BIODIVERSITY OF OUR TIMES

‘Biodiversity’ is the catchword of the time since we celebrate the year 2010 as the
‘biodiversity year. The alarm of the climate change and consequences of global warming
has led to the attention of the international community towards the survival of the
universe and need for the conservation of the biodiversity to achieve the goal. In this
paper we shall have an overall view of the global biodiversity, local forms and threats to
the existence of biodiversity and major conservation measures to meet the challenge of
biodiversity loss.
Distribution of Biodiversity on Earth
Biodiversity is distributed heterogeneously across the Earth. Some areas are rich with
biological variation (e.g. some moist tropical forests and coral reefs), others are virtually
devoid of life (e.g. some deserts and Polar Regions), and most fall somewhere in
between. Systematists generally agree that whatever be the absolute numbers of living
organisms on earth, more than half of the species live in the moist tropical forest, which
occupy only seven percent of the land surface of the earth.
Biodiversity of the Tropics
The tropics, situated in the equatorial regions of the world, lies between the Tropic of
Cancer in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern
hemisphere. Tropical climate is warm, hot and humid year-round where the rainfall is
200 centimeters or more per year. It also signifies lush vegetation and harbours broad
leaved evergreen trees with three or more horizontal layers. However, there are places in
the tropics with snow-capped peaks, including Mt. Kilimanjaro, and the Sahara Desert.
Tropical plants and animals are those species native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems
consist of wet ever green forests, semi evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, dry
deciduous forests, thorny forests, grasslands, desert and other habitat types. They are rich
in biodiversity with high endemism. The best examples are the Brazilian Amazon, the
Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats in India. 80% of the insects and 90% of the
primates live in the tropics. For instance, from a single tropical leguminous tree 43 ant
species belonging to 26 genera have been retrieved by Wilson (1989). This is
approximately equal to the ant diversity of all of the British Isles. In 10 selected one
hectare plots in Kalimantan in Indonesia, Peter S. Ashton of Harvard University found
more than 700 tree species, about equal to the number of tree species native to all North
America.
Why the Tropics are rich in biodiversity?
One line of thinking maintains that tropical habitats are biologically rich because they’ve
had a longer time to accumulate species. Regions near the equator have not been
repeatedly inundated by glaciers burying all forms of life, as have places like Canada,
northern United States and northern Europe. Not only are the tropics a “museum” of
species, they are also where new species are most likely to arise. The rate of origin of
new types of organisms increases as one moves closer to the equator. Support for this
principle comes from both fossil evidence and from the extent of genetic diversity found
within living species. Vertebrate animals in equatorial regions, for instance, have on an
average more subspecies than do those closer to the poles.
Tropical Rainforest
Tropical Rainforests are warm, wet forests with many tall trees. In most Tropical
Rainforests, it rains every day or a similar moisture level exists throughout the year.
Tropical Rainforests grow in a narrow zone near the equator. They are found in Africa,
Asia, Australia, and South and Central America. The largest rainforest in the world is the
Amazon rainforest in South America. Tropical Rainforests are home to a huge number of
different plants and animals. All Tropical Rainforests are considered as endangered.
The sun and the rain combine to create an environment that is very humid. This climate is
ideal for the growth of many kinds of green plants. Tropical Rainforests are wet nearly all
the time. They get lots of rain all year long, also help make rain through evaporation. For
instance, Silent Valley, the rainforest patch in Kerala, receives the second highest rate of
rainfall in the country after the Mawsynram-Cheerapunji belt in the Khasi Hills of the
Himalayan ranges in Meghalaya, known as the world’s wettest place. Some areas of the
Valley like Valakkad received a record annual rainfall of 9569 mm in 2006.
Rainforests need lots of water and most of it comes pouring down as rain - at least 200
cm per year. Some tropical rainforests get more than 3 cm per day! When it is not
raining, the leaves are dripping and steam is rising.
Rainforest trees are always “sweating” water. One tree might release over 755 Litres of
water every year. This makes rainforest climates very different from other environments.
In other climates, the water vapour blows away and later falls as rain in far off areas. But
in rainforests half the precipitation comes from the forests’ own evaporation. Much of the
rain that falls on the rainforest never reaches the ground. It stays on the trees because the
leaves act as umbrellas.
Rainforests are repositories of biodiversity, especially the unexplored and wild kind.
More than half the species on Earth are found in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests
are important to everyone, not just to the plants and animals living there. For example,
scientists are always discovering new plants. Some of these plants contain substances that
can be made into medicines. In addition, tropical rainforests store huge quantities of
carbon, while producing much of the world’s oxygen Some people call tropical
rainforests the lungs of the planet because they make so much of the oxygen that animals
breathe. Another important role tropical rainforests play is in regulating global weather.
They maintain regular rainfall. They also help prevent floods, droughts, and erosion.
Hence conservation of rainforests is vital in adaptation and mitigation of climate change
too.
Biodiversity of the Temperate Regions
Temperate region of the earth lies between the tropics and the polar circles. This region is
characterized by distinct weather pattern like the summer, winter, autumn and spring. The
climate is generally mild and hence the low level of biodiversity. Compared to tropics the
species richness and abundance is lesser in the temperate region. But it has its own
specialist taxa, adapted to live in the changing weather pattern. Extremes of summer and
winter also occur in parts of temperate region as in Central North America, The term
‘temperate forest’ is very broad which covers not only the forests found between the
tropical and subtropical regions but also the barren, treeless lands of the far north and
extreme south. There are many types of temperate forests, but the main categories are:
coniferous forests, mixed broadleaved/ coniferous forests; and broad-leaved, within each
of these categories there are many different subtypes of forest. Some temperate forests
receive so much rain, they are sometimes called rainforests! The great Douglas fir and
hemlock forests of the United States’ Pacific Northwest and Canada’s British Colombia
receive more than 2,000 mm of rain a year. They are dominated by coniferous trees.
Another type of temperate, evergreen rainforest occurs in Chile, South America. Here
there is a great diversity of broadleaved trees including the Southern Beech. In autumn,
the leaves turn beautiful shades of red, orange and yellow before they drop off the trees.
Common Temperate forests are simpler in structure than tropics forests and support a
smaller number of tree species.
Polar Regions
Earth’s polar regions are the areas of the globe surrounding the North Pole and the South
Pole, dominated by the polar ice caps, The polar regions rest respectively on the Arctic
Ocean and the continent of Antarctica. These regions receive less intensive solar
radiation because the sun’s energy arrives at an oblique angle, spreading over a large
area, and also travels a longer distance through the Earth’s atmosphere in which it may be
absorbed, scattered or reflected. The core of the Arctic is a great ocean - the Arctic Ocean
- parts of which are cover all year round by ice that drifts about the North Pole. The
Arctic Ocean has many thousands of big and small islands and is almost surrounded by
land: the northern parts of Europe, Asia and North America. The Antarctic is an isolated
continent surrounding the South Pole. Most of Antarctica’s land lies beneath ice and
snow almost 2 km thick. It has high mountains and glaciers and is the coldest, driest and
windiest continent on Earth.
There are many settlements in Earth’s North Polar Region. As such, the northern polar
region is diverse in human settlements and cultures. The southern polar region has no
permanent human habitation. McMurdo Station is the largest research station in
Antarctica, run by the United States. Other notable stations include, Vostok Station
(Russia) Dakshin Gangotri (India). While there are no indigenous human cultures, there
is a complex ecosystem, especially along Antarctica’s coastal zones. The animal diversity
of the polar region is relatively low. Coastal upwelling provides abundant nutrients which
feed krills (crustaceans). They are the food source of penguins and blue whales. The
Polar Regions too are under threat due to human interferences and exploitation. The
global warming due to green house gases leads to melting of polar ice caps and the
impacts predicted are so severe.

Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity varies with change in latitude, altitude and climatic regimes of the earth. As
we move from equator to Polar Regions biodiversity decreases. This pattern can be seen
in the terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats. In 1988, Dr. Norman Myers, an Oxford
ecologist proposed the concept of biodiversity hotspots. They are earth’s biologically
richest and most endangered terrestrial eco-regions. According to the classification of
Myers et al. (2000) there are 25 hotspots scattered in different parts of the world. They
together represent only 1.4 percent of the earth’s land area, but contain 44 percent of all
plant species and 35 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species in the world. Each of
these hotspots is under severe pressure due to anthropogenic interventions and has
already lost at least 70 percent of its original natural vegetation.
Russell. M of Conservation International (CI) identified 17 countries as Megadiversity
Countries representing more than two-thirds of all (known) life forms and the majority
of tropical rainforests, coral reefs and other priority systems. The results of the
assessment were published in the Megadiversity: Earth’s biologically wealthiest nations
(Mittermeier et a/., 1997). They are Australia, Congo, Madagascar, South Africa, China,
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Mexico, Peru, United States and Venezuela.
Hotspots in India
India is the seventh largest country in the world and second largest nation in Asia with an
area of 3,287,263 km2. The Indian mainland stretches from 80 4' to 370 6' N latitude and
from 680 7' to 970 25' E longitude. It has a land frontier of some 15,200 km and a coastline
of 7,517 km. India’s population is above one billion as per 2001 census. India accounts
for a meager 2.4 per cent land area of the world; yet, it supports and sustains 16.7 per
cent of the world population. India is a mega diversity country, which accounts for 7-8
per cent of the recorded species of the world, including over 45,500 species of plants and
91,000 species of animals. India is home to 8.58 per cent of mammals, 13.66 per cent of
birds, 12.57 per cent of herpeto-fauna (snakes), 11.72 per cent of fish, and 11.80 per cent
of plant species documented so far. Among the species found in India, 12.6 per cent of
mammals and 4.5 per cent of birds (55) are endemic, as against 45.8 per cent (187) of
reptiles and 55.8 per cent (110) of amphibians. Endemism among mammals and birds is
relatively low. Only 44 species of Indian mammals have a range that is confined entirely
to within Indian territorial limits. Four endemic species of conservation significance
occur in the Western Ghats. They are the Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri leaf monkey
(locally better known as Nilgiri langur), Brown palm civet, and Nilgiri tahr.
The three biodiversity hotspots in India as per the Conservation International list are:
Indo-Burma
Encompassing more than 2 million km2 of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma is still revealing its
biological treasures. This hotspot holds remarkable endemism in freshwater turtle
species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and
extensive habitat loss. Bird life in Indo-Burma is also incredibly diverse, holding almost
1,300 different bird species, including the threatened white-eared night-heron, the grey-
crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge. The endemic plant species in this
hotspot are more than 70000. The number of endemic threatened birds is 18, mammals 25
and amphibians 35.
The Himalaya
Stretching in an area over 3,000 km of northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and the
northwestern and northeastern states of India, the Himalaya hotspot includes all of the
world’s mountain peaks higher than 8,000 m. This includes the world’s highest mountain
peak, Mt. Everest as well as several of the world’s deepest river gorges.
This immense mountain range, which covers nearly 750,000 km2, has been divided into
two regions: the Eastern Himalaya, which covers parts of Nepal, Bhutan, the northeast
Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet
(China), and northern Myanmar, and the Western Himalaya, covering the Kumaon-
Garhwal, northwest Kashmir, and northern Pakistan. In the whole of Eastern Himalaya,
there are an estimated 9,000 plant species, out of which 3,500 (i.e. 39 per cent) are
endemic. In the Indian portion, there occurs some 5,800 plant species, roughly 2,000 (i.e.
36 per cent) of which are endemic. At least 55 flowering plants endemic to this area are
recognized as rare. The area has long been recognized as a rich centre of primitive
flowering plants and is popularly known as the ‘Cradle of Speciation’. The area is also
rich in wild relatives of plants of economic significance, e.g. rice, banana, citrus, ginger,
chilli, jute and sugarcane. Tea (Thea sinensis) has been cultivated in this region for the
last 4,000 years. Many wild and allied species of tea, the leaves of which are used as a
substitute for tea, are found in the North East, in their natural habitats.
The Western Ghats - Sri Lanka
The Western Ghats region is considered to be one of the most important bio-geographic
zones of India, as it is one of the richest centres of endemism. Due to varied topography
and microclimatic regimes, some areas within the region are considered to be active
zones of speciation. The region has 490 taxa, of which as many as 308 are endemic.
About 1,500 endemic species of dicotyledonous plants are reported from the Western
Ghats. 245 species of orchids belonging to 75 genera are found here, of which 112
species in ten genera are endemic to the region. With regards to the fauna, as many as
315 species of vertebrates belonging to 22 genera are endemic, including 12 species of
mammals, 13 species of birds, 89 species of reptiles, 87 species of amphibians and 104
species of fish. The extent of endemism is high amongst amphibian and reptile species.
There occur 117 species of amphibians in the region, of which 89 species (76 per cent)
are endemic. Of the 165 species of reptiles found in Western Ghats, 88 species are
endemic. Many of the endemic and other species are listed as threatened. Nearly 235
species of endemic flowering plants are considered endangered. Rare fauna of the region
include - Lion Tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, Flying Squirrel, and
Malabar Gray Hornbill. The Travancore Tortoise and Cane turtle are two endangered
taxa restricted to a small area in central Western Ghats.

Biodiversity in Kerala is what makes it ‘God’s own country’

Biodiversity of Kerala has immensely benefited the humankind and must be preserved in
a sustainable manner for future generations. The forest regions in Kerala lie on the
western slope of the Western Ghats at different altitudes rising up to 2694m above sea
level. This steep and abrupt topography create great variations in the environmental
conditions. All these factors provide ideal conditions for the existence of high levels of
biodiversity in the state.
Moreover, Kerala has a long coastline (590 km) and 44 rivers (41 West flowing, 3 East
flowing, 9000 tributaries) are criss-crossing the state. This has created diverse types of
habitats, offering an abode to wide variety of organisms.
The biodiversity in Kerala has benefited by many from 3000 BC, foreigners like
Assyrians and Babylonians were drawn to the state for the variety of spices available
here. Kerala has exported pepper, cardamom, lavender, ginger, garlic and teak, bamboo
and ivory products for a long time and still continues to do so. In Kerala forests, we find
more than 900 species of highly sought medicinal plants. Kani tribe, ; nomadic tribe now
settled in Thiruvananthapuram district, revealed the anti-fatigue properties of
Arogyapacha (Trichopus eylanicus) plant to the world. Since they pass their knowledge
orally through generations, the tribal medicinal system is now being rigourously explored
and documented by the state government.
Kerala forests are an excellent source of non-timber forest produce (NTFP), the
collection of which provide livelihoods to the local people and are sourced by even big
multinational companies. More than 500 species of NTFP are available in Kerala forests
and provide edible products, toiletries, tans, dyes, gums, resins, grasses and animal
products. Due to the high biodiversity, the state has emerged as one of the highly
acclaimed ecotourism destinations in the world. The Western Ghats, with its typical
forest ecosystem and natural advantages and the excellent tourism infrastructure in the
state have attracted large number of tourists. People come to Kerala for ayurvedic and
herbal treatment also.
However, a cause of concern is that the ecosystem in Kerala is very fragile and many
natural and man-made causes pose a great threat to its biodiversity. 159 species of
flowering plants are threatened and same is the case with hundreds of animal species. The
major man made causes include collection of firewood, illicit felling of trees, cattle
grazing, encroachments (Kerala is the most land hungry state in India and has the lowest
per capita land holding), poaching, illegal sand mining (leading to land sliding and
lowering of water table), unscientific collection of NTFP and mass tourism and
pilgrimage undertaken in the forest areas. Forest fire is the biggest natural hazard.
Current Knowledge on Different Mammals and Birds in Kerala Forests
Mammals
The mammals can be distinguished mainly by the presence of body hair and mammary
glands. At least 75 species of mammals have been recorded from Kerala. Fourteen
species, including the well known Lion-tailed macaque, the Nilgiri langur, Malabar civet
and others mentioned below are known to occur only in the Western Ghats (endemic).
The mammals can be broadly grouped, based on feeding habits into Carnivores and
Herbivores. The Carnivores include the Cats, Civets, Dogs, Bears, otter and marten and
the herbivores include the monkeys, bats, elephant, deer, bovids, pigs, hare, squirrels,
porcupine, rats and mouse and pangolin. However, a few among both (eg. bear, wild
boar, porcupine) are omnivores (feeding both on animal and plant matter). They can also
be grouped on the basis of size into large, medium and small mammals.
Monkeys (Primates): Monkeys are a group of animals with specially designed hands and
feet for grasping and are grouped with man under the Order Primates. There are five
species of ’monkeys’ in Kerala which are distinguishable into three groups - the
macaques, the langurs and the loris. The omnivorous macaques are characterised by the
presence of cheek pouches which can store hurriedly consumed food. The leaf eating
langurs do not have cheek pouches, but have a three chambered stomach. The tail-less
loris is a nocturnal primate with large round eyes.
Larger and Lesser Cats: Next to monkeys, the tiger and leopard, the two larger members
of the cat family are the best known wild animals in Kerala. The population of both the
species is small and the highest number is reported from the Periyar Tiger Reserve and
adjacent forests.
Four species of lesser cats occur in the forests of Kerala. These include the highly
endangered Rusty Spotted cat (reported from an abandoned house in Thiruvalla), the
Fishing cat seen mostly in coastal areas, the Leopard cat found mostly in evergreen
forests and the Jungle cat.
Civet cats: Civet cats are so named because they possess anal scent glands which produce
civet, a term derived from the Arabic, Zabat, denoting scent. They arc nocturnal animals
and play an important role in dispersal of plant seeds. The civet cats present in Kerala are
Brown palm civet and Malabar civet - the toddy cat (Palm civet), Small Indian civet, the
first two are commonly distributed throughout the State, but the last two are rare. The
SHIM]! Indian civet is reared in captivity for its anal gland secretion, used in Ayurveda.

Mustelids: Closer to cats and dogs, the Mustelids include the aquatic otters(Neer nai) and
the rare arboreal Nilgiri marten found in evergreen and shola forests. Two species of
otters, the Common otter and the Smooth Indian Otter are believed to occur in the
streams and the reservoirs of Kerala.
Dogs: The wild dogs, jackal, wolves and foxes constitute this group. They are all habitual
hunters.
Hyaena: The Hyaena is an animal closely related to dogs and live on carcasses. It has
been reported from the northern parts of Kerala.
Bear: Of the three species of bears in India only the Sloth bear occur in Kerala. Primarily
a nocturnal animal, it is omnivorous feeding on the fruits and tubers of a number of trees,
on termites, beetles and honey.
Mongooses: Mongooses are predatory animals somewhat close to civets. Four species are
known to occur in Kerala - the common mongoose, ruddy mongoose, striped necked
mongoose and the brown mongoose. The last two are rare.
Bats: Bats are mammals which can fly. There are two groups - the Megachiropterans
which feed on fruits and the Microchiropterans which feed on insects. Of the species of
bats in India at least 22 are known to occur in Kerala. These include the Indian flying fox,
the Indian Fulvous bats, Fox bats. Short nosed fruit bats. False Vampire bats, Leaf bats,
Horseshoe bats, Yellow .bats-, etc. The painted bat is” a colourful insectivorous bat often
mistaken as a large moth. The rare Latidens salimali is reported to occur in Periyar Tiger
Reserve.
Insectivores: The tree shrews, hedgehogs, moles and ground shrews constitute this group.
They include ground dwelling burrowing, and arboreal species. The Grey musk shrew is
the commonest. Pale hedgehog has been sighted at Ottappalam in Palakkad. We do not
have much information on other groups.
Elephants: A prominent animal of the deciduous forests, the elephant is distributed
throughout the state in all types of habitats. The large size and high food requirement
necessitate contiguous forest areas for their survival. Due to illicit killing for tusks, the
proportion of males in the population is dwindling.
Bovids: The bovid family consists of the oxen, sheep, goats, the antelopes and gazelles.
Of these, the highly endangered Nilgiri tahr and the Gaur (Indian bison) are the two
bovids occurring in the State. The Nilgiri tahr is endemic to Western Ghats and is
restricted to the higher reaches of grasslands. Two viable population of the species occur
in the state with adjoining parts of Tamil Nadu. Eravikulam National Park with
contiguous Grass Hills of Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary holds the highest population
of about 1200 animals. The higher reaches of Neyyar along with the areas of Kalakkad-
Mundanthurai forest contain the second largest population. Small isolated populations are
also present in different parts of the state including Parambikulam, Silent Valley and
Periyar Tiger Reserve.
The Gaur is the second largest animal in our forest. Once abundant in all forested areas,
they are now mostly restricted to Protected Areas. Parambikulam, Wayanad and Periyar
Tiger Reserve have the highest number of this vulnerable animal.
Deer: One of the well known groups of animals in our forests, the deers include Sambar
deer, Spotted deer, Barking deer and the Mouse deer. The Sambar deer, the largest South
East Asian deer is the most widely distributed species and occupy all habitat types. They
are usually found in small groups of three or four but larger aggregations of 60 and above
have been sighted in Parambikulam and Periyar Tiger Reserve. The Spotted deer also
forms large groups and is restricted mostly to the deciduous forests. The solitary Muntjac
deer has been sighted in parts of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Wayanad, Parambikulam, Idukki
and Munnar. The Indian Chevrotain or mouse deer, which is a small, shy and elusive
animal, has a preference for evergreen forests.
Pigs: The Wild boar is the only representative of this group in Kerala forests and is
widely distributed. Most of the crop damage reported from Kerala is attributable to this
species.
Rodents: Rodents form a major group, with arboreal squirrels and the _ terrestrial
porcupine, rats and mouse. The Malabar Giant Squirrel is a widely distributed solitary
animal, which makes nests on tree tops.- The Grizzled Giant squirrel is an endangered
animal restricted to the riverine vegetation of Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. There are two
species of gliding squirrels in the State. They are nocturnal animals which glide with the
help of membranes between the limbs while jumping from tree to tree. The three - striped
palm squirrel is common and widely distributed. The curious porcupine with quills has a
preference for deciduous forests, living in caves and burrows. It feeds mostly on tubers
and occasionally gnaw the bones and antlers of dead animals.
Knowledge on other groups of rodents is rather scant mainly because of their small size
and lack of concerted effort to document the species. The available information indicates
the occurrence of Bandicoot rat, White tailed wood rat, Indian field mouse, Indian bush
rat and the common house rat. The Indian Gerbil is reported from the plains bordering
cultivated areas. The Spiny dormouse has been reported from different parts of the state.
Hare: Black-naped hare is the only animal in this group in Kerala. They are widely
distributed and are found in allhe tvnps but have a preference for deciduous forests and
grasslands. Rabbits are not present lu our natural forests.
Pangolins: The Pangolins, called the scaly ant eater with its protective scales all over the
dorsal sides of the body, and the long, protrusible, sticky tongue is a curious animal. It
curls into ball shape when disturbed. Although reported from almost all areas including
the coasts, the numbers are small and it is highly endangered.
Birds
Kerala is a paradise for bird watchers and birds are probably the best documented group
of animals in the state. About 475 species of birds have been reported from the State,
thanks to the pioneering work of Salim Ali (1986), Neelakantan (1958) and other
naturalists. Even the list of families itself is long (Table 3). The bird fauna includes a
number of endemic and migrants (Neelakantan et al, 1993). Ten species of birds which
are endemic to Western Ghats are present in the State. Most Protected Areas in Kerala are
rich in birds - 249 species are present in Periyar Tiger Reserve, 192 in Silent Valley, 185
in Parambikulam, 177 in Peechi and 160 in Chimmoni. The Order Passeriformes,
consisting of Pitas, Larks, Swallows, Shrikes, Orioles, Drongos, starling , Mynas, Crows,
Tree pies, Cockoo shikes, Minivets, Fairy blue birds, Bulbuls, Ioras, Babblers, Fly
catches, Warbles, Thrushes, Chats, Nuthatches, Pipits, Wagtails, Sunbirds, Flower
peckers, Munias, Sparrows and Weaver birds consistute the major group accounting for
186 species. Hawks, Vuulturs and Falcons contribute 40 species. Grebes, Boobies,
Cormorants, Herons, Ducks and Geese are the major water birds.
The great Indian Hornbill, the state bird is one of the magnificent species found in
the evergreen forests. The Fairy blue bird, Malabar whistling thrush, Jerdon’s Imperial
Pigeon and Nilgiri laughing thrush are a few other species of evergreen forests.
The marked boddy, Shag, Greater Flamingo, Barheaded goose, Pink tail, Desert
wheatear, Avocet, Wryneck, Eastern Orphean Warbler and Masked Wagtail are a few of
the migrants.

Values of Biodiversity
It is possible to put all the values of biodiversity in simple terms using six E’s. They are:
Economic value: goods and services, which can be converted in terms of money without
any extrapolation.
Ecological value: the various ecosystem services that biodiversity provides.
Evolutionary value: it is the opportunity for the organisms to evolve in tune with the
changes in their surroundings, in the absence of the man made extinction
Esthetic value (UK Eng. Aesthetic): it is the essence of the beauty of nature that people
enjoy.
Emotional value: it is the attitude of the people toward their homeland or toward the
burial sites of their ancestors.
Ethical value: it is rooted in the basic premise that each and ever)’ organism has the right
to exist on earth, just like man.
The indirect use value, which is described as the ecosystem services has recently gained
wide acceptance because of the emerging threat from global warming and climate change
and the new tools and techniques available for estimating the same. The climate change
related adaptation and mitigation strategies are based on valuing the ecosystem services
of nature. The Carbon sequestration and Carbon Trade are the monetary expression of the
strategy. Several approaches are available to describe ecosystem services.
Threats to biodiversity

1. Habitat loss/degradation/fragmentation
It is an important cause of known extinctions. Major causes identified for the habitat loss
are destruction of biodiversity rich natural forests, destruction of aquatic ecosystems,
coral reefs and wetlands, unscientific developmental activities, ploughing of grass lands,
commercial forestry operations, tourism etc.
Habitat damage, especially the conversion of forested land to agriculture has a long
human history. It began in China about 4,000 years ago, in Europe by 1600 A.D and in
the USA about 200 years ago.
Tropical forests are important because they harbour at least 50%, and perhaps more, of
world’s biodiversity. Direct observations and satellite data document that these forests are
declining. The original extent of tropical rain forests was 15 million sq.km, but now there
remains only about 7.5-8 million sq.km. The current rate of annual loss is estimated to be
about 2%.
2. Man-wildlife conflicts
Struggle for existence causes the man-wildlife conflict. Many plant and animal species
are over exploited by man, sometimes to the level of extinction. Illegal poaching remains
a serious threat to many wildlife species. More than 37,000 wildlife species are affected
by poaching. Rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, gorilla, butterfly, frog, tortoise, orchid, cactus,
mahogany etc. are examples. Habitat loss forces animals to come out of the forest and
destroy the crops in the nearby human settlements. The elephant raids to the agricultural
fields in Wayanadu and Idukki districts are typical incidences of man-animal conflict in
Kerala.
India being one of the countries with a rich biodiversity is a major source of many
wildlife products. The country’s wildlife heritage includes Asian elephants, tiger, leopard,
one-horned rhinoceros and many species of birds, plants and even insects which are
traded as live animals or derivatives in the market. The poacher — trader syndicates are
present in many states which hunt down animals and supply the products to the
international buyers. The decline in the tiger population in India and the disappearance of
this apex predator from well protected national park itself shows the gravity of the danger
the country face. Tiger and leopard’s body parts such as skin, bones, claws, genital
organs are very much in demand in the South East Asian countries where they use it for
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). The total cost of all the body parts of a killed tiger
could go as high as fifty lakh rupees in these markets and this large money attract the
criminals into this trade.
Being a state with a very good wildlife wealth, Kerala always faced threats to its wildlife
from poachers and traders. Not only ivory and animal skins, the Western Ghats are a rich
sources of rare orchid plants, spiders, butterflies, birds such as hill mynas and Malabar
blue birds which are traded for large sums of money in the national and international
markets. In the recent past, the state also witnessed the latest trend in wildlife trade where
the sand boa snakes and barn owls were caught and traded by criminals just because of
rumours of them having supernatural powers.
3. Invasive alien species
They are non native plants and animals that harm or endanger native species and
biodiversity. Alien invasive species occur in all groups of plants and animals. They
include competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites. Invasive species cause a
reduction in native biodiversity through predation, parasitism, hybridization, or
competition with native species for habitats and resources. Non-native ornamental plants
are used in landscaping around homes and business centres. Many have moved into
natural landscapes, some with significant ecological or economic impacts. Aquaculture
has also increased the spread of fish and other aquatic species and associated diseases.
Huge metal containers used in shipping goods via boat, train, and truck provide entry for
seeds and small animals to new places.
4. Pollution
The air, land, and water are negatively affected by pollution. Air pollution affects
biodiversity on a great scale. It affects lower forms of life more than higher ones. Plants
are generally more affected than animals. Pollution increases the number in certain
species of plants (pollution indicator species). Air pollution also changes the distribution
of many plants species and plant communities. Air pollution therefore contributes to the
decline of biodiversity on a global scale. This global impact is also evident with climatic
changes i.e. increase in temperature caused by gases polluting the atmosphere.
Pollution has been very damaging to aquatic ecosystems. It consists of agricultural,
urban, and industrial wastes containing contaminants such as sewage, fertilizers, and
heavy metals that are deleterious to aquatic habitats and species.
Increased nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus from city sewage and fertilizers
from agricultural areas, also have damaging effect on aquatic ecosystems. Higher levels
of these nutrients are known to cause harmful algal blooms in both freshwater and marine
habitats.
Other pollutants affecting biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems are solid pollutants like
plastic bags, plastic rings, abandoned fishing gear, and other man-made materials that
result from garbage dumped from shore and ships. Trash and debris of this nature floating
in aquatic environments entangle and even kill marine mammals and birds. Animals such
as sea turtles have often died from ingesting bits of plastic and other discarded materials.
Oil spills have contributed to oil pollution in marine environments. The ecological
consequences of them in marine systems are quite severe. It is well documented that oil
has a lethal effect on eggs and larvae, seabirds, and many other surface dwellers through
asphyxiation and poisoning effects. Oil exposure can also cause the loss of fur and
feathers among mammals and birds resulting in hypothermia.
5. Climate Change
Biodiversity is threatened by climate change. Consequences of climate change on the
species component of biodiversity include changes in distribution, increased extinction
rates, changes in reproduction timings, and changes in length of growing seasons for
plants. Some species that are already threatened are particularly vulnerable to the impacts
of climate change. Polar regions are now experiencing some of the most rapid and severe
climate change effects, which causes sea level rise contributing to environmental and
socio-economic changes. Walruses, polar bears, seals and other marine mammals that
rely on sea ice for resting, feeding, and breeding are particularly threatened by climate
change. The livelihood of indigenous people in the Arctic is already being affected by
climate change. Losses in biodiversity affect the traditional practices of indigenous
people, particularly fishing and hunting.
During the 20th century Arctic air temperatures increased by approximately 5°C. This
increase is ten times faster than the observed global-mean surface temperature. An
additional warming of about 4 to 7°C in the Arctic is predicted in the next 100 years.
Warmer temperatures in the Pacific regions reduce the number of male sea turtles. The
sex of sea turtle hatchlings is dependent on temperature, with warmer temperatures
increasing the number of female sea turtles. Since frogs rely on water to breed, any
reduction or change in rainfall reduces frog reproduction.
The projected rise in sea levels could cause the disappearance of the tigers’ habitat,
threatening the survival of the species from the mangroves of Asian region. In Africa
pressures from longer dry periods and shrinking living spaces are making elephants
highly vulnerable to climate change. Australia’s Great Barrier Reef may lose up to 95%
of its living coral by 2050 due to changes in ocean temperature and chemistry.
Climate change may affect plant growth and production by promoting the spread of pests
and diseases. Other expected impacts include: increased exposure to heat stress, changes
in rainfall patterns, greater leaching of nutrients from the soil during intense rains, greater
erosion due to stronger winds, and more wildfires in drier regions. The added heat stress
and drier soils may reduce yields by as much as one third in the tropics and subtropics
where crops are already near their maximum heat tolerance.
6. Population explosion and anthropogenic activities
About 10,000 years ago approximate human population on earth was estimated to be five
million. Due to cultural evolution from hunter gatherer to farmer settler, the population
increased to 500 million by fourteenth century A.D. Till the industrial and scientific
revolutions in Europe the population remained steady. Between 1850 and 1950 world
population doubled to two billion. By 1999, the population grew exponentially to six
billion. World population is projected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050, which is beyond the
carrying capacity of earth.
One third of the world’s land area is used for food production and agricultural ecosystems
can be found in almost every part of the world. Rapid population growth has led to a
change from traditional to intensive agricultural systems. About 7,000 plant species have
been cultivated for food since agriculture began. Today, however, about 15 plant species
and eight animal species can supply 90% of our food.
Land-use changes, floods in areas for rice and sugarcane production, burning crop
residues, increasing number of ruminant animals, and using nitrogen fertilizers are all
activities that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Global agriculture is now
estimated to account for about 20% of total anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse
gases.
7. Deforestation
Forests cover about one-third of the Earth’s surface, and are estimated to contain as much
as two-thirds of all known terrestrial species. In the last 8,000 years about 45% of the
Earth’s original forest cover has been converted to different forms. Most of it was cleared
during the past century due to population increase.
Many forest-dwelling large animals, half of the large primates, and nearly 9% of all
known tree species are already at some risk of extinction. The conservation of forests is
particularly important since they contain 80% of all the carbon stored in terrestrial
vegetation. Deforestation and land-clearing activities emit about 1.7 billion metric tons of
carbon per year into the atmosphere.

Conservation strategies
The establishment of Protected Areas is one of the strategies used in the management of
environmental resources. However, the philosophy, terms and approaches are changing
significantly in the past decade. Protected Area is defined as “an area of land and/ or sea
especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of
natural and cultural resources and managed through legal or other effective means.”
The main purposes for establishment of Protected Areas are identified as scientific
research, wilderness protection, preservation of species and genetic diversity,
maintenance of environmental services, protection of specific natural and cultural
features, tourism and recreation, education, sustainable use of resources from natural
ecosystems and maintenance of cultural and traditional attributes. In order to conserve
rare and threatened species it is necessary to protect their natural habitats and specific
measures are taken to prevent their unplanned exploitation and legal trade. The two
known methods of conservation namely in situ and ex situ have their own merits and
demerits.
In-situ conservation
ln-situ conservation is the conservation of organisms or genetic resources through their
maintenance within natural or even human made ecosystems in which they occur. In
other words it means “on-site conservation”. It is the process of protecting an endangered
plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the
habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. This term also includes the
conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agroecosystems.
Ex-situ conservation
The ex situ conservation refers to the removal of individuals or group from their natural
habitat into captivity, either to breed or to maintain a genetic stock. It means literally,
“off-site conservation”. It is the process of protecting species of plant or animal by
removing part o the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location
which may be a wild area or within the care of humans. Zoos and aquaria for animals and
botanical gardens and herbaria for plants are typical ex situ conservation practices. It also
includes seed banks, semen banks, ovum banks etc.
Peoples Participation in Biodiversity Conservation
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 envisages ample participation of people in the whole
process of biodiversity conservation. As per the provisions of the Act, all three tier
Panchayaths, Municipalities and corporations should form Biodiversity Management
Committees (BMC) in its area. BMC is an arrangement that work in co-ordination with
the three tier Panchayath Raj system as per the existing regulations.
Peoples Biodiversity Register
Biodiversity Register is a documentation of the biodiversity of an area. Biodiversity
Registers prepared with the involvement of local communities or local people are often
referred to as People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR). Just like preparing a list of things in
a house, preparation of Biodiversity Register is an attempt to realize the rich biodiversity
in the Grama Panchayaths, Block Panchayaths, District Panchayaths, States and the
whole Country.
Local Initiatives
Even in the 19th century people in different parts of the world especially in Europe started
responding to the growing environmental issues. Individuals came together to form local
groups to respond for different issues often for different reasons. Sometimes the local
group initiatives slowly become national movements and even a multinational movement.
In the late summer of 1962, Rachel Carson’s book entitled Silent Spring struck a chord
with its readers and subsequently organized mass resistance on pesticide use in
agriculture. The Silent Valley Movement attracted global attention to save a pristine
stretch of rainforests in the Western Ghats. The Chipko Movement, Narmada Bachavo
Andolan are some of the glaring examples of huge participation of local people in the
movement for conservation. The slogan ‘Think Globally and Act Locally’ became the
principle of many organizations. Very recently, the strategy of involving local fringe area
people also in forest protection has revolutionized the forest conservation scenario in
India with the formation of Ecodevelopment Committees and Village Forest Committees
throughout the nation.
End note
This article aims to augment the information of our students on biodiversity, the cause of
biodiversity loss and needs of biodiversity conservation for the survival of ourselves and
our future generations. Our earnest efforts to the cause can prolong the ever expected
sixth extinction due to human greed. We wish the information of the article may lead to
the increase of knowledge, skill and action leading to an eco-friendly life style for the
readers.