584

IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 13, No. 2, May 1998

Laboratory Measurements and Models of Modem Loads

and Their Effect on Voltage Stability Studies
Les M. Hajagos, Member IEEE

Behnam Danai

Ontario Hydro Technologies

Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Ontario Hydro
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Abstract-Accurate load models are important in determining the

status of the power system when subjected to sudden or gradual
changes in operating conditions. This paper describes laboratory
measurements and derived models of modern loads subjected to
large voltage changes and their effect on voltage stability studies.
Low-voltage, long-time models of such loads as modern air
conditioners,discharge lighting, and devices containing electronic
regulated power supplies were developed. One means used by
utilities to avert voltage collapse has been system voltage
reduction. The characteristics of modern loads and controls
reduces the effectiveness of this voltage reduction. The results
indicate the importance of using accurate load models, especially
for large industrial loads where the load composition can be
identified.

transmission line models has not been devoted to models of

loads for stability stules. Many utilities do not model specific
loads in their power flow and stability simulations, relying
instead on worst-case, lumped-bus load models such as
constant MVA. However, commonly-used simulation tools
allow load models where the active and reactive power at a
bus are functions of both voltage and frequency [2,3].

Keywords-load models, voltage stabibty, power system simulations

1. INTRODUCTION
Generating station outputs and transmission interface flows
may be limited by a variety of factors including angular
stability, voltage stability, and/or transmission line thermal
considerations. With the maturation of mitigation techniques
and analysis tools for angular stability, voltage stability has
emerged as one of the primary concerns of power system
planners and operators.
Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain
acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under normal
conditions, and after being subjected to a disturbance [l].
Unlike the mature field of angular stability, data required for
voltage stability studies may not be readily available. This is
because voltage stability is influenced by nonlinear timevariant controls (e.g. generator excitation limiters, under-load
tap-changing transformers) and load characteristics (e.g.
motors, thermostatically controlled loads), which change with
both voltage level and time.
Until recently, the level of attention devoted to generator and
PE-580-PWRS-0-01-1997 A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Power System Engineering Committee of the IEEE
Power Engineering Society for publication in the IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems. Manuscript submitted August 16, 1996; made
available for printing January 8, 1997.

Load models have been derived from measurements of small

step disturbances on feeders [4] or hom large step tests of
actual loads in the laboratory [5]. Small disturbance
measurements do not yield models which capture the kinds of
problems which lead to voltage instability (e.g. motor
stalling). An extensive bibliography of existing load models
and parameters may be found in [6].
This paper describes large disturbance tests on modern loads,
such as those which are electronically controlled. Both the
Canadian Electricity Association and the IEEE have identified
the need for low-voltage and long-term models, derived from
tests of modern loads such as air conditioners, discharge
lighting, and electronic devices such as regulated power
supplies [3].
The models derived here are compatible with commonly-used
simulation programs. Use of the derived load models enables
accurate long-term time-domain simulation of distribution
systems under conditions of severely reduced voltage (voltage
collapse). The benefits of improved studies are the avoidance
of voltage collapse situations and more confidence in
operating limits.
The project was divided into three stages: load tests, model
derivation, and simulations.

11. LABORATORY
LOADTESTS
The loads selected for laboratory testing (Table I), represent
the largest fractions of residentiakommercial-/industrial
feeder loads including modern devices such as heat pumps,
computers, laser printers and microwave ovens. Large loads
such as three-phase industrial induction motors were not
tested because well-documented simulation models exist for
these motors [2,7].
The selected loads were subjected to large (-25 to -75%)

0885-8950/98/$10.00 0 1997 IEEE

585
voltage changes in slow ramps, and in sudden steps. For
smaller loads, several devices were tested in parallel to
produce one composite load.

L1

120v

Table I. Selected Loads and Measurement Ranges

Load
No.
Range
Tested (%V)

3
4

High efficiency ac induction motor (dryer)

High efficiency electronically commutated dc
motor (washing machine)
Adjustable frequency motor drive
Advanced heat pumps and air conditioner

High efficiency compressor (refrigeratodfreezer) 2

6
7

Battery charger
Compact fluorescents magnetic
electronic
Electronically-ballasted fluorescents
Fluorescent ballast dimmer
High intensity discharge (HID) lighting

1
2

9
10
11

12
13

1
1

52-108
48-111

[2]

2
2

76-103
96-110
75-111
67-100

5 [l]

61-109
28-109

8 U1
22 [l]
4 [l]
1 [l]

52-113
60-109
60-109

Office equipment (computers, monitors, printers, 2 [l]

fax machines)
Microwave Oven
1

42-112

HeaterBlower [2]

42-100

58-108

number of composite sets of smaller loads totalling 15 A each

benchmark load to test data acquisition and model fitting

The step tests were performed in accordance with advice from

the IEEE Working Group on Load Representation for
Dynamic Performance. The loads were operated in their
normal conditions throughout the test (e.g. for motor loads,
equivalent mechanical loads were connected). The test setup
is shown in Figures I and 11.

I
I

Load 3

120 v

L2-

Load 2

20A
n

121
w

I '

Variac

t 10% v

Notes:
[I]

Figure 11. Load Test Setup: 240V, Two-Phase Loads

Fig. 111shows a typical steady-state data acquisition. For each

point, the load voltage and current amplitude and phase values
were digitized and stored on disk. Beginning at rated voltage
(120 V in this example), point (l), the voltage is manually
increased in small steps up to approximately 108%, point (2).
At each step, the load voltage and current are allowed to
stabilize before data acquisition. The voltage is then lowered
to point (3), referred to as Vmin, where the loads begin to
drop out. The voltage is reduced further to point (4), where all
loads have dropped out. The voltage is then increased in small
steps to point (5), where some of the loads restart, and further
to point (6) and finally back to rated voltage, point (1). Load
models were fitted to the data points in the ranges (2) to (3)
and (6) to (2). Loads 1,2,3,4,6,10 and 11 did not automatically
restart when voltage was increased above Vmin, and had to
be manually reset. Complete test results are plotted in ref. [8].
Figure 111. Typical Steady-State Data Acquisition

Figure I. Load Test Setup: IZOV, Single-phaseLoads

A relay was used to control either a variac supply (Fig. I) or

series reactors (Fig. 11) to create a voltage step. The
arrangement shown in Fig. I was used for tests of the smaller
loads. The relay contactor was operated in break-before-make
fashion, with a measured voltage dead time of 6 ms or less.
Larger loads were tested with the arrangement of Fig. 11. The
reactors were selected to be 25-30% of the load impedance to
give an appropriate voltage step as well as a phase angle
change to excite any electromechanical modes. The variac
supply was used for smaller loads.

v (volts)

111. MODEL DEVELOPMENT

From the digitized voltage and current data collected during

the laboratory tests, active and reactive power were calculated
for each load. Most of the loads tested, including the various
compressors and motors, exhibited no significant transient
response in their active or reactive power after a voltage step.

586
Some very high frequency "spikes" at the instant of switching
were observed in loads containing switching power supplies,
but these are not modelled here (details may be found in ref.
[SI). The static models listed in Tables I1 and 111 are
appropriate for both steady-state and dynamic studies for
voltages above the minimum voltage (Vmin, Table 11).

Exponential Model:

A. Static Loud Models

where So is the load apparent power (VA) at rated voltage
Parameters were fitted to two static load models from ref. [2]: Vo, kp is the load power factor (pf), and kq = (1 - pf 2)112.

ZIP Model:

r
Ptotal = P o * [ Z p * [ ~ ]

Ip*[$]

Pp]

where Z, I, and P are constant impedance, constant current

and constant power fractions, respectively.

The ZIP models for the measured loads are shown in Table
11. The ZIP parameters were fitted to the measured data with
no constraints, except that the sum of all components is 1 per
unit. Both the least-squares error and the slope of the fitted
curve near rated voltage were preserved (aP/dV, aQ/aV, Table
11). Because these models have parameters which can be
greater than 1 per unit and/or less than zero, the models do
not look "normal", but should be possible to enter in all
commonly-used simulation programs. The ZIP coefficients for
reactive power are typically large because of the high load
power factors and high @/aV (e.g. loads 9b, 10). Exponential
load models are given in Table 111. Table 111 also lists some
miscellaneous factors concerning the loads and models. In

Table 11. ZIP Load Models Derived From Measurements

so
Vmin
Active Power
2
I
P
WA)
Pf
(PU)
5400
515
654
1800
1780
1160
515
5700
1030
6430
60
53
151
1335
1172
62
157
341
1020
800
1361
1350
1200

1.00
0.45
0.61
0.79
0.79
0.93
0.74
0.90
0.84
0.76
0.99
0.97
0.49
1.00
0.98
1.00
0.94
0.99
1.00

0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.87
0.87
0.76
0.61
0.50
0.50
0.83
0.65
0.54
0.63
0.78
0.73
0.67
0.67
0.83
0.50
0.00

0.96
1.91
0.05
0.43
3.19
0.72
5.46
0.85
1.19
3.51
0.14
0.16
0.34
-2.48
-1.60
-0.16
-0.48
0.98
0.34
0.08
-2.78
0.98
1.00

0.05
-2.23
0.31
0.61
-3.84
-0.98
-14.21
-1.40
-0.26
-3.94
0.77
0.79
1.31
5.46
3.58
1.77
1.89
-0.03
-0.32
0.07
6.06
0.02
0.00

-0.01
1.33
0.63
-0.05
1.65
1.25
9.74
1.56
0.07
1.43
0.09
0.05
-0.65
-1.97
-0.98
-0.62
-0.41
0.06
0.98
0.85
-2.28
0.00
0.00

2
3a
3b
4a
4b
4c
5
6
7a
7b
7c
Sa
8b
9a
9b
10
1l a
1lb
12
13a

advanced washing machine

adjustable frequency drive 1
adjustable frequency drive 2
heatpump 1 (split design)
heatpump 2 blower
heatpump 2 compressor
refngeratodfreezer
battery charger
electronic compact fluorescent 1
electronic compact fluorescent 2
conventional magnetic compact fluorescent
electronically ballasted fluorescent 1
electronically ballasted fluourescent 2
electronic dimming ballast
external fluorescent dimmer
high pressure sodium lamps
office equipment 1
office equipment 2
microwave oven
industrial heaterlblower

1
2
3
4
5

Reactive power ZIP coefficients adding to -1 indicate capacitive reactive power load charactenstics
Vmin represents the minimum voltage (in pu) for which the load model is valid (dropout voltage)
SO is the measured apparent power (VA) at rated voltage (not nameplate)
pf is the load power factor
aP/aV and dQ//aV are the measured slopes at rated voltage

1.00

1.00
0.99
1.00

Reactive Power
I
P
000
000
000
2

251
-056
-1 21
109
1478
-1485
22 92
059
580
-0 06
018
303
000
079
000
1221
29 84
000
000
000
069
000

-234
220
347
-0 18
-2372
3159
-40 39
065
-726
-034
-083
-289
000
-016
000
-1838
-4526
000
000
000
025
000

083
-065
-1 26
009
993
-1574
18 47
-024
246
-0 60
-035
086
000
036
000
7 16
1441
000
000
000

006
000

Exponent

mav aqav
1.96
1.58
0.42
1.48
2.54
0.47
-3.28
0.29
2.12
3.08
1.05
1.12
1.99
0.49
0.38
1.46
0.93
1.92
0.36
0.24
0.50
1.98
2.00

'

0.00
2.68
1.09
1.05
2.00
5.85
1.90
5.45
1.84
4.34
-0.46
-0.47
3.17
0.00
1.43
0.00
6.05
14.43
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.63
0.00

587

particular, the load factor is the ratio of SO to the device

nameplate rating, which may be quite low for some appliances
or consumer products, such as the office equipment loads. The
load factor should be taken into account when compiling load
data from customer surveys.
Model errors were evaluated by comparing measured and
simulated large voltage step test results. The models shown
had errors <5% for active power and <9% for reactive power.

Load
la

lb
2
3a
3b
4a
4b
4c
5
6
7a
7b
7c
8a
8b
9a
9b
10
1l a
llb
12
13a
13b
Notes:

M.
I.

Table 111. Exponential Load Models

Load Vmin
kq
nq
Factor (pu)
kp
np
1.00
1.00
0.68
0.78
0.71
1.00
0.81
0.91
1.00
0.97
1.00
1.00
1.25
0.87
0.89 .
0.78
0.68
1.08
0.16
0.16
1.00
0.94
1.00

0.50
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.87
0.87
0.76
0.61
0.50
0.50
0.83
0.65
0.54
0.63
0.78
0.73
0.67
0.67
0.83
0.50
0.00

1
0.45
0.567
0.795
0.786
0.94
0.915
0.729
0.853
0.761
0.988
0.963
0.495
N/A
0.976
0.992
0.947
0.981
0.95
1
0.999
1
1

1.95
0.77
0.34
1.47
2.12
0.34
-3.34
0.33
2.11
2.59
0.95
1.03
2.07
N/A
0.89
1.64
1.0
1.90
0.24
0.20
0.83
1.98
2

0
0.892
0.744
0.627
0.625
0.376
0.831
0.35
0.558
0.650
-0.156
-0.247
0.892
0
0.179
N/A
0.333
-0.055
0
0
0.045
0.016
0

0
2.13
1.51
1.34
1.98
4.12
0.86
5.74
1.89
4.06
0.31
0.46
3.21
0
1.21
N/A
5.84
-4.25
0
0
24.17
1.42
0

Heat pumps were tested in air conditioning mode, which

places the most inertia and load on the compressor. Test
conditions met cooling standards ASHRAE 37-1988, and CSA
C446-M90.
Electronically-ballasted (newer) compact and ceiling
fluorescent lamps have a wider working voltage range than
the conventional (magnetic) compact fluorescents and
external fluorescent dimmers. They also have a small,
negative reactive power characteristic, rather than a large,
high exponent, low power factor characteristic. This is typical
of newer, high-efficiency loads of all types.

Notes
I1
1
I1
1
I1
I1
I1
:
I1
1
I1
1
I1
1
I
1
I1
I
(
I
(
I C, h,
1
(
I
C
I
C
I C, h,
I
C
(
1
1
c
I
I
'I
1
1

11.
1.
2.

Conventional magnetic technology

Single-phase load, Figure I
Two-phase load, Figure I1
Constant torque; represents compressors - most motors
Constant speed; represents fandpumps - fraction of a11

~zo?:Factor.

motors
Minimum voltage (pu) for which load model is valid
Ratio of SO (Table 11) to nameplate VA

Controlled loads such as the microwave oven, office

equipment composite loads, adjustable frequency drives,
and electronically-ballasted fluorescents, display very
nonlinear behaviour at low voltage; most drop to no load at
Vmin (Table 11) and do not restart until the voltage returns
almost to 1 pu, because of voltage sensing or sensitive
.
circuitry within their switching power supplies.
The refrigeratorlfreezeris a high-efficiency, dual compressor
design, popular in Europe and now available in North
America. It displays thermostatic load behaviour. The washer
is also a high-efficiency European design (described as
horizontal-axis). Both run over a wide voltage range, with
very low energy, and both have different parameters than
found in the literature [7].

Iv. SIMULATION STUDIES

The ultimate goal of the project was to produce better load
models for voltage stability studies. Two sets of simulations
were carried out to determine the impact of the new load
models : A) System Load Meeting Capability (LMC); B)
System-Load Boundary Conditions.

A. System Load Meeting Capability (LMC)

An area of Ontario Hydro's system with potential voltage
stability problems was selected for the simulation studies. The
load composition in terms of the load categories (i.e.
commercial, industrial, and residential), was known in each
zone of the area (Table IV).

B.Review of Test Results

The dryer consists of two-phase 240V heaters and a single
phase blower. The dryer was tested as shown in Fig. 11. The
two-phase heater (Load 3) is almost constant Z; the one-phase
induction blower (Load 1) has unusual ZIP coefficients given
in Table 111. As with most heatingkooling loads, operation
will be thermostatic as noted in Table 111. The heat pump
and split heat pump have a similar wiring arrangement to the
dryer above. Both have single phase advanced compressors.

Table IV Load Composition in Each Zone (%

Zone Commercial
Industrial
Residential
1
2
3
4
5

47
29
23
6
63

18
29
38
90
11

35
42
39
4
26

26

40

34

588

In order to examine the effect of the newly-derived load

models on the systems load meeting capability an assumption
was made on the load composition in each load category, as
shown in Table V.
Table V: Assumed Load Components in Each Category (%)
Commercial Industrial Residential
35
5
30
Lighting [note 11
10
35
25
Heating [note 21

ILoad Component

Refrigerator/Freezer
Office Equipment [note 31
Adj. Freq. Drive 2 - fans/pumps

25
10

Adj Freq. Drive 1 - compressors

Heat Pump Compressor
Dryer Motor

5
10
20
10
40

are monitored to obtain the PV curves. The PV curves of a

115-kV bus for various load models are shown in Fig. IV.
Figure IV: Effect of Load Increase on Voltage of 115 kV Bus

30
5

Notes:
1. Lighting is split equally between the different fluorescent models.
2. Heating is split equally between the heater and heaterhlower.
3. Office equipment is split equally between Office 1 and 2 models.

1ow

800

11w

1200

1300

1400

Load Level (MW)

GivenThe percentage of each load category in a zone and the

composition of each load in a load category, the equations
outlined in Appendix A were used to compute the aggregate
ZIP coefficients for the loads in each zone (Table VI). It
should be noted that the computed ZIP coefficients are
dependent on the assumed load composition.
Table VI: ZIP Coefficients for Aggregate in Each Zone

It should be noted that the aggregate ZIP and the OH load

model result in similar characteristics which are different from
the constant MVA load model. Assuming that voltage levels
below 0.8 are practically unacceptable, the LMC computed for
constant MVA load model is approximately 10% lower than
the other load models.

B. System-Load Boundary Condition

In order to examine the effect of the load models and the
importance of representing the loads with proper models, the
entire load at a bus was represented with 3 different models:

The OHEPRI Voltage Stability program (VSTAB) was used

to determine the system LMC in the area for the following
load models :
i) Aggregate ZIP model (Table VI)
ii) Constant MVA
iii) Active power represented as 50% constant current and
50% constant impedance and the reactive power
represented as 100% constant impedance. In this paper,
this model is referred to as the OH model and this is the
model used by many utilities when modelling voltagedependent loads.

i) Derived ZIP model of an Adjustable Frequency Drive

ii) OH Model
iii) Constant MVA
Figure V Voltage of Load Bus for Constant MVA Load Model

3:Q
07~

The LMC was computed by increasing all the loads in the

area by a percentage of their base case values and solving the
power flow. The maximum load level for which a power flow
solution can be obtained is considered to be the system LMC.
As the loads are increased, the voltage at some critical buses

06-----

0.5

-Base
Case
Contingency -Load
Char.

70

80

90

100

110

120

Load Level (MW)

130

140

150

160

589

V. DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Figure VI: Voltage of Load Bus for OH Load Model

1.1

Detailed load models are required for sensitivity simulations,

special studies such as islanding, voltage stability (load
dominated) and for representation of subtransmission
equipment. Increased computer capabilities allow the use of
more detailed load models.

0.9

a,

-P

Results of the measurements showed that modern loads

typically have a higher power factor, wider voltage range, and
more constant power characteristics than their predecessors.

o.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

Load Level (MW)

The PV characteristics of the bus were derived for the above

load models for the normal system conditions as well as for
the case with the loss of one of the two supplies to the load
bus. Figures V to VI1 show the PV curves as well as a 105
MW load characteristic curve. The results indicate that, for a
load level of 105 MW, the system will collapse if the load is
constant MVA. However, if the load has characteristics
similar to the OH or AFD models, the system will be stable
and the post-contingency voltage will be 0.97 for the OH
model and 0.99 for the AFD model.

In general, modern controlled loads (e.g. office equipment

containing switching power supplies; adjustable frequency
drives), drop out at a minimum voltage and do not restart
until near rated voltage or until manually reset. In this project,
measurements were first performed to obtain the minimum
operating voltage for the loads and then models valid between
the minimum and maximum operating voltage were derived.
The laboratory results showed that, in general, the selected
loads do not exhibit any dynamic characteristics and the static
models are appropriate for most of the tested loads, even for
dynamic studies. However, for large motors (which were not
targeted in this project), good dynamic models exist and
should be used for dynamic studies. Long-term dynamic
response for the loads tested will be dominated by the action
of under-load tap changing transformers, thermostatic load
controls, and switching of bus capacitors and reactors.

Figure VII: Voltage of Load Bus for AFD (Const. Torque) Load Model

In the simulation studies, it was found that simulations

performed with conventional load models produced both
conservative and optimistic results compared with studies
using the accurate load models derived in this project.
Adherence to familiar-looking load model parameters (e.g.
50% constant current, 50% constant impedance) does not
necessarily accurately represent load behaviour. It is strongly
recommended that if detailed studies involving load models
are being performed, the accurate parameters derived in this
project and the references be used for the most important
loads. The models derived here may be entered directly into
most commonly-used simulation programs.
"._
70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

Load Level (MW)

The above simulations illustrate the importance of proper load

models: in the case shown, if the load has constant MVA
characteristics and it is represented by the OH model, the
contingency will result in a voltage collapse. On the other
hand, if the load has characteristics similar to the AFD model
and it is represented as constant MVA in the simulations, a
fictitious voltage collapse will be indicated.

One means used by utilities to avert voltage collapse has been

system voltage reduction. The characteristics of electronicallycontrolled loads, thermostatic controls and ULTC action,
reduces the effectiveness of this voltage reduction. These
factors should be taken into account when remedial actions
are taken to avert voltage collapse in the future electric
system.

590

VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study documented in this report was prepared by and
sponsored jointly by Ontario Hydro and by the Canadian
Electricity Association [8]. We thank the reviewers, Mr. R.W.
Creighton of Nova Scotia Power Inc. and Mr. M. Klein of
Ontario Hydro for their technical guidance and timely
comments brought to the study. The contribution of the
respondents to the utility survey is gratefully acknowledged.
We thank the members of the IEEE Working Group on Load
Representation for Dynamic Performance Analysis for their
responses to the utility survey, their technical guidance, and
for enabling coordination of this work with other studies in
progress. Finally, we thank the CEA for permission to
publish this paper.

[ 11 Voltage

Stability/Security Assessment and On-Line Control,

EPRI TR-101931, Vol. 3, RP 3040-01, final report, April 1993.
[2] Standard Load Models for Power Flow and Dynamic
Performance Simulation, IEEE Task Force on Load
Representation for Dynamic Performance, IEEE Trans. Power
Systems, Vol.10, No.3, Aug 1995, pp1302-1313.
[3] "Load Representation for Dynamic Performance Analysis",IEEE
Trans. Power Systems, Vo1.8, N0.2, May 1993, pp472-82.
[4] K. Srinivasan,R. Jutras, "Power System DisturbanceMonitoring
System", Proc. IEEE T&D Conference, pp. 261-5, Sept 1991.
[SI Determining Load Characteristics for Transient Performances,
EPRI EL-849, Vol. 3, Project 849-3, final report, May 1979.
[6] "Bibliography on Load Models for Power Flow and Dynamic
Performance Simulation", IEEE Task Force on Load
Representation for Dynamic Performance, IEEE Trans. Power
Systems, Vol.10, No.1, Feb 1995, pp523-38.
171 P.Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill
1994, ISBN 0-07-035958-X.
[8] L. Hajagos, B. Danai, Laboratory Measurement of Modem Loads
Subjected to Large Voltage Changes for use in Voltage Stability
Studies, Canadian Electricity Association, Project 113-T-1040
Final Report, May 1996.
VIII. BIOGRAPHIES:
Les Hajagos received his B.A.Sc. in 1985 and his M.A.Sc. in 1987
from the University of Toronto, Canada. Since 1988 he has been
working at Ontario Hydro Technologies, mainly in the analysis,
design, testing, modelling and commissioning of generator, turbine
and power system control equipment. He presently holds the
position of Senior Research Engineer, and is a registered
Professional Engineer in the Province of Ontario. He is an active
member of the IEEE Power Engineering Society, Excitation System
Sub-committee, as well as the Load Representation Working Group.
Behnam Danai was born in Tehran, Iran. He received his B.Eng.

and M.A.Sc. Degrees in Electrical Engineering from McGill

University and University of Toronto in 1979 and 1982 respectively.
From 1981 to 1987 he worked at University of Toronto as Research

Associate, SIDBEC-DOSCO as project engineer and HATCH

Associates as consulting engineer. Since 1987, he has been working
at Ontario Hydro power system planning and operation group where
he is a Senior Power System Engineer. He has developed or been
involved in development of several computer programs for power
system analysis, includmg the EPRI/OH Interactive Power Flow,
EPRUOH Voltage Stability, and OH Static Network Reduction
programs. His interests include voltage stability analysis and power
quality studies related to electric arc furnace operation.

APPENDIXA. AGGREGATELOADMODEL
Using the information on the load composition of each zone
and the assumptions made on the load components for the
different load categories, the aggregate load model for each
zone was computed as described below. The results are shown
in Table VI.
First the percentage of individual load type is computed in
each zone by the following equation:

Yj

(Xaj

xbj

*B

Xcj

C) / 100.0

where
Y. = Percentage of load type "j" in the zone
= Percentage of load type "j" in the commercial load
aJ
category (Table V)
A = Percentage of commercial load in the zone (Table IV)
Xbj = Percentage of load type "j" in the industrial load
category (Table V)
B = Percentage of industrial load in the zone (Table IV)
X . = Percentage of load type "j" in the residential load
CJ
category (Table V)
C = Percentage of residential load in the zone (Table IV)

x"

The aggregate ZIP coefficients are then computed from:

N
(PFj * Yj * az.) / 100
aZ =
J
j =1
where
az = Z (I, or P) coefficient for aggregate load in the zone
PF. = Power factor of load type "j" (Table 11)
J
Y. = Percentage of load type "j" in the zone
1
Z (I, or P) coefficient for the load type "j" (Table 11)
"Zj =

591

APPENDIXB. FREQUENCY
DEPENDENCE
Frequency-dependence of active and reactive power is usually
represented in static models as
and similarly for Q [3],
P(V,f) = P(V)*(l + k,Af)
where Af = f - fo , frequency f =

ae ,
-

at
and 0 is the voltage phase angle at each bus.

[7]. In contrast, the conventional compact fluorescent lamps

with magnetic ballasts are an older technology, and have poor
power factor and aP/af is negative (they behave like a
reactance). This type of behaviour is representative of
"conventional" loads, while positive or zero frequency
coefficients are typical of "modern" loads, a factor which may
be important in the damping contribution of loads in the
future power system. It is expected that electronic ballast
technology will make the conventional devices uncommon.

It may be shown that the damping (D) contributed by the load

is

- fitted model
measured

where T is the load torque and P is the load power in the

appropriate base system. Loads with aP/af values less than 1
contribute negatively to damping. Load variation with
frequency is associated with angular stability, and was not
part of the required measurements for this project, however,
since a motor-generator set was available to test the frequency
dependence of some of the loads, it was deemed worthwhile
to compile data where possible.

3501 I'
325

300'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'%

50

-50

-1 00

Where time and equipment permitted, the loads were also

subjected to small variations of frequency (*lo%). For the
load frequency response tests, voltage was supplied from a
25-kW motor-generator set. The frequency range for the tested
loads is shown in Table IV. The literature search revealed
reported frequency coefficients of 0 to 3 for aP/df and -2 to
0 for aQ/df, while most coefficients were in the range of 0.34
to 1.1 for aP/df for system tests [8]. One Canadian utility is
using aP/df = 0.72, and aQDf = -0.22 for system studies.
Results for the tested loads are shown in Table IV. The linear
frequency-dependent load model is an excellent fit for most
loads as shown in the example of Fig. IV.

Load
Range pf
dP/dfJQ/dl
7a electronic compact fluorescent 1
92-105 -0.99 0.393 0.0
7b electronic compact fluorescent 2
92-105 -0.97 0.254 -3.35
7c conventional magnetic compact fluorescent 92-105 0.49 -1.60 -1.26
8a electronically ballasted fluorescent 1
90-108 1.00 0.218 0.0
8b electronically ballasted fluourescent 2
90-108 0.98 0.115 4.26
9a electronic dimming ballast
90-110 1.00
0.2 0.0
9b external fluorescent dimmer
90-110 0.94 0.924 -6.25
10 high pressure sodium lamps
90-110 -0.99 -1.31 0.0
95-105 1.00 -0.017 0.309
1la office equipment 1
Notes:
Power Factor (pf) shown negative for loads with capacitive reactive power
Range is the measurement range in % frequency

Electronically-ballasted compact fluorescent and ceiling

fluorescent lamps have high power factors and small
frequency coefficients in the range 0.1 to 0.4 (e.g. contribute
negatively to damping), which differ from the values found in

54

56

58

60

62

64

66

Frequency (Hz)

For the composite load of office equipment (computers,

monitors, printers and fax machines), the active power is
essentially frequency-independent as would be expected for
devices containing switching power supplies.
In general, the active power component of modern loads are
nearly frequency-independent. This results in negative
contribution of the loads to power system damping. For loads
that exhibited frequency dependence, it was found that the
active and reactive power can be very well represented by the
standard, available linear model. The load frequency
characteristics should be modelled where load damping is
important, and the system is exposed to significant frequency
variations.

592

Discussion

M.K. Pal (Consultant, Edison, NJ): This paper describes the

derivation of models of a large number of modem loads &om
measured data. A number of such endeavors have been reported
recently. The basic hdings are similar: no signiscant transient

response following a voltage step, relative insensitivity to voltage

changes (reduction), etc.
We do not think that the ZIP model (or the exponential model)
is appropriate for representing this type of load (i.e., load with fast
response and close to constant power characteristics), even though
the model can be a perfect fit for the measured steady-state data.
When such loads constitute a substantial part of the total load, our
experience has been that the voltage stability results fkom dynamic
and steady-state analyses differ sipficantly. The difference is not
noticeable if the percentage of such loads is small. This is not
surprising in view of the results presented in [A]. We would like to
know whether the authors have compared their steady-state study
results presented in the paper with those from dynamic analyses.
In general, we would have serious reservation in using the ZIP
(or exponential) model in any dynamic analysis, especially if the
constant I and P portions are dominant. The theoretical reason fkom
voltage stability viewpoint is explored in [A]. Problems have also
been encountered in general stability analysis. In many system
studies where the loads were known to contain substantial portions
of induction motor and other fast response loads, undamped or
negatively damped oscillations were observed in the simulations
when the loads were represented as constant power and constant
current loads. No such oscillations were observed in actual
operation. By changing the load model to constant impedance or
induction motor the oscillations were eliminated.

Figure IV needs some clarification. Since the PV curves are

drawn in terms of M W load level vs. voltage, based on a power
flow solution, one would expect them to be independent of the load
model, unless the M W refers to a specitic voltage.

industrial offices, and do not include large motors, load tap

changing transformers or thermostatic controls, which will
dominate the load dynamics. Indeed, as pointed out in
Sections I1 and V, large customer motors can and should be
modelled in detail and good dynamic models are available
today [7]. On the modelling of smaller induction motors, there
have been several IEEE papers showing the dynamic
modelling of groups of air conditioners and other motors [A4,
A5, All. Generator excitation limiting will also play an
important role in the dynamics of voltage stability, and also
may be modelled in detail in todays time-domain simulation
programs [A6].

Clearly, if voltage security study results are pessimistic, load

testing and detailed dynamic modelling should be undertaken
before expensive remedial actions are implemented. Ontario
Hydros practice has been to test and model large customer
motor loads derived from plant [A31 or substation tests [8,
A2], which were not a part of this study.

As for Figure IV, the discussor is correct, the value o f load, in

MW, is at 1 per unit voltage.

Al.

Rogers, G.J.; Di Manno, J.; Alden, R.T.H. An

aggregate induction motor model for industrial
plants, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol.PAS-103, No.4, p.683-90, Apr 1984.

A2.

M. Brickell, Simulation of Staged Tests on the

Ontario Hydro Northwestern Region, IEEE
79CH13 8 1-3-PwR, PICA Conference Proceedings,
May 1979, pp357-364.

A3.

G. Rogers et al, Performance of Station Service

Induction Motors Following Full Load Rejection of a
Nuclear Generating Unit, IEEE Trans. Power
Systems, Vol.10, No.3, Aug 1995, pp 1314-20.

A4.

Shaffer, John W., Air Conditioner Response to

Transmission Faults, IEEE 96WM33 1-9PWRS.

A5.

K. Tomiyama, J.P. Daniel, S. Ihara, Modeling Air

Conditioner Load for Power System Studies, (citation
unavailable).

A6.

Recommended Models for Overexcitation Limiting

Devices, IEEE Task Force on Excitation Limiters,
IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 10,
No. 4, December 1995.

@] M.K. Pal Voltage Stability: Analysis Needs, Modelling

Requirement and Modelling Adequacy, IEE Roc. C, Vol.
140, NO.4, pp.279-286, July 1993.

Manuscript received April 11, 1997.

Les M. Hajagos (Ontario Hydro): The author would like to

thank M.K. Pal for his thoughtful discussion on this important
subject. In answer to his first question: no, we have not
performed dynamic simulations of the steady state analyses
shown in this paper. The studies shown in Section IV were
meant to illustrate a common planning simulation method
used in a realistic utility study area. The proportions of the
modem loads shown were necessarily exaggerated to illustrate
the technique, and were not intended to represent a realistic
planning scenario.
A second point is that the loads tested are representative of the
future equipment to be found in commercial and light

Manuscript received October 8, 1997.