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A Comparative Study of Patajalis ga
(Eight-Limb) Yoga and the Buddhas Noble
Eightfold Path&
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by
W.T. Soh
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2015
For free distribution!
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Contents
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List of Figures!
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28-32!
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Fig. 1: !
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Fig. 2: !
Fig. 3: !
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Fig. 5: !
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Fig. 7:!
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Fig. 9:!
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List of Figures:!
Fig 1: Chronology of some important teachers, texts and events in Yoga and Buddhism.
Fig. 3: The Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path.
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My investigation shows that both Yoga and Buddhism have roots in
non-Aryan traditions of asceticism and renunciation, which influenced the
philosophical evolution of Vedic Brahmanism. We can trace the ancient
roots of Yoga all the way back to the ecstatic and ascetic munis of the
Indus Valley civilization three thousand or so years ago (Fig. 1). As for the
Buddha, he was a Kshatriya prince-turned-wandering ascetic who, two
thousand five hundred years ago, discovered and taught a path to
liberation via the gnostic wisdom or insight gained through a very particular
path of concentration-and-mindfulness meditation. Many elements of preVedic and non-Vedic ascetic traditions, including Buddhism, were later
absorbed into Brahmanical philosophy, and can be seen reflected in the
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and in the six orthodox/Brahmanical
schools of Indian philosophy which includes Yoga. !
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Gautama Buddha happened to be the earliest great compiler as well
as innovator of Indic systems of meditation. He systematized pre-existing
methods of meditation and added key elements to form a highly
comprehensive and coherent path which is capable of leading meditators
unerringly to direct insight into the ultimate reality of their own body-mind,
and thence to liberation. Patajali who wrote the Yoga Stras some 500
years or more after the Buddhas death was also a great compiler, and we
find many similar descriptions of meditative methods and processes in the
early Buddhist Suttas and the Yoga Stras. The main difference between
the Yoga Stras and early Buddhism lies in notions of the soul and
supreme being, which the Yoga Stras uphold but which are refuted by the
Buddha. Also, whereas early Buddhist meditation makes specific use of
mindfulness to cultivate concentration and insight, mindfulness is not
specifically mentioned by Patajali.!
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These differences aside, the eight limbs of ga Yoga and the 8
factors of the Noble Eightfold Path are quite similar: they all deal with the
preparation for and entry into meditation. The ultimate goals of ga
Yoga and early Buddhist meditation also appear to be the same: they both
aim at the cessation of the modifications of the mind. Patajali even
mentions a nirbja or seedless samdhi5, which is equivalent to the
state of Nibbna. Supra-mundane states of consciousness, culminating in
Nibbna or the seedless samdhi, are achieved through the cultivation of
fixed concentration. While Patajali elaborated on how the power of fixed
concentration can be used to acquire various supernormal powers, the
Buddha focused mainly on how the power of fixed concentration can be
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responsible for notions like Karma, Sasra and Moka. They held diverse
views, some of which (like the Buddhas) were empirically based, but most
of which were highly speculative. The early Buddhist scriptures mention, for
example, the views of different ramaa teachers (see Fig. 4) who were
active during the Buddhas time, views that the Buddha refuted and
critiqued at length along with the views of Vedic Brahmanism.
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Gautama Buddha, who lived and taught during the 6th to 5th
centuries BCE, had himself joined the ranks of the wandering ascetics
when he renounced kingdom, home and caste to seek the path to
liberation. Before he independently discovered the path to Nibbna, he had
already mastered the highest meditation techniques of his time which he
learnt from two meditation teachers called Alara Kalama and Udaka
Ramaputta. From them, he learnt how to attain two formless
samdhis (states of concentration based on contemplation of immaterial
realms of nothingness and neither-perception-nor-non-perception)14.
However, he found that these meditative states, though highly refined, did
not confer liberation from the cycle of life, death and suffering, so he left to
seek the path to liberation on his own.
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After years of experimentation in the wilderness, including with
extreme asceticism, the Bodhisattva discovered a way to achieve states of
fixed concentration (which he called jhna") based on the mindfulness of
breath, body and sensation, which he then used as a basis for
contemplating the problem of Sasra (cyclic existence, transmigration),
the nature of mind-body phenomena, and the means of liberation. Through
this contemplation, he gained insight into the nature of phenomena as
impermanent, suffering, and not-self, as well as the cause of cyclic
existence and the way to end cyclic existence, which led him to Nibbna
(cessation). The enlightened Gautama, or Gautama Buddha, went on to
teach his method, which he summarized and codified into the
Doctrine (dhamma) of The 4 Noble Truths, and the Discipline (vinaya)
of the The Noble Eightfold Path (see Fig 4)15. !
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As a systematizer, codifier and innovator, Gautama Buddhas
contribution to Indic meditation and philosophy was immense. The teaching
of the Buddha incorporated many elements inherited from pre-existing
Brahmana and ramaa traditions, including rules of ethical and ascetic
discipline and the notions of karma, transmigration and liberation. Likewise,
the Buddhas meditation system incorporated elements that were already
known. However, the Buddha was not just an heir of pre-existing
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Fig. 5:
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I. Samdhipda&
Patajali began the Yoga Stras with a definition of Yoga as the cessation
of the modifications of the mind (yogacittavttiniroda). This definition is
strikingly similar to the doctrine and goal of early Buddhism. Nibbna, for
example, is translated as cessation, a state which is furthermore
described in the early Buddhist scriptures as sa-vedayita-nirodha,
namely, the extinction of perception & feelings. Since perception (sanna)
and feelings (vedana) are mental factors, i.e. modifications of mind,
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These calmness-and-concentration practices can also be found in the
early Buddhist Suttas. The Chinese version of the Kyagatsati Sutta
mentions, for example, meditation on the four postures and the states of
being asleep and awake, mindfulness of breathing, the conception of light,
the contemplation of impurities and the six elements, the contemplation of
the 9 stages of decomposition of the corpse, the 4 jhnas, and awareness
of daily activities, amongst other meditation topics34. The Muluposatha
Sutta mentions meditation on the qualities of Arhants (fully liberated beings)
and on the Devas35, and there is the mention, of course, of mindfulness of
subtle sensations and perceptions in the the Satipahna and
Mahasatipahna Sutta. !
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Patajali concluded this section with a discussion of savitark
samdhi (samdhi with deliberation), nirvitark samdhi (samdhi without
name and quality), and nirvicra samdhi that is seedless (nirbja).
Essentially, these describe increasingly subtle and refined states of mind as
one progresses in the practice of calmness, concentration and/or
mindfulness meditation. In early Buddhist meditation for example, the first
and second jhnas can be classified as states of savitark samdhi
(samdhi with deliberation), the third, fourth and immaterial jhnas can be
classified as states of nirvitark samdhi (samdhi without name and
quality), and Nibbna can be classified as a state of nirvicra/ nirbja
(seedless) samdhi36.
II. Sdhanapda&
Patajali begins the second chapter saying the practice of yoga comprises
tapas (acceptance of pain as purification), study of scriptures and surrender
to God, and that this can help to minimize obstacles and confer samdhi.
These verses reflect the ethos of Bhakti Yoga and also Vedanta, which go
back to the Upanishads and the Gita. The next verses which deal with
ignorance and right knowledge are, however, strongly redolent of Jna
Yoga, and reflect especially the wisdom paths of Buddhism and Skhya. !
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In verse II.3, for example, Patajali states that ignorance, egoism,
attachment, hatred, and clinging to bodily life are the 5 obstacles
(avidysmit rga dvebhinive kle). This verse calls to mind the 5
obstacles (ignorance, hatred, desire, sloth, restlessness) and 3 kleshas or
defilements (ignorance, attachment, aversion) in Buddhist doctrine. In
verse II.4, Patajali states that ignorance is the field for the others. We can
compare this to the Buddhist doctrine of Dependent Origination, in which
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ignorance is listed as the first link which leads to the chain of being and
becoming. !
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Patajali then goes on to define ignorance in verse II.5 as regarding
the impermanent as permanent, impure as pure, painful as pleasant and
not-self as self. Again, this is strikingly similar to Buddhist doctrine, which
sees all phenomena as possessing only 3 characteristics (Tilakhna),
namely, impermanence, suffering, and not-self. Indeed, the whole of
Buddhist meditative practice is to get direct insight into these 3
characteristics in ones own body-mind experiences, so as to see reality as
it really is and not, as Patajali puts it, the impermanent as permanent
painful as pleasant and not-self as self.!
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Patajali then talks about obstacles as root for and fruit of rebirth,
about pleasure and pain, merit and demerit, and about clinging, karma, and
rebirth. These notions all have origins in ramaa philosophy, and are a
part of Buddhist and Skhya doctrine. However, the notions of Purua,
Prakiti and Guas which Patajali discusses in verse II.12-25 come
exclusively from Skhya and are refuted in Buddhism.
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In verse II.26, Patajali states that uninterrupted discriminative
discernment is the key to the removal of ignorance. He mentions that the
perfection of wisdom has seven stages37 and that practice of the eight
limbs of yoga weakens obstacles and leads to clear discriminative
discernment. The remaining verses talk about each of the limbs in turn. In
the next section, I will compare the eight limbs of ga Yoga with the
factors of the Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path, which I further illustrate by
drawing upon early Buddhist texts on meditation such as the npnasati
Sutta38 and Mahasatipahna Sutta39.!
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III. Vibhtipda&
The last three limbs of dhran dhyna and samdhi are dealt with by
Patajali in section III, which begins by describing the process of going
from dhran into samdhi, which is essentially similar to the entry into
jhna (fixed or absorption concentrations) in early Buddhist meditation. !
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Patajali describes Dhran, usually translated as concentration, as
the binding of the mind to one object. Dharna actually refers to the state of
initial concentration where the mind attempts to stay with the object of
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monks who master the jhnas. For example, the Buddha praised six types
of higher knowledge called chalabi (see Fig. 9), and he encouraged
those who could do so to develop them as a form of mental mastery. As a
master of the jhnas, the Buddha himself possessed these powers.
However, he emphasized that it was vulgar to display these powers, and
likened monks who did so to women who display their private parts in the
marketplace. Though the Buddha taught the mastery of Jhnas and the
higher powers, these were always secondary to the ultimate goal of
Nibbna, which is obtained when one gains perfect insight into the
impermanence, suffering and not-self nature of all phenomena, leading the
mind to let go of all phenomena and to plunge into cessation. One of the
ways to attain Nibbna taught by the Buddha is called anuppubha-nirodha
(nine successive extinctions), and it involved first mastering and then giving
up (in succession) the 4 rupa (form) jhnas, followed by the 4 arupa
(formless) jhnas, whereupon the mind plunges into cessation.
Fig. 9:
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Although Patajali spends the bulk of section III listing the various
powers that accompany fixed concentration on different objects of
contemplation, he mentions that to gain liberation or independence, one
has to give up all these powers. In verse III.51, he says that by nonattachment even to that [siddhis], the seed of bondage is destroyed and
thus follows kaivalya (independence). (Tadvairgydapi doabjakaye
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Having said that, modern man is more out of sync with his body and
mind than at any time in the past, and generally needs more preparation for
meditation than ever before. Haha Yoga-type sana and prnyma are
very helpful in preparing the body and mind for meditation. In particular,
doing sana and prnyma with mindfulness helps to calm and
concentrate the mind in a gentle and natural fashion, and automatically
inclines it towards deeper meditation. Practitioners of modern yoga
techniques such as those taught by S-Vyassa which combine physical
postures and movement with awareness and natural breath to achieve
physical and mental relaxation, alignment and attunement will find early
Buddhist methods of mindfulness meditation to be of great affinity and use,
being much more compatible than strictly Haha Yoga methods based on
the forceful control of body, mind and breath.!
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If one can harness the power of a concentrated mind to contemplate
and gain insight into suffering, impermanence and not-self as taught by the
Buddha, then one can achieve an insight that cuts off a lot of suffering. If
one attains samdhi or jhna and turns this supremely concentrated mind
to the contemplation of suffering, impermanence and not-self as taught by
the Buddha, one can even gain that perfect insight which leads to nibbna. !
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Of course, to enter into samdhi or jhna requires a sustained period
of meditation in solitude and silence, and cannot be achieved in weekly or
even daily Haha yoga-type sessions. However, the weekly or daily practice
of Haha yoga sana, prnyma and kriy along with the observance of
yama, niyama and pratyhra all help to prepare body and mind for more
intensive meditation in retreat. In any case, it is certain that through the
skillful and knowledgeable combination of techniques from modern yoga
and yogic and early Buddhist meditation, one can gain both immediate
relief and ultimate liberation from suffering. !
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May all beings achieve health, happiness, wisdom and liberation!!
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END &
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There is a lack of good studies on this topic. Most of the available articles on the web are
riddled with appalling mistakes due to an abhorrent lack of understanding of one or the other
system. Some of the few more creditable attempts to compare Buddhism and Yoga, like that by
Dr. David Frawley (http://vedanet.com/2012/06/13/yoga-and-buddhism-similarities-anddifferences/), nevertheless make the grave mistake of not taking into account the evolutionary
history of these two traditions when making comparisons. As a result, the grounds of
comparison and conclusions drawn are simply too broad and general to be sufficiently accurate
or useful.
3
By early Yoga, I refer to the earliest strata of Yoga as can be discerned from archaeological
evidence and texts. In this report, I take early Yoga to refer to the time up to the writing of
Patajalis Yoga Stras.
4
By early Buddhism, I refer to the earliest strata of Buddhism as recorded in the earliest
Buddhist texts. The most complete edition of these texts is the Pali Canon of the Theravda
School, which is also the only early Buddhist sect still surviving today.
5
Yoga Stra verse I.51: Tasypi nirodhe sarva nirodhn nirbja samdhi.
Haha Yoga generally deals with snas, prnyama, kundalini, bandhas, kriys, akti, ns
and mudrs. For a chronological listing of early Haha Yoga texts and the development of recent
Haha Yoga systems, see Fig. 1. Interestingly, the wikipedia entry on Haha Yoga (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_yoga) notes that some of the Haha Yoga techniques can be traced
back to the early Buddhist Pali canon: The Pali canon contains three passages in which the
Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger
or the mind, depending on the passage.[7] However there is no mention of the tongue being
inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecar mudr. The Buddha used a posture where
pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to
stimulate Kundalini.
7
See The Great Transformation: the world in the time of Buddha, Socrates, Confucius and
Jeremiah by Karen Armstrong (2006), Atlantic Books, and also Studies in the Origins of
Buddhism by G. C Pande (2006), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
8
For references to Muni-s in the Upanishads, see Pande (2006), and also Kaltattvakoa: A
Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts, Volume 1 by Kapila Vatsyayan and
Bettina Bumer (1998), pg 75. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. See also see http://
www.jainworld.com/jainbooks/Books/ARHAT.htm
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12
Ibid.
13
Ibid.
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14
For a good discussion of the 4 Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path, see The Buddhas
ancient path by Thera Piyadassi. http://www.visuddha-m-c.com/vmc%20sg/books%20doc/Ven
%20Piyadassi%20Thera%20Books/Buddha%27s%20Ancient%20Path.pdf
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They are generally taught nowadays, however, in various abbreviated forms, which I wont go
into here.
17
For example, Mahayana schools of Buddhism put NIbbna on the back burner and smuggled
back in notions of the self and soul, and gave devotion a central place in its soteriology. The
Yogacara School of Buddhism was a outgrowth of the interaction of Buddhism and Yoga, and
Tantric schools of Buddhism like Tibetan Vajrayana absorbed practices from esoteric Hindu and
Yogic cults (e.g. from Kashmiri Shaivism).
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Other reasons include the Muslim destruction of Buddhist monasteries and universities
including of Nland in 1200 C.E. The recovery of Indias Buddhist history was only undertaken
in the 19th century as British archaeologists found and excavated Buddhist sites such as
Bodhgaya, using the translated records of the Chinese Tang-dynasty pilgrim Xuanzang.
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Buddhist influence can particularly be seen in the Nyaya school of reasoning and in the
meditative stages and methods of Astanga Yoga, for e.g.
23
See http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/vonglasenapp/wheel002.html
24
See "The relation between Buddhism and the Upanishads" by A.K. Sharma in "The Monist",
Vol. 38, No. 3 (July 1928), pp. 443-477. Oxford Univ. Press.
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E.g., Chapter 2 is on Skhya Yoga, Chapter 3 on Karma Yoga, Chapter 4 on Jna Yoga,
Chapter 5 on Karma-Vairgya Yoga, and so on. For translation of Bhagavad Gita, see http://
www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/chapter-01.html
27
Scheepers, Alfred (2000), De Wortels van het Indiase Denken, Olive Press, as cited in http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita
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Deutsch, Eliot; Dalvi, Rohit (2004), The Essential Vednta: A New Source Book of Advaita
Vednta, World Wisdom, Inc, as cited in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita
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Samkhya comes from samyag akhyate, which literally means that which explains the whole.
Skhya philosophy deals with Prakiti (matter), Purua (consciousness), buddhi or mahat
(intelligence), ahamkara (I-am-ness), three Guas (elements of stability, activity, and lightness),
mind (manas), cognitive and active senses (indriyas), and the five subtle and gross elements
(earth, water, fire, air, and space). From http://www.swamij.com/six-schools-indianphilosophy.htm
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Scholars consider the last chapter as added on later. I will not consider it here.
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There are four stages of enlightenment in early Buddhism, namely stream-entry, oncereturner, non-returner and arhat. In the final stage of liberation, the seeker gains perfect insight,
attains Nibbna and becomes an Arhat. The earlier 3 stages of enlightenment do not require the
mastery of jhna, but for perfect insight and Nibbna to occur, the power of fixed concentration
is needed.
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36
Patajali seems to take after the Buddha who was fond of summarizing points of doctrine and
practice in numbered lists, probably to make it easy for monks to memorize. In early Buddhism,
there are 4 stages of enlightenment, and 7 factors of enlightenment. The early Buddhist
commentarial literature also mentions 7 stages of purification and 16 insight-knowledges.
38
The npnasati Sutta is an early Buddhist Sutta that teaches mindfulness of breathing in 16
steps and 4 tetrads. Buddhadsa Bhikkhu provides an excellent explanation of this meditation
method in his book Mindfulness with breathing: a manual for serious beginners. A more
detailed book called Anapanasati is available online here: http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/
anapanasati.pdf
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40
E.g. the Subha Sutta mentions the 5 things a Brahmin student practiced as saccam, tapam,
brahmacariya, ajjhenam and caga.
41
See http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wayof.html
42
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Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice by Mark Singleton (2010), Oxford Univ.
Press.
44
For a very useful listing of the factors of the 4 jhnas and immaterial jhnas, see http://thewanderling.com/jhana_factors.html
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While jhna is not necessary for attaining the insight which leads to stream-entry, it might be
necessary for attaining that perfect insight which leads to Nibbna.
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For a very useful listing of the factors of the 4 jhnas and immaterial jhnas, see http://thewanderling.com/jhana_factors.html
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