Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the eect of

any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms,
expectations, and context, on the way language is used,
and the eects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics diers from sociology of language in that the focus of
sociology of language is the eect of language on the society, while sociolinguistics focuses on the societys eect
on language. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable
degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related
to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the
two elds has even been questioned recently.[1]

same for a regional dialect.

The study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual
environment. Code-switching is the term given to the use
of dierent varieties of language in dierent social situations.
William Labov is often regarded as the founder of the
study of sociolinguistics. He is especially noted for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and
change,[8] making the sociology of language into a scientic discipline.

It also studies how language varieties dier between

groups separated by certain social variables (e.g.,
ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age,
etc.) and how creation and adherence to these rules is
used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic
classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to
place, language usage also varies among social classes,
and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.

Also, the sociolinguistics can study a gradual transition

of individual values of a word in the context its semantics
which occur in some ethnic, cultural or social groups.
For example, Russian linguist A.V. Altyntsev studied the
semantics of word love (the Udmurt Idiom (Udmurtish) of Yiddish ) among the Ashkenazi Jews from
Udmurtia and Tatarstan. He was able to make up a gradation of meanings of this word (scale of gradients) and
The social aspects of language were in the modern sense
established that the concept of love is a gradual transition
rst studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, of individual values, where reference point raises the proand also by Louis Gauchat in Switzerland in the early le vector State Ethnic commonality Family.[9]
1900s, but none received much attention in the West
until much later. The study of the social motivation of
language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in
the wave model of the late 19th century. The rst attested 2 Traditional sociolinguistic interuse of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan
view
Hodson in the title of his 1939 article Sociolinguistics in
India published in Man in India.[2][3] Sociolinguistics in
the West rst appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered Sociolinguistic interviews are an integral part of collectby linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil ing data for sociolinguistic studies. There is an interBernstein in the UK. In the 1960s, William Stewart[4] viewer, who is conducting the study, and a subject, or
and Heinz Kloss introduced the basic concepts for the informant, who is the interviewee. In order to get a grasp
sociolinguistic theory of pluricentric languages, which on a specic linguistic form and how it is used in the
describes how standard language varieties dier between dialect of the subject, a variety of methods are used to
nations (e.g.
American/British/Canadian/Australian elicit certain registers of speech. There are ve dierent
[5]
English;
Austrian/German/Swiss
German;[6] styles, ranging from formal to casual. The most formal
Bosnian/Croatian/Montenegrin/Serbian
Serbo- style would be elicited by having the subject read a list of
[7]
minimal pairs (MP). Minimal pairs are pairs of words that
Croatian ).
dier in only one phoneme, such as cat and bat. Having
the subject read a word list (WL) will elicit a formal register, but generally not as formal as MP. The reading pas1 Applications of sociolinguistics sage (RP) style is next down on the formal register, and
the interview style (IS) is when an interviewer can nally
For example, a sociolinguist might determine through get into eliciting a more casual speech from the subject.
study of social attitudes that a particular vernacular would During the IS the interviewer can converse with the subnot be considered appropriate language use in a business ject and try to draw out of them an even more casual sort
or professional setting. Sociolinguists might also study of speech by asking him to recall childhood memories or
the grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, and other aspects maybe a near death experience, in which case the subject
of this sociolect much as dialectologists would study the will get deeply involved with the story since strong emo1

4 DIFFERENCES ACCORDING TO CLASS

tions are often attached to these memories. Of course,

the most sought after type of speech is the casual style
(CS). This type of speech is dicult if not impossible to
elicit because of the Observers Paradox. The closest one
might come to CS in an interview is when the subject is
interrupted by a close friend or family member, or perhaps must answer the phone. CS is used in a completely
unmonitored environment where the subject feels most
comfortable and will use their natural vernacular without
overtly thinking about it.

Fundamental concepts in sociolinguistics

Crucial to sociolinguistic analysis is the concept of prestige; certain speech habits are assigned a positive or a negative value, which is then applied to the speaker. This can
operate on many levels. It can be realised on the level
of the individual sound/phoneme, as Labov discovered
in investigating pronunciation of the post-vocalic /r/ in
the North-Eastern USA, or on the macro scale of language choice, as realised in the various diglossias that exist throughout the world, where Swiss-German/High German is perhaps most well known. An important implication of sociolinguistic theory is that speakers 'choose' a
variety when making a speech act, whether consciously
or subconsciously.
The terms acrolectal (high) and basilectal (low) are also
used to distinguish between a more standard dialect and
a dialect of less prestige.[12]

While the study of sociolinguistics is very broad, there

are a few fundamental concepts on which many sociolinguistic inquiries depend.
3.3

3.1

Speech community

Main article: Speech community

Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that
describes a distinct group of people who use language in
a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.
This is sometimes referred to as a Sprechbund.
To be considered part of a speech community, one must
have a communicative competence. That is, the speaker
has the ability to use language in a way that is appropriate in the given situation. It is possible for a
speaker to be communicatively competent in more than
one language.[10]

Social network

Understanding language in society means that one also

has to understand the social networks in which language
is embedded. A social network is another way of describing a particular speech community in terms of relations
between individual members in a community. A network
could be loose or tight depending on how members interact with each other.[13] For instance, an oce or factory
may be considered a tight community because all members interact with each other. A large course with 100+
students would be a looser community because students
may only interact with the instructor and maybe 12 other
students. A multiplex community is one in which members have multiple relationships with each other.[13] For
instance, in some neighborhoods, members may live on
the same street, work for the same employer and even intermarry.

Speech communities can be members of a profession

with a specialized jargon, distinct social groups like high
school students or hip hop fans, or even tight-knit groups
like families and friends. Members of speech communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the groups
special purposes and priorities.

The looseness or tightness of a social network may affect speech patterns adopted by a speaker. For instance,
Sylvie Dubois and Barbara Horvath found that speakers
in one Cajun Louisiana community were more likely to
pronounce English th [] as [t] (or [] as [d]) if they
participated in a relatively dense social network (i.e. had
Community of Practice allows for sociolinguistics to ex- strong local ties and interacted with many other speakers
amine the relationship between socialization, compe- in the community), and less likely if their networks were
tence, and identity. Since identity is a very complex struc- looser (i.e. fewer local ties).[14]
ture, studying language socialization is a means to exam- A social network may apply to the macro level of a counine the micro interactional level of practical activity (ev- try or a city, but also to the inter-personal level of neigheryday activities). The learning of a language is greatly borhoods or a single family. Recently, social networks
inuenced by family but it is supported by the larger local have been formed by the Internet, through chat rooms,
surroundings, such as school, sports teams, or religion. Facebook groups, organizations, and online dating serSpeech communities may exist within a larger commu- vices.
nity of practice.[11]

3.2

High prestige and low prestige varieties 4

Main article: Prestige (sociolinguistics)

Dierences according to class

Further information: Linguistic insecurity

4.3

Covert prestige

Sociolinguistics as a eld distinct from dialectology was

pioneered through the study of language variation in urban areas. Whereas dialectology studies the geographic
distribution of language variation, sociolinguistics focuses on other sources of variation, among them class.
Class and occupation are among the most important linguistic markers found in society. One of the fundamental ndings of sociolinguistics, which has been hard to
disprove, is that class and language variety are related.
Members of the working class tend to speak less standard
language, while the lower, middle, and upper middle class
will in turn speak closer to the standard. However, the upper class, even members of the upper middle class, may
often speak 'less standard than the middle class. This is
because not only class, but class aspirations, are important.

3
knowledge and common understanding often bring them
together in a way that other social language groups do
not experience. The dierence with the restricted code
is the emphasis on 'we' as a social group, which fosters greater solidarity than an emphasis on 'I'. The time
when restricted-code matters is the day when children
start school where the standard variety of language is
used. Moreover, the written form of a language is already very dierent from the everyday form. Children
with restricted-code, therefore, struggle at school more
than those who speak an elaborated-code.

However, this type of communicative skills may not be

understood by other children who belong to other classes.
Whats more, children with restricted-code may have difculty in understanding the teacher, the only source of
information for them at school. Therefore, it is suggested
that working-class children should have pre-school training within their early childhood period. Early schooling
4.1 Class aspiration
may provide them with opportunities to acquire a manner
Studies, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, of speaking that is considered appropriate at school.
have shown that social aspirations inuence speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations. In the pro- 4.2.2 Elaborated code
cess of wishing to be associated with a certain class (usually the upper class and upper middle class) people who Basil Bernstein also studied what he named the 'elaboare moving in that direction socio-economically will ad- rated code' explaining that in this type of speech pattern
just their speech patterns to sound like them. How- the middle and upper classes use this language style to
ever, not being native upper class speakers, they often gain access to education and career advancement. Bonds
hypercorrect, which involves overcorrecting their speech within this social group are not as well dened and people
to the point of introducing new errors. The same is true achieve their social identity largely on the basis of indifor individuals moving down in socio-economic status.
vidual disposition and temperament. There is no obviIn any contact situation, there is a power dynamic, be ous division of tasks according to sex or age and generit a teacher-student or employee-customer situation, this ally, within this social formation members negotiate and
power dynamic results in a hierarchical dierentiation achieve their roles, rather than have them there readymade in advance. Due to the lack of solidarity the elabobetween languages.[15]
rated social language code requires individual intentions
and viewpoints to be made explicit as the 'I' has a greater
4.2 Social language codes
emphasis with this social group than the working class.
The following table illustrates dierences in language asBasil Bernstein, a well-known British socio-linguist, desociated with social position:
vised in his book, 'Elaborated and restricted codes: their
social origins and some consequences,' a social code system he used to classify the various speech patterns for 4.3 Covert prestige
dierent social classes. He claimed that members of the
middle class have ways of organizing their speech that Main article: Prestige (sociolinguistics)
are fundamentally very dierent from the ways adopted
by the working class.
It is generally assumed that non-standard language is lowprestige language. However, in certain groups, such as
traditional working-class neighborhoods, standard lan4.2.1 Restricted code
guage may be considered undesirable in many contexts.
In Basil Bernsteins theory, the restricted code was an ex- This is because the working class dialect is generally
ample of the speech patterns used by the working class. considered a powerful in-group marker, and especially
He stated that this type of code allows strong bonds be- for non-mobile individuals, the use of non-standard vatween group members, who tend to behave largely on the rieties (even exaggeratedly so) expresses neighborhood
basis of distinctions such as 'male', 'female', 'older', and pride and group and class solidarity. There will thus be
'younger'. This social group also uses language in a way a considerable dierence in use of non-standard varieties
that brings unity between people, and members often do when going to the pub or having a neighborhood barbenot need to be explicit about meaning, as their shared cue (high), and going to the bank (lower) for the same

REFERENCES

Linguistic landscape

individual.

Linguistic marketplace

Sociolinguistic variables

Main articles: Variation (linguistics), Dialectology, and

Language and gender
Studies in the eld of sociolinguistics typically take a
sample population and interview them, assessing the realisation of certain sociolinguistic variables.
A commonly studied source of variation is regional dialects. Dialectology studies variations in language based
primarily on geographic distribution and their associated
features. Sociolinguists concerned with grammatical and
phonological features that correspond to regional areas
are often called dialectologists.
There are several dierent types of age-based variation
one may see within a population. They are: vernacular of
a subgroup with membership typically characterized by a
specic age range, age-graded variation, and indications
of linguistic change in progress.
Variation may also be associated with gender. Men and
women, on average, tend to use slightly dierent language
styles. These dierences tend to be quantitative rather
than qualitative. That is, to say that women use a particular speaking style more than men do is akin to saying that
men are taller than women (i.e., men are on average taller
than women, but some women are taller than some men).
Further information:
gender

Complimentary language and

See also
Anthropological linguistics
Audience design
Ausbausprache
Axiom of categoricity
Diglossia
Folk linguistics
Interactional sociolinguistics
Language ideology
Language planning
Language policy
Language secessionism
Linguistic anthropology

Matched-guise test
Metapragmatics
Mutual intelligibility
Pluricentric language
Prestige (sociolinguistics)
Real-time sociolinguistics
Social network (sociolinguistics)
Sociocultural linguistics
Sociohistorical linguistics
Sociolinguistics of sign languages
Standard language
Style-shifting
Variation analysis
Category:Sociolinguists

7 References
[1] and Jenny Cook-Gumperz, Studying language, culture,
and society: Sociolinguistics or linguistic anthropology?".
Journal of Sociolinguistics 12(4), 2008: 532545.
[2] Paulston, Christine Bratt and G. Richard Tucker, eds.
Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings. Malden, Ma.:
Wiley-Blackwell, 2003.
[3] T. C. Hodson and the Origins of British Socio-linguistics
by John E. Joseph Sociolinguistics Symposium 15,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, April 2004
[4] Stewart, William A (1968). A Sociolinguistic Typology for Describing National Multilingualism. In
Fishman, Joshua A. Readings in the Sociology of Language.
The Hague, Paris: Mouton.
p.
534.
doi:10.1515/9783110805376.531.
ISBN 978-3-11080537-6. OCLC 306499.
[5] Kloss, Heinz (1976). Abstandsprachen und Ausbausprachen [Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages]. In
Gschel, Joachim; Nail, Norbert; van der Elst, Gaston. Zur Theorie des Dialekts: Aufstze aus 100 Jahren
Forschung. Zeitschrift fr Dialektologie and Linguistik,
Beihefte, n.F., Heft 16. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner. p. 310.
OCLC 2598722.
[6] Ammon, Ulrich (1995). Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, sterreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietten [German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties]
(in German). Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter. pp.
111. OCLC 33981055.

[7] Kordi, Snjeana (2010). Jezik i nacionalizam [Language

and Nationalism] (PDF). Rotulus Universitas (in SerboCroatian). Zagreb: Durieux. pp. 7790. ISBN 978-953188-311-5. LCCN 2011520778. OCLC 729837512. OL
15270636W. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012.
Retrieved 17 May 2015.
[8] Paolillo, John C. Analyzing Linguistic Variation: Statistical
Models and Methods CSLI Press 2001, Tagliamonte, Sali
Analysing Sociolinguistic Variation Cambridge, 2006
[9] Altyntsev A.V., The Concept of Love in Ashkenazim
of Udmurtia and Tatarstan, Nauka Udmurtii. 2013.
4 (66), p. 127-132. ( .., "
-
". . 2013. 4. . 127132.) (Russian)
[10] Deckert, Sharon K. and Caroline H. Vikers. (2011).
An Introduction to Sociolinguistics: Society and Identity.
Page 59
[11] Deckert, Sharon K. and Caroline H. Vikers. (2011).
An Introduction to Sociolinguistics: Society and Identity.
Page 74-76
[12] Nordquest, Richard. Acrolect vs. Basilect.
[13] Wardhaugh, Ronald (2006), An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, New York: Wiley-Blackwell
[14] Dubois, Sylvie and Horvath, Barbara. (1998). Lets tink
about dat: Interdental Fricatives in Cajun English. Language Variation and Change 10 (3), pp 24561.
[15] Deckert, Sharon K. and Caroline H. Vikers. (2011).
An Introduction to Sociolinguistics: Society and Identity.
Page 44
[16] Gumperz, John (1964). Linguistic and social interaction
in two communities. American Anthropologist. 66 (6,
part 2). doi:10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00100.
[17] Trudgill, Peter (1974). The Social Dierentiation of English in Norwich. 13. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. p. 56.
[18] Labov, William (1966). The Social Stratication of English in New York City. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. p. 66.

Kordi, Snjeana (2009).

Plurizentrische
Sprachen, Ausbausprachen, Abstandsprachen
und die Serbokroatistik [Pluricentric languages,
Ausbau languages, Abstand languages and the
Serbo-Croatistics]. Zeitschrift fr Balkanologie (in
German). 45 (2): 210215. ISSN 0044-2356.
OCLC 680567046. ZDB-ID 201058-6. Archived
from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 11
April 2013.
(2014). Lengua y Nacionalismo [Language
and Nationalism] (in Spanish). Madrid: Euphona
Ediciones. p. 416. ISBN 978-84-936668-8-0. OL
16814702W. Retrieved 26 July 2015. External link
in |publisher= (help)
Labov, William (2010). Principles of Linguistic
Change (3 volume set ed.). Malden: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-2788-5.
Lako, Robin Tolmach (2000). The Language War.
University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52092807-7.
Meyerho, Miriam (2011). Introducing Sociolinguistics. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-284435.
Milroy, Lesley; Gordon, Matthew (2008). Sociolinguistics: Method and Interpretation. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-75820-5.
Paulston, Christina Bratt; Tucker, G. Richard
(2010). The Early Days of Sociolinguistics: Memories and Reections. Dallas: SIL International.
ISBN 978-1-55671-253-1.
Tagliamonte, Sali (2006). Analysing Sociolinguistic
Variation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780-521-77818-3.
Trudgill, Peter (2000). Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. Penguin. ISBN
978-0-14-192630-8.
Watts, Richard J. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79406-0.

9 External links
8

Further reading
Chambers, J. K. (2009). Sociolinguistic Theory:
Linguistic Variation and Its Social Signicance.
Malden: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-40515246-4.
Darnell, Regna (1971). Linguistic Diversity in Canadian Society. Edmonton: Linguistic Research.
OCLC 540626.

Applied Linguistics at DMOZ

About sociolinguistic eldwork. The North Carolina Language and Life Project.
Sociolinguistics: an interview with William Labov
ReVEL, vol. 5, n. 9, 2007.

10

10
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