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CHAPTER

II

STUDY AREAS AND SAMPLE HOUSEHOLDS

In chapter I,

the major issues posed by research

on the effects of the Green Revolution,


was

pointed

economic

that

well-being

households
present
based

out

whose

study,
on

were taken note of.

enough work has not


of

number

the

been

design

done

non-cultivating

has been increasing

on

rural
over

It
the

labour

time.

The

dealing with these types of rural households, is

field

sample data gathered from

nearly

households from 8 villages of Punjab and Bihar.


chapter,

work

six

hundred

In the

present

it is proposed to introduce the study areas, the sample


and

give

some introductory information

on

the

sample

households.
The Choice of States

The data for the present study were gathered from a few
selected

villages

of

Punjab and Bihar.

states is based on many considerations.

Our choice

of

these

Since the mid-seventies,

Bihar has commanded a preponderantly big share of migrant


coming
years.

into Punjab like eastern Uttar Pradesh did in the earlier


Thi~

was due to the fact that with the arrival

second Green Revolution in Punjab (i.e.


lines
labour
of

of

the

rice revolution on the

of wheat revolution of the late sixties),

the demand

increased substantially intensifying further the

seasonal

Bihar

labour

migration of labour into Punjab

for

process

agriculture.

The

labour is said to be comparatively better skilled in

rice

26
cultivation
Punjab.
even

The

reasons for this important shift

otherwise,

economic
the

and also cheaper than the resident rural

it

might be very interesting to ascertain

base of the non-cultivating rural labour households


annually

the
in
for

seasonal employment and the state which has considerably

expanded its absorptive capacity for seasonal migrant labour.


might

in

notwithstanding,

state which sends out many thousand labourers

gainful

labour

as

labour

well be very useful to ascertain whether


comes

agricultural
relative

to

Punjab

from

the

relatively

less

In particular,

to

areas

of

Bihar.

operation

of

the 'pull' and

the

'push'

It

migrant
developed

assess

the

factors

in

causing .the seasonal exodus from rural Bihar.


Further, since the fundamental objective of the present
study
and

is to spell out the variations

in the

employment pattern

the corresponding income and consumption levels of the

cultivating

rural

reasonably

fair

developed

and

labour households in the two


to

choose one

state

which

states,
is

it

i~

comparatively

another which is relatively backward in

and agricultural development in particular.

non-

general,

The choice of Punjab

and Bihar meets this objective fairly adequately.

dynamics

It

needs

to be stressed here that in as much

as

the

of

agricultural transformation is the outcome

of

the

interplay of technology, institutions and environment, the states


of

Punjab and Bihar reveal distinct matrices of

Table
Bihar.

2.1.

these

factors.

offers some striking differences between Punjab

and

27
Table

2.1

. Levels of Agricultural Development in Punjab and Bihar : 1983-84

Sl.

Bihar

Punjab

Indicator

No.
1.

1.

Yield Rate of Rice (kgs/ha)

3063

1016

2.

Yield Rate of Wheat (kgs/ha)

3015

1554

3.

Yield Rate of Foodgrains (kgs/ha)

2837

1062

4.

Cropping Intensity

5.
6.
7.

1. 66

1. 35

Percentage of Net Irrigated Area


to Net Sown Area

85.68

33.21

Percentage of H. Y. V. Area under Wheat


and Rice to their Total Cropped Area

98.18

58.44

143.20

27.40

Fertilizer Consumption (kgs/ha) of

Gross Cropped Area

Source :

1.

Statistical Abstract of
years, E.S.O., Punjab.

2.

Fertilizer
Statistics
F.A.I., New Delhi.

Punjab
for

for

different

different
years,

28
To
paddy,

begin with,

wheat

and foodgrains are much higher in Punjab

with those in Bihar.


most

important

technology,

it is evident that the yield rates

In the matter of irrigation,

ingredient

for

the fact that in 1983-84,

area

to

net sown

under

the

new

the percentage of net

Further,

farm

It is obvious
irrigated

area was between 2-3 times higher

with that in Bihar.

compared

which is the

Bihar is trailing far behind Punjab.

from

compared

the adoption of

in

Punjab

the proportion of

area

H.Y.V seeds for the two major crops of wheat and paddy

the total cropped area under these two


1.7 times less than that in Punjab.
fertilizer

consumption,

Bihar's

of

to

crops in Bihar was nearly


Similarly, in the matter of

intake is

extremely

low

in

comparison to that of Punjab.


As

regards

the rainfall,

whereas Punjab receives

average annual normal rainfall of nearly 593.0


average
1362.0
and
as

Millimetres,

the

figure

for Bihar ranges between 1205.0 Millimetres to


1
Millimetres .
Thus being a predominantly rainfed state

also the one with a large number of unharnessed rivers


the

an

Ganga,

Mahananda,

the

the
state

Gandak,

the

Ghaghar,

of Bihar is more

the

Kosi

vulnerable

and

to

such
the

natural

disasters like droughts and floods.


A Profile of Punjab and Bihar Economies

It

is

worthwhile

to look broadly into

the

economic

structure of the states selected with special reference to


1.

their

11
Central
Statistical Organisation
(1987);
Statistical
11
Abstract of India 1985 ,
Monthly and Annual Rainfall 1984
(1) Table 13,
Department of Statistics,
Ministry of
Planning, Government of India, June, New Delhi, p. 41.

29
and

agricul~ural

infra-structural base.

Tables

2.2

and

2.3

provide the essential details in this regard.


Table
2.45

2.2 shows that as per 1981 Census,

per cent of nation's

total

area

hand,

Bihar

per

cent

Punjab

with

total population and 1.53 per cent of

has a density of population of 333:

On

the

other

with 10.20 per cent of nation's population and 5.29

of total area,

has a density of

population

of

402.

Further sex ratio is considerably higher in Bihar than in Punjab.


Not

only

thus,

the

percentage of rural

population

to

total

population was lower in Punjab (72.0 per cent) compared with that
in

Bihar (88.0 per cent).

engaged

in

agriculture

Again,
is

the percentage of

higher in

Bihar

compared with that in Punjab (58.0 per cent).


terms

of

relative
Punjab

workforce

(79.0

per

This shows that in

the rural-urban distribution of population


strength

of

agricultural workforce,

the

continuing

proportion

of

to

be the mainstay of

total population in rural

Bihar,

Bihar,

and

the

economy

is relatively more diversified than that of

agriculture

cent)

much
compared

of

with
higher
with

rural Punjab.
Table 2.3 read with Table 2.1 reveals that irrespective
of

the level of per capita income at 1970 - 71

constant

being over 3 times higher in Punjab than in Bihar,


of

the economies

both the states are predominantly agricultural in

This

is

substantiated

contribution
product

of

by

the

fact

that

in

agricultural sector in the net

of Punjab and Bihar was nearly

prices

character.

1983-84,
state

35.0 per cent

the

domestic
and

46.0

JO
Table

2.2

Demographic Features of Punjab and Bihar

Indicator

Sl.
No.
1.

1981 Census.

Bihar

Punjab

1.

Precentage Share in Country's Total


Area

1.53

5.29

2.

Percentage Share in National Population

2.45

10.20

3.

Density of Population

4.

Sex-ratio (females/BOO

5.

Percentage of
(i)

males)

333

402

879

946

Literate Population to Total


Population

40.86

26.20

Rural Population to Total


Population

72.32

87.53

Workers to Total Population

29.35

29.68

(iv)

Workforce in Agriculture (Cultivators and Agricultural Labourers)


to Total Workers

58.03

79.07

(v)

Agricultural Labourers to Total


Workforce in Agriculture.

38.20

44.90

(ii)
(iii)

Source

1.

Statistical Abstract of
years, E.S.O., Punjab.

Punjab

2.

Statistical Abstract of
years, C.S.O., New Delhi.

India

for
for

different
different

Jl
Table

2.3

Selected !ndicators of Punjab and Bihar

Indicator

S1 No.

1.
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

8.
9.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

~conomi~s

Punjab
3

Per Capita Income at 1970-71 Constant


1497
Prices (Rs.)
Percentage Contribution of Agriculture
35.16
in Net State Income at 1970-71 Prices
Proportion of Net Sown Area to Total
98.25
Cultivable Area
Percentage of Area under Foodgrains
74.57
to Gross Cropped Area (1983-84)
Number of Tractors/'000 ha of Net Sown
29
~rea (1980-81)
Number of Energised Pumpsets and
Tubewells/'000 he of Net Sown Area
90.41
Number of Operational Holdings in
1020
1980-81 (000)
Average Size of Holding in 1980-81
3.82
(hectares)
Percentage Share of Small, Marginal
38.92
and Sub-marginal Farmers (i.e. those
operating below 2 hectares) in the To~al
No. of Operational Holdings (1980-81)
Percentage of Villages Connected with
All Weatl'l.er Roads(as on 31.3.1985)
99.00
Percentage of Electrified Villages
100.00
(on 30.6.1984)
Number of Fertilizer Sale Points/'000
1.44
ha of Net Sown Area (on 31.3.1984)
Percentage of Fertilizer Sale Points
52.33
(as in 12 above) of Co-operative Societies and gther Institutional Agencies
Percentage of Rural Population Covered
13.64
by Active Agricultural Credit societies.

Source :

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

: 1983-84

Bihar
4

468
45.80
65.70
89.43
1. 84
24.71
11030
1. 00
86.48

33.00
48.53
1. 02
7.93
8.84

Statistical Abstract of Punjab for different


years, E.S.O., Punjab, Chandigarh.
Bihar Through Figures 1981, The Directorate of
Statistics and Evaluation, July 1984, Bihar, Patna.
Fertilizer Statistics for different years, FAI,
New Delhi.
All India Report on Agricultural Census 1980-81~
Govt. of India, New Delhi, p. 191.
Seventh Five year Plan: Mid- Term Appraisal,
Annexure IV, Transport Sector (Roads), Transport.
givision,
Planning Commission, Government of
India, August, 1987.

: 32
per

cent

further

respectively
clear

cultivable

at 1970 - 71

constant

that the net sown area as a percentage

area

constitutes

nearly

98.0 per

compared with just 66.0 per cent in Bihar.


account

for

prices.

It
of

cent

total

in

Further,

is

Punjab

food crops

as high as 89.0 per cent of gross cropped

area

in

Bihar against 75.0 per cent in Punjab.


It
assured

is

important to note that

means of irrigation,

because

of

relatively

Punjab is much ahead Bihar in

adoption of high yielding seed varieties.

the

The percentage of area

under H.Y.V. of rice and wheat to total cropped area of these two
crops

is

much higher (98.0 per cent) in Punjab,

only about 58.0 per cent in Bihar.

compared

with

Since, the success of H.Y.V.

seeds depends critically on the use of chemical fertilizers,


consumption
gross

of fertilizers in Punjab stood at 143.0

cropped area,

cropped

the

Kgs/ha

of

while it was as low as 27.0 Kgs/ha of gross

area in Bihar.

Although the number of

fertilizer

sale

points

per thousand hectares of net sown area in 1983-84 did not

differ

much

differences

between the two states,


between

the

two

in the

control of such fertilizer sale points.


fact

that

while

institutional
points,

the

8.0 per cent.


societies

in

agencies

Punjab,
managed

yet

there

matter

are

of

important

institutional

It is obvious from

the

co-operative

more

than half

and
of

such

corresponding figure in Bihar was as low as


Also, in Punjab, while

the
other
sale

nearly

active agricultural credit

covered nearly 14.0 per cent of the rural

this coverage was only about 9.0 per cent in Bihar.

population,

JJ
In the matter of the adoption of mechanical innovations
also,

Bihar is way behind Punjab.

For instance,

on 30-6-1981,

against

29

area

in

Punjab,

Bihar had hardly 2 tractors for an equivalent figure

of

net

tractors per thousand hectares of net sown

sown area.

energised
sown

Again in 1983 - 84,

pumpsets

area,

the

while Punjab had about

and tubewells per thousand hectares

corresponding figure for Bihar was

pumpsets and tubewells.

90

of

net

roughly

25

Further, in terms of the development and

the adequacy of various institutions catering to the requirements


of agriculture,
Bihar.

the Punjab is relatively much better placed than

Though land reforms in Punjab are not qualitatively much

differrent

from

matter

abolition

of

those in most other Indian states,


of

intermediaries,

relatively better record of performance.


hand,

the

always

powerful

stood

land reforms.
land

farmers'

the

yet in

Punjab

the

has

In Bihar, on the other

lobby in the state

firmly in the way of effective

politics

has

implementation

of

Consequently, in spite of much publicity about the

reforms,

the

bulk of the cultivable

land

still

remains

concentrated in the hands of big land owners relatively much more


in

Bihar

compared

fragmentation

with

Punjab.

Further,

81),

the

that

of

For instance,

out by All India Report on Agricultural Census


number

of operational holdings was

times larger in Bihar than in Punjab.


of

problem

of land holdings is nearly non-existent in Punjab,

while it is still in an acute shape in Bihar.


brought

the

operational holding in Bihar is


of Punjab.

Also,

as

(1980

approximately

11

Further, the average size

roug~ly

4 times smaller

the number of small,

than

marginal and sub-

marginal

farmers (i.e.

those cultivating below 2

hectares)

very large in Bihar (nearly 87.0 per cent) than in Punjab,

is

where

they account for nearly 39.0 per cent.


In

the

matter

of infra-structural

Bihar is lagging far behind Punjab.


the

pattern

constrained
poses
in

of

facilities

This is due to the fact that

railway development in

Bihar

is

tremendously

by its economic and physical geography.

The

one of the biggest hurdles in the development of

Bihar since it is bridged only at two or three

dissected
another

transportation.
deficient

in

the

development

of

disadvantages

Consequently

railways

the

The

poses

yet

means

of

Similarly, the flood prone Kosi basin is acutely

both in railway and road transport

transport

Ganga

points.

and forested terrain of Chota Nagpur areas


problem

also,

in

1985,

are
while

not

facilities.

operating

in Punjab 99.0

villages were connected with all weather roads,


make much headway in this respect.

in

Such
Punjab.
of

the

Bihar could

not

per cent

Further, against hundred per

cent rural eletrification in Punjab, the corresponding figure for


Bihar was only 49.0 per cent.
From
the

matter

of technological factors,

infra-structural
Bihar.

the foregoing discussion,

facilities,

it is evident that

in

institutional set-up

Punjab is much better placed

and
than

Thanks to the relatively more conducive institutional and

infra-structural

set-up,

emerging

from

research

Ludhiana,

and

better

speedy and up-to-date


at

Punjab

farm

Agriculture

extension services,

the state

practices
University,
enjoys

JS
conspicuous
and

advantage in the adoption of H.Y.V

up-to-date

farm practices,

use

of

seeds,

chemical

improved

fertilizers,

tubewell irrigation, mechanisation of agriculture and a very high


degree

of

agricultural commercialisation.

On the other

hand,

because of relatively adverse position of Bihar in the matter


all

these

factors,

development.

This,

backwardness
acute

the
in

state
turn,

has
has

of the state economy.

disparities

experienced
perpetuated

Not only

lopsided

the

general

this,

there

are

in the levels of development of various

regions of the state.

of

sub-

In the matter of agricultural development,

the position is more disperate.

Unlike Punjab, some districts of

Bihar

are extremely backward while some others are doing

well.

District Bhojpur belongs to the latter category.

fairly

The Chosen Districts: Similarities and Contrasts

With
comparable

the

objective

agricultural

of

base,

locating

districts

with

district Ludhiana in Punjab

a
and

district Bhojpur in Bihar, have been selected as the areas of the


present study.

While Ludhiana is universally acknowledged as the

best agricultural district in Punjab,


agricultural

districts of Bihar.

Bhojpur is one of the best

And the impact of

the

Green

Revolution, although of differing intensity, is quite substantial


in

both.

Before

districtwise
development
Bihar,
reports

on
and

settling

on these

two

districts,

exercise based on a few indicators of

agricultural

was carried out for all the districts of Punjab


the basis of 1975 - 76 data,
documents

available in

of the two states.

small

Although

and

published
data

for

J6
Punjab

were

availability
to

available

for

later

years

this

nonchoice

Besides,

exercise.

of a focal town of almost comparable dimension in each

selected district,
(X 1 J

yet

well,

of comparable data for Bihar restricted our

the year 1975-76 for carrying out

existence

as

the indicators chosen for this exercise were:

proportion of net sown area to the total

cultivable

area;

(X 2 J cropping intensity; (X ) proportion of net irrigated area to


3
the net sown area;
(X 4 J proportion of H.Y.V. area of wheat and
rice

(X 5 )

to the total cropped area under these two crops;

hectare intake of chemical fertilizers;


and,

per

(X ) yield rate of rice;


6

(X 7 J yield rate of wheat.


On the basis of these seven indicators, composite index

was

worked

out

for all the districts in the

two

results of this exercise are set out in Table 2.4.


scale,

district

Ludhiana

ranked first in

states.

The

On the

said

Punjab.

Nalanda had a slightly higher score than Bhojpur.

In

However, since

it did not have a focal town of comparable dimension,

our choice

fell

on Bhojpur district.

that

because of their high potential of agricultural development

both

Ludhiana and Sahabad (now divided into Bhojpur

districts)

were

selected

under the I.A.D.P.

Further,

Bihar,

it is interesting to

and

among the first batch of 7

programme.

note

Rohtas

districts

Though district Rohtas could also

stake its claim on this ground and despite the fact, Dalmia Nagar
of

Rohtas district is comparable to the Khanna town of

Ludhiana

in

terms

of industrial activity,

but it

dropped in favour of Bhojpur for the following reason:

had

district
to

be

37
Tabie 2.4

Districtwis~

Composite

lnde~

of

Agricultur~

Development in Punjab and Bihar: 1975-76

-----------------,-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sl.

District

Stindardised value of 1ndicator

No.

Cc.mcosit::
In del(

fiank

Ill

11

-------------------------------#---------------I--------#--------#--------I--------I----------------1-------------#PUNJAB
Gur dasour

1.

2. Ainri tsar
3. Kapurthala
4. Jullundur

!.03
~.97

t. Roopnagar

1.03
1. 02
0.98
0.93

7. Ludhiana'

1.\31

FerozE'pore
Faridkot

B.94
U3
1.03
1.01
1.01

Hoshiarpur

5.

8.
9.

10. Bhatinda
11. Sangrur
12. Patialia

1.07
1.03
0.86
i. 02
1.00
1.07
1.1!
0.98
0.91
~.94

~.87

0.77

B.80

0.88

0.88

1.25
l.BB
1. ! 5

1. et5

e. 90

~.96

1. OG
1. 31
1. 41

1.02
0.91

1.06

U3

~.57

0.70

0.53

0. 77
1.11

@.64
0.61

0.78
0.66

0.89
0.86

l. 54

1.33
1.13
1.32
1.00
1.19

. 1.19
0. 98

1.0~

0.99

!. 52
1. 26

0.98
0.84

~.99

0.84
0.80
1.12

0.75

9.68
10.66
7.72
9.20
8.48

l.62

i. ~.9

iL96

10.61

1. 44

0.96
1.28

l0.34

1.09

1.16

1.02
1.10
.

~.88

1.05
1.05

!.09
0 07

Ul7
1.15

1. 94
2.95
2.31
2.85
2.57
2.49
2.43

U5

~.82

0.99
0 i)Q
i.10

~.99

1.04

0.38
0.81
0.87

0. 76

2. i 9

0.98
0.65

1.87
1.11

1.11
1. 06
1.72

1. 24

1.08

~.99

0.88
1.10

6.3Z
7._:'i...

7.78
5.56
5.43
8.45
6.92
7.33
6. 10
7.35
6.93

9
6
5
2
II
12

8
4
10

3
7

BIHAR
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

Patna
Nalanda
Gava
Nawada
Auranqabad
Bhajpur
~:oht as

8. Saran
9.

SirJan

10. Gopalganj
11.. Cha[1paran (Easti

12.
13.
14.
15.

0.97

1. 00

1.08
Ul

1. 00

1. 29
1. 26
1.18
1. 26

1.18
1. 30

Champaran (West)

1.17

Muzafferpur
Vai shal i

1. 28
1. 20
1. 24
1. 05

Sitamarhi
16. Darbhanga
17. Samastipur
lB. M~.dhubani
19. Bequsar ai
20. Monghyr
21. Bhaqa! pur
22. Santhal Parganas
23. Saharsa
24. Purnea
25. Kat hi ar
26. Hazaribag
27.

..,
1.:.;:..

Giridh

i.15
1. 21
!.25

1.11
1.17
1.12
1.18
"u, QC:
,.J

0.83

1. 5!
!. 97
1. 70
1 il'i
!. !5

1.14
1. 05
1. 08
1.11
1. 02
1.10
1.03

1.05

0.83

0.81
0.80
0.65
0. 77
1.11

1. 33

1. 07

0.82

1. 03
1. 07

1.13
1.11
1. 05

1. 04
0.69

29.

0.89

30. Palamau

0. 73

31.

0.71

I. 73
!. ?6
1. 96

1. ~7

0.83

0. 72
0. 73

Sinqhbhutr1

1.14

1. 04
1. 02.

l\.93

28. Dhanbad
Ran chi

0.98

\.3b
0.92
1. 44
1. 54

0.73
1. 02

0.99
0.88
0.80
0.71
0.73

0.99
1.05

0.90
~.73

0.89
1.23

1.14

1. 27

~.98

0.40

1.11

1.63

0.71
0.83
l. 45
0.73

1.02
0.85

0.96
0.70
0.93

0.96
1. 32
0.93
0.93
0.99

0.40
0.25
0.24
0.25
0.25
0.74

0.82
0.85
0.90
0.82

1.67
1.14

0.73

1.04
! . 18

0.87
2.30

1.17

.0. 82

0.98
0.86

0.96
0.85
0.92

1.12

0.44
1. 00
1. 41

11.38

0.88

1. 63
1.60
1. 31

1.13

UB

l. 74

1. 20

0.33

1.18
0.90
0. 77

0. 77

0. 91

0.38
0.41
0.47

~.94

0.40

0.21

0.67
0.91

0. 52
0.28
0.65

!11.21

0.49

0.19
0.29
0.22

0.15

0.17

1.15
1. 34

0.90
0.91
0.99

U1

0.97
1.32
l. 11
1. 43

1.13
1.05

9.89
9.04
9.56
6.93
7.09
7.92
7.11
6.25
7.26
8.29
5.87
9.38
7.37
7.41
4.93
6.83
5.48
5.48
4.31
4.98
4.72
5.26
5.12
4.07

5
t3
8
10

3
4
9
6

19
18

12
17
21
16
11

22
7

15
14
28
20
23.5

23.5
30
2i

29

25
26

--------------------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NOTE:

1. Standardisation has been done by dividinq the figures for the respective districts with the state fiqure
for each indicator
2. An explanation of the indicators i. , I. , X ..... X is qiven in the text.
1

J8

Two
parated

towns

of

Dalmia

Nagar

and

Dehri-on-Sone

from each other just by a metalled road.

rcumstances,

the

comparability

are

Under

such

of two situations in the

two

ates does not seem to be reasonable and unbiased; and, moreover


the basis of 1971 Census,

Buxar town of Bhojpur district, and

anna town of district Ludhiana, were more or less comparable in


rms of their respective population size.
Thus with the objective of ensuring a comparable ruralban situation Khanna in Ludhiana and Buxar in Bhojpur have been
osen as the focal towns.

The present study, in a way, attempts

capture the impact of these two towns on the rural


eir respective hinterlands.
mple

of

villages

has

idirectionally

from

feet

distance

of

the

ployment nexus.
atues

areas

in

Around each of these two towns, a


been

the town,
itself

selected.

Villages

have been so chosen


is

captured

in

located
that

the

rural-urban

It shall be worthwhile to present some

broad

of the areas under study which have an important bearing

the employment pattern and the corresponding levels of

income

d consumption of the population of these areas.


ysical Features

Located

centrally

in the state

of

Punjab,

dhiana-the harbinger of the Green Revolution in India,

district
forms a

rt of Punjab Malwa in the Punjab-Plain-North of the great Indongetic

plain.

dhiana

of Punjab,

rder

Compared

of the state.

with the centrally located

Bhojpur in Bihar is located on the

district
Western

It is a new district which was formed

in

J9
November

1972 by splitting the old district of Sahabad into

two

districts-Bhojpur and Rohtas.


More or less rectangular in appearance,
of

district

comparison,

Ludhiana
district

is about
Bhojpur

3793

square

with a total area of

kilometres 3 is relatively bigger in

square

diversities 4

physical

are

the total area


kilometres 2 .
In

size.

not completely ruled

microscopic viewpoint in the two districts,

Even

can

practices.
strong

the
level

the

and as such,
other

farm

Further, while the soils in Ludhiana, supported by a


have responded well to the use of high

varieties of improved seeds and

alluvium soils of Bhojpur,


of

though

yet on the whole the

admit extensive use of farm machinery and

irrigation base ,

yielding

4077

from

out

topography of the two districts appears to be flat,


both

about

fertility,

chemical

fertilizers,

although endowed with a matching

have not so far come under

(1987);

high

yielding

Ibid.,

Area

2.

Central
Statistical Organisation
and Population, Table 2, p. 10.

3.

Central Statistical Organisation (1987); Ibid., p. 4.

4.

Broadly
speaking,
district Ludhiana
consists of two
heterogeneous regions viz.,
the bet 1 and the Non-bet 1
But from the microscopic view point, it can be divided into
3 sub-regions namely, Bet (river land frequently flooded),
Dhaya
Neecha (lower upland) and Dhaya Uncha
(higher
upland).
The latter is the area of the present study in
case of district Ludhiana.
Similarly, District Bhojpur can
be divided to two parts, viz. ,the low lying Alluvial plain
of the North and the Flat region of the South.
The former
lies between the famour river,
the Ganga and main line of
Eastern Railway and the latter while stretching
from
southern embankments of the main line of Eastern Railway
extends up to the South Western extremes. The present study
was conducted into the latter in case of Bhojpur district.

40
seeds

in

Bhojpur,

big way.

It needs to be stressed

if properly harnessed,

that

soils

do have adequate potential

of
for

considerable expansion of crop yield rates and total agricultural


output 5 .
With

respect to the environmental

factors,

districts experience extreme variations in climate.

both

the

And finally,

in both the districts, summer rains (accounting for nearly threefourth

of the average annual rainfall)

are more important

from

In-spite of these above mentioned similarities, a

very

the point of view of agriculture.

significant

difference between the two districts is in terms

rural-urban link roads.


roads

in

Ludhiana,

Because of thick network of rural

of
link

the agricultural sector of the district has

received a great fillip which has further strengthened the ruralurban linkages bearing important implications for the employmentincome-consumption
facilities

nexus

of

the

rural

population.

in the case of Bhojpur are available on a much

These
lower

scale.
Demographic Features

Table 2.5. brings out a few demographic features of the


two districts.
5.

The final report of All India Soil Survey Scheme by the


Indian Council of Agricultural Research bears adequate
testimony
to the high fertility of soils in Bhojpur
district.
For example, see Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (1953), "Final Report of All India Soil Survey
Scheme", Bulletin No. 73, Chapter---"X, pp. 70-80.
See
especially, p. 78.

41
Table

2.5

Demographic Features of Ludhiana and Bhojpur Districts : 1971-81

Sl.

Indicator

Ludhiana

Bhojpur

No
1971
1.

1981

1971

1981

10.47

10.83

3.54

3.44

7.51

7.66

2.36

2.36

1.

Percentage of Respective State


Population

2.

Percentage of Respective State Area

3.

Density of Population (Persons/sq.km) 374

4.

Sex - ratio (Females/'000 males)

5.

Percentage of :
(a)
(b)

Literate Population to Total


Population
Rural Population to Total
Population

(c)

846

42.63

472
859

50.60

496

588

967

944

25.38

31.35

65.19

57.99

91.48

89.28

Main Workers to Total Population

29.57

30.39

28.10

25.21

(d)

Workforce in Agriculture
(Cultivators and Agricultural
Labourers) to Total Workforce

50.80

43.84

81.50

79.08

(e)

Agricultural Labourers to Total


Workforce in Agriculture.

35.32

40.08

50.76

47.08

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Source :

(i)
(ii)

Statistical Abstract of India

1985, C.S.O., New Delhi.

Bihar Through Figures 1981,


Directorate
Evaluation, July 1984, Bihar, Patna

of

Statistics

and

42
It
shares

may

be

noticed that even

though

the

percentage

of state population as well as area have been

higher

in

on

account

of

relatively higher pressure of population in Bhojpur,

density

of

Ludhiana

than

Population
latter.
While

has

during

1971-81,

yet

been much lower in the former compared with

sex-ratio in Ludhiana has registered an increase from


per thousand males in 1971 to 859 females

males in 1981,

per

Ludhiana

thousand

continues

to

be far

with respect to the


ahead

than

Bhojpur.

the

population

in district Ludhiana indicates that over the

compared
fact

that

workforce

lower

Further,

Similarly,

dependence

846

in Bhojpur the corresponding figure has come down

967 in 1971 to 944 in 1981.

literacy,

the

the

The opposite has been noticed with respect to sex-ratio.

females

from

Bhojpur

proportion of rural population

on agriculture in this district has

to its Bihar counterpart.


as per 1981 Census,

to

total
period,

been

lower

This is corraborated by the

the percentage

in Ludhiana is roughly half to that

of

agricultural

of

Bhojpur.

In

other words, it implies that the pace of urbanisation, because of


setting-up
activities
has

been

1971-81.

of

agro-based

industries

and

other

industrial

and the consequent expansion of the tertiary


faster in Ludhiana than Bhojpur during the
But

sector,

decade

this type of trend has not appeared as yet

comparable scale in Bhojpur.

on

of
a

Consequently, nearly 80.0 per cent

of the workforce still continues to be dependent upon agriculture


for its livelihood during 1971-81.
of

agricultural

increased

from

Further,while the percentage

labourers to total agricultural


nearly 35.0 per cent

workforce

has

in 1971 to about 40.0

per

4J
cent in 1981 in Ludhiana,

the corresponding figure has

recorded

decline in Bhojpur from 51.0 per cent in 1971 to 47.0 per cent in
1981.

However, the percentage of agricultural labourers to total

agricultural
against

workforce

Bhojpur

over

continues
the

said

to be lower
period.

in

This

Ludhiana
implies

as
that

relatively higher proportion of agricultural workforce is engaged


as cultivators in Ludhiana than Bhojpur.

This,

that

labourers

the

proportion

of

agricultural

in turn,

means

to

total

agricultural

workforce being higher in Bhojpur than in Ludhiana,

agricultural

wage

rates

are bound to be lower

in

the

former

compared with the latter.


Agricultural Development

With

respect to the level of agricultural

development

ln Ludhiana and Bhojpur districts, it can be seen from table


that

even

though

the

level

of

extensive

cultivation

2.6
is

sufficiently high in both, yet the yield rates of wheat and paddy
are

considerably

These

higher in the former compared to

the

differences are explained largely in terms of

in irrigation facilities,

latter.

differences

rural electrification, use of chemical

fertilizers, adoption of H.Y.V. seeds, and so on.


Table 2.6,when compared to Tables 2.1 and
that

practically

in all the indicators,

the two are

agricultural districts of their respective states.


that

the

2.3,~ndicates

proportion _of net sown area to the

the

best

It is obvious

total

cultivable

area,

cropping intensity, per hectare use of chemical fertilizer

stood

higher both in Bhojpur and Ludhiana districts

than

their

44
Table

2.6

Levels of Agricultural Development in Ludhiana and Bhojpur:


1982-83

Sl.

Indicator

Ludhiana

Bhojpur

No.
1.

99.70

89.54

1.

Proportion of Net Sown Area to the


Total Cultivable Area

2.

Cropping Intensity

3.

Yield Rate of Wheat (Kgs/ha)

3521

1349

4.

Yield Rate of Rice (Kgs/ha)

3940

1211

5.

Percentage of Area under H.Y.V. of


Wheat and Paddy to their Total
Cropped Area

100.00

54.33#

6.

Fertilizer Consumption (kgs/ha of GCA)

174.61

33.72

7.

Percentage of Net Irrigated Area to


Net Sown Area

95.26

62.69

8.

. Number of Energised Pumpsets and #


Tubewells/'000 ha of Net Sown Area

91.79

18.20

9.

Number of Tractors/'000 ha of Net


Sown Area

10.

Percentage of Electrified Villages@

NOTE

#
@

Source :

1.78

1. 37

54.00
100.00

30.23

Relates to the year 1978-79


Relates to the year 1980
Relates to the year 1980-81
1.

Statistical Abstract of Punjab for various years,


E.S.O., Punjab, Chandigarh.

2.

Bihar Through Figures 1981,


The Directorate of
Statistics and Evaluation, July 1984, Bihar, Patna,

3.

Fertilizer Statistics 1982-83, F.A.I., New Delhi

4.

Agricultural Situation in India for different


years,
Directnrate of Economics and Statistics,
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New
Delhi.

45
respective

state figures.

It is in spite of the fact that

data for the state relate to the later years.


because

of

districts
factors

relatively
compared

their respective

the

of

states.

these

two

Though

have contributed in their conspicuous position

matter of agricultural development,


mention

This is presumably

stronger irrigation base

to

such

many

in

the

yet, it may be worthwhile to

in passing that it might be their early selection

under

Intensive Agricultural District Programme which has played a

pivotal role in helping them to achieve the distinction of one of


the

best agricultural districts in the two states of Punjab

and

Bihar.
An

important

common feature of the two

districts

that the economy of both is mainly agricultural in character


both

are surplus in food.

mineral

resources,

there

mineral based industries.


districts

Further,

selected

is

and

since both are lacking

limited

scope

for

is

in

establishing

Again both being among the first seven

under

Intensive

Agricultural

District

Programme (I.A.D.P. ), they pioneered the adoption of H.Y.V. seeds


in

their

respective

sugarcane,

vegetables

states.
and

district Ludhiana;

paddy,

such

and

as

'masoor'

While

paddy,

wheat,

some pulses are the major


wheat,

-~rhar'

cotton,
crops

of

khesari and same other pulses

are grown

in

district

Bhojpur.

Ludhiana has been lucky to have the well known Punjab Agriculture
University located at the district headquarters.
effective
farmers

availability
as

also

the

This ensured an

of the extension services to


quick

flow

of

knowledge

the

about

local
modern

46
techniques of production developed in the University from time to
time.
top

This is perhaps an important factor to put Ludhiana at the


in the matter of agricultural

comparison,
with

any

nearest

modernization.

Bhojpur,

was not fortunate to have such an effective


Agriculture

in

liaison

University or

research

institute.

Agriculture University is in

district

Ranchi,

The

located

nearly 400 Kms. away from Bhojpur.


Industrial Situation

Apart

from

agricultural sector,

its

impressive

bicycles and bicycle parts,

including sewing machines,


Ludhiana
based

in

the

district Ludhiana enjoys the distinction of

being the industrial hub of Punjab.


goods,

performance

fans,

The hosiery and engineering


two wheelers,electric
etc.

goods

manufactured in district

are well known all over the world.

A number of

agro-

industries

have also come up recently in the wake of

the

Green Revolution.

Dispersal of industrial activity outside

the

limits of Ludhiana is another important development of

the

city

recent times.

Smaller towns such as Khanna, Jagraon and Smarala

are also emerging as important industrial and commercial centres.


During the seventies, the industrial expansion of Khanna town has
been extremely fast. 6
In

comparison

to

Ludhiana,

Bhojpur is not

developed in terms of industrial activities.


district
6.

has

District
1971

been expanding its industrial

Nevertheless,
base.

Census Handbook Ludhiana District

16

as

Some

much
the
small

Series17,Punjab

47
scale

industries of general type such as rice

leather

hulling,

tanning, powerlooms, hurricane lanterns, agricultural implements,


printing,
centres

furniture making etc. have come up mostly in the urban


and block headquarters in the

district.

pace of agro-industrial activities has gone up.


district
output

Further,

In recent years,

Bhojpur has witnessed tremendous increase in


as

district

a
is

consequence of which the rural


now

its

landscape

punctuated by rising rice

the

shelling

rice

of

the

activity.

Some villages have become important food processing and marketing


centres. For example, even a small village, named Akhauripur Gala
has

as many as six rice shellers,

one oil mill,

fast expanding food marketing centre.

catering to

Industrial complexes

coming up at Buxar, Dumraon and Jagdishpur.

Of course,

a
are

there are

many such agro-industrial villages in Ludhiana also.


Sample Villages

The

present

study is based on primary data

from a number of villages from Punjab and Bihar.


in

the

and

proper analysis of the issues relating to


consumption

explained

It is

fitness of things to have a synoptic view of the

economic milieu operating in these villages.


a

collected

later

levels

of the

in this chapter,

rural

socio-

This should assist


employment,

labour

8 villages

perhaps

income

households.
were

As

purposively

selected at fairly comparable distances from the respective focal


towns of the two states.

Table 2.7 provides a locational profile

of the sample villages of Punjab and Bihar respectively.


evident

It

that Majri in Punjab and Mathia Gurdas in Bihar are

is
the

48
Table

2.7

A Locational Profile of the Punjab and Bihar Sample Villages

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Distance (in krns. ) from


Sl. Village
No.
----------------------------------------------------------Focal
Main
Railway
Block Tehsil/ District Canal/
Town

Road

Station

Hqrs.

Sub.Divr., Hqrs.
is ion
Hqrs.

Canal
Distributary

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
4
7
9
2
3
5
6
8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------A. Punjab
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

(V1)
(V2)
(V3)
(V4)
(V5)
(V6)
(V7)
(V8)

2.00
3.00
5.00
8.00
9.00
12.00
15.00
17.00

0.00
0.50
0.00
0.00
0.75
0.00
1.00
0.00

2.00
3.00
5.00
8.00
9.00
12.00
15.00
17.00

Mathia Gurdas(V1)
(V2)
Lalganj
(V3)
Hukaha
(V4)
Nathpur
(V5)
Sarasti
(V6)
Itarhi
(V7)
Konch
(V8)
Unwans

2.00
3.00
4.00
7.00
10.00
11.00
15.00
18.00

0.75
0.75
0.30
0.00*
1.00
0.00
0.50
0.00

2.00
3.00
4.00
7.00
10.00
11.00
15.00
18.00

Majri
Rasulra
Ikolaha
Kotla Dhak
Faizgarh
Isru
Nasrali
Jalajan

18.00
19.00
21.00
24.00
25.00
28.00
31.00
33.00

2.00
3.00
5.00
8.00
9.00
12.00
15.00
17.00

41.00
42.00
44.00
47.00
48.00
48.00
45.00
48.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.00
0.00
0.00
3.00

2.00
3.00
4.00
7.00
10.00
11.00
15.00
18.00

71.00
72.00
73.00
76.00
79.00
80.00
84.00
87.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

B. Bihar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

::c

2.00
3.00
4.00
4.00 ......
1.00
1.00
4.00
7.00

Though some houses are located on the main-road itself, but the main village
is about One. Km. from the main road and block headquarters.

nearest

sample villages (2 Kms.

towns.

Similarly

Kms.)

in

towns.

Jalajan

each) from the respective focal

(17 Kms.) in Punjab and

Unwans

Bihar are the farthest sample villages from

the

(18

said

The remaining six villages in the two states are located

in between at varying distances.


All
main

road

villages

the

by

villages in Punjab are located mostly on

and large.

The

is also the same.

than 1 Km.
between

locational

village

of

Bihar,

None of the sample villages is more

away from the main road.

the

picture

the

The condition of link roads

inhabitations and the main

better in Punjab than in Bihar.

Further,

road

is

much

both the focal

towns

have a railway station and a sub-divisional tehsil headquarters.


Table

2.7

further reveals that in terms

of

distance

from the district headquarters, the sample villages of Punjab are


favourably placed than Bihar villages.
the

However, with respect to

distance from the block headquarters.

an edge over their Punjab counterparts.

Bihar villages enjoy


In as much as

nearness

to block headquarters is more important from the point of view of


agricultural

development,

the

Bihar

villages enjoy

locational

edge over the Punjab villages.

different

matter

that

nearby

block

It

is,

office

administered as effectively as the one slightly

slight

however,
may

away.

not

a
be

Perhaps,

the Bihar position conforms to this pattern.


Table 2.8
characteristics
There

are

of

gives an account of the size and demographic


the sample villages in the two study

considerable

inter-village

variations

areas.
in

the

Table

2.8

Size and Demographic Characteristics of Punjab and Bihar

Sanple Villages : 1980-81.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Indicator
Sl.. Village/s
No.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Size of Total Total
Density Sex- Average Land- Castewise Percentage
Sample House- Popul- of Popu- ratio House
lation
(Fern- hold
Village holds ation
(Acres) (No.) (No.) (persons/ ales/ size
Sq. krn). 1 000''
males)

man
ratio

Distribution of Population

--------------------------Scheduled Backward Other

Castes and Castes


Scheduled
Tribes

Castes

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
8
11
12
2
3
4
6
7
9
10
5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------A. Punjab
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Majri
Rasulra
Ikolaha
Kotla Dhak
Faizgarh
Isru
Nasrali
Jalajan

(V1)
(V2)
(V3)
(V4)
(V5)
(V6)
(V7)
(VB)

All

109
267
516
69
145
463
315
157

604
1811
3260
423
979
2791
2009
954

554
427
475
350
544
446
271
293

836
844
853
808
890
881
904
842

5.54
6.78
6.32
6.13
6.75
6.03
6.38
6.08

0.39
0.50
0.46
0.63
0.42
0.48
0.82
0.79

55.80
35.12
42.24
33.33
41.16
31.45
34.10
50.42

8.11
13.69
7.33
13.48
9.50
14.73
11.80
7.02

36.09
51.19
50.43
53.19
49.34
53.82
54.10
42.56

7937

2041

12831

399

865

6.29

0.55

38.48

10.92

50.60

122
305
586
241
714
895
329
991

59
146
129
69
103
695
122
278

355
1068
904
427
831
4939
752
2150

724
868
381
436
288
1364
565
536

811
921
872
802
746
837
889
903

6.02
7.32
7.01
6.19
8.07
7.11
6.16
7.73

0.34
0.26
0.57
0.49
0.74
0.15
0.40
0.44

53.24
3.56
21.35
63.23
5.78
9.64
40.29
15.26

29.30
95.13
41.59
36.77
91.58
79.49
36.17
62.51

17.46
1. 31
37.06
0.00
2.64
10.87
23.54
22.23

4183

1601

11426

675

854

7.14

0.33

16.15

69.63

14.22

269
1048 '
1694
298
444
1546
1833
805

B. Bihar

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Mathia Gurdas(V1)
(V2)
Lalganj
(V3)
Hukaha
(V4)
Nathpur
Sarasti
(V5)
(V6)
Itarhi
(V7)
Konch
(V8)
Unwans
All

Source : 1
2

Revenue Records of the respective Punjab and Bihar Sample Villages.


Door to door listing of the Sample Villages in Punjab and Bihar.

\.1\
0

51
geographical
size,

area,

density

n~mber

of population,

size in both the states.


distribution
caste

of households and

of

their

population

sex-ratios and average

household

Further, with respect to the castewise

population,

the percentage share of

scheduled

and backward class population is relatively much lower

in

the Punjab villages compared with their Bihar counterparts.


It

may

also

be

observed from

Table

2.8

that

pressure of population in terms of density of population


higher

in Bihar compared to Punjab villages.

corraborated by the land-man ratio (i.e.


which

is

looking

significantly

is

higher in Punjab

than

significant

Bihar

all

average

in

Bihar.

as low as .15 in village Itarhi in Bihar and


Although

difference in the sex-ratio

village

oi

size

further,

one finds that the

high as .82 in village Nasrali in Punjab.


a

is much

land available per man)

at the land man ratio figures,

avilability

This is

figures,

the

By
land
as

there is not

between

Punjab

and

yet the corresponding

figure

for

household is higher

in

Bihar

compared

with

Punjab.
It is important to note that agricultural labourers
Punjab

are

artisans

drawn

basically

from

from the backward classes4

the

scheduled

castes,

in
and

Compared with it in Bihar,

both scheduled castes and backward classes are the main source of
labour supply in the farm - sector.
backward
cent

While scheduled castes and

classes account for nearly 38.0 per cent and

respectively

taken together;

of the population of all the Punjab

11.0

per

villages

their share in Bihar is nearly 16.0 per cent and

52
70.0 per cent respectively.
cent

In other words,

around 49.0

per

of the overall population in Punjab villages is earning its

livelihood from agricultural labour or artisans.


Bihar,

the

scheduled

glaringly
castes

agricultural

But in case of

high figure of about 86.0

and

backward

labour,

can

classes,

explain

per

depending

the low wage

cent

of

mainly

on

rate

and

the

consequent economic plight of the agricultural labour there.


Table

2.9

shows that although the level of

cultivation

(percentage

area),

almost

is

states,

yet

the same

cultivable

in the sample villages of the

For example,

inter-village

variations

villages

is

mainly

is

compared

with

villages

enjoy

that of Bihar
better

former,
Bihar

concerted

efforts

tubewell
lacking

their

villages.

is

large

the

this

behalf

irrigation

Moreover,

the

of

base
Punjab

irrigation

This is due to the fact that while

still largely irrigated


of

However,

intensity in Punjab

huge investments have been made

tubewells,

electrification

of

their

significantly

in

and more assured sources

compared with Bihar villages.


the

are noticeable

The higher cropping


because

two

cropping intensity (the

in Punjab compared with Bihar sample villages.

within the two states.

in

total

of gross cropped area to net sown area)

higher
wide

to

wide variatinns can be found in the level of

agricultural development.
ratio

of net sown area

extensive

Punjab

in

by

installing

canals.
in

rural

has also tremendously contributed in the

strong

irrigation base of the state,


in Bihar.

Government

The

while this is

This is evident from the fact that

generally
the

net

53
Table 2.9
Important Indicators of Agricultural Development of Punjab and Bihar Sample Village_
: 1980-81
S]_.

Indicator

Village/s

---------------------------------------------------------------Cropping
Proportion
Net Sown Area (Acres) Per
Intensity of Net
----------------------------Tractor

No.

Level of
Extensive
Cul tivation

Irrigated
Area to Net
Sown Area

Pumpset
(including
Diesel
Engines)

Thresher

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
6
7
8
1
2
3
5
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------A. Punjab
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Majri
Rasulra
Ikolaha
Kotla Dhak
Faizgarh
Isru
Nasrali
Jalajan

(V1)
(V2)
(V3)
(V4)
(V5)
(V6)
(V7)
(V8)

All

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
97.36

1. 80
1.84
1. 94
1. 95
1.91
2.00
1.88
1. 91

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

7.38
9.00
9.19
5.43
4.66
5.36
7.58
10.55

33.71
34.96
36.76
29.56
33.75
27.92
46.97
104.00

39.33
30.30
30.14
17.73
16.20
10.55
13.93
42.82

99.72

1. 92

100.00

7.27

38.08

18.16

99.75
99.86
99.81
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
95.17

1. 63
1. 54
1. 53
1. 92
1.94
1.48
1. 82
1. 51

88.33
93.21
94.35
98.10
92.33
90.65
93.62
67.34

0.00
0.00
46.64
70.33
76.63
18.73
74.50
31.82

0.00
0.00
256.50
0.00
0.00
187.25
298.00
297.00

0.00
93.33
171.00
0.00
124.83
298.00
127.29

98.74

1. 63

86.59

39.10

367.50

183.75

B. Bihar

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Mathia Gurdas(V1)
(V2)
Lalganj
(V3)
Hukaha
(V4)
Nathpur
(V5)
Sarasti
(V6)
Itarhi
(V7)
Konch
(V8)
Unwans
All

o.oo

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------NOIE : 1. Minor adjustments have been made because the data were gathered
2.
Source: 1.
2.
3.

from different sources.


In the subsequent Tables, notations V1, V2, V3, .... V8 are used for
the respective sample villages instead of their names.
Revenue records of the respective Punjab and Bihar sample villages.
Door to door listing of the sample villages of Punjab and Bihar.
Department of Irrigation in the two states at the block level.

54
sown

area

per pump set,

is comparatively much lower in

Punjab

villages compared with Bihar villages.


2.9

Table
machanisation

is

further

reveals

that

much higher in Punjab villages

that in Bihar villages.

For example,

level

the

compared

of
with

net sown area per tractor

and thresher is again much lower in Punjab villages than in Bihar


villages.
tractors

Moreover,

in

some

sample villages

of

Bihar,

are either non-existent or negligibly small in

the

number.

The same can be said of threshers.


Irrigation
agricultural
Table

2.9,

is

considered

to be the

development under the new

farm

sheet-anchor
technology.

it is clear that the entire net sown area in

villages is irrigated.

of
From

Punjab

The level of irrigation in Bihar villages

is also very high, although some scope still exists for extending
the irrigation base further.
tubewell

(including

diesel

Further,

it is evident that while

engines) irrigation

is

the

major

source of irrigation in all sample villages of Punjab, canals are


the major source of irrigation in Bihar villages.
the fact,

This is due to

that water table in Bihar villages being very deep, the

cost of sinking a tubewell is far higher in Bihar than in Punjab.


It

may

be

differences
the

mentioned

in passing that

no

major

inter-village

are discernible in the cropping pattern

sample villages of Punjab as well as Bihar.

pursued

Paddy,

vegetables and cotton are the major crops of the Punjab


while

paddy,

villages.

wheat,

and 'khesari' etc.

by

wheat,
villages

are those of the Bihar

55
Social and Other Amenities
Table 2.10 provides information on the availability

of

some social and other amenities to the sample villages in the two
states.
enjoys

In Punjab Isru (i.e.

V6), being a focal point village,

a unique position in that almost all amenities of

well-being
position

are available in the village


of

other

itself.

sample villages is also

However,

fairly

distances.

Some

villages

much

closer to it than the focal point village (Isru).

whole,

irrespective

the

encouraging

since most of these facilities are available at short


are catered to by the focal

social

town since

they

are

On

the

of the source providing various social

and

other amenities,

the Punjab villages are enjoying most items.

Bihar,

other hand,

on

village.

the

However,

headquarters,

Itarhi

there is nothing like


(again

V6

in

Bihar)

In

focal

point

being

block

has access to most amenities of social well-being,

their condition and functioning notwithstanding.

The position of

other Bihar villages is relatively more desperate.

Sample Design
As

mentioned

in

the

preceding

section,

the

urban

industrial town of Khanna was chosen from Punjab, and, Buxar from
Bihar.
distances
selected

Eight
from

villages
each

located

of these

unidirectionally,
focal

towns,

were

made

varying

purposively

on the Khanna-Malerkotla road in district Ludhiana

on the Buxar-Itarhi-Unwans road in Bhojpur district.


was

at

to

include only those villages in the

two

and

An attempt
scenarios

Villagewise Availability of Social and

~thor

Table 2.10
N1unities in

the

Sample Villages of Punjab and Bihar.

Sl- Social and Other Amenities State


V1

V2

V3

V4

V5

V6

VB

V7

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~---

Distance (Kms. l From the Attached/Nearest


1. Primary School

0.00

o.uo

0.00
0.00

o.oo
o.oo

0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00

o.oo
0.50

2.00
2.00

2.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

3.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

1.00
3.00

2,00
o.oo

2.00
2.00

2.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

3.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

o.oo
o.oo

3.00

o.oo

2.00
0.00

2.00
2.00

2.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

3.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

0.00
3.00

2.00
o.oo

2.00
2.00

3.00
3.00

5.00
4.00

4.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

3.00
4.00

2.00
0.00

2.00
2.00

2.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

3.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

3.00
3.00

2.00
0.00

3.00
2.00

2.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

4.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

t 0.00
o.oo

3,00
3.00

5.00,
o.oo

2.00
2.00

3.00
3.00

5.00
4.00

4.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

3.00
4.00

5.od

2.00
2.00

2.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

4.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

3.00
3.00

2.00
o.oo

2.00
2.00

3.00
3.00

5.00
4.00

4.00
7.00

3.00
10.00

o.oo
11.00

1.oo*
15.00

2.00
18.00

18.00
71.00

19.00
72.00

21.00
73.00

24.00
76.00

25.00
79.00

28.00
80.00

31.00
84.00

33.00
87.00

2.00
2.00

3.00
3.00

5.00
4.00

4.00
7.00

3.00
10.00

0.00
11.00

3.00
15.00

5.00
18.00

3.00
1.00

2.00
0.00

0.00
1.00

4.00
4.00

_'f.oo

3.00

0.00
0.00

3.00
0.00

5.00
0.00

3.00
5.00

2.00
4.00

0.00
3.00

4.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

0.00
4.00

0.00
0.00

2.00
2.00

3.00
3.00

4.00
4.00

4.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

2.00
4.00

2.00
7.00

0.00
2.00

1.00
3.00

3.00
4.00

2.00
7.00

1.00
10.00

1.00
11.00

4.00
15.00

5.00
18.00

1.00
2.00

0.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

3.00
7.00

3.00
10.00

0.00
11.00

0.00
15.00

2.00
18.00

2.00
2.00

3.00
3.00

0.00
4.00

3.00
4.00

3.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

3.00
4.00

2.00
7.00

BHR

2.00
2.00

3.00
3.00

5.00
4.00

8.00
7.00

9.00
10.00

12.00
11.00

15.00
15.00

17.00
18.00

PJB

10.1JO

9.00

7.00

4.00

3.00

0.00

3.00

5.00

Yen
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
Yes

Yes
No

Yes
Yes

HP,W
W,HP

IIP,W

BHR

W,HP

HP,W
W,HP

HP,W
W,HP

HP,W
W,HP

HP,W
W,HP

HP,W
W,HP

HP,W
W,HP

PJB

No

No

No

No

No

PJB
BHR

3. Public/Private Library

PJB
BHR

4. General Hospital/Health Centre

PJB
BHR

5. Veterinary Hospital

PJB
BHR

6. Banking Facilities

PJB
BHR

7. Co-operative Society/Bank

PJB
BHR

8. Facilities for Agricultural

Marketing.

PJB
BHR.

9. Fertilizer Depot

PJB
BHR

10.Repair Shop for Agricultural


Irrplel!Ents
11.Soil Testing Laboratory

PJB
BHR

PJB
BHR

12.Milk Collection Centre/Dairy

PJB
BHR

13.Governl!Ent 'Fair Price Shop/


Rat ion Depot

BHR

14.Post Office

PJB

PJB

BHR

15.Electricity Office

PJB
BHR

16. Petrol Purrp

PJB
BHR

17.Telephone Facilities

PJB
BHR

lB.Wine Shop

PJB
BHR

19.Recreational

Facilit~s

ZO.Focal Point Village

..:_

0.00
1.00

PJB
BHR

2. High School

11

10

PJB

o.oo
0.00

7.00

BHR

21.Electrification

PJB
BHR

22.Drinking Water Facilities


23.Existence of Village
Industries

PJB

BHR

No

4 Iron
6 Steel
Mills
No

No

1 Sewing
IIBChine

No

No

No

2 Rice
No
Sheilers

Spare
Parts
Factory
No

-------------------------~---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------NOIE
1. PJB = Punjab. 2. BHR = Bihar. 3 HP =Hand Purrp. 4 W =Wells

In Punjab. these facilities are located on the Khanna- Malerkotla Road which is about
1 Km. from the Nasrali Village (V7).

57
which were,

as far as possible, at comparable distances from the

respective focal

towns of Khanna and Buxar.

The distance of the focal town has been taken from


habitations
outer

of

the respective sample villages instead of

geographical

proximity

frontiers.

Consequently,

the

also includes the distance of the link

the
their

rural-urban
road

between

the main road and the village habitation.

Selection of Households
After
enumeration
This

of

ensured,

revenue

selecting

complete

all households in the 16 villages was

prepared.

inter

the

alia, a

records as well.

sample

villages,

close look at the

village

We had a total of 3642 households

the two sets of villages (2041 households in the Punjab


and 1601 in the Bihar vlllages).
rural

level
in

villages

To identify the non-cultivating

labour households from amongst the total rural households,

"activity criterion" was applied for every working male member of


these 3642 households.
stage

"Income criterion"

of classifying the households into PALH and

According
deri~ed

to "activity criterion,

PNLH

the

groups.

only those households

which

a major part of their total family income from any

of wage employment were chosen.


as

came in only at

On the contrary, such households

were deriving a major part of their total family income

self-cultivation
secondary

or

tenancy cultivation or

and tertiary activities,

purview of the present study.

form

self-employment

had to be excluded from

from
in
the

58
As a result of the above exercise,
cultivating

rural

labour

households

a total of 657 non-

emerged

in

villages of the Punjab and 459 in those of Bihar.


such

households each from Punjab and Bihar.

the

sample

We chose

300

The choice of

the

number of households from each of the sample villages was made on


the

basis of proportionate probability sampling

other

words

the

number

technique.

of sample households

was

roughly

In
in

proportion to their total number in each sample village.


After

determining

the

number of

selected from each sample village,


was

the

the

households
that

total
with

very

sample

number

the

be

household

An interval was found for the selection

subsequent sample households in each sample

dividing

to

Tippett's Random Number Table

made use of for the selection of the first sample

in each sample village.


of

households

of

non-cultivating

village

rural

labour

number of households to be selected

village.

The

subsequent

households

selected by adding the chosen interval to the random

by

start,

from
were
and

so on.
In the case of migrant agricultural labourers,
system

was

lottery

adopted and the sample was roughly 25.0 per cent

of

the total number of migrants in each group in the sample villages


of Punjab.
Data Collection Method

The
three

data for the study were gathered with the help

schedules:

Viliage Schedule,

Resident

Labour

of

Household

59
Schedule

and Migrant Labour Schedule.

The Village schedule was

framed for collecting the overall information about the location.


land utilisation and other socio-economic characteristics of
sample

villages.

information

household

on employment.

socio-economic
households.

The

and

schedule

sought

the

detailed

income and consumption as also other

demographic

features

of

the

selected

The schedule on the migrant agricultural labour also

contained various socio-economic questions besides other


regarding migration itself.

In both the states.

details

a pilot survey

covering

24 schedules was undertaken for pretesting the adequacy

and

relevance of the questionnaire.

the

This

pretesting

quite fruitful in as much as some duplication and some


became

obvious.

questionnaire
covering

Incorporating

all these

changes.

was

omissions
the

was canvassed through a personal interview

final
method

300 non-cultivating rural labour households from either

state.

and

another

Punjab

villages.

150 migrant agricultural labourers


The

reference

agricultural year 1980-81.

period of the

The data were gathered

study

in

the

is

the

between April

25, 1981 to July 24,1981 from Punjab and between July 27. 1981 to
Oct 10. 1981 from Bihar.
Categorisation of Sample Households

employed

As

mentioned

for

classifying

categories.

earlier.

''income-criterion"

the sample households

The households deriving

annual income from agricultural


as

the

in

two

was
broad

a major part of their total

wage employment were

designated

predominantly agricultural labour households (or PALH

group)

6o
and

others as 'predominantly non-agricultural labour households'

(or

PNLH

group).

The

been

carried

however,

analysis of
out

consumption

without

pattern

adhering

has,

to

this

classification.
Table

2.11

provides

villagewise break-up

households in Punjab and Bihar.


provide

similar

information

of

sample

Rows 10 to 12 in the said Table


for

the

labourers in the study area of Punjab.

migrant

agricultural

In particular, a perusal

of this Table, brings out clearly the contrast between Punjab and
Bihar

in

terms of the classification of the

into PALH and PNLH

groups.

For example,

sample

households

in Punjab, about 54.0

per cent (163 out of 300 ) of the sample households belong to the
PALH

group

while

predominantly

46.0

per cent of

them

draw

from non-agricultural sources of

their

incomes

employment.

In

sharp contrast, as ~igh as 84.0 per cent of the sample households


in Bihar depend primarily on agricultural employment as the major
source of their income;

non-agricultural activities are the main

source of earnings only to 16.0 per cent of them.

A village-to-

village comparison between Punjab and Bihar further confirms that


higher

proportion

of sample households are

seeking

employment

through non-farm activities in the former than in the latter.


is

interesting

focal

town,

dependence
Punjab,

on

households,
of

income

to note that beyond a certain distance from


the

nearly
the

labour

households

completely on
other

hand,

in

Bihar

agricultural

irrespective

of

extend

the
their

employment.
the

It

In

number

of

non-farm employment is available as the major source


even in the extremely remote villages from the

focal

Table 2.11
Overall and Villagewise Break-up of Sample Households In Punjab and Bihar

st.

v
Household Description

No.
1
1.

Total Households.

State
3

PJB

V1

V2

V3

V4

V5

V6

V7

V8

10

11

12

BHR

109
59

267
146

516
129

69
69

145
103

463
695

315
122

157
278

2041
1601

102
56

170
40

16
32

50
23

138
130

76
58

58
80

657
459

2.

Total Non-cultivating Rural


Labour Households

PJB
BHR

47
40

3.

2 as Percentage to 1 Above

PJB
BHR

43.12
67.80

38.20
38.36

32.95
31.01

23.19
46.38

34.48
22.33

29.31
18.71

24.13
47.54

36.94
28.78

4.

Number of Sample Households

PJB

21
26

47
37

78
26

7
21

23
15

63
85

35
38

26
52

BHR

44.68
65.00

46.08
67.07

45.88
65.00

43.75
65.63

46.00
65.2

45.65
65.39

46.05
65.52

44.83
65.00

3
21

11
14

45
76

33
38

25
52

47.83
93.33

71.43
89.41

12
1

18

57.14

52.17
6.67

28.57
10.59

BHR

5.

4 as Percentage to 2 Above

All
Villages

PJB

32.19
28.71
300
300
45.66
65.36

6.

Predominantly Agricultural
Labour Households(PALH)

PJB
BHR

4
15

13
12

29
24

7.

6 as Percentage to 4 Above

PJB
BHR

19.05
57.69

27.66
32.43

37.18
92.31

8.

Predominantly Non-agricultural Labour Households (PNLH)

PJB
BHR

17
11

34
25

49
2

9.

8 as Percentage to 4 Above

PJB
BHR

80.95
42.31

72.34
67.57

62.82
7.69

10

Total Number of Migrants

PJB

52

75

142

37

44

108

115

37

610

11.

Migrants in the Sample(No.)

PJB

12

20

35

10

27

28

150

12

11 as Percentag-to 10 Above

PJB

23.08

26.67

24.65

22.73

25.00

24.35

42.86
100.00
4

24.32

94.29
100.00

96.15
100.00

5.71

3.85

24.32

163
252
54.33
84.00
137
48
45.67
16.00

24.59

62
town.

It

is thus obvious that the fast growing agriculture

Punjab has generated many non-farm avenues of employment,


in

the

rural and partly in the urban areas,

and

of

partly

very

high

proportion of the rural labour housholds is getting more and more


involved in such activities.
rural

labour

Such avenues are opening up for the

households of Bihar but only

overwhelming

majority

of them,

for

marginally;

the dependence on

an

agricultural

wage employment continues to be fairly high.

Introductory Information on the


It

might

be

useful

Sample Households
to

give

information about the sample households.

some

introductory

In this regard,

a few

broad characteristics of such households are shown in Table 2.12.


It

is

important to note that the size of

number

the

family

(average

of members) as well as the average number of earners

per

family .are almost the same between the two states as also between
each

pair

of nearly equally distanced villages from

town.

Again,

and/or

children,

recorded

as

significant

the
as

earning

the

focal

percentage of families having earning

women

also
women

the

percentage

and /or

of

children

family
do

members

not

display

variations either between the two states or

between

pair of equally distanced (from the focal

This

indicates that seemingly the broad composition of the

cultivating

town)

villages 6 .

each

non-

rural labour households from both the study areas is

nearly the same.7.

Hereafter,
the expression
'equally
distanced',
'more
distanced
'less distanced'villages etc.
would refer
to
distance from the chosen focal town

Table 2.1.2

Introductory Informa-tion on the Samples Households in Punjab and Bihar

v
Sr.
No.

Item

All

State

PAlli

PNLH

Vill-

V1

V2

V3

V4

V5

V6

V7

V8

ages

10

11

12

13

14

300
300

163
252

137
48

1. Number of Sample Households

PJB
BHR

2. Average Family Size.

PJB
BHR

5.81
5.81

5.04
5.54

5.40
5.62

6.57
5.05

6.61
6.13

5.46
5.86

5.66
5.82

5.27
5.65

5.52
5.71

5.72
5.65

5.28
6.04

PJB
BHR

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00

3. Percentage of Families Having:


(a) Earning Men.

21
26

47
37

78
26

7
21

23
15

63
85

35
38

26
52

(b)

Earning Women

PJB
BHR

80.95
61.54

61.70
75.68

76.92
80.77

85.71
85.71

78.26
100.00

85.71
85.88

97.14
92.11

88.46
88.46

80.33
84.00

88.96
89.68

70.07
54.17

(c)

Earning Children

PJB
BHR

4.76
11.54

6.38
5.41

6.41
7.69

14.29
14.29

17.39
26.67

12.70
10.59

14.29
13.16

11.54

10.00
9.33

14.11
9.52

5.11
8.33

PJB
BHR

26.23
25.83

26.58
27.25

26.84
30.10

26.09
20.80

23.68
29.35

26.74
26.46

25.76
26.65

27.74
24.76

26.37
26.44

27.28
26.37

25.39
26.48

4. Percentage of Family Members


Recorded As
(a) Earning Men.
(b)

Earning Women

PJB
BHR

15.57
13.88

13.08
15.57

16.63
19.85

17.39
18.85

18.42
20.71

19.19
19.94

22.73
19.95

20.44
19.71

17.80
18.83

19.91
20.31

15.27
11.39

(c)

Earning Children

PJB
BHR

0.82
1.99

1.69
0.98

1.19
1.37

2.17
2.83

3.29
5.43

2.62
2.01

3.03
2.26

2.19

2.05
1. 75

2.89
1.82

0.96
1.38

PJB

2.23
2.16

1. 88
2.19

2 .1. 5

2.64
1. 83

2.59
2.92

2.32
2.49

2.51
2.49

2.33
2.24

2.25
2.36

2.49
2.40

1. 96

2.57

5. Average Nurnber of Earners


Per Family.

BHR

2.16

64
Inspite
important

to

of such apparent similarities, it is, however,

note

that within each of the two states of Punjab

and Bihar, the percentage of families having earning women and/or


children,
earning

as

also

women

the percentage of family members recorded as

and/or children tends to increase as we move away

from the focal town into the interior of the countryside. Bearing
in mind the fact that the levels of poverty are relatively higher
in the remote villages than in the nearby villages from the urban
focal town, it can be safely argued that the poor families of the
remote

areas

children.

have

larger

number

of

working

women and/or

Further, assuming that the PALH group is comparatively

poorer than the PNLH group, the corresponding high percentages of


women and/or children for the former lend further substace to the
above view.
Assets and Liabilities of Rural Labour Households

Assets

and

liabilities of rural labour households are

other importatnt aspects which convey very meaningful information


about
of

their economic life.


assets

households
useful

and
in

We may, therefore, compare the value

liabilities

the

information

two
in

study
this

as

reported

areas.
regard.

by

our

respondent

Table 2.13 provides very


A

perusal of this Table

reveals

that almost in every aspect of economic life, whether it

relates

to

the

realm

of

production

or

home

consumption or

standard of living, one discovers that every village in Punjab is


far

ahead

compared

with

its

counterpart

in

Bihar.

The

Table 2.13 Pattern of Assets and Liabialities of Rural Labour Households -in Punjab and Eihar
<Mean Value in Rs.l

State

Sl.

No.
\}j

V2

V4

l.

V3

V7

!1.-.
'iO

10

11

dit.

Hver a~e

!2

15

i4

1 ...:

'---------------------------1------------.---------~---------t---------~---------~---------~--------*--------~----------~----------~----------*-------------#-----

Productive Assets
1.

Land

PJB

BHR

c:,.., ;-;t
.J..;..-::..;

603.85

437.84

(18.38)

(!2.1\J)

52.67

54.91

(e.62J

(~.70)

81.92
(UJ7i

11. 0~

'0
UH~
!to&.~""

Hi. 30l
399. !8

7\3)
331. i6

(11.331
857.80

{2.28}
973.38

184. 14

978.24

1698.33
("''i
LL 10)
666.35
(24.55)
!54.87

1641.43
(21. 12i

2857. 17
(33.48)
988.00

2011.67
(27.39}
767.e)

1626.0~

!34. 56i
p.-.
lwi 19

(25. 77i
162.25

1780.26
(23, 1!)

1733~57

55.77
{2.05}

4fj3.53

652.:.8

13.6\!l

(22.4~'}

C2.311

23c08
(t l5)

251 B3
(1~.10!

\8.45)

c:-::
r..'~l

34. 14
(1. 12j
l5.G3
d1. 54)
459.81

t~~.

221 63

597.92

di
2. Implements anj

?JB

Machi nerv (Foddeor


cutter, Sic(,le. Spade
Band, Loudspeaker,

BHR

etc. i

di

3. livestock, Poultry,

PJB

(0.27l
485.22

1169.57

di

1674.32
(19.69)
381.08
( 11.60)
339.36

PJB

!727 19

1224.49

Piqqery, e?tc.

BHR

A. Total Productive
A;.set s (1+2+3)

9.0~

\20.31)

( 14.87l
919. 92
(25. 43)
?~

~'

14

(15. 57l

(~.

~2.

85.87

65.3B

{1 19)

( i .@1)

(B. 8~'}

9.62

;, jJf).
C.t.-1.!

14

416.67
( 14. 37}
'iQ"7

QP.

.L,,.J.i"'t

(22. 31)

2943.04
~34.49i

2~1.20

!7

... !

(0.85)

23.@1

(3.00)
18.66

!~. 77)

(~.

!0. 37)

8i)

.tc-,
.~.:..

617. 92
j '1'i
.o
. ..~..

12

1756.43

(24.23)

\26.611)

!23.32)

577.03

537 . 85
(26. 7Bl

666.46
(23.83)

21~.8S'

16~.. 55

(25.30)
181. 79

2\:177.05 i827.20 i 725.38


(28. 28) !27 .22) jr,.,.
.:..J 45!

1840.58
\24.44)

72

i3.64

83r46
(1. ~6}
1! . 81

~0ab2}

(0.32)

(1. 17!

441c69

1952.55
(27. 0!i
646. 17
(24.~3)

,.,

~1:''}7

J..JJ..,;

(i 9.

10

-21.99

25)

77i. S6
(21. 1!i

n. ~.s

2k137. 26

i606.56

(28.24)

-24.49

606.69

LI.'L l l

,..,n=--,

-1.49

(20.31)

-21.14

BHR
di

:993.92
(3iL25l
73.iB

1368.76
!37.84)

4197.61
(49,35)
1765.38
(53,73)
137.77

4!70.21
(53.04)
!748.65
(48.34i
138.48

3817.53
14S.B:d
1453.85
(53.56)
162.58

510.24

518.51

493.4e

-10.5 4

741.12 1078.67
!27.30) !37.19)
!42.21
Hi.71

961.49

!95.49

1187.16 648.32 568.35


!4iil.04i (28.42i !28.3kll
74.96 1Bi.84 2il3.58

3835.71
(49.36i
1371.43
(47.28)
179.69

3693.48
(43.28i
1486.67
(49.21i
!62.57

3457 . 94 3270.01 3~59.62


t47.0S'i 148. 72) i48.67i
1398.82 1247.37 1!59.62
(47.18i \54.69) 157. 74)
147.~@
162.15 163.85

3684.78
(48. 77)
1416.33
i50.78i

487.86

476.29

996.0~

\34.84)

(34,47)

91.43,

881.26
(33.601
13!.18

1382.69

56.9r.

!37. 76)

16.19

Household Assets
4.

PJB

F:esidential
Accor:H'lodati en

!!H~:

di

5.

Need Based Assets

PJB

(6.@0i

\Utensils, Cot5,

Bedding, Cnarkha
etc.

BHR

187.50
. (5. 7i J

di

6. Status Based

Asset~

PJB

WatchiClock , F~n

SHR

7. Sold and Jewellery

Financial ClaliiiS

t5.5Bi

452.06
!6.16)

179.42

145.48

!47.3!

137 .12

(6.6li

(5.021

(5.!5)

(4.63)

405.14
(6.1HI

141.71

391.15
!6.22i

469.22

438.25

506.e6
(6.401

i6.231

!6 .08 )

143.87
!5.48)

184.79

2~4.62

173.86

235.35

223.15

229 .68

185.89

218.81

587.~2

530.58

511.43

489.35

438 . 41
(5. 971

m.s6
(5_.66)

366.1~

48~.05

22.45

26.7 !

17.5~

(0. ?b)

li.l7)

(0.87l

{7 . 4ii

!~52.13

PJB

1197.62

1152.1J

240.38

(14.65)
212.16

;(7.32i

(5.86)

(t:. 91)

12.86
2~L0~
80 . i7
t2.98l
(0.44i
(~.7CI
556.98 3876.9! 2346.75
961.54
(12.51)

24il.38
(8.861

767.39

19. 28)

19. 56)
!80.76

794.44
ue.B2i
193.53
!6.53)
310.50

i64.65
(1. 931

123 .60
(1. 68)

~98.22

443.05

30~.01

25~.44

278.81.

21~.60

149.35
( 1. 94)

260.00

(2.68)

.... "r""!
~/ ._\ .,

..,.,.

.J.:.

(6.!i)

!5.821

1852.83 1322.16 1992.29

942.86
( 12.13}
269. 0:: .

(8. 9S'l

(6.22)

122.69

1754.17
!47. 91)
125.28

175.0!

di

PJB

\6 .28 1

162.16

i351.98
\51 .54 1
154.27

178.04

( 1. 33)
1116.87

BHF:

!6 .42 i

3951.B2
149. 97)

150.42
(5.39)
2! 1. 94

(5.16)

i:'il.
..a . .J,

(14.~8)

B. Cash and Other

186.49

.:-t

. (!.57)

Se;f!na machine.

Furniture, etc. i

sn.a1
. (6. 98)

IRadio/Trans1ster,

(6.59)

3437.73

754.29 676.92
1!!.241 m.m
196.05 117.31
(8.601 15.84)
284.74 477.04
75. i 7

6Ul0

(1.12)

(!.eli

(6.49!
32. fj~
(l.15i

142Uil
908.67
112.07i
2k10,33

566.20

(5.88;

(7 16 )

27.69
(!. 06!
1431.96

55.21
( 1. 51 }
925.54

7t8. 63
( !lil. 6/i
1S'6, 23

1074.e9
(13. 58)

353.59

292.21

150.56

10UJ5

203.53

12.00)

{7.48}

75

l" l7

33 .4 7

221. E:8
16.e6l
384.09

(7 .18 )

2~' .

Ci\ :i L.
',. 1

( 1.47i

..1

B. Total Household

BHR

47.ll0

di

(1. 43i
493.21

PJB

(4+5+6+7+8)

A~.set:.

BHR

Tdal Assets

PJB

97Ui4

6638.47
(84.43}
(79. 69)
22~'1.81
2248. 78

5903.45
(76.831
1973.46

6037.86
(77.69)
1821.76

5590.96
(65.5!)

\62. 16)
1~5. 20

m.iil!i

(62.81 )
231.43

6i78. 10

19'1. 14

1862.67
,,
{65. j.b:
200. 16

25.58

2~.79

86)
383. jq

(C. 9!)
261.57

(~.

28.49
(1. 02i

22.79
(L 1.0::'.1,._1/

193.99

4"jQ iJ.7

22.00

62.60

(0.84)
382.05

( 1. 7i)
225. 13

5266.46 4884.46 4560.85


(71. il.J ~72.78) (72. 55)
1777.49 1632.63 1439.90
(59. 96) \71 .58) (7!. 701
196.29 m. 18 216.75

5690.01
{75.561

(7i. 76.)

!79.o9)

1827.67
{65.53)
211. 33

1741.77
(66. 40)
197 16

2278.65
{62.24)
176,55

7343.51 6711. 66 6286.23


(100.001 \llil~. 00) !10Ul0i
2964.66 2280. 9~1 2008.25
\10~.00) i Hill. e0J m~.1iBJ

7530~57

7213. i3
(i00.00}
2623.@3

7908.26

tililtU~l

(100. DO)

t:"j"T'\ Q7
j WIW'

.J.

630i. ~~

!84.55

21. "'<t:'
iJ
3l1.82

7' .64

7862.96

7683.71

7771.43

8534.00

\100. lillill

(!BU'llill

(100.l:l0l

(100.0~)

3285.73

3617.54

2714.58

2900.43

(10\J.Iil(:))

(10Ul0i

(1011,00)

(Jiili:Ullill

2858.67
(!00.00)

di

!58.86

117.36

liP
~,),IU.'

"c

167.94

1
"\
QP
,~,..J~

147

f'i.!

194.25

213.02

169.99

174. OJ

j " ' .-.q


.J ' 7'

PJB
BHF:

468.89
616. 42
-23.93

204.55
.,. .-, 14
-36.31

627.73

733.85
305.@0
!4i:l.tl

351. 96

633e !6

395.~~

898.87

-'

1 '

705.58
446.24

-;;~. j

dP

529. 13
436. 19

31S'. 21il

51~. '0
I'

-t4 0.9

-31. 09

r;-,

.-,r;

383.38
-1t. 74

87.94
204.88
-57.08

!,8. 59
37.36
3.29

di

E. Debt Pavments r.:arle


during !980-81

tqc ..,.:-

,. ,J, I ..J

(0.79)

( 100. ~0)

BHR

(On 3iH6-i 98! i

295.57

t'Pj

i.J... ,.)

8505.29

!A + EO

D. Trotal Li abi ' i ties

15.33
(0.54)

1~32.90

c.

Qt:'

19.04
(0.70)
684.40

(69 75)

di

53.24
(1. 47i

PJB
BHR
di

,\~1'

392.88
59.78
r;,.., ,,,-.
Ji.. iJ'f

q;[1 qr.

25.87

58.26

38.33
!37.39

'~
..P'
..;:;.'t.,;

-10.59

. c ..

-81. !8

;,i,

it:"

,_i.;;.;;.,,J

4!. 10
1!7 .86
-65. 1'7~

!ililiUiili
2789. 16
( 100. 00)

I I

433.2e
-8.82

520.87
72.57

26.43

125.79

52.46

63.25

92.41

141. 0t

jt~t.. C''')
,o.'iiwoJL

!l.J..dJ

-7!. 40

-10.83

-50.75

-44.47

'"H
~.l

cr,
.JO.

7i

.:'i

.,

~:

12

017'

(1~0.~0)

3661.:.3

39 .64
67 ::
l.J
-41 .49

.~:'7

.58

t.

-37

~:3

-40.5i

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~--

NOTE:
5.

PJBi -BHF:i
PNLHi -PAL Hi
1 PJB =Punjab; 2 BHR = Bihar: 3 di = ---------- : dit = -----------BHRi
PALHi

i is the value of ith item. 6.

Fipures in the parenthesfs are the percentage of the total value of assets.

68
differential

between Punjab and Bihar needs to be underlined, in

particular,

with

respect

productive

assets,

and

status

based

Further,
over

assets,

PALH

their

households
of

poultry among the

accommodation, need and/or

etc. among the household assets category.

in Bihar in every respect and from all

Finally, the higher level of liabilities of Punjab


than those of Bihar are perhaps going in the building
assets,

therefore,

agricultural
urban

and

and PNLH groups of Punjab show marked superiority

productive

can,

livestock

residential

counterparts.

standpoints.

to

ties

be

especially in livestock and poultry.

It

safely argued that areas experiencing rapid

transformation

on

the one hand, and strong

r~ral

on the other, are bound to experience the 'trickling

down' of development gains even in the matter of assets formation


by

those

who

hierarchy.

are

at

the

lower

ladder of the socio-economic

On the other hand, such a phenomenon has yet to occur

on any marked scale, in Bihar.


Occupational Diversification in Punjab and Bihar

An important outcome of the Green Revolution phenomenon


has

been the rising occupational diversification in rural India.

While

preponderant majority of our sample households reported

occupational

diversification

from

farm

to non-farm avenues of

employment, there were some who reported the other way round.
expected,
degree

As

the occupational diversification has witnessed varying


of

institutional,

change

in

social,

different

areas

economic,

depending

upon

technological

the
and

69

infra-structural differences.
synoptic

view

responsible
which

of

the

for

in

degree,

inception

occupational

represent

activities

It is, therefore, useful to have a

contrasting

as

also the factors

diversification in the two areas


situations.

broad idea of the

which rural labour households are engaged is also

expected to pave the way for a meaningful analysis of employmentincome-consumption

nexus

in the comparative framework, which we

propose to take up later in the subsequent chapters.


Tables

2.14

through

present

2.16

the

detailed

information on various aspects of occupational diversification in


Punjab

and

Bihar.

occupational
65.0

per

cent).
of

These

diversification

is

show

much

that

the

degree

of

higher in Punjab (nearly

cent of our sample) compared with Bihar (only 22.0 per

This implies that the percentage of households opting out

agriculture

since

the

Punjab compared with Bihar.


has

Tables,

enabled

large

mid

sixties has been much higher in

The fast expanding economy of Punjab

number

of

these households to move into

non-farm occupations, partly in rural areas themselves and partly


in

urban-industrial

diversification
in

Punjab.

set

into

remains

of

the

occupational

In other words, the process of Green Revolution has

consequently

diversity

Most

has occurred in the wake of the Green Revolution

motion

households

centres.

chain

enhanced
to

of

get

of related economic activities, and,

the

employment

prospects
from

for

the

rural

labour

more diverse sources.

The

employment opportunities faced by Bihar households

severely

restricted.

And

finally,

the

occupational

Table 2.19Incidence of Villagewise and Overall Occupational Diversification in Punjab and Bihar.

No.

Sl.
Village/s

------------------------------------Sample
Households
4 as
Households Reporting
Percentage
(No.)
Diversifito 3
cation (No.)

1.

V1

21

2.

V2

3.

---------------------------------7 as
Sample
Households
Percentage
Households Reporting
to 6
(No.)
Diversification (No.)

21

100.00

26

12

46.15

47

40

85.11

37

26

70.27

V3

78

53

67.95

26

11.54

4.

V4

42.86

21

0.00

5.

V5

23

17

73.91

15

40.00

6.

V6

63

34

53.97

85

11

12.94

7.

V7

35

16

45.71

38

-5

13.16

8.

VB

26

12

46.15

52

5.77

All

300

196

65.33

300

66

22.00

"-...J
0

71

Table 2.15
Inception of Occupational Diversification in Punjab and Bihar

SL
No.

Period

Number of Households Reporting


Occupational Diversification
PJBi

1.
] 2.

1960-61

1960-61

1965-66

tial(di~)

BHRi

Before

differen

25
(8.33)

14
(4.67)

78.57

18
(6.00)

5.
(1.67)

260.00

3.

1965-66

1970-71

61
(20.33)

21
( 7. 00)

190.48

4.

1970-71

1975-76

61
(20.34)

15
( 5. 00)

306.67

5.

1975-76

1980-81

31
(10.33)

11
(3.66)

181.82

6.

All

196
(65.33)

66
(22.00)

196.97

----------------------------------------------------------------PJBi-BHRi
1.

PJB

Punjab.

2.

BHR

Bihar

3.

di

= ---------

BHRi

4.

i is the number of households in each period.

5.

Figures
in the parentheses represent the percentges of
total sample.

the

72
Table

2.16

Reasons for Occupational Diversification in Punjab and Bihar .

Sl.

Reason Type

1.

Economic

2.

Punjab

Bihar

140
(46.67)

38
(12.67)

Social

23
(7.67)

8
(2.67)

3.

Institutional

10
(3.33)

10
(3.33)

4.

Others

23
(7.66)

10
(3.33)

196
(65.33)

66
(22.00)

All
NOTE: 1

Economic reasons include low wage rate,


long working
hours,
problem
of
getting
regular
employment,
introduction and popularity of new/cheep substitutes,
high cost of raw materials,
low income in case of sole
dependence on traditional services, ~ow profit/income
or loss in previous family occupation etc.
cover quarrel
disliking for

with employer, below


ancestral occupation,

Social reasons
social status,
marriage, etc.

3.

Institutional
reasons include disturbances by the
Government,
redemption from landlord's debt, nonavailability of cultivable land, non-availability of
common grazing land and lack of capital for purchasing
livestock or other productive asse~a.

4.

Other reasons include physical problem like accident


with thresher/week eye sight, tough nature of the work,
old age, father's death, parents did not teach the
ancestral
occupation,
lockout
in
the
factory,
retirement from service,
lack of means of transport,
dacoity, litigation and illiteracy,~.

73

diversification has mainly o8curred due to economic factors.

The

other factors have played only a secondary role.


Before

we

conclude,

it

might be in order

to have a

broad view of the type of activities in which the non-cultivating


rural
a

labour households are engaged in both the study areas.

consequence

rural-urban
be

of

the rural economic transformation and growing

liknages,

diversified

As

in

the avenues of gainful employment seem to

both

the study areas, landless rural labour

households are earning a part of their income by working in small


industries and workshops in the focal town or in nearby villages.
Some

member~

farm

as

well

members
the

of

focal

self

of such households are engaged in various types of


as

non-farm

activities.

Further, some working

such households also work as construction workers in


towns

employed

of the respective states.

labour

annual

household income also accrues from dairying/poultry, etc.

involvement
earning

wheat

livestock.

general
child

quite

economic

labour

common

deprivation

the

in different types of

both

in Punjab and Bihar

yet the school going children often form an integral

the labour force, particularly in peak seasons, such as

harvesting,

Besides,

is

and

For some households, a part of

Although education consciousness is growing among such

households,
of

their

women

activities

villages.

part

of

by

etc.

as barber's work, shoe-

and

driven

repair,

such

repair

Further,

cycle

activities

Some are engaged in

they

are

rice

transplantation

engaged

to

look

and

after

harvesting,

etc.

the grazing of the

74

Thus,

it is obvious from above discussion that members

of such households work in all types of earning activities in and


out of the village.

Depending upon the locational advantage of a

particular village, non-farm activities are becoming increasingly


important

sources of their employment, as farm activities in and

around the village.


Limitations

It

would

be

rather

presumptuous

present study is free from all limitations.


of

the

visit

study
survey

households

is

that

As
do

is

well

the

queries

therefore,
on
are

the

the

the

completely

the

rural

labour

not maintain any record of their total

basis

of

They invariably respond

their

memory.

One cannot,

rule out the possibility of memory lapses

part of the respondents, especially because most of them

devoid

that

on

One major limitation

known,

yearly employment income or consumption.


to

claim that the

the data were acquired through a single

method.

generally

to

of even elementary education.

Nevertheless, we hope

error margin created by such memory biases is not big,

particularly

because

questionnaire

to

many cross-checks were provided for in the

straighten

out

inconsistencies

and

mental

lethargies on the part of the respondents.


Further,
alone.

the

present

study is based on one year data

Consequentlyj the geheralisations attempted on the basis

of

the study need to be understood with due caution.

as

the

new

farm

technology

had

acquired

fair

Inasmuch
degree of

75

by

'maturity'

the

close of the seventies, the 1980-81 picture

should be highly meaningful, representing as it does, a regime of


stability

and

concreteness

as

regards

the

effects

of

technological changeover.
Moreover, the emerging interaction between the internal
dynamics

of the rural transformation and the growing rural urban

linkages on the
should
decade.
single
years

have

household economy of the rural labour households

assumed

a concrete shape after the lapse of a full

Accordingly, an analysis based on a more recent although


year

would

be more useful than the one for two or three

in the early or middle seventies.

We believe this to be a

big advantage.
The

conclusions

engaged in policy making.


in

devising

suitable

are

expected

to be helpful to those

Hopefully, these may help the planners

measures

to combat the problems of rural

unemployment, underemployment and poverty emerging from two parts


of Indian economy which have witnessed impressive growth in their
agriculture

and

yet

provide

their typical pecularities in the

matter of rural proletarinization.

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