rinsing of product on a conveyor with
constant product flow.
This example is ideal for self-acting controls.
Time

Load
HWS storage heat exchangers and plating tanks with
changing demands and long periods of no demand. Self-acting
controls can be used if load variations are fairly slow otherwise electric or electropneumatic controls should be
used.
Time

Fig. 5.4.1 Changes in load and time

5.4.4

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

Temperature

Non-critical application:
Steam/water heat exchangers where the load is steady,
such as jacket cooling or condenser cooling.
Actuation:
Typically electric or electropneumatic actuators used.

Set
value
Start Stop Start

Time

Stop

Some overshoot of set value

Temperature

Critical application:
Steam/water heat exchangers for large central heating
systems or jacket heating in processes.

Set value
Offset

Start

Actuation:
Self-acting and pneumatic controls are used if load variations
are fairly slow and if reasonable offset can be accepted Time otherwise electropneumatic or electric controls should be
used.

Actual value stable within small offset

from set value

Fig. 5.4.2 Critical nature of the set value

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.4.5

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

What type of controls should be installed?

Different applications may require different types of control systems. Self-acting and pneumatic
controls can be used if load variations are fairly slow and if offset can be accepted, otherwise
electropneumatic or electric controls should be used. Figure 5.4.3 shows some different
applications and suggestions on which method of control may be acceptable.
Temperature
Applications:
Timber curing
Platen presses
Brick baking
Paint drying

Set value
Offset

Offset

Offset

Time
Start
Temperature wants to swing around set value

Actuation:
Typically an electric or electropneumatic actuator.

Temperature

Set value

Start

Time
Critical Stop Start
Typical ramp control calling for an accurate time
versus temperature rate of rise

Temperature
Critical
ramp

Critical dwell

Critical
ramp

Critical dwell

Actuation:
Electric or pneumatic actuators usually with electronic
programmable controllers

Critical

Start

Applications:
Textile dyeing
Curing processes
Sterilising
De-frosting food
Paint drying

Time

In each phase temperature and time must be

harmonised and close tolerance is required

Temperature
Critical
Set value

Critical

Set value
Set value

Applications:
Multi-step textile dyeing, sterilising, platen presses,
canning and baking.

Critical

Critical
Start

Time

Actuation:
Electric or pneumatic actuators usually with electronic
programmable controllers

Temperature wants to swing around set value

Fig. 5.4.3 Variable set value and its critical nature

5.4.6

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

Types of valves and actuators

The actuator type is determined by the motive power which has been selected: self-acting,
electrical, pneumatic or electropneumatic, together with the accuracy of control and actuator
speed required.
As far as valve selection is concerned, with steam as the flowing medium, choice is restricted
to a two port valve. However, if the medium is water or another liquid, there is a choice of
two port or three port valves. Their basic effects on the dynamics of the piping system have
already been discussed.
A water application will usually determine whether a three port valve is used to mix or divert
liquid flow. If changes in system pressure with two port valves are acceptable, their advantages
compared with three port valves include lower cost, simplicity and a less expensive installation.
The choice of two port valves may also allow the inherent system pressure change to be used to
switch on sequential pumps, or to reduce or increase the pumping rate of a variable speed pump
according to the load demand.
When selecting the actual valve, all the factors considered earlier must be taken into account
which include; body material, body pressure / temperature limits, connections required and the
use of the correct sizing method. It is also necessary to ensure that the selection of valve / actuator
combination can operate against the differential pressure experienced at all load states. (Differential
pressure in steam systems is generally considered to be the maximum upstream steam absolute
pressure. This allows for the possibility of steam at sub-atmospheric pressure on the downstream
side of the valve).

Controllers

Safety is always of great importance. In the event of a power failure, should the valve fail-safe in
the open or closed position?
Is the control to be direct-acting (controller output signal rises with increase in measured variable)
or reverse-acting (controller output signal falls with increase in measured variable)?
If the application only requires on/off control, a controller may not be needed at all. A
two-position actuator may be operated from a switching device such as a relay or a thermostat.
Where an application requires versatility, the multi-function ability of an electronic controller is
required; perhaps with temperature and time control, multi-loop, multi-input /output.
Having determined that a controller is required, it is necessary to determine which control action
is necessary, for instance on / off, P, P I, or P I D.
The choice made depends on the dynamics of the process and the types of response considered
earlier, plus the accuracy of control required.
Before going any further, it is useful to define what is meant by good control. There is no
simple answer to this question. Consider the different responses to changes in load as shown
in Figure 5.4.4.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.4.7

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

If a slow, steady heat up is required, the control provided by

A would be acceptable.

Temperature

However, if a very rapid heat up is required and overshoot

and undershoot of the desired value are acceptable, control
B would provide the answer.

B
Desired
value

However, if relatively rapid heat up (in relation to A) is needed

but no overshoot can be tolerated, then control C provides
the solution. This shows that the definition of good control
will vary from application to application.

Time

Temperature

One thing that is not generally acceptable is oscillation around

the set point or desired value. There may be some
applications where oscillation is not a problem but it should
usually be avoided. Unstable oscillations such as those shown
here cause most concern. Such oscillations are due to one
or all of the following:

Set
point
Increasing out of control
Time

Incorrect choice of controller, sensor or actuator, or size

of valve.

Incorrect control settings.

Incorrect position of sensor creating a long dead time.

Temperature

Off

Oscillation should not be confused with the response pattern

we could expect from an on / off action. This will result in a
wave response curve about the desired value, as shown here.
When oscillation is mentioned, it is normally with reference
to continuous control action.

Off

Set
point
On

On

Time
Fig. 5.4.4 Examples of different responses to changes in load

5.4.8

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

Self-acting control is normally suitable for applications where there is a very large secondary-side
thermal capacity compared to the primary- side capacity.
Consider a hot water storage calorifier as shown in Figure 5.4.5 where the large volume of stored
water is heated by a steam coil.
Hot water out
Dry steam

Cold water in
Condensate

Fig. 5.4.5 Hot water storage calorifier

When the water in the vessel is cold, the valve will be wide open, allowing steam to enter the
coil, until the stored water is heated to the desired temperature. When hot water is drawn from
the vessel, the cold water which enters the vessel to take its place will reduce the water temperature
in the vessel. Self-acting controls will have a relatively large proportional band and as soon as the
temperature drops, the valve will start to open. The colder the water, the more open the steam
valve.
Figure 5.4.6 shows a non-storage plate type heat exchanger with little thermal storage capacity
on either the primary or the secondary side, and with a fast reaction time. If the load changes
rapidly, it may not be possible for a self-acting control system to operate successfully. A better
solution would be to use a control system that will react quickly to load changes, and provide
accuracy at the same time.

Steam

Process
load

Condensate
Fig. 5.4.6 Heat exchanger with little storage capacity
The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.4.9

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

Questions
1. What is probably the first consideration when selecting a control system?
a| What degree of accuracy is required?

b| Is the control for heating or cooling?

c| Is a two or three port valve required?

d| In the event of power failure, must the valve fail-open or fail-closed?

2. Which of the following is NOT true of self-acting controls?

a| They are very expensive

b| They are relatively slow to react to process changes

c| Controls can be selected to fail-open or fail-closed in the event of an unacceptable

overrun in temperature

d| They are virtually maintenance free and suitable for use in hazardous areas

3. Which of the following is NOT true of an electric control?

a| Controls can be selected to fail-open or fail-closed on power failure

b| They are available with on / off or P I D functions of control mode

c| They can provide multi-function outputs

d| They operate faster than pneumatic controls

4. A plate heat exchanger uses steam as the primary medium to heat water for a small
water ring main serving taps and showers.
Which type of control would be the first choice, and why?
a| Self-acting because they are easy to commission, the relatively low speed of operation
will match the slow changes in temperature of the water system; and very accurate
control of temperature is not critical, so offset would be acceptable

b| An electric control because PID functions can be adjusted to suit the system response,
they give very accurate control and they are very fast acting which will suit the response
of the heat exchanger

c| A pneumatic control, because they are very fast acting so will suit the response of the
heat exchanger, no expensive electrics are required, the sensor is small so can be
easily accommodated in the water flow pipework and they can be arranged to
fail-open or fail-closed in the event of loss of power

d| An electropneumatic system because, the electronic controller will provide speed of

operation to meet the fast response of the heat exchanger and accuracy of control,
PID functions can be set to provide effective control, the control can be arranged
to fail-open or fail-closed in the event of loss of power, the sensor is small and the
controller can activate alarms.

5.4.10

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

5.

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

The figure below shows three responses to a sudden switch on from cold.
If the plant requires a relatively fast heat-up with no overshoot,
which response would be recommended?
Temperature
B
Desired
value

Time

a| A

b| B

c| C

d| None, any control providing a fast heat-up will result in some overshoot

6. Steam is supplied to a plate heat exchanger heating an acidic metal treatment

solution for a large tank into which cold components are dipped.
There is a possibility that the solution could be splashed over the control.
What would be your recommended control and why?
a| On / off because it is simple and inexpensive

b| An electropneumatic control because accurate control will be maintained, there will

be no fear of a high limit control shutting off the steam due to a temperature overshoot,
the control settings can be adjusted to suit the system, the rate of heat up can be
programmed, alarms can be incorporated if required

c| Self-acting control because it is simple, inexpensive, easy to commission, overshoot

and undershoot can be accepted, no external power source is required, and the
equipment will tolerate a degree of splashing with chemicals

d| Pneumatic control because it provides accurate repeatable control, the equipment

is inherently protected from splashing, different control modes are available,
commissioning is straightforward, it can be arranged to fail-closed in the event of
air failure, and speed of response is not important in this application

Answers

1: d, 2: a, 3: d, 4: d, 5: c, 6: c
The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.4.11

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

5.4.12

Choice and Selection of Controls Module 5.4

The Steam and Condensate Loop