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A Comparative Study of Patajalis ga
(Eight-Limb) Yoga and the Buddhas Noble
Eightfold Path&

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by

W.T. Soh

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2015
For free distribution!

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List of Figures!

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Early Yoga and early Buddhism

4-9!
Yoga and Buddhisms roots in the non-Aryan ramaa tradition 9-15!
Analysis of Patajalis Yoga Stras:
15!
I. Samdhipda
15-17!
II. Sdhanapda
17-18!
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Comparison of Eight-Limb Yoga and Noble Eightfold Path 18-22
III. Vibhtipda
22-26!
Conclusion: similarities and differences between ga Yoga 26-27
and early Buddhist meditation ! !
5. Integrating modern yoga practices with early yogic and early
27-28 !
Buddhist meditation

Endnotes and Citations

28-32!

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List of Figures:!

Chronology of some important teachers, texts and events !

in Yoga and Buddhism!!
Patajalis ga (Eight-Limb) Yoga!
The Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path!
The philosophy of six non-Buddhist ramaa teachers, as !
described in early Buddhist scriptures.!
The Dhamma-Vinaya (Doctrine and the Discipline) of the ! !
Buddha!
Equivalence between the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path !
and the eight limbs of ga Yoga!
Steps in early Buddhist Satipahna and npnasati ! !
meditation and their equivalents in ga Yoga
Some of the vibhtis (powers) mentioned in the Yoga Stras !
The six higher knowledges (chalabi) mentioned in the early !
Buddhist Suttas

1. Early Yoga and Early Buddhism!

In the last 20 years, there has been a veritable mushrooming, especially in
the more developed nations, of yoga studios, courses and trainings. At the
same time, more and more early Buddhist meditation centers and courses
are becoming established across the globe. Increasingly, people are
discovering that these ancient yogic and buddhist meditative traditions are
particularly relevant and effective at solving contemporary peoples
problems of the body and mind, including stress and life-style related
disorders. Due to the globalization of communication technologies,
networks and culture, the accessibility and popularity of Yoga and early
Buddhist meditation have never been as wide-spread historically as they
are today. Despite the growing popularity and accessibility of these
practices however, regrettably few practitioners really understand what
these yogic and early Buddhist meditative traditions are ultimately about,
and as far as writing and research about their inter-related history is
concerned, there is a veritable dearth of accurate information.
!
This lack of knowledge means that there are many misconceptions
and misinformation about yoga and early Buddhism floating around. Many
people mistakenly think for example that yoga is all about the body, while
Buddhist meditation is all about the mind. Forgetting the common Indic
roots of both traditions, people easily associate Yoga with India but when
they think of Buddhism, they tend to think of it as an East Asian tradition.
Even though the Buddha pre-dated Patajali by some 500 years or more1,
yoga teachers tend to attribute a greater antiquity to Patajalis Yoga Stras
than is warranted, while ignoring the important historical influence of
Buddhism upon Indian philosophy and soteriology. !
!
If we really want to accurately understand what yogic and Buddhist
practices are about then it is important that we do away with these and
other misconnections to look anew at how Yoga and Buddhism might be
related historically and practically2. It must be remembered that both Yoga
and Buddhism changed and evolved over time including - directly or
indirectly - in interaction with each other (see Fig. 1). If we want to compare
these systems, we have to first of all start at the beginning, i.e we have to
start with the comparison of early Yoga3 with early Buddhism4. In this paper,
I will analyze Patajalis Yoga Stras and selected early Buddhist Suttas to
tease out the similarities and differences between Patajalis ga
(Eight-Limb) Yoga and the Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path. I ask: Did these
paths emerge independently or did one influence the other? What are the
!

similarities and differences in the practices and goals of early Buddhism

and ga Yoga? Can one help to illuminate the other? !
!

Fig 1: Chronology of some important teachers, texts and events in Yoga and Buddhism.

Fig. 2: Patajalis Aga Yoga, or Eight Limb Yoga.


Fig. 3: The Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path.

!
My investigation shows that both Yoga and Buddhism have roots in
non-Aryan traditions of asceticism and renunciation, which influenced the
philosophical evolution of Vedic Brahmanism. We can trace the ancient
roots of Yoga all the way back to the ecstatic and ascetic munis of the
Indus Valley civilization three thousand or so years ago (Fig. 1). As for the
Buddha, he was a Kshatriya prince-turned-wandering ascetic who, two
thousand five hundred years ago, discovered and taught a path to
liberation via the gnostic wisdom or insight gained through a very particular
path of concentration-and-mindfulness meditation. Many elements of preVedic and non-Vedic ascetic traditions, including Buddhism, were later
absorbed into Brahmanical philosophy, and can be seen reflected in the
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and in the six orthodox/Brahmanical
schools of Indian philosophy which includes Yoga. !
!
Gautama Buddha happened to be the earliest great compiler as well
as innovator of Indic systems of meditation. He systematized pre-existing
methods of meditation and added key elements to form a highly
comprehensive and coherent path which is capable of leading meditators
unerringly to direct insight into the ultimate reality of their own body-mind,
and thence to liberation. Patajali who wrote the Yoga Stras some 500
years or more after the Buddhas death was also a great compiler, and we
find many similar descriptions of meditative methods and processes in the
early Buddhist Suttas and the Yoga Stras. The main difference between
the Yoga Stras and early Buddhism lies in notions of the soul and
supreme being, which the Yoga Stras uphold but which are refuted by the
Buddha. Also, whereas early Buddhist meditation makes specific use of
mindfulness to cultivate concentration and insight, mindfulness is not
specifically mentioned by Patajali.!
!
These differences aside, the eight limbs of ga Yoga and the 8
factors of the Noble Eightfold Path are quite similar: they all deal with the
preparation for and entry into meditation. The ultimate goals of ga
Yoga and early Buddhist meditation also appear to be the same: they both
aim at the cessation of the modifications of the mind. Patajali even
mentions a nirbja or seedless samdhi5, which is equivalent to the
state of Nibbna. Supra-mundane states of consciousness, culminating in
Nibbna or the seedless samdhi, are achieved through the cultivation of
fixed concentration. While Patajali elaborated on how the power of fixed
concentration can be used to acquire various supernormal powers, the
Buddha focused mainly on how the power of fixed concentration can be
!

used to achieve penetrating insight into mind-body phenomena, leading to

a state of complete cessation, or Nibbna. Taken together, the early
Buddhist Suttas on meditation and Patajalis Yoga Stras give a
wonderfully complete map of meditation leading to the ultimate goal of the
seedless samdhi or Nibbna.!
!
ga Yogas focus on concentration meditation makes it
somewhat different from the modern Yoga systems of today which are
based more on Haha Yoga-type6 postural and breath control exercises.
Modern-day yogis who seek true mastery of meditation so as to attain the
ultimate goal of yoga as cessation of the modifications of the mind would
do well to study not only the Yoga Stras, but also early Buddhist scriptures
on meditation, as they help to illuminate and fill each other out. With the
skillful combination of early Buddhist and yogic meditative methods, the
modern-day seeker can aspire to achieve the supreme state of liberation
which is cessation. I end by giving some suggestions as to how
contemporary yoga practices can be combined with early yogic and
Buddhist meditation to enhance everyday life and spiritual practice, with an
eye towards the ultimate goal.!

2. Yoga and Buddhisms roots in the non-Aryan ramaa tradition

The word Yoga was first mentioned in the Rgveda, where it referred to
the yoking of war chariots to horses in Aryan society. The Aryans were
originally a nomadic people with an economy based on warfare and the
raiding of cattle, and a religion that was based on blood sacrifice. How did
the Sanskrit word of Yoga which was originally associated with war in
Aryan society gain new meaning, coming to refer to a spiritual kind of union
which has to do with the mastery and liberation of the mind? To understand
the etymological history of the word yoga, we have to look at the history of
Aryan migration and the cultural changes that accompanied this, as the
word Yoga acquired new meanings through the inter-mingling of Aryan
religion with the indigenous philosophies of non-Aryan people in the IndoGangetic plains7.!
!
The religion of the Aryans were controlled by Brahmin priests, who
acted as ritual specialists in charge of life-cycle rituals and large-scale
sacrifices for householders. The Brahmin priests upheld the textual
authority of the Vedas, which were ritual texts concerned with controlling
the external forces of life and nature through the use of mantra and
sacrifice. When the Aryans migrated into the IndoGangetic plains, they
!

encountered a highly developed, settled agricultural society in the Indus

Valley, which archaeologists today call the Indus Valley civilization. The
earliest roots of Yoga come not from the Vedic religion of the in-migrating
Aryans, but from the pre-Vedic civilization that was indigenous to the Indus
Valley. Archaeologists have unearthed seals from the Indus civilization that
show humanoid figures, which Marshall8 has identified with Paupati, sitting
cross-legged with palms placed upon the knees, a posture that modern
yogis will recognize as resembling that of mbhav Mudr. More
fascinating evidence comes from the Keiskta of the Rgveda (10.36)
which, when mentioning the indigenous people of the Indus Valley,
describes the strange figure of a Muni with long locks of hair on the head,
dirty and ochrerobbed, flying in the air, drinking poison, intoxicated and
delirious with Mauneya' and Devesita9. We can surely recognize the
prototype of the Indian yogi with supernormal powers (such as those listed
in the Yoga Stras of Patajali perhaps?) from this fantastic description of
Kei-Muni in the Indus Valley two to three thousand years ago!!
!
As the Aryans became settled and spread in the Indo-Gangetic plains
and Brahmin thinkers became exposed to indigenous cultures of
renunciation and philosophical thought, Vedic religion gradually changed
from an externally-oriented, positivistic religion based on the sacrificial
propitiation of gods to an internally-oriented philosophical quest for selfknowledge and liberation, a sea-change that we see reflected in the writing
of the Aranyakas and the Upanishads10. Originally, Vedic Brahmanism had
only three goals (Trivarga), which were Dharma (caste duty), Artha (wealth)
and Kma (sensual pleasure). Moka (liberation) became added later on as
a fourth goal when Brahmin thinkers begun to retire to the forest to engage
in philosophical enquiry and spiritual practice, and Brahmin youths begun
to renounce home to seek liberation. !
!
From the Aranyakas and Upanishads as well as Jain and early
Buddhist sources, we get an idea of the ferment of Vedic and non-Vedic
thought and practices out of which the philosophical writing of the
Upanishads as well as Buddhism emerged. From Upanishadic and
Buddhist sources, we know that there existed on the fringes of Vedic/
Brahmana society a strong non-Vedic culture of renunciation associated
with wandering ascetics known as Muni-s or ramaas. The TaittiriyaAranyaka mentions for example ramaas who were called Vtaraarn.
They led a celibate life, could disappear at will and teach to Brahmanas the
way beyond sin11. The word ramana makes an appearance in the
!

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Fig. 4: The philosophy of six non-Buddhist ramaa teachers, !

as described in early Buddhist scriptures.

Bhadrayaka Upanishad, and there is mention in the Muakopaniad of

shaven-headed ascetics who revile the Vedas12.!
!
On the whole, the ramaas rejected the authority of the Vedas and
the rules of caste, and sought direct knowledge into the nature of life
through philosophy and/or ascetic practice. According to Pande13, the
ramaa worldview was in general ascetic, atheistic, pluralistic and
realistic. They regarded the world in a negative and pessimistic light, did
not believe in a Supreme creator, and relied on personal effort for
liberation. They deliberated and debated on existential questions, and were
!

11

responsible for notions like Karma, Sasra and Moka. They held diverse
views, some of which (like the Buddhas) were empirically based, but most
of which were highly speculative. The early Buddhist scriptures mention, for
example, the views of different ramaa teachers (see Fig. 4) who were
active during the Buddhas time, views that the Buddha refuted and
critiqued at length along with the views of Vedic Brahmanism.
!
Gautama Buddha, who lived and taught during the 6th to 5th
centuries BCE, had himself joined the ranks of the wandering ascetics
when he renounced kingdom, home and caste to seek the path to
liberation. Before he independently discovered the path to Nibbna, he had
already mastered the highest meditation techniques of his time which he
learnt from two meditation teachers called Alara Kalama and Udaka
Ramaputta. From them, he learnt how to attain two formless
samdhis (states of concentration based on contemplation of immaterial
realms of nothingness and neither-perception-nor-non-perception)14.
However, he found that these meditative states, though highly refined, did
not confer liberation from the cycle of life, death and suffering, so he left to
seek the path to liberation on his own.
!
After years of experimentation in the wilderness, including with
extreme asceticism, the Bodhisattva discovered a way to achieve states of
fixed concentration (which he called jhna") based on the mindfulness of
breath, body and sensation, which he then used as a basis for
contemplating the problem of Sasra (cyclic existence, transmigration),
the nature of mind-body phenomena, and the means of liberation. Through
this contemplation, he gained insight into the nature of phenomena as
impermanent, suffering, and not-self, as well as the cause of cyclic
existence and the way to end cyclic existence, which led him to Nibbna
(cessation). The enlightened Gautama, or Gautama Buddha, went on to
teach his method, which he summarized and codified into the
Doctrine (dhamma) of The 4 Noble Truths, and the Discipline (vinaya)
of the The Noble Eightfold Path (see Fig 4)15. !
!
As a systematizer, codifier and innovator, Gautama Buddhas
contribution to Indic meditation and philosophy was immense. The teaching
of the Buddha incorporated many elements inherited from pre-existing
Brahmana and ramaa traditions, including rules of ethical and ascetic
discipline and the notions of karma, transmigration and liberation. Likewise,
the Buddhas meditation system incorporated elements that were already
known. However, the Buddha was not just an heir of pre-existing
!

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Fig. 5:

philosophies and meditation methods, he was above all a master of

meditation who was able to come up with novel innovations in meditation
that led him to enlightenment and liberation, succeeding where others
before him had failed. He repeatedly emphasized that his teaching and
method was based not on speculative philosophy like that of many other
ramaas, but was completely empirical and independently verifiable,
being based on the direct insight obtained through a very particular path of
meditation. !
!
About three centuries after the Buddhas death, Emperor Ashoka
spread the Buddhist doctrine all over India and abroad and Buddhism sunk
deep roots and flourished far and wide in Indian soil and beyond. With time,
Buddhism itself split into many early Buddhist and later Mahayana sects,
!

13

attesting to the evolution of scriptural complexity (see Fig. 1). The

meditation methods originally taught by the Buddha are preserved down to
the present day16 in the early Buddhist Theravda School, which was first
established in Sri Lanka by two monks that Ashoka had sent there. !
!
Buddhist thought underwent some changes as it interacted with nonBuddhist philosophies including Yoga17, but the core doctrines remained
unchanged. Some aspects of Buddhist doctrine, especially the doctrines of
not-self and Nibbna, are so intellectually challenging to the concepts of
the person and identity that they remain outside the comprehension of most
people then and now. The Buddhist doctrine of not-self which refutes
beliefs in the soul posed a particular challenge to Brahmanical and Hindu
orthodoxy, and might have been a reason for why Buddhism was
historically forgotten in its homeland as it became increasingly Hindu over
time18. Nevertheless, many elements of Buddhist philosophy especially the
notion of Dukkha became prevalent in Indian thought and spirituality, and
can be seen reflected in the six orthodox/Brahmanical schools of Indian
philosophy19 that formed after the Buddhas time.
!
Though the dating of the Upanishads remain highly controversial,
many scholars today think that except for a couple of the earliest
Upanishads, the majority of these texts were written during or after the time
of the Buddha (see Fig. 1)20, as they employ words and ideas such as
Dukkha which underpinned early Buddhist philosophy, but which were
fundamentally at odds with the early Vedic world-view21. Putting aside the
perhaps unanswerable question of whether Buddhism influenced
Upanishadic thought and/or the other way round, we can say that the
Buddhism and Upanishadic thought emerged from and added to the
fermenting brew of Indian philosophy and meditation, which later coalesced
into the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy of which Yoga was one22.
Though the Upanishadic writers and the Buddha differed on the notions of
soul and supreme being23, there are striking similarities in the Upanishadic
description of the state of ultimate realization called Brahma-vidya
(knowledge of Brahman) and Nibbna24.!
!
We can clearly see the synthesis of Brahmanical and nonBrahmanical philosophy in the Bhagavad Gita, which scholars variously
date to around fifth to second century BCE (see Fig. 1)25. The Gita, which is
also the first text which deals specifically with Yoga26, is a synthesis of the
Brahmanical concept of Dharma, theistic Bhakti, ramaa and Yogic ideals
of Moka through Jna, Bhakti, Karma and Raja Yoga, and Skhya
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philosophy. Scheepers mentions the Bhagavad Gita as a Brahmanical text

which used the ramaic and Yogic terminology to spread Brahmanic
ideals of living according to one's duty or Dharma, in contrast to the
ramanic ideal of liberation from the workings of Karma27. Deutsch and
Dalvi note that the authors of the Bhagavad Gita must have seen the
appeal of the soteriologies both of the heterodox" traditions of Buddhism
and Jainism and of the more "orthodox" ones of Skhya and Yoga, and
sought to fuse these into the Brahmanic tradition that emphasized "the
significance of Dharma as the instrument of goodness"28. The Bhagavad
Gita thus combines three dominant trends of Indian religion: dharma-based
householder life, enlightenment-based renunciation, and devotion-based
theism.!
!
!
It is generally accepted that the Yoga Stras, attributed to Patajali
and dated to sometime around 400 C.E. or earlier (see Fig. 1), was also a
syncretic compilation of pre-existing philosophies and meditative practices.
Patajali drew largely on the Upanishads and the Gita, and on other
orthodox schools of Indian philosophy especially Skhya29. As the above
discussion hopefully showed, Brahmanic philosophy and schools of thought
evolved though (direct or indirect) interaction with non-Brahmanic ramaa
traditions including Buddhism. Accordingly, we can see many Buddhistic
elements in the Yoga Stras, which might partly be attributed to this
historical relationship. In addition, more direct parallels can perhaps be
drawn between the typology of the Eight Limb Yoga and the Buddhist Noble
Eightfold path, and between yogic and early Buddhist meditative practices.!

3. Analysis of Patajalis Yoga Stras

In the following sections, I will analyze the verses in first three chapters30 of
Patajalis Yoga Stras to show some of the Buddhist and non-Buddhist
influences therein.

I. Samdhipda&
Patajali began the Yoga Stras with a definition of Yoga as the cessation
of the modifications of the mind (yogacittavttiniroda). This definition is
strikingly similar to the doctrine and goal of early Buddhism. Nibbna, for
example, is translated as cessation, a state which is furthermore
described in the early Buddhist scriptures as sa-vedayita-nirodha,
namely, the extinction of perception & feelings. Since perception (sanna)
and feelings (vedana) are mental factors, i.e. modifications of mind,
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Nibbna certainly denotes a state where all the modifications of mind,

including the most subtle ones, completely cease.
!
Patajalis ensuing discussion on modifications of mind seem to be
drawn from Nyaya, one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy
founded by Akapda Gautama perhaps around 2nd century CE31, which
taught that Moka is gained through right knowledge. The Nyaya method of
logic and reasoning, which is employed by the other 5 orthodox schools
including Yoga, strongly resembles the method of reflective reasoning and
logic employed by Gautama Buddha. Patajalis discussion on Purua,
Prakiti and the Guas however draws strictly upon Skhya philosophy,
which provides a teleological explanation of the souls embodiment in and
liberation from matter.
!
Patajali then mentions two different kinds of samdhi: saprajta
samdhi (samdhi with discernment) and asaprajta samdhi (samdhi
without discernment). The latter is associated with the cessation of mental
modifications and with liberation. Patajali says that for some,
asaprajta samdhi is attained through ones own effort. For others, it
can be granted through Gods grace, which can be obtained through
repeating the word Om which destroys obstacles and reveals the inner
self. The state of asaprajta samdhi appears to be similar to the state
of Nibbna. However, unlike Patajali, the Buddha stated that while lower
states of enlightenment32 can be won through faith, the highest state of
Nibbna can only be won through ones own efforts. Patajalis discussion
on the power of faith and on the mantric syllable Om reflects Brahmanical
beliefs and practices that were first mentioned in Upanishads like the
Mandukya Upanishad and the Gita.
!
Patajali next talks about the symptoms of a disturbed mind and how
these can be overcome through concentration. In verse I.33, Patajali
mentions that the mind can be kept calm by cultivating attitudes of
friendliness, compassion, delight and equanimity. This is strikingly similar to
the Buddhist meditation known as Brahma-Vihara33, often translated as
meditation on the Four Immeasurables or Sublime Attitudes. A calm
mind, Patajali says, can also be obtained through calm retention and
exhalation of breath; or by paying attention to subtle sense perceptions; or
by meditation on light; or by recalling a great mans soul; or by dwelling on
experiences during dream and deep sleep, or, by letting the mind think of
any elevating subject. !

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!
These calmness-and-concentration practices can also be found in the
early Buddhist Suttas. The Chinese version of the Kyagatsati Sutta
mentions, for example, meditation on the four postures and the states of
being asleep and awake, mindfulness of breathing, the conception of light,
the contemplation of impurities and the six elements, the contemplation of
the 9 stages of decomposition of the corpse, the 4 jhnas, and awareness
of daily activities, amongst other meditation topics34. The Muluposatha
Sutta mentions meditation on the qualities of Arhants (fully liberated beings)
and on the Devas35, and there is the mention, of course, of mindfulness of
subtle sensations and perceptions in the the Satipahna and
Mahasatipahna Sutta. !
!
Patajali concluded this section with a discussion of savitark
samdhi (samdhi with deliberation), nirvitark samdhi (samdhi without
name and quality), and nirvicra samdhi that is seedless (nirbja).
Essentially, these describe increasingly subtle and refined states of mind as
one progresses in the practice of calmness, concentration and/or
mindfulness meditation. In early Buddhist meditation for example, the first
and second jhnas can be classified as states of savitark samdhi
(samdhi with deliberation), the third, fourth and immaterial jhnas can be
classified as states of nirvitark samdhi (samdhi without name and
quality), and Nibbna can be classified as a state of nirvicra/ nirbja
(seedless) samdhi36.

II. Sdhanapda&
Patajali begins the second chapter saying the practice of yoga comprises
tapas (acceptance of pain as purification), study of scriptures and surrender
to God, and that this can help to minimize obstacles and confer samdhi.
These verses reflect the ethos of Bhakti Yoga and also Vedanta, which go
back to the Upanishads and the Gita. The next verses which deal with
ignorance and right knowledge are, however, strongly redolent of Jna
Yoga, and reflect especially the wisdom paths of Buddhism and Skhya. !
!
In verse II.3, for example, Patajali states that ignorance, egoism,
attachment, hatred, and clinging to bodily life are the 5 obstacles
(avidysmit rga dvebhinive kle). This verse calls to mind the 5
obstacles (ignorance, hatred, desire, sloth, restlessness) and 3 kleshas or
defilements (ignorance, attachment, aversion) in Buddhist doctrine. In
verse II.4, Patajali states that ignorance is the field for the others. We can
compare this to the Buddhist doctrine of Dependent Origination, in which
!

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ignorance is listed as the first link which leads to the chain of being and
becoming. !
!
Patajali then goes on to define ignorance in verse II.5 as regarding
the impermanent as permanent, impure as pure, painful as pleasant and
not-self as self. Again, this is strikingly similar to Buddhist doctrine, which
sees all phenomena as possessing only 3 characteristics (Tilakhna),
namely, impermanence, suffering, and not-self. Indeed, the whole of
Buddhist meditative practice is to get direct insight into these 3
characteristics in ones own body-mind experiences, so as to see reality as
it really is and not, as Patajali puts it, the impermanent as permanent
painful as pleasant and not-self as self.!
!
Patajali then talks about obstacles as root for and fruit of rebirth,
about pleasure and pain, merit and demerit, and about clinging, karma, and
rebirth. These notions all have origins in ramaa philosophy, and are a
part of Buddhist and Skhya doctrine. However, the notions of Purua,
Prakiti and Guas which Patajali discusses in verse II.12-25 come
exclusively from Skhya and are refuted in Buddhism.
!
In verse II.26, Patajali states that uninterrupted discriminative
discernment is the key to the removal of ignorance. He mentions that the
perfection of wisdom has seven stages37 and that practice of the eight
limbs of yoga weakens obstacles and leads to clear discriminative
discernment. The remaining verses talk about each of the limbs in turn. In
the next section, I will compare the eight limbs of ga Yoga with the
factors of the Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path, which I further illustrate by
drawing upon early Buddhist texts on meditation such as the npnasati
Sutta38 and Mahasatipahna Sutta39.!

Comparison of Eight-Limb Yoga and Noble Eightfold Path!

Patajalis Eight-Limb Yoga is similar in many ways to the Buddhist Noble
Eightfold Path. Firstly, the limb of yama or ethical restraint (comprising
non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, non-grasping) is essential
similar to Jain mahvratas, of which the Buddhist 5 precepts (comprising
non-killing, non-lying, non-stealing, no sexual misconduct, no intoxicants)
are a more moderate version. In verse II.31, Patajali even calls the 5
yamas mahvratam. Ethical restraint, called sila in Buddhism, is
categorized as right speech, right action and right livelihood (Fig. 3). !
!
Patajalis second limb of niyama seem to be cobbled together from
Brahmanical and ramana codes of disciplinary ethics40, Skhya &
!

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Buddhist spirit of self-enquiry, and notions of surrender to God from the

Gita. Generally however, niyama gives guidelines for the kind of attitude a
spiritual aspirant should have: i.e. purity, contentment, austerity, selfenquiry and contemplation of supreme reality. !There is no one factor that is
equivalent to niyama in the Noble Eightfold Path, yet, all these attitudes are
intrinsic to the Buddhist path. !
!
For example, self-enquiry, contemplation of supreme reality and
renunciation are all part of right view and right thought in the Noble
Eightfold Path. Right mindfulness and right concentration denote the
process of meditation, for which all the niyamas are actually pre-requisites.
In the Satipahna Sutta41 for example, the Buddha instructs monks to be
diligent, clearly knowing and mindful, free from desires and discontent in
regard to the world, while abiding in contemplation on the body, on
sensations, on the mind, and on the dhamma. In other words, these
instructions call for contentment, renunciation or tapas, enquiry into the
nature of ones own body and mind and on ultimate reality.!
!
In verse II.33, Patajali describes the third limb of pratyhra or
sense control in words42 that mirror the Buddhas instructions for
overcoming negative thoughts and tendencies through the reflection on and
cultivation of their opposites using yoniso manasikra or wise reflection.!
!
As for sana and prnyma, which are the main components of
modern yoga, we find only 3 verses ascribed to each of these limbs in the
Yoga Stras. About sana, Patajali merely said that by taking a posture
that is stable and comfortable, by relaxing & meditating on the infinite, the
yogi can overcome dualities. As for prnyma, verse II.50 merely states
that the modifications of the life-breath are either external, internal or
stationary. They are to be regulated by space, time and number and are
either long or short. !
!
We find absolutely no mention In Patajalis ga Yoga of
convoluted postures and complicated methods of breath control. Rather,
Patajali seem to be giving relatively simple and straight-forward
instructions for taking a steady posture and for calming the breath as one
settles into meditation, which we can compare to the Buddhas equally
straight-forward instructions for entering into meditation in the npnasati
Sutta:
!
!
! Having gone to the forest, or to the root of a tree, or to an empty hut, he
sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, he sets his body erect, and
!

19

establishes mindfulness in front of him; Mindful he breathes in, mindful

he breathes out; Breathing in long, he knows I breathe in
long....Breathing in short, he knows I breathe in short....He trains thus:
I shall breathe in perceiving the whole body....I shall breathe in calming
the whole body... !
!
!
!
The Buddha and Patajalis instructions for entering into meditation
suggest that one does not have to first contort the body into complicated
postures nor manipulate the breath in artificial ways in order to begin
meditating. Complicated sana and prnyma practices were probably
later developments in Yoga that came with the rise of Haha Yoga traditions
(see Fig. 1). Furthermore, Mark Singleton43 has convincingly demonstrated
in a recent scholarly study that modern postural yoga was a product of
modern Indian nationalism and based as much on European bodybuilding
and early 20th-century Euro-American womens gymnastic movements as
on any ancient Indian yoga tradition per se!!
!
Patajali mentions in verse II.51-52 a 4th kind of prnyma which
gives rise to an inner light, which prepares the mind for concentration. It is
interesting to note that the Buddhas meditation method using the
mindfulness of breath (npnasati) leads rapidly to states of rapture (pti),
the first sign of which is inner light, which can literally illuminate the mind
like the sun in a cloudless sky. In Buddhist meditation, there are 4 jhnas
which are states of fixed or absorption concentration, or samdhi. Rapture
(pti) and happiness (sukha) are actually factors of the first to third jhnas44.
!
From the above discussion, we can see that the eight limbs of
ga Yoga and the 8 factors of the Noble Eightfold Path are basically
similar (see Fig. 6), in that they are all abut the preparation for and entry
into meditation. Both paths instruct seekers to observe ethical restraints, to
gain attitudes of contentment, renunciation and enquiry into truth, and to
turn their attention from the external world to the inner quest for liberation.
Both paths give primary importance to concentration meditation,
established on a foundation of attentiveness to body and breath, as the
means to the liberation of the mind.
!
The one major difference is that Patajali invokes theistic notions of
the soul and supreme being, while the Buddha relies completely on the
empirical and atheistical analysis of of body-mind reality and of causation.
Also in Buddhist meditation and the Noble Eightfold Path, key importance is
given to right mindfulness which is used to build concentration and to gain
!

20

Fig. 6:!Equivalence between the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path

and the eight limbs of ga Yoga.

insight, while there is no special singling out of mindfulness by Patajali.

!
The use of mindfulness (sati) in meditation is the original contribution
of the Buddha, and is the special hallmark of Buddhist meditation and
insight. However there are as many misunderstandings about Buddhist
meditation as there are about yoga. Many Buddhist meditation teachers
nowadays mistakenly think that there are two kinds of meditation mindfulness or insight (vipassan) meditation and concentration (samatha)
meditation, which are different45. In actual fact, mindfulness and
concentration are inter-linked, and both are factors of the mind that have to
be perfectly developed for one to attain supra-mundane states of
consciousness and perfect insight46. !
!
The Buddha basically discovered how mindfulness can be used to
establish concentration, and also how concentration can be used as a
platform to achieve insight based on mindful contemplation. Strictly
!

21

speaking, The Buddha did not teach vipassan (insight) meditation or

samatha (calmness) meditation. He taught npnasati (mindfulness of
breath), Kyagatsati (mindfulness of body), Satipana bhvan
(meditation using four foundations of mindfulness) and many other
m e d i t a t i o n s , w h i c h c a n a l l b e c l a s s i fi e d a s s a m a t h a vipassan (concentration-and-mindfulness) meditation. Fig. 7 presents the
steps of Satipahna and npnasati meditation as the Buddha taught
them, and how these correlate to the yogic meditative limbs of prnyma,
dhran, dhyna and samdhi. !
!
!

Fig. 7:!Steps in early Buddhist Satipahna and npnasati meditation !

and their equivalents in ga Yoga.

!
III. Vibhtipda&
The last three limbs of dhran dhyna and samdhi are dealt with by
Patajali in section III, which begins by describing the process of going
from dhran into samdhi, which is essentially similar to the entry into
jhna (fixed or absorption concentrations) in early Buddhist meditation. !
!
Patajali describes Dhran, usually translated as concentration, as
the binding of the mind to one object. Dharna actually refers to the state of
initial concentration where the mind attempts to stay with the object of
!

22

contemplation, but tends to wander so effort has to be applied to keep the

mind focused on the object. Dhyna, usually translated as meditation, is
described by Patajali as the continuous flow of cognition towards one
object. It describes the state when concentration has become strong so
that the mind does not wander from the object of concentration, but stays
with the object on its own without the need to exert much effort. In the early
Buddhist commentaries47, this state is sometimes referred to as access or
neighborhood concentration, because it is very near to jhna or samdhi.
In the final stage of samdhi or jhna, concentration has become so stable
and so fixed that it does not waver at all. The mind merges with/is absorbed
into the object of concentration, and thus samdhi or jhna is also known in
the early Buddhist commentaries as absorption concentration. !
!
Dhyna is often translated as meditation, but in actual fact, dhran,
dhyna and samdhi are just successive stages in concentration
meditation that denote increasing levels of initial, strong and fixed
concentration. In other words, the 3 limbs of dharna, dhyna and samdhi
are actually describing the same progression into absorption or fixed
concentration at different stages of the process. Explaining this interlinked
relationship between dharna, dhyna and samdhi, verse III.4 says that
the combination of the three upon one object is called sayamh.
!
In verse III.7-8, Patajali says that These three [dhra, dhyna
and samdhi] are more internal than the preceding five limbs. Even these
three are external to the seedless samdhi. The description of seedless
samdhi which was first mentioned in Section I matches the description of
the state of Nibbna, which is often referred to in the early Buddhist
scriptures as asankhata meaning unconditioned or causeless? (see
Fig. 7 for a pictorial representation of the progress from samdhi to
seedless samdhi or nibbna.)!
!
Patajali then talks about nirodha pariama (mature knowledge of
cessation), samdhi pariama (mature knowledge of concentration) and
ekgrat pariama (mature knowledge of one-pointedness). Patajalis
discussion of nirodha pariama goes into an analysis of mental moments
which recalls the description of arising and ceasing of mental moments in
early Buddhist meditation which is empirically verifiable in meditation.
Nirodha pariama (mature knowledge of cessation) in the sense that
Patajali used it here would be present in states of access concentration
that are very close to absorption concentration or jhna. Samdhi
pariama (mature knowledge of concentration) would be present in states
!

23

of absorption concentration, especially the first 3 jhnas. Ekgrat

pariama (mature knowledge of one-pointedness) would be realized in the
4th jhna. Essentially, these three types of pariama denote the
progression towards higher and higher states of absorption as
concentration becomes increasingly stable and one-pointed48.! !
!
The remaining verses give a long list of the various vibhti (powers)
acquired through sayam (combined practice of dharn, dhyna and
samdhi) upon various phenomenon (see Fig. 8). In the early Buddhist
scriptures, there are many references to the special powers acquired by
Fig. 8: Some of the vibhtis (powers) mentioned in the Yoga Stras. !

24

monks who master the jhnas. For example, the Buddha praised six types
of higher knowledge called chalabi (see Fig. 9), and he encouraged
those who could do so to develop them as a form of mental mastery. As a
master of the jhnas, the Buddha himself possessed these powers.
However, he emphasized that it was vulgar to display these powers, and
likened monks who did so to women who display their private parts in the
marketplace. Though the Buddha taught the mastery of Jhnas and the
higher powers, these were always secondary to the ultimate goal of
Nibbna, which is obtained when one gains perfect insight into the
impermanence, suffering and not-self nature of all phenomena, leading the
mind to let go of all phenomena and to plunge into cessation. One of the
ways to attain Nibbna taught by the Buddha is called anuppubha-nirodha
(nine successive extinctions), and it involved first mastering and then giving
up (in succession) the 4 rupa (form) jhnas, followed by the 4 arupa
(formless) jhnas, whereupon the mind plunges into cessation.
Fig. 9:

!
Although Patajali spends the bulk of section III listing the various
powers that accompany fixed concentration on different objects of
contemplation, he mentions that to gain liberation or independence, one
has to give up all these powers. In verse III.51, he says that by nonattachment even to that [siddhis], the seed of bondage is destroyed and
thus follows kaivalya (independence). (Tadvairgydapi doabjakaye
!

25

kaivalyam.) So, the ultimate goal of ga Yoga is not states of samdhi

that confer siddhis, but that seedless samdhi in which all phenomena
including siddhis are given up, and there is no more production of causes
for future being and becoming. If you reflect on this, you will find that this
seedless state is essentially similar to the the state of nibbna as attained
and taught by the Buddha. !

4. Conclusion: similarities and differences between ga Yoga and

early Buddhist meditation
Early Buddhism and Yoga share common roots in the non-Aryan ramaa
tradition which seeks the goal of liberation from suffering. Patajalis Yoga
Stras and the teachings of the Buddha both deal with the existential
problem of dukkha (suffering, dis-satisfactoriness), both consider ignorance
as the cause of dukkha, and both see wisdom or insight as the means to
destroy ignorance and to gain liberation from suffering. The Noble Eightfold
Path and ga Yoga are thus both paths of Jna Yoga, which lead to
liberation through wisdom or insight. Ultimately, ga Yoga and early
Buddhist meditation aim for the same thing, which is the cessation of the
modifications of the mind, and the destruction of the seeds and causes for
future rebirth, i.e. Nibbna.
!
The factors of the Noble Eightfold Path and the eight limbs of
ga Yoga all deal with the preparation for and entry into meditation. As
the preliminary to meditation, both paths instruct seekers to observe ethical
restraints, to gain attitudes of contentment, renunciation and enquiry into
truth, and to turn their attention from the external world to the inner quest
for liberation. In both yogic and early Buddhist meditation, the cultivation of
fixed concentration leads to supra-mundane states of mind. In both
systems, concentration can first be established on a foundation of
attentiveness to body and breath, after which the concentrated mind can
then be turned to the contemplation of various objects. !
!
In section III of the Yoga Stras, Patajali lists various objects of
contemplation which when meditated on can lead to different kinds of
powers. While the Buddha saw the mastery of powers as a useful part of
mental training, his main focus was always ultimately on the contemplation
of impermanence, suffering and not-self. When the concentrated mind is
thus directed to contemplate impermanence, suffering and not-self (as
opposed to other objects for e.g.), it leads to dispassion, to cessation and
to nibbna. Patajali mentions briefly a seedless samdhi higher than all
!

26

the other (power-conferring) samdhis, which in its description is similar to

nibbna.!
!
In section I, Patajali gave some methods of calmness/concentration
meditation that are wholly similar to early Buddhist meditation methods
mentioned in the early Buddhist Suttas. However, he did not specifically
mention mindfulness, which is used in Buddhist meditation to cultivate
concentration and insight. Yogis who seek to achieve samdhi can look, I
suggest, to the early Buddhist scriptures for instructions on how to develop
concentration using, for example, the mindfulness of body and breath,
which lead to various supra-mundane states and to nibbna.! !
!
The Buddha, in true ramaa tradition, teaches that insight and final
liberation is gained through ones own meditative effort. In addition to selfreliance, Patajali also believed that wisdom can be won through devotion
to God, which echoes the Bhakti marga of the Bhagavad Gita. Unlike the
Buddha who eschewed speculation and teleology to focus solely on the
experientially-based analysis of mentality-materiality (nma-rpa) and of
Causation (Dependent Origination), Patajali used Skhya philosophy
with its teleological notions of Purua (soul consciousness), Prakiti
(nature) and the Guas to explain the process of human embodiment and
enlightenment.!

5. Integrating modern yoga practices with early Yogic and early

Buddhist meditation&
Many people who practice yoga today are motivated by a desire for
increased health and well-being. If they seek a liberation from suffering, it is
first of all from the suffering of disease and ill-health. The yoga systems of
today which are based more on Haha Yoga in that they emphasize
complex kinds of sana, prnyma, kriy, and other things that were not
originally found in Patajalis ga, have developed to address this
need. Originally though, Yoga - as Raja Yoga and ga yoga - was all
about meditation. Some yoga systems like that taught by S-Vyassa have a
greater meditative component, though this meditative component might
geared towards achieving mental relaxation rather than samdhi. If
modern-day yogis want to seek the ultimate goal of yoga which is cessation
of the modifications of the mind and the destruction of causes for future
being and becoming, then they have to go beyond the modern Haha Yogatype practices to plunge deep into meditation.! !

27

!
Having said that, modern man is more out of sync with his body and
mind than at any time in the past, and generally needs more preparation for
meditation than ever before. Haha Yoga-type sana and prnyma are
very helpful in preparing the body and mind for meditation. In particular,
doing sana and prnyma with mindfulness helps to calm and
concentrate the mind in a gentle and natural fashion, and automatically
inclines it towards deeper meditation. Practitioners of modern yoga
techniques such as those taught by S-Vyassa which combine physical
postures and movement with awareness and natural breath to achieve
physical and mental relaxation, alignment and attunement will find early
Buddhist methods of mindfulness meditation to be of great affinity and use,
being much more compatible than strictly Haha Yoga methods based on
the forceful control of body, mind and breath.!
!
If one can harness the power of a concentrated mind to contemplate
and gain insight into suffering, impermanence and not-self as taught by the
Buddha, then one can achieve an insight that cuts off a lot of suffering. If
one attains samdhi or jhna and turns this supremely concentrated mind
to the contemplation of suffering, impermanence and not-self as taught by
the Buddha, one can even gain that perfect insight which leads to nibbna. !
!
Of course, to enter into samdhi or jhna requires a sustained period
of meditation in solitude and silence, and cannot be achieved in weekly or
even daily Haha yoga-type sessions. However, the weekly or daily practice
of Haha yoga sana, prnyma and kriy along with the observance of
yama, niyama and pratyhra all help to prepare body and mind for more
intensive meditation in retreat. In any case, it is certain that through the
skillful and knowledgeable combination of techniques from modern yoga
and yogic and early Buddhist meditation, one can gain both immediate
relief and ultimate liberation from suffering. !
!
!
May all beings achieve health, happiness, wisdom and liberation!!
!
!
END &

Endnotes and Citations:&

1

For dating of Patajalis Yoga Stras, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali

28

There is a lack of good studies on this topic. Most of the available articles on the web are
riddled with appalling mistakes due to an abhorrent lack of understanding of one or the other
system. Some of the few more creditable attempts to compare Buddhism and Yoga, like that by
Dr. David Frawley (http://vedanet.com/2012/06/13/yoga-and-buddhism-similarities-anddifferences/), nevertheless make the grave mistake of not taking into account the evolutionary
history of these two traditions when making comparisons. As a result, the grounds of
comparison and conclusions drawn are simply too broad and general to be sufficiently accurate
or useful.
3

By early Yoga, I refer to the earliest strata of Yoga as can be discerned from archaeological
evidence and texts. In this report, I take early Yoga to refer to the time up to the writing of
Patajalis Yoga Stras.
4

By early Buddhism, I refer to the earliest strata of Buddhism as recorded in the earliest
Buddhist texts. The most complete edition of these texts is the Pali Canon of the Theravda
School, which is also the only early Buddhist sect still surviving today.
5

Yoga Stra verse I.51: Tasypi nirodhe sarva nirodhn nirbja samdhi.

Haha Yoga generally deals with snas, prnyama, kundalini, bandhas, kriys, akti, ns
and mudrs. For a chronological listing of early Haha Yoga texts and the development of recent
Haha Yoga systems, see Fig. 1. Interestingly, the wikipedia entry on Haha Yoga (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_yoga) notes that some of the Haha Yoga techniques can be traced
back to the early Buddhist Pali canon: The Pali canon contains three passages in which the
Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger
or the mind, depending on the passage.[7] However there is no mention of the tongue being
inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecar mudr. The Buddha used a posture where
pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to
stimulate Kundalini.
7

See The Great Transformation: the world in the time of Buddha, Socrates, Confucius and
Jeremiah by Karen Armstrong (2006), Atlantic Books, and also Studies in the Origins of
Buddhism by G. C Pande (2006), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
8

Marshall, p79, as cited in Pande (2006)

For references to Muni-s in the Upanishads, see Pande (2006), and also Kaltattvakoa: A
Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts, Volume 1 by Kapila Vatsyayan and
Bettina Bumer (1998), pg 75. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. See also see http://
www.jainworld.com/jainbooks/Books/ARHAT.htm
10

See Armstrong (2006) and Pande (2006).

11

Pande (2006), pg 258-259.

12

Ibid.

13

Ibid.

29

14

See Ariyapariyesana Sutta http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.026.than.html. Also,

The Origin of Buddhist Meditation by Alexander Wynne London & New York: Routledge, 2007.
which is reviewed here http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol5/the-origin-of-buddhistmeditation.html
15

For a good discussion of the 4 Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path, see The Buddhas
ancient path by Thera Piyadassi. http://www.visuddha-m-c.com/vmc%20sg/books%20doc/Ven
%20Piyadassi%20Thera%20Books/Buddha%27s%20Ancient%20Path.pdf
16

They are generally taught nowadays, however, in various abbreviated forms, which I wont go
into here.
17

For example, Mahayana schools of Buddhism put NIbbna on the back burner and smuggled
back in notions of the self and soul, and gave devotion a central place in its soteriology. The
Yogacara School of Buddhism was a outgrowth of the interaction of Buddhism and Yoga, and
Tantric schools of Buddhism like Tibetan Vajrayana absorbed practices from esoteric Hindu and
Yogic cults (e.g. from Kashmiri Shaivism).
18

Other reasons include the Muslim destruction of Buddhist monasteries and universities
including of Nland in 1200 C.E. The recovery of Indias Buddhist history was only undertaken
in the 19th century as British archaeologists found and excavated Buddhist sites such as
Bodhgaya, using the translated records of the Chinese Tang-dynasty pilgrim Xuanzang.
19

On six schools of Indian philosophy, see http://www.swamij.com/six-schools-indianphilosophy.htm

20

For dating of Upanishads, see wiki entry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishads

21

E.g see wiki entry on Mandukya Upanishad: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Mandukya_Upanishad
22

Buddhist influence can particularly be seen in the Nyaya school of reasoning and in the
meditative stages and methods of Astanga Yoga, for e.g.
23

See http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/vonglasenapp/wheel002.html

24

See "The relation between Buddhism and the Upanishads" by A.K. Sharma in "The Monist",
Vol. 38, No. 3 (July 1928), pp. 443-477. Oxford Univ. Press.
25

See dating of Bhagavad Gita, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita.

26

E.g., Chapter 2 is on Skhya Yoga, Chapter 3 on Karma Yoga, Chapter 4 on Jna Yoga,
Chapter 5 on Karma-Vairgya Yoga, and so on. For translation of Bhagavad Gita, see http://
www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/chapter-01.html
27

Scheepers, Alfred (2000), De Wortels van het Indiase Denken, Olive Press, as cited in http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita
28

Deutsch, Eliot; Dalvi, Rohit (2004), The Essential Vednta: A New Source Book of Advaita
Vednta, World Wisdom, Inc, as cited in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita

30

29

Samkhya comes from samyag akhyate, which literally means that which explains the whole.
Skhya philosophy deals with Prakiti (matter), Purua (consciousness), buddhi or mahat
(intelligence), ahamkara (I-am-ness), three Guas (elements of stability, activity, and lightness),
mind (manas), cognitive and active senses (indriyas), and the five subtle and gross elements
(earth, water, fire, air, and space). From http://www.swamij.com/six-schools-indianphilosophy.htm
30

Scholars consider the last chapter as added on later. I will not consider it here.

31

On Nyaya Stras, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras

32

There are four stages of enlightenment in early Buddhism, namely stream-entry, oncereturner, non-returner and arhat. In the final stage of liberation, the seeker gains perfect insight,
attains Nibbna and becomes an Arhat. The earlier 3 stages of enlightenment do not require the
mastery of jhna, but for perfect insight and Nibbna to occur, the power of fixed concentration
is needed.
33

As noted by Professor Gombrich in How Buddhism Began (http://www.misterdanger.net/

books/Buddhism%20Books/How%20Buddhism%20began%202nd%20ed.pdf), the Buddha
often used Brahmanical and terms by other non-Buddhist teachers but gave them new
meanings. For the Sutta on Brahma-vihara, see http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/
an10.208.than.html.
34

As mentioned in Mindfulness in early Buddhism: new approaches through psychology and

textual analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit sources by Tse-fu Kuan (2008), pg. 83.
Routledge.
35

Muluposatha Sutta: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.070.than.html

36

The Visuddhimagga or The Path of Purification by Buddhaghosa is an enclyclopedic work

on early Buddhist meditation in the commentarial tradition, which has detailed description of
stages of samdhi. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nanamoli/
PathofPurification2011.pdf. If we use the schema of 16 insight-knowledges which was first
employed in the Visuddhimagga, the immature realization of the 1st to 5th insight-knowledges
could be states of savitark samdhi (samdhi with deliberation), while the mature realization of
the 1st to 5th insight-knowledges could be states of nirvitark samdhi (samdhi without name
and quality), and the stages leading into Nibbna could be states of nirvicra samdhi.
37

Patajali seems to take after the Buddha who was fond of summarizing points of doctrine and
practice in numbered lists, probably to make it easy for monks to memorize. In early Buddhism,
there are 4 stages of enlightenment, and 7 factors of enlightenment. The early Buddhist
commentarial literature also mentions 7 stages of purification and 16 insight-knowledges.
38

The npnasati Sutta is an early Buddhist Sutta that teaches mindfulness of breathing in 16
steps and 4 tetrads. Buddhadsa Bhikkhu provides an excellent explanation of this meditation
method in his book Mindfulness with breathing: a manual for serious beginners. A more
detailed book called Anapanasati is available online here: http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/
anapanasati.pdf
39

Maha-satipahna is commonly translated as the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, and is

described in the Satipana and Mahasatipahna Sutta. For an excellent study of the
Satipahna Sutta, see Satipahna: the direct path to realization by Anlaya (2003).

31

40

E.g. the Subha Sutta mentions the 5 things a Brahmin student practiced as saccam, tapam,
brahmacariya, ajjhenam and caga.
41

See http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wayof.html

42

The verse on pratyahara states Vitarka bdhane pratipaka bhvanam

43

Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice by Mark Singleton (2010), Oxford Univ.
Press.
44

For a very useful listing of the factors of the 4 jhnas and immaterial jhnas, see http://thewanderling.com/jhana_factors.html
45

This split probably originated with Buddhaghosas schema in the Visuddhimagga.

46

While jhna is not necessary for attaining the insight which leads to stream-entry, it might be
necessary for attaining that perfect insight which leads to Nibbna.
47

For example, the Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purification by Buddhaghosa.

48

For a very useful listing of the factors of the 4 jhnas and immaterial jhnas, see http://thewanderling.com/jhana_factors.html

32