TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1574

Paper No. 970713

99

Relative Costs of Various Concrete

Pavement Features
LAWRENCE W. COLE AND MICHAEL J. HALL
The design and construction of portland cement concrete pavement
involves the selection, specification, and construction of a number of
concrete pavement features. Concrete pavement features can significantly affect pavement construction costs. In this study, the relative
effect on pavement construction cost of several concrete pavement
features was investigated, including concrete pavement thickness,
foundation, shoulders, cross-section thickness variation (trapezoidal
section), joint spacing, transverse joint load transfer, and transverse
joint sealant. Careful consideration and study should be given the cost
effects of various features when designing and specifying concrete
pavement. The ideal pavement design is one that selects the least costly
pavement section that will perform to the expected level over the life
of the facility. The least costly pavement section is that with the least
life-cycle costs.

The design and construction of portland cement concrete pavement

involve the selection, specification, and construction of various concrete pavement features. Among these features are foundation support, concrete slab thickness, concrete strength, joint spacing, depth
and method of construction, subsurface drainage provisions, lateral
edge support, transverse joint load transfer provisions, and joint
sealant material with related construction details and requirements.
The selection of these features is usually based on two general
criteria:
The expected level of performance, including duration of
performance, and
The effect of these features on pavement cost.
The expected level of performance depends upon a number of
factors. One factor is the type of facility for which the pavement is
intended. A major urban expressway will require a higher level of
performance than a residential street because the traffic volume,
weight, and speed are substantially greater. An agencys resources
and capabilities to maintain the pavement can also influence the
choice of expected performance. The selection of the most appropriate concrete pavement features is an important factor to ensure
that a concrete pavement performs at its required level during its life
of service.
Specifying agencies must be concerned with determining and
selecting the appropriate level of performance for each paved
facility. Likewise, agencies must use the limited funds available
for pavement construction and rehabilitation in the most effective manner. Concrete pavement features can significantly affect
pavement construction costs. Therefore, careful consideration

L. W. Cole, American Concrete Pavement Association, 5420 Old Orchard

Rd., Suite A100, Skokie, Ill. 60077. M. J. Hall, Wisconsin Concrete Pavement Association, 7609 Elmwood Ave., Middleton, Wis. 53562.

and study should be given to the cost effects of various features

when designing and specifying concrete pavement. The ideal
pavement design is the least costly pavement section that will perform to the expected level of performance over the life of the
facility. The least costly pavement section is that with the least
life-cycle costs.

EFFECTS OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT

FEATURES ON CONSTRUCTION COSTS
The effects of various features on the performance of concrete pavements have been studied extensively, but less attention has been
given to the effects of these features on the pavements construction
costs. The purpose of this study is to determine and document, in relative terms, the effects of various concrete pavement features on
pavement construction cost.
The study determines relative costs, not specific dollar values.
Concrete pavement construction costs vary across the United
States depending on labor and material costs, contractor equipment and capabilities, project size, availability of work, potential
weather delays, and many other factors. Likewise, general economic inflation and recession cycles can affect costs from year to
year. In this study, relative cost is used as an indicator for comparing the construction costs of various concrete pavement features. These relative costs are intended for general comparisons of
one concrete pavement feature with another for the general information of pavement designers and specifiers and are not intended
for any other use.

METHODOLOGY
To determine the relative cost of rigid pavement features, 14 U.S.
concrete paving contractors completed a series of feature-cost survey forms. The forms included graphical and descriptive representations of concrete pavement cross sections and were grouped
according to the feature being studied.
Each form began with a reference section that described and
assigned a relative cost value of 100. A specific concrete pavement
feature was then changed, and the contractors were asked to determine the relative cost effect of the modified section. The same
reference section was used to study all features.
For instance, the thickness of pavement in the reference section
(relative cost = 100) was 250 mm (10 in.). Other pertinent features of the reference section were described. With other features
unchanged, the pavement thickness was changed to 300 mm
(12 in.). The contractors were asked to determine how the thickness change would affect the pavement construction cost. In this

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Paper No. 970713

particular example, the transverse joint sawing depth was also

increased from 75 mm (3 in.) to 90 mm (31 2 in.) to allow for deeper
joints in the thicker slab. The average relative cost for the 300-mm
(12-in.) thick section was 114, indicating a 14 percent increase in
construction cost above that of the 250-mm (10-in.) thick reference
section.

PAVEMENT FEATURES SELECTED FOR STUDY

A variety of features can be selected for concrete pavement during
design. Each feature has an effect on the pavement construction
cost. For this study, the effect on construction cost of the following
features was investigated:
Concrete pavement thickness
Reference section thickness: 250 mm (10 in.).
Pavement thickness investigated: 150 mm (6 in.); 200 mm
(8 in.); 300 mm (12 in.).
Foundation
Reference section: Dense-graded, crushed-aggregate base
compacted to 150 mm (6 in.) thick, placed on a subgrade prepared
by scarifying to a depth of 150 mm (6 in.), and recompacted at
optimum moisture content.
Foundations investigated: Lime-treated subgrade; no base
material (prepared subgrade only); notched lean concrete base;
unstabilized open-graded base; asphalt-stabilized open-graded
base; cement-stabilized open-graded base.
Shoulders
Reference section: Gravel, with outside shoulder width of
3.0 m (10 ft) and inside shoulder width of 1.2 m (4 ft).
Shoulders investigated: Asphalt; widened driving lane to
4.3 m (14 ft) with asphalt shoulders; partial-depth concrete
shoulders; full-depth concrete shoulders.
Cross-section thickness variation (trapezoidal section)
Reference section: Uniform concrete pavement thickness of
250 mm (10 in.) across two traffic lanes totaling 7.3 m (24 ft) in
width.
Thickness variation investigated: Pavement thickness tapers
across two traffic lanes from 200 mm (8 in.) at the inside of the left
lane to 275 mm (11 in.) at the outside of the right lane.
Joint spacing
Reference section: Transverse joints at 6.1 m (20 ft) spacing,
without dowels.
Joint spacing investigated: Transverse joints at 4.6 m (15 ft)
without dowels; continuously reinforced pavement with no transverse joints.
Transverse joint load transfer
Reference section: Undoweled transverse joints at 6.1 m
(20 ft) spacing (aggregate interlock).
Load transfer investigated: Transverse joints at 6.1 m (20 ft)
spacing with epoxy coated steel dowels; transverse joints at 4.6 m
(15 ft) spacing with epoxy-coated steel dowels; continuous
reinforced concrete pavement with no transverse joints.
Transverse joint sealant
Reference section: Transverse joints at 6.1 m (20 ft) spacing,
single-width saw cut to a depth of 75 mm (3 in.) filled with hotpoured asphaltic material.
Joint sealant investigated: No sealant; widened sealant
reservoir with backer rod and silicone sealant material; widened

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1574

sealant reservoir and preformed compression seal; 4.6 m (15 ft)

joint spacing with widened sealant reservoir with backer rod and
silicone sealant material.
Other more specific details of each studied feature are provided
in the discussion to follow.

CONTRACTORS SURVEYED AND GENERAL

GUIDANCE PROVIDED
The concrete feature relative cost survey form was mailed to a selection of contractor members of the American Concrete Pavement
Association from across the United States. Fourteen completed survey forms were returned from contractors with primary business
locations in Delaware, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio (2), South Carolina, Utah, and Washington.
One form was returned anonymously; that contractors primary
business location is not known.
In all cases, the individual completing the survey form was an
owner, senior manager, or chief estimator with the firm.
Clearly a tremendous number of specific job conditions can affect
the construction cost of concrete pavement. The contractors were
asked to focus on the highlighted features and to assume the most common circumstances and conditions for construction in their area. They
were asked to consider a project 8 km (5 mi) long to be constructed
within 80 km (50 mi) of their home office. Typical materials specified
by that states department of transportation and construction methods
typically used in the area were to be considered. The existing grade
alignment was assumed to be adequate, with no earth-moving work
required. If a contractor was unfamiliar with a particular feature, material, or construction method required, he or she was asked to leave that
particular portion of the survey form uncompleted.
The contractors were asked to give relative costs in terms of total
project costs. The total project costs included all materials, equipment, and labor necessary for subgrade preparation, base, concrete
pavement drainage system, and shoulders and joint construction as
shown on the pavement cross-sectional diagrams on the survey form.

REFERENCE SECTION
The reference section as shown in Figure 1 included
Typical rural, mutilane divided highway with two 250-mm
(10-in.) thick by 3.7-m (12-ft) lanes tied with No. 4 deformed tiebars
at 750-mm (30-in.) spacing;
Transverse joints at a uniform spacing of 6.1 m (20 ft) with no
skew and no dowels;
Joints with single-width saw cuts to a depth of 75 mm (3 in.)
with hot-pour asphaltic filler;
Gravel shoulders 3.0 m (10 ft) wide on the right side and 1.2 m
(4 ft) wide on the left side;
Dense-graded crushed-aggregate base layer compacted to
150 mm (6 in.) thick; and
Subgrade prepared by scarifying to a depth of 150 mm (6 in.)
and recompacting at optimum moisture content.
The reference section was assigned a relative cost of 100.

Cole and Hall

Paper No. 970713

FIGURE 1

101

Reference section.

EFFECTS ON CONSTRUCTION COSTS OF

PAVEMENT FEATURES
Pavement Thickness
Concrete pavement roadway thickness typically varies from about
125 mm (5 in.) to about 350 mm (14 in.), depending on traffic volume and weight, subgrade conditions, concrete strength, and other
design variables. Transverse and sawed longitudinal joint spacing
and depth are usually related to concrete thickness (1).
The reference section had a pavement thickness of 250 mm
(10 in.) with undoweled joints sawed to a depth of 75 mm (3 in.) and
spaced at 6.1 m (20 ft). A relative cost of 100 was assigned to this
reference section. The following average relative costs were found
for pavements of various thicknesses:
Concrete pavement 150 mm (6 in.) thick with transverse
joints at 3.7 m (12 ft) spacing, sawed to a depth of 45 mm
(13 4 in.): relative cost, 81; range of responses, 7093; number of
responses, 14.
Concrete pavement 200 mm (8 in.) thick with transverse
joints at 4.6 m (15 ft) spacing, sawed to a depth of 57 mm
(21 4 in.): relative cost, 91; range of responses, 86104; number of
responses, 14.
Concrete pavement 300 mm (12 in.) thick with transverse
joints at 6.1 m (20 ft) spacing, sawed to a depth of 90 mm
(31 2 in.): relative cost, 114; range of responses, 104135; number
of responses, 14.
Transverse Joint Spacing
The effect of joint spacing (undoweled joints) on the relative construction costs was determined by comparing the reference section
with sections having shorter joint spacing but with joints sawed to
the same depth. Transverse joints in the reference section were
spaced at a 6.1-m (20-ft) single-width saw cut to a depth of 75 mm
(3 in.) and filled with hot-pour asphaltic sealant. With this reference configuration assigned a relative cost of 100, the following
average relative costs were found for other joint spacings and
sealants:
Undoweled transverse joints at 4.6-m (15-ft) spacing, with a single cut width of 75 mm (3 in.) and hot-pour asphaltic sealant material: relative cost, 101; range of responses, 95107; number of
responses, 14.
Undoweled transverse joints at 4.6-m (15-ft) spacing sawcut to a depth of 75 mm (3 in.) with a widened joint reservoir
25 mm (1 in.) deep with backer rod and silicone sealant material: relative cost, 104; range of responses, 101107; number of
responses, 13.

Base Type
Various materials have been used successfully for bases under concrete pavement. On many facilities with light traffic, concrete pavement is placed directly on an existing prepared subgrade. In such
places, the American Concrete Pavement Association suggests that
the subgrade be uniform (2). Other commonly used base types
include dense-graded aggregate, lean concrete, and open-graded
base materials (3). The open-graded base sections include longitudinal drains and lateral outlet pipes to remove water from beneath
the concrete pavement.
The reference section with 150 mm (6 in.) of dense-graded
crushed aggregate base placed on a subgrade prepared by scarifying
to a depth of 150 mm (6 in.) and recompacting at optimum moisture
content was assigned the relative cost of 100. The following average relative costs were found for concrete pavement sections with
various other bases:
No base material; concrete directly on prepared subgrade: relative cost, 84; range of responses, 7895; number of responses, 14.
Lime-treated subgrade with no aggregate base; concrete
placed directly on subgrade treated with lime to a depth of 300 mm
(12 in.): relative cost, 97; range of responses, 87108; number of
responses, 12.
Lean concrete base (LCB); 100 mm (4 in.) of LCB placed on
top of the aggregate base layer with notches in the LCB directly
below the joints in the concrete pavement: relative cost, 122; range
of responses, 96144; number of responses, 13.
Unstabilized open-graded aggregate base; 100-mm (4-in.)
granular drainage layer placed on top of the 150-mm (6-in.) densegraded, crushed-aggregate material. Trench edge drain under outside shoulder wrapped with geotextile and containing a 150-mm (6in.) diameter flexible perforated pipe. Lateral rigid pipe outflows at
150-m (500-ft) spacing: relative cost, 114; range of responses,
105122; number of responses, 13.
Asphalt-stabilized open-graded base; 100-mm (4-in.) asphaltstabilized granular drainage layer placed on top of the 150-mm
(6-in.) dense-graded crushed-aggregate material. Trench edge drain
under outside shoulder wrapped with a geotextile and containing a
150-mm (6-in.) diameter flexible perforated pipe. Lateral rigid pipe
outflows at 150-m (500-ft) spacing: relative cost, 123; range of
responses, 109132; number of responses, 11.
Cement-stabilized open-graded base; 100-mm (4-in.) cementstabilized granular drainage layer placed on top of the 150-mm
(6-in.) dense-graded crushed-aggregate material. Trench edge
drain under outside shoulder wrapped with geotextile and containing a 150-mm (6-in.) diameter flexible perforated pipe. Lateral
rigid pipe outflows at 150-m (500-ft) spacing: relative cost, 124;
range of responses, 110135; number of responses, 10.

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Shoulder Type
Various materials have been used for shoulders on concrete roadways. The effect of paved shoulders on the relative construction cost
of concrete roadways can best be determined by comparing sections
with differing shoulder-paving materials and design options.
The reference section, with a 3.0-m (10-ft) wide outside gravel
shoulder and 1.2-m (4-ft) wide inside gravel shoulder on 150 mm
(6 in.) of dense-graded crushed aggregate base, was assigned a relative cost of 100. The following average relative costs were found for
concrete roadway sections with various paved shoulder options:
Asphalt shoulders 150 mm (6 in.) thick on 150-mm (6-in.)
dense-graded crushed-aggregate base, same widths as reference section: relative cost, 111; range of responses, 105125; number of
responses, 12.
Partial-depth tied concrete shoulders 150 mm (6 in.) thick on a
150-mm (6-in.) dense-graded crushed-aggregate base, same widths
as reference section: relative cost, 124; range of responses, 108145;
number of responses, 13.
Full-depth tied concrete shoulders 250 mm (10 in.) thick on a
150-mm (6-in.) dense-graded crushed-aggregate base, same widths
as reference section: relative cost, 132; range of responses, 115160;
number of responses, 13.
Widened concrete lane, outside concrete traffic lane 250 mm
(10 in.) thick, widened from 3.7 m (12 ft) to 4.3 m (14 ft) with
150-mm (6-in.) thick asphalt shoulders with widths of 1.2 m (4 ft)
inside shoulder and 2.4 m (8 ft) outside shoulder. Asphalt shoulders
placed on 150-mm (6-in.) thick dense-graded crushed stone base: relative cost, 112; range of responses, 104122; number of responses, 12.

Transverse Joint Load Transfer Options

Three options for transverse joint load transfer are commonly used
for concrete pavements, including
Aggregate interlock;
Round steel dowel bars, usually epoxy coated; and
Continuous reinforcement (no transverse joints).
The choice of load transfer option depends on several factors,
including weight and frequency of traffic loads, base type, construction costs, agency experience (including performance and
life-cycle costs), and designer preference.
The reference section, with undoweled transverse joints (aggregate interlock load transfer) at 6.1-m (20-ft) uniform spacing with
no skew, was assigned a relative cost of 100. The following average
relative costs were found for other transverse joint options:
Transverse joints at 6.1-m (20-ft) spacing with round epoxycoated steel dowel bars spaced 300 mm (12 in.) on-center; dowel bars
are 38 mm (11 2 in.) in diameter, 450 mm (18 in.) long: relative cost,
108; range of responses, 105115; number of responses, 14.
Transverse joints at 4.6-m (15-ft) spacing with round epoxycoated steel dowel bars spaced 300 mm (12 in.) on-center; dowel bars
are 38 mm (11 2 in.) in diameter, 450 mm (18 in.) long: relative cost,
112; range of responses, 106121; number of responses, 14.
No transverse joints. Continuous steel reinforcement with No.
6 deformed bars spaced 200 mm (8 in.) on-center longitudinally and
900 mm (36 in.) on-center transversely, placed from one-half to one-

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1574

third of the slab depth from the top surface of the concrete: relative
cost, 134; range of responses, 118190; number of responses, 11.
Joint Sealant
Varied practices and materials are used to seal or fill the joints in
concrete pavements. National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Synthesis of Highway Practice 211 (4) summarizes
current practices of state highway agencies through about 1994. In
some cases, concrete pavement joints are left unsealed [see information for Wisconsin in Synthesis 211 (4)].
The reference section had transverse joints spaced at 6.1 m
(20 ft), cut single-width to a depth of 75 mm (3 in.) and filled with
a hot-pour asphaltic sealant material. The reference configuration
was assigned a relative cost of 100. The following average relative
costs were found for other joint sealant options:
Joints unsealed: relative cost, 98; range of responses, 9499;
number of responses, 12.
Silicone sealant; in addition to 75-mm (3-in.) saw-cut, transverse
joints at 6.1 m (20 ft) spacing, joints are widened to create a 25-mm
(1-in.) deep, 13-mm (12-in.) wide sealant reservoir; the joint is prepared
and sealed with backer rod and silicone joint sealant material: relative
cost, 102; range of responses, 101105; number of responses, 12.
Silicone sealant; in addition to 75-mm (3-in.) saw-cut, transverse joints at 4.6 m (15 ft) spacing, joints are widened to create a
25-mm (1-in.) deep, 13-mm (12-in.) wide sealant reservoir; the joint
is prepared and sealed with backer rod and silicone joint sealant
material; relative cost, 104; range of response, 101107; number of
responses, 12.
Preformed compression sealant; in addition to 75-mm (3-in.)
saw-cut, transverse joints at 6.1 m (20 ft) spacing, joints are widened
to create a 25-mm (1-in.) deep, 13-mm (12-in.) wide sealant reservoir;
the joint is prepared and sealed with preformed compression sealant
material: relative cost, 105; range of responses, 102115; number of
responses, 12.
SUMMARY
This study has determined that the selection of various concrete
pavement features has a significant effect on construction costs. Relative cost information has been presented for various features that
will provide general information for use by pavement designers in
selecting concrete pavement features. This information, when used
in conjunction with related pavement performance information,
should enhance the life-cycle costs of concrete pavement designs.
REFERENCES
1. Design and Construction of Joints for Concrete Highways. TB-010.0D.
American Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie, Ill., n.d.
2. Concrete Pavements with Undoweled Joints for Light Traffic Facilities.
IS-405.01P. American Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie, Ill., n.d.
3. Subgrades and Subbases for Concrete Pavements. TB-011.0D. American Concrete Pavement Association, Skokie, Ill., n.d.
4. McGhee, K. NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 211: Design, Construction, and Maintenance of PCC Pavement Joints. National Research
Council, TRB, Washington, D.C., 1995.
Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Portland Cement
Concrete Pavement Construction